A N N U A L ii ? H U K I 
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ALABAMA
AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT
STATION
I
An innovative studyv begun in
1 98 at the 'Tennessee Val ley
Substation, Belle ina, promises
to provide detailed information
about soil erosion that has long
been needed "Twelxve field plots
equipped with devices to auto-
matically collect rtnoff samples
and record continuous hydro-
graph will provide information
on soil, water nttrient, and pes-
ticide mov ements from crop-
land. Comparisons wxill be made
between different slopes of land
and tnder different tillage prac-
tices. W\ eather information wxill
be collected and correlated wxith
other findings. Information to
he gained in the years ahead
should be invaluable in design-
ing production systems that 
will
provide maximum protection
against soil losses while produc-
ing economical y ields of crops.
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ADMINISTRATIVE
OFFICERS
James E. Martin, President
Paul F. Parks, Vice President for Research
Gale A. Buchanan, Director
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
David H. Teem, Assistant Director
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
This annual report to the people of Alabama is an accounting
of the research carried out by the Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station during 1984. Though only a small portion
of our work can be described here, this report does illustrate
the many facets and breadth of our agricultural, forestry, and
related research efforts.
The Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station was created
by an act of the state Legislature in 1883 and charged with
conducting basic and applied research to ensure a productive,
successful, and permanent agriculture in the State. At no time
since then have agriculture and agri-industries faced such
serious problems as we face today. Nor has agricultural re-
search ever been faced with such complex problems and
unique challenges.
While a few unenlightened spokesmen attribute the di-
lemma of agriculture to 'over-success' of agricultural research
and the unrestrained production of American farmers, the
problems facing agriculture are far more complex. One of
these problem areas is foreign trade, where the strong C.S.
dollar creates an unfavorable balance of trade. Since about
35 percent of agricultural products are exported, this serves
to drive U.S. farm prices down. At the same time, costs of
production inputs continue to rise. Combine this with the
old nemesis, weather, and declining land prices, and farmers
are caught in a squeeze, seemingly from all sides. But the
American farmer has an ally that no other farmer in the world
can claim, a coordinated system of agricultural research spear-
headed by state agricultural experiment stations.
There is little that research can do about the strength of
the dollar and low commodity prices. But there is a tremen-
dous opportunity for improving efficiency, thereby reducing
input cost per unit of production. For example, our scientists
are currently screening hundreds of breeding lines and va-
rieties of soybeans. If we could find and develop one with
greater resistance to pests and drought, higher yielding
capabilities, and better adaptation to minimum or no-tillage
cultivation, we could dramatically reduce the input cost of
soybeans. The same is true for other crops
A visiting scientist at Auburn University
recently said, "In much less time and at
a fraction of the cost of putting a man
on the moon, a National commitment to
agricultural research could provide the g
technology to increase production enough
to make $1.50 per bushel corn and $4.50
per bushel soybeans profitable for farmers
to grow." In essence he was saying that
a National research effort that combines
basic scientific studies with adequate ap-
plied research could solve most of agri-
culture's problems. Unfortunately, we
don't have this strong National commit- -
ment, and there are those in powerful
positions who appear to be more inter-
ested in eroding than building our system -r--
of agricultural research. This situation
makes it more important for those of us
charged with conducting agricultural re- 9 .
search to be more resourceful and dili-
gent in our work.
We desperately need to develop a wider range of commodity
opportunities for Alabama farmers. One of the most prom-
ising is in aquaculture. About 70 percent of the fish and aqua-
cultural products consumed in the United 
States are imported,
at a cost of about $3 billion annually. Thus, we have an
available domestic market. Alabama and surrounding South-
eastern States have a favorable climate and ample water sup-
ply for producing fish. Already Auburn scientists have made
significant contributions to the State's catfish producers, and
the potential to further develop this and other aquacultural
enterprises in Alabama is tremendous.
Development of the State Farm Market System by the Ala-
bama Legislature provides the basis for renewed research effort
to develop several vegetable and fruit crops. Such crops fit
into either small or large farming operations. The development
of new cantaloupe, plum, and watermelon varieties and work
to support renewed interest in blueberries and strawberries
are examples of areas in which researchers from Auburn are
helping build the State's fruit and vegetable industry.
My single greatest concern is that available resources limit
us from fully exploring all of the opportunities that appear
on the horizon. Progress of research projects is reviewed
frequently to ensure that resources are expended in the most
productive ways, and to make sure that,each project contrib-
utes to the overall research mission of the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station. The first step in obtaining adequate re-
sources is to develop an understanding of how this Experiment
Station's research efforts in agriculture, forestry, home eco-
nomics, and resource management contribute to the well
being of every man, woman, and child in this State.
We appreciate your dedicated support and pledge our con-
tinued efforts to maintain and improve our research capabil-
ities. We are confident this effort will lead to a better life for
all Alabamians.
Gale A. Buchanan, Director
-rl
.
Foreword .............................................. 3
Horticulture ........................................ 5
Botany, Plant Pathology,
and M icrobiology ...................................... 7
Agronomy and Soils ................................... 9
Forestry ........................................ 11
Agricultural Engineering ............................ 13
Poultry Science ........................................ 15
Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures .............. 17
Animal and Dairy Sciences ......................... 19
Zoology-Entomology .............. .............. 21
Animal Health ........................................ 23
Home Economics .............. ................ 24
Agricultural Economics
and Rural Sociology .................................. 25
Director's Research Award................ 27
Research on Display..................... 28
Financial Statement .................................... 30
Information contained herein is available to all
persons regardless of race, color, sex, or
national origin.
A summar of 1984 horticultural
research at the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station emphasizes the
practical information being made
available to Alabama horticultural
producers. The use of this research-
generated information allows growers
Carolina Nugget Sweet
Potato Released
Alabama sweet potato growers now have
available a desirable new sweet potato
variety. The Alabama Agricultural Exper-
iment Station included the North Carolina
line NC172 in its Foundation Seed Pro-
duction Program because of its popularity
with Alabama growers. As a result of this
effort, the variety was released in 1984
by the North Carolina Experiment Station
in cooperation with the 
Alabama Station,
under the name Carolina Nugget.
The new variety has a unique foliage
that is deeply cut with a dark green color
and grows vigorously under adequate soil
fertility and moisture. It performs well
in soils from heavy sands to light Coastal
Plains soils. In 3 years of replicated yield
trials at the E. V. Smith Research Center
at Shorter and the Chilton Area Horti-
culture Substation at Clanton, Carolina
Nugget averaged 260 bushels of number
1 potatoes per acre, compared to 269 for
Centennial and 296 for Jewel, the two
varieties against which all other sweet
potato varieties are compared for yield.
Its roots are rosy colored and well shaped.
It is generally reported that Carolina
Nugget requires less curing for storage
than Centennial or Jewel varieties. Under
good storage conditions, roots of Carolina
Nugget remain sound and of high market
quality for 6 months or longer. Tests by
the USDA Vegetable Laboratory in
Charleston, South Carolina, indicate that
Carolina Nugget has a higher level of
resistance to Fusarium wilt and southern
root-knot nematode than Centennial. It
compares favorably to the resistance of
Jewel. Selections of Carolina Nugget are
now being made for improved flesh color
and consumer appeal.
Irrigation Keeps Container
Plants Cool
High temperatures \ ithin nurscr con-
tainers are often responsible for reduced
root and shoot growth and poorer quality
plants. The bottom line may be a longer
production cycle and a lower market
value. Only limited success in reducing
high temperatures has resulted from the
to produce high quality foods and or-
namental plants for Alabama con-
sumers. Both producers and consumers
benefit from better production, mar-
keting, and processing methods, and
from new horticultural crop varieties
developed.
use of reflective containers, nonreflective
bed mulches, reduced pot spacing, and
overhead shade.
Irrigating with overhead sprinklers may
offer a practical solution to the problem,
according to results of a 2-year study at
Auburn. Applying irrigation during the
day resulted in lower maximum temper-
ature in the growth medium and plant
canopy and greater growth of canopy and
roots. Although the exact timing of irri-
gation to achieve maximum growth was
not determined, results suggest that sin-
gle applications applied 2 to 4 hours
before time of maximum air temperature
or split applications at 10:00 a.m. and
3:00 p.m. are beneficial. Because many
of the container nurseries concentrated
in south Alabama are already equipped
with overhead irrigation, irrigation prac-
tices can be modified to economically
control temperatures within the con-
tainers.
Rootstock Affects Peach
Tree Life
The productive life of peach orchards
in the Southeast has declined and often
is only 7 to 10 years. One 
factor respon-
sible for this decline is the syndrome
known as peach tree short life, a disease
complex characterized by sudden death
in late winter or early spring. Peaches
usually are propagated on seedling root-
stocks, but until recently little attention
has been given to the rootstock cultivar
used. Now there is evidence to indicate
that rootstock is a major factor involved
in the longevity. In an Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station study in coop-
eration with researchers in Arkansas,
Georgia, North Carolina, and South Car-
olina, six of eight rootstocks tested re-
sulted in poor longevity.
The rootstocks used in this study were
Nemaguard, Halford, NC NRL-4, NC 152
A1-2, NA-8, Harrow W208, Lovell, and
Siberian C. Loring and Redhaven served
as the test varieties. Measurements in-
cluded survival of the trees, fruit yield,
and tree growth. Six years of data have
been collected.
While no rootstock has been successful
in eliminating peach tree short life, there
have been noticeable differences. Red-
haven on Siberian C and NA-8 showed
the greatest tree loss during the 6 years,
followed by Loring on Siberian C. Siberian
C is the least acceptable of the rootstocks
in the test. Nemaguard and the two North
Carolina selections, NC NRL-4 and NC
Irrigating with overhead sprinklers lowered maximum temperature in growing medium and
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152 Al-2, are resistant to root-knot ne-
matodes but are susceptible to ring ne-
matodes.
Halford rootstock, which is being used
in some orchards that are prone to peach
tree short life, appears to be equivalent
to Lovell by the criteria measured in this
study, but tree size may be reduced in
some locations if Halford is used. Of the
eight rootstocks tested, the data from this
6-year test indicate that Lovell and Hal-
ford are the best available for use in re-
planting Southern orchards that are prone
to the peach tree short life syndrome.
Disease Resistant Cantaloupe
Disease is a major factor limiting pro-
duction of cantaloupes in Alabama.
Gummy stem blight, downy mildew, and
powdery mildew are diseases that have
caused severe crop losses in certain fields
in Alabama. Although satisfactory control
of gummy stem blight and the mildews
may be accomplished with the proper
application of organic fungicides during
normal weather conditions, no control
measure is effective during periods of
high humidity and high rainfall.
The discovery that a wild melon intro-
duced into this country as plant intro-
duction 140471 is resistant to gummy
stem blight led to an Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station cantaloupe breeding
program that has developed disease re-
sistant varieties that produce high yields
6
of excellent quality fruit. The latest re-
lease from this program is Aurora.
Aurora combines multiple disease re-
sistance with good quality and large size
fruit. It is a "jumbo" type melon with
resistance to gummy stem blight, downy
mildew, and powdery mildew. Superior
to the current varieties of its type in yield,
quality, and disease resistance, it is
adapted for growing throughout the
Southeast where mildew and blight are
serious disease problems.
In replicated trials at the E. V. Smith
Research Center, Shorter, over an 8-year
period (1977-1984), Aurora produced an
average yield of 34,246 pounds per acre
This compares with 29,387 pounds for
Gulfcoast, 28,570 for Chilton, 23,561 for
Edisto 47, 23,152 for Mainstream, and
19,665 for Planters Jumbo. Its fruit size
averaged 4.19 pounds, larger than the
other melons except Edisto 47 (4.3-
pounds),
Maintaining Fern Quality
New Auburn results showing that ferns
will maintain their quality under low light
conditions without additional fertiliza-
tion point to potential savings for retail
garden centers. Many garden centers
maintain greenhouses for holding and fer-
tilizing foliage plants prior to sale be-
cause of the belief that quality will drop
rapidly when liquid fertilizer is stopped
and plants are moved into low light con-
ditions. But this did not happen in the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
tests.
Loss of trees on una-
dapted rootstock in re-
search orchard illustrates
the importance of choos-
ing the right rootstock for
commercial peach or-
chards.
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Previous research established benefits
of acclimatizing foliage plants under low-
light levels before they enter the home
environment. This research indicated that
plants held under low-light levels during
acclimatization might require less fertil-
izer than plants held under high-light
conditions. Thus, holding ferns in 
low-
light conditions prior to retail sales rather
than in a well lighted greenhouse could
potentially benefit both the garden 
center
operator through reduced costs and 
the
consumer with plants better adapted to
home conditions.
The newest study compared (1) growth
of ferns with liquid fertilization and two
slow-release fertilizer programs, and (2)
post-production quality of the ferns when
held under interior low-light conditions
or in the greenhouse. Liquid fertilization
was as good as the slow-release programs
during the 16-week normal production
period.
In the post-production study with no
additional fertilizer added, little growth
occurred on ferns moved to the low-light
conditions, while ferns in the greenhouse
continued to grow. After a 6-week hold-
ing period, however, ferns held in the
low-light interior environment were
greener than those held in the green-
house, and those grown with liquid fer-
tilization were as green as those that had
received slow-release fertilization, re-
gardless of the post-production holding
treatment. Plants held in the low-light
conditions actually improved in color and
consumer desirability with no additional
fertilizer added.
Aurora variety is the latest disease resistant
release from the cantaloupe breeding pro-
gram.
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Research in the areas of botany, plant
pathology, and microbiology deals with
several interdisciplinary aspects of plant
science and microbiology. Agriculturally
related research and training have tradi-
tionally centered about areas of plant pa-
thology and weed science, with particular
Crop Rotation for
Nematode Control
Root-knot nematodes are among the
most damaging pests of peanuts. There
are no tolerant varieties of this crop to
these nematodes, consequently their con-
trol has been based on the use of ne-
maticides. The recent removal of key
inexpensive nematicides from use by
farmers and rising costs of production
have made imperative the research for
other means of managing root-knot ne-
matodes. An 8-year study of selected crop-
ping sequences conducted at the
Wiregrass Substation has shown that ro-
tation of peanuts with 2 
years of corn,
or a year of peanuts followed by a year
each of corn and a nematode-tolerant va-
riety of soybean, effectively maintained
root-knot nematode populations at low
levels. In contrast, planting peanuts every
year resulted in an almost explosive de-
velopment of the nematode. The study
also showed that a cover crop of rye
consistently increased yields of succeed-
ing crops of soybeans or corn as compared
to yields with winter fallow.
Fighting Soybean Stem Canker
Stem canker of soybeans is a serious
disease problem. In 1983 it caused an
estimated $17 million in damage in Ala-
bama even though only 30 percent of
acreage was infested. Prompt work by the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
identified Tracy-M, Braxton, Bay, and
Dowling as having resistance, and these
were used for immediate relief in affected
areas. They also were used as breeding
lines to develop more and better varieties.
Resistant varieties did not develop dis-
ease, but unfortunately they did allow
development of the fungus that causes
stem canker. The implication of this find-
ing is that even though the farmer may
not have disease on his resistant variety,
this does not mean that he has eliminated
the disease, nor does it mean that he can
plant a susceptible variety the next year.
Crop rotations proved to be successful in
maintaining root-knot nematodes at low pop-
ulation levels in peanut soils.
emphasis given to the study of fungi and
nematodes pathogenic to Alabama crops
and to physiological studies on the mode
of action of herbicides and the ecology
of weeds. The department maintains a
large reference collection of fungi and
higher plants and is also extensively in-
Further research has indicated that the
fungus has a limited time during which
it can infect and continue on to form
disease. Preliminary studies have indi-
cated that spray programs with systemic
fungicides applied over the row in a band
during this infection period can protect
the soybean plant at reasonable cost. Other
research indicated that no-till cultivation
systems intensitfy stem canker severity,
although this effect can be reduced by
late planting. The Auburn research has
made it possible to grow soybeans even
in areas infested with this devastating dis-
ease. Future research should allow Ala-
bama's soybean farmers to almost forget
that stem canker ever existed.
Keeping Flowers and Pods
on Soybean Plants
Shedding or abscission of flowers and
young pods seriously limits soybean yield
potentials in Alabama. Research under-
way using light and electron microscopy
is expected to pinpoint the critical stages
of development when most flowers and
pods are shed from plants. Other studies
are determining whether these abscised
flowers and pods are structurally different
from those that are retained.
Results of light microscope studies re-
vealed that most abscised flowers con-
volved in the study of fungal toxins (my-
cotoxins) and biostatistics. A recently
initiated program in biotechnology, the
application of new genetic and biochem-
ical developments in plant and microbial
systems, promises to impact significantly
on agriculture.
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flower abscission that limits yield.
tained young embryos surrounded by a
developing food reserve tissue or endo-
sperm. Large numbers of starch grains
were present in these flowers at polli-
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Cogongrass (left) presents a more distinctive appearance than torpedograss (right), but both
are becoming serious pests in much of Alabama.
nation and fertilization, indicating cel-
lular food reserves were adequate for cell
growth. However, the starch grains dis-
appeared rapidly from developing seeds
during early embryo development, par-
ticularly during the critical stage when
most flowers abscised. Disappearance of
starch was observed in both abscised and
retained flowers.
Learning About Cogongrass
and Torpedograss
Cogongrass and torpedograss, peren
nial, rhizomatous grasses which were in-
troduced into the Gulf Coast of Alabama
early in this century, are becoming in-
creasingly troublesome. They are found
extensively in the Gulf Coast cotnties
with scattered populations occurring as
tar north as Montgomery and Lee coun-
ties. On a world-wide basis, cogongrass
is ranked 7 and torpedograss -4 among
the "worst weeds." Details about the
grasses and their response to herbicides
have been obtained in Alabama Agricul-
tural Lxperiment Station research to pro-
vide the basis for dealing with the pest
plants.
Cogongrass typically flowers in early to
mid-July but may flower in the fall fol-
lowing burning or mowing. When in
flower, cogongrass is easily recognized by
its fluffy white blooms. A typical cogon
grass plant will produce approximately
3,000 seeds, of which approximately 90
percent may germinate immediately upon
8
being shed from the plant. Its distribution
pattern in Alabama suggests that it is
spreading predominantly in a northeas-
terly direction by windborne seed. An-
other possible avenue of spread is from
rhizome- or seed-contaminated ornamen-
tal nursery stock and turf originating in
the Mobile area. Cogongrass appears to
be easily controlled by cultivation and is
primarily a problem in noncultivated
areas, especially along highway rights-of-
way.
Unlike cogongrass, torpedograss is not
ver distinctive Normally an erect and
wirx grass, it may present a low, creeping
growth habit. Torpedograss flowers and
produces seed throtghout the summer
but the seed are not viable. Its spread
appears to be primarily through nurserv
stock and turf along the Gulf Coast. n-
like cogongrass, torpedograss is not con-
trolled by tillage; in fact, tillage tends to
increase its rate of spread
In competition experiments at Auburn,
yields of common bermudagrass were re-
duced in the presence of both weed spe-
cies, but particularly by torpedograss.
Once established, two to three heavy ap-
plications (3 to 5 pounds per acre) of
glyphosate will eradicate cogongrass and
torpedograss. Cogongrass and torpedo-
grass are not likely to become quantita-
ti'ely important components of the weed
flora in north Alabama, but they could
become a serious problem in the south,
particularly in noncultivated areas such
as orchards, yards, and pastures.
Atrazine Resistance Sought
I riazine herbicides such as atrazine
\.itrex?) and simazine (Princep?) kill
N\eeds by disrupting the chemical reac-
tions of photosynthesis. This same dis-
ruption also occurs in certain crop plants,
wshich prohibits the use of these effective
herbicides in sensitive crops. 
Therefore,
research at the Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station is seeking information
about how atrazine resistance may be de-
veloped in selected plants
Recent findings have shown that a small
tamily of soil- and water-dwelling bac-
teria which carry out a form of photo-
,xnthesis is also killed by triazines.
Furthermore, if these bacteria are cul-
tured in the laboratory on a medium con-
taining atrazine, forms of the bacteria can
he isolated which are resistant to the
triazines. These triazine-resistant bacteria
are in many biochemical ways directly
analagous to the triazine-resistant weeds
ws hich have appeared all over the world
in areas where triazine herbicides have
been used repeatedly over a long period.
As a follow-up to the laboratory find-
ings, a search was made for naturally oc-
curring, triazine-resistant forms of these
bacteria in mud from a pond which had
received runoff from atrazine treated
cropland over a number of years. It was
possible to show that such naturally re-
sistant bacteria do indeed exist and have
arisen, presumably, because of the selec-
tive pressure exerted over a long period
by the inflow of atrazine into the pond.
The explanation for resistance in weeds
is known It is due to a small genetic
change which affects one of the proteins
essential for successful operation of pho-
tosynthesis. Auburn research has shown
that in the triazine-resistant bacteria there
has also been a small but important ge-
netic change affecting a photosynthesis
protein analagous to, but not identical
with, that occurring in resistant weeds.
Because bacteria reproduce rapidly and
are easy to handle, these atrazine-resistant
cultures provide a unique opportunity for
studying the comparative biochemistrv
and genetics of photosynthesis in higher
plants and bacteria, as well as the mech-
anism of herbicide action. Looking fir-
ther down the road, it is also conceivable
that, through the rapidly developing tech-
niques in genetic engineering, the gene
for the altered protein in the bacteria
could be transferred into a broadleaf crop
plant such as soybean. Such a break-
through would enable farmers to use a
triazine for weed control in crops on
which it could not normally be used be-
cause of the crop's innate sensitivity to
the herbicide.
Crops and soils continue to receive studies which showed potential weed
major research emphasis at the Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. Soybean growers can be
encouraged by results of 1984 re-
search that identified experimental
genotypes with greater resistance to
nematodes and disease and other
control benefits from narrow rows.
Opportunities for increased crop
production by greater usages of lime
and fertilizer also were noted in re-
sults, and a greater understanding of
erosion effects resulted from other
research.
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Effects of different cropping systems are obvious: top-conventional tillage, soybeans
center-conventional tillage, continuous soybeans; bottom-no-till, soybeans-corn.
Promising New Soybeans
Several promising experimental soy-
bean genotypes were identified in mul-
tiple-location yield test plots in 1984.
Top lines in Maturity Group VI yielded
9 percent more than the adapted cultivar
Centennial; in Maturity Group VII, best
new lines yielded 14 percent more than
Braxton. Highest-yielding lines will be
entered in the USDA Uniform Soybean
Tests, for testing across the Southeast.
New experimental genotypes are being
screened for yield, resistance to soybean
cyst and root-knot nematodes, and re-
sistance to stem canker. A broad spectrum
of soybean germplasm was screened for
stem canker resistance in the greenhouse.
At least two types now grown in other
parts of the United States 
were found to
be susceptible to isolates commonly found
in Alabama, indicating the potential for
stem canker to spread to these areas.
Research on nematode resistance in
soybeans has given variable results in past
years, indicating that environmental con-
ditions encountered during the year
largely determine yield loss and the pre-
dominant species present. Currently
available cultivars do not have sufficient
resistance to produce high yields without
fumigant nematicides in fields where root-
knot or root-knot and soybean cyst ne-
matode mixtures are a problem. The most
resistant cultivars were Foster and Leflore,
with resistance indices of 
0.22 and 0.24,
respectively, compared with 0.38, 0.60,
and 1.01 for Braxton, Coker 368, and
Ransom, respectively. Highest yields were
obtained from cultivars with resistance
to a broad spectrum of nematodes treated
with a fumigant nematicide. A new cul-
tivar adapted to Alabama is expected to
be released in the near future.
Crop Rotations Boost Yields
Se Advantages of rotations, tillage systems,
and double cropping on yields of soy-
beans have been known 
for many years,
but recent research has provided some
insight to reasons for yield increases. In-
cluding 1 year of grain sorghum on Sum-
ter soils at the Black Belt Substation
increased soybean yields the following
year by 17 percent. Including wheat as
a winter cover after grain sorghum and
preceding soybeans increased the yield
of soybeans by 27 percent. At the Sand
Mountain Substation, soybean yields were
lowest when corn was not included in
the rotation. Populations of soybean cyst
nematodes were highest also when corn
'" was not included in the rotation with
soybeans. Yield reduction of soybeans ap-
-corn; peared to be mainly attributable to large
infestations of nematodes.
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The serious problem of soil erosion on Tennessee Valley soils is Illustrated by large gully
that formed between fall and early spring.
Advances in Soils Research
Relationships between soil erosion and
reduction of crop yields continue to be
highly revealing. In 1984 research, cot-
ton yields on moderately eroded soils in
north Alabama were 21 percent lower
than yields on slightly eroded areas of
the same soil. In southern Alabama, corn
yields on moderately eroded soils were
23 percent lower than yields on slightly
eroded soils. Significant yield reductions
were also recorded for soybeans grown
on moderately eroded soils in southern,
central, and northern Alabama.
Dependent on the boundary conditions
and on the temperature regime in a soil
profile, it was shown that predicted water
content profiles based on isothermal con-
ditions differ greatly from those based on
non-isothermal conditions. The effect of
hysteresis in the soil-water retention curve
tended to negate these temperature ef-
fects on predicted soil-water content pro-
files. Investigations of the effect of
temperature on the soil's hydraulic prop-
erties showed that for a Norfolk sandy
loam soil, the changes in soil-water pres-
sure head with temperature were 2 to 3
times greater than predicted from theory.
The hypothesis that (1) entrapped air,
and (2) the greater than expected tem-
perature coefficient for surface tension of
the soil solution were the main causes
for the discrepancy was contradicted by
experimental evidence. Changes in hy-
draulic conductivity values were close to
those predicted from viscosity changes
except at the lower water contents (0.10-
0.15) combined with higher tempera
tures (104-1 12?F). In the latter case, dif-
ferences were mainly attributed to vapor
transport.
Soil fertility research continues to show
10
needs on Alabama soils for increased usage
of lime and fertilizer. Approximately 
41
percent of the soil samples tested by the
Soil Testing Laboratory in 1984 needed
lime; more than 60 percent needed both
P and K. Although long-term studies 
con-
tinue to show no response to 
P and K on
soils with high levels of residual P and
K, an increasing number of soils are test-
ing medium or lower in each of these
elements.
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New experimental soybean genotypes are being screened for yield, resistance to soybean
cyst and root-knot nematodes, and resistance 
to stem canker.
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Rou Spacing and Irrigation
Affect Soybean Weeds
Research conducted at the Wiregrass
Substation shows the competitive ability
of common cocklebur and sicklepod with
soybeans depends to a large degree on
soybean row spacing. Decreasing soybean
row spacing from 36 to 6 inches resulted
in significantly lower weed weights and
higher soybean yields when a constant
soybean population was maintained across
all row spacings. This resulted in part
due to increased weed mortality in nar-
row row soybeans compared to soybeans
planted in conventional 36-inch rows.
The row spacing advantage was evident
in both irrigated and nonirrigated treat-
ments. Drought conditions reduced total
weed and soybean weights in nonirrigated
treatments but did not affect the row spac-
ing-weed competition relationship.
Common cocklebur proved to be more
competitive than sicklepod with soy-
beans when both weeds emerged simul-
taneously. Delaying weed emergence by
as little as 1 week enables soybeans grown
in narrow rows to gain a competitive
advantage over both weeds. Comparison
of the relative competitive ability of weed
species under different cultural and en-
vironmental conditipns provides infor-
mation which can be used to make
economic decisions in crops grown using
postemergence weed control measures.
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Research during 1984 involved 
a
variety of locations and studies 
within
the overall tmbrella of growing, 
har-
vesting, and processing timber. 
For-
est engineering/timber harvesting
research contribtted to improved 
ef-
ficiency in forestry equipment 
main-
tenance, repair, and replacement. 
In
addition, research emphasis 
was con-
tinued in developing 
mechanized sy s-
tems for first thinnings 
in pine
plantations. Forest biology 
studies
produced significant developments
in several areas.
Herbaceous weed control in pine plantation
using a combination of Oust? and Velpar?.
Forest Biology Findings
Forest biology research in 1984, which
included a diversity of topics, resulted
veral significant findings.
Results of an Alabama loblolly 
pine
source study led to recommenda-
ins for use of source-specific material
or regeneration. As a general rule, 
ma-
erial can be moved approximately 
one
legree north of the source 
and have
greater productivity than local 
material.
* Research in forest soils resulted 
in
the development of a portable tool suit-
able for taking bulk soil samples in 
rocky
or clay soils. The location 
of many for-
estry research plots makes such a portable
tool an extremely valuable addition to
the forest soil scientist's repertoire.
* In studies on the reclamation of land
surface mined for coal, it was 
found that
rehabilitation methods cheaper 
than those
required by current regulations may pro-
duce as good or better results.
* Studies in young pine plantations have
identified specific herbicides which are
efficient in controlling herbaceous weed
competition with little negative effect on
pine. Other herbicides show considera-
fle promise for site preparation treat-
ments in the flatxood regions of South
Carolina, Georgia, and Florida
* Four years of data following planta-
tion establishment showed the growth of
loblolly and longleaf pines exhibited ex-
ceptional responses to herbicide treat-
ment for weed control. Compared to
untreated trees, longleaf with 2 years of
herbaceous weed control were larger in
height and diameter by 135 percent and
32 percent, respectively. Loblolly was 59
percent taller and 113 percent larger in
diameter.
* Forest nursery sttdies during 1984
identified additional herbicides which are
extremely safe on pine seedlings while
providing improved weed control In re-
search on root growth potential of lob-
loll) pine, as seedling density increased
new root growth decreased, and root
growth potential was positively corre-
lated with seedling survival.
* Studies with nursery sowers indicated
precision sowing can increase seed effi-
ciency by reducing the cull percentage.
* The importance of rapid seed emerg-
ence showed up in seed stratification
studies. Root collar diameters of seed-
lings decreased 1 percent or more for
each day seedling emergence was de-
layed
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Economical First
Thinning Methods
Results of efforts to develop mecha-
nized systems for first thinnings in pine
plantations have completely reversed the
opinion of many individuals in Southern
forestry on this topic. Before results of
this research became available, it was
generally assumed that, because of small
piece size, mechanical thinning in pine
plantations would be uneconomical and
could only be justified by silvicultural
considerations. The current Alabama Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station results have
not only shown that mechanical thinning
systems can be economically justified in
first plantation thinnings, but that such
systems have improved safety and pro-
duction records compared to manual
methods. Future research will concen-
trate on improving the systems devel-
oped, as well as expanding the scope to
consider second and subsequent thin-
nings
Failure Rates, Repair
Times Pinpointed
To evaluate forestry equipment man-
agement policies and improve the cost
effectiveness of forestry equipment op-
erations, failure and repair data have been
collected on 23 crawler tractors. Data
collected to date cover 674 weeks (range
of 7 to 61 weeks per machine) and 12,707
hours worked (range of 135 to 1,688
hours per machine).
During the study period, 265 failures
were observed, with the number per ma-
chine ranging from 1 to 54 and the av-
erage time between failures for machines
with more than two failures ranging from
17.7 to 168.5 hours (average of 48.0
hours). During some downtime, more than
one component was repaired, so the total
number of repairs observed was 295. The
number of repairs per machine ranged
from 1 to 65, with an average of 12.8
Average time per repair ranged from 1.1 5
to 20.19 hours, with an overall average
of 8.12 hours per repair.
In addition to the number of failures
per unit, each repair was coded to rep
resent the component responsible for the
failure. Tracks represented a major trou-
ble spot, with a 28.4 percent repair fre-
quency, 48.7 percent of total repair time.
and an average of 14.0 hours to repair
Time between track failures was 80.1
hours, considerably less than for other
components. Cooling systems required
more than 14 hours to repair, and rep-
resented 18.8 percent of repair time. En-
gine, frame, powertrain, and hydraulics
averaged 6.7 to 7.9 percent of repair
time.
Use of a precision sower was found to increase seed efficiency by reducing
the cull percentage.
The performance of each machine was
modelled so that comparisons could be
made. Comparisons of time between fail-
ures indicated significant differences
among manufacturers and companies,
with less difference due to machine age.
Comparisons of time to repair also in-
dicated significant differences among
manufacturers and companies, but no sig-
nificant differences among machine ages.
In addition to the data on groups of
machines, each cooperator was provided
machine availability and utilization, trends
in time between failures and time to re-
pair, and histograms representing the fre-
quency of failure and time to repair.
Mechanical thinning systems developed at Auburn result in economical first thinning of pine
plantations Systems are safer and more productive than manual thinning.
Research in agricultural engineer-
ing emphasized such areas as irriga-
tion, soil erosion, soil tillage, animal
waste management 
and utilization,
and broiler litter management. Re-
ports on individual projects empha-
Computer Designed
Irrigation System
By taking advantage of computer assis-
tance, an irrigation design system has been
developed at Auburn to overcome special
problems with center pivot systems in
fields of irregular size or shape. Although
a large center pivot system is less expen-
sive per unit area than a smaller system,
a design utilizing several smaller systems
may irrigate more area in a particular
field. The Auburn method, which utilizes
an optimizing technique called mixed
integer linear programming, will deter-
mine the most economical combination
of different sizes of center pivot systems.
The first step is to determine the sizes
of center pivots to be evaluated. An eco-
nomic budget, consisting of the yearly
fixed cost and the estimated operating
cost, is created for each size pivot. These
values will vary from field to field, de-
pending on such factors as available water
supplies, soil types, and topography. The
average yield increase resulting from ir-
rigation can be obtained by referring to
controlled irrigation experiments for the
region in which the field is located.
The next step is to enter coordinates
of the field boundaries into the computer.
This is done by laying a map of the field
over a digitizing tablet and encoding
points along the field boundaries. The
field and surrounding area are then ap-
proximated by a rectangular grid of points
By utilizing the coordinates of the bound
aries, each point is classified as being
either inside or outside the field. The
gross profit associated with irrigating the
area represented by one grid point is
obtained by multiplying the yield in-
crease by the market price for the crop
The computer program which utilizes
linear programming techniques analyzes
all possible locations for each size of
center pivot. The possible locations are
constrained by requiring that no points
outside the field boundaries can be irri-
gated In some cases the center pivots
may overlap, and a point may receive two
or more applications. To account for this,
the program limits the yield increase to
that of one irrigation, but the cost for
each application remains constant. The
size how computers and other high-
tech approaches are used in agricul-
tural engineering research to develop
more economical and efficient meth-
ods of performing all agricultural op-
erations.
objective function is an equation which
calculates the profit for the operation by
determining the gross profit from irriga-
tion minus the cost of the irrigation sys-
tems. The linear program maximizes the
profit for the field by iteratively analyzing
combinations of different irrigation sys-
tems until the optimal solution is found.
Non-point Source Pollution
from Cropland
Excessive soil erosion and subsequent
topsoil loss and non-point source pol-
lution from cropland in Alabama have
been a serious concern of farmers and
conservationists for many years. The av-
erage soil loss from Alabama cropland
ranges up to 8.8 tons per acre per year.
Over the last two decades, tillage prac-
tices in large areas of the I nited States
have generally trended from conventional
tillage to some sort of conservation til-
lage. Although conservation tillage is a
relatively new practice in Alabama, 
more
and more farmers are adopting this prac-
tice as a means of conserving soil, water,
and energy. To provide information
needed by farmers, the Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station is 
studying dif-
ferent tillage practices including
conservation tillage. These studies are
evaluating effects of tillage systems on
soil, water, nutrient, and pesticide move-
ments from cropland.
With support from TVA, a pioneering
study on soil erosion on Tennessee Valley
soils was established and put into 
oper-
ation at the Tennessee Valley Substation.
The study site was constructed with twelve
100-foot by 100-foot plots on 2 percent
and 4 percent slopes. Each plot was
equipped with a combination of H-type
runoff flume, Coshocton wheel type run-
off sampler, and two 20-gallon water col-
lecting tanks. The runoff rates are recorded
by an automatic recorder to obtain con-
tinuous hydrograph. A runoff sample is
collected for every storm event and re-
frigerated for laboratory analysis of sed-
iment, nutrients, and pesticides.
A pioneering study on soil erosion has been established at the 
Tennessee Valley
Substation to provide information needed to overcome problems.
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The site is also instrumented with a
weather station. Most agricultural weather
data are collected and recorded to an
automatic data logger for analysis. These
data include wind (direction and speed),
solar radiation, ambient temperature, rel-
ative humidity, pan evaporation, and pre-
cipitation. Soil temperature and moisture
content are also collected under different
tillage practices. This study is expected
to provide detailed information about soil
erosion that will be of great value in the
battle to save Alabama's soil resources.
Litter Management Important
for Broiler Producers
Litter management is a critical problem
for broiler producers because of the cost
and scarcity of litter materials. Two as-
pects of the problem, moisture content
and effect of chicks eating litter, are being
studied at Auburn.
Litter moisture must be controlled be-
cause (1) litter that is too wet can lead
to health problems from excessive am-
monia production and growth of disease
organisms, and (2) excessively dry litter
results in a dusty environment which can
cause respiratory problems. Litter mois-
ture is primarily controlled by ventila-
tion, which in turn controls the relative
humidity of air in the broiler house. Thus,
litter moisture is directly related to rel-
ative humidity. In studies to determine
the equilibrium relation between air rel-
ative humidity and litter moisture con-
tent, fresh pine shavings at 10, 25, 30,
and 35 percent moisture had equilibrium
relative humidity of 59, 96, 97, and 98
percent, respectively. As complete data
on litter-manure mixtures are obtained,
automatic control systems can be de-
signed for poultry house ventilation.
The effect of chicks eating litter was
determined in a series of feeding trials
Proper placemen
tillage operation.
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comparing balanced and unbalanced ra-
tions containing 0, 2, 4, or 6 percent 
fine
wood particles (geometric mean diame-
ter of 1.25 millimeters). Results showed
no performance differences at 4 weeks 
of
age for birds fed rations containing 0, 2,
or 4 percent litter. However, birds fed 6
percent litter were 0.22 pound lighter
(1.75 vs. 1.97 pounds) and had 20 points
poorer feed conversion (1.76 vs. 
1.56).
Broilers were also grown on litter in floor
pens where they could eat litter material
as desired. Litter materials were fresh pine
shavings, small fresh pine shavings 
par-
ticles (diameter 1.25 millimeters), 
and
large pine shavings particles (larger than
4.76 millimeters). No differences were
found in bird performance or gastroin-
testinal tract weight. This indicates that,
from a nutritional standpoint, litter par-
ticle sizes are not a major concern. Thus,
it may be feasible to address some other
litter management problems by manipu-
lating litter particle size.
Arranging Chisel Tools for
Energy Efficiency
Spacing and arrangement of chisel tools
were found to affect energy efficiency of
tillage operations. Results established that
(1) the most efficient geometrical pattern
is an approximate equidistant spacing of
the chisels, with the distance between
chisels being 5 to 6 times the individual
chisel tool width; and (2) most efficient
operation occurs when the tools are op-
erated at a depth at least 1.5 times the
individual chisel tool width.
Two different wedge-shaped 
chisel
widths, 3-inch and 1-inch, were 
used in
the study on sandy loam 
and clay loam
soils. For each chisel width, three 
chisels
were positioned in nine different 
geo-
metrical patterns defined by an 
angle and
chisels was found to reduce drag, resulting in greatest 
efficiency of
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a radial distance with the center chisel
as the reference. The specific draft (draft
force per unit of soil cross-section dis-
turbed) was highest, or least 
efficient,
when all three chisels were side-by-side
and spaced close together, probably due
to a "bulldozing" action. The least spe-
cific draft, or highest efficiency, occurred
when the two outside chisels were placed
in front of and on either side of a third
tool at a radial distance of approximately
6 times the chisel width (the angle formed
by the two outside chisels with the center
chisel was either 60
? 
or 1200). The chis-
els are close enough in this geometry to
cause some interaction without bulldoz-
ing action. Also, the specific draft for the
three-tool system was influenced by depth
of operation. The specific draft appeared
to reach a minimum, or level off to a
minimum, when the depth of operation
was approximately 1.5 times the chisel
width.
Energy Recovery from
Suwine Wastes
A pilot scale methane fermentation svys-
tem operated at the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station's Swine Research Unit
has shown the potential energy produc-
tion for swine production facilities using
flushing waste transport systems. Net en-
ergy produced from the system amounted
to approximately $2.00 per produced pig
per year.
The pilot scale system consists of an
18-inch vibrating screen for waste recon-
centration and a 2,000-gallon fermenter
for methane production. It produces
methane from approximately 150 finish-
ing pigs housed on a conventional slatted
floor. During 1984, the methane gener-
ation system was operated for approxi-
mately 6 months and provided data on
loss of potential methane production due
to screening and the actual productivity
of the solids fraction of the separated
waste.
The loss of potential methane produc-
tion across the screen was found to be
approximately 40 percent due to the loss
of dissolved solids and fine particulate
matter. This is not prohibitive since the
solids fraction remaining can be loaded
into the fermenter at approximately twice
the rate as unscreened waste due to the
removal of inhibitory substances such as
ammonia and organic acids. The recon-
centration step also reduces the required
volume of the fermenter by about 5 times.
Data gathered on methane productivity
values established the $2.00 per pig value
of energy production. The fermentation
system being tested can be easily and
economically retro-fitted to existing Ala-
bama production facilities that use flush-
ing systems by simply installing a
collection pit, screen, and fermenter.
Research in poultry science during
1984 emphasized the areas of reproduc-
tive and growth physiology, parasitol-
ogy, pathology, immunogenetics,
microbiology, virology, nutrition, and
energy management. This program of re-
Grain Sorghum in Broiler
Breeder Ration
A series of experiments underway to
determine the feasibility of using grain
sorghum as the only source of grain for
broiler breeders provides encouraging re-
sults. Performance of birds has been just
as good with grain sorghum as with corn
in the ration. Thus, there appear to be
opportunities for greater use of Alabama-
produced grain and lower poultry feed
costs.
Reproductive performance, such as egg
production, fertility, hatchability, shell
quality, and body weight, was evaluated
with standard size and dwarf broiler
breeders. One experiment has been com-
search not only deals with problems of
immediate concern to the poultry in-
dustry, it also provides information
that will be needed in the future. The
value of these projects is indicated
in the findings described.
pleted (52 weeks) and preliminary data
have been obtained on the other exper-
iments. Breeders fed the sorghum diets
matured earlier and had a higher rate of
production than did breeders maintained
on the corn diet. In addition, body weights
of breeders maintained on the grain
sorghum diets were heavier than those
maintained on corn diets. Grain sources
did not affect fertility, hatchability, or
shell quality. However, egg weights were
slightly greater from hens fed the grain
sorghum.
In other nutrition work, diets ranging
from 9 percent to 18 percent protein
were evaluated for broiler breeder males.
Those reared and maintained on the lower
protein diets matured earlier and were
more consistent semen producers than
those fed high protein diets. In addition,
mortality was less in males fed the low
protein diets. Such findings allow savings
in feed costs for the industry.
Aflatoxin Level and
Poultry Performance
Various levels of crude aflatoxin ob-
tained from a natural outbreak of Asper-
gillus flavus in corn were fed to
commercial 2-week-old broilers and tur-
keys for 5 weeks. Levels as low as 100
p.p.b. in turkeys and 200 
p.p.b. of AFB,
in broilers were found to produce mi-
croscopic liver lesions and a depression
in cell-mediated immunity. However, nei-
ther level affected weight gain, feed con-
version, or immunity to Newcastle disease
or Pasteurella multocida, and neither
resulted in morbidity or mortality in either
species. Therefore, poultry producers can
safely feed corn contaminated with afla-
toxin containing levels as high as 100
p.p.b. AFB,. This is important since the
FDA has recently raised the legal level
for interstate shipment of aflatoxin in corn
to 100 p.p.b. of AFB,.
Grain sorghum proved to be a satisfactory grain for broiler breeders in Auburn research, with body
weight, maturity, and egg production favoring grain sorghum over corn rations.
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Inhibition of bacterial growth by two fractions from the creosote bush indicates the potential
value of this plant in animal health uses.
Fowl Cholera Bacterin
Formulation
A fowl cholera bacterin that is superior
to currently available bacterins for the
control of this important disease was for-
mulated at Auburn. Final field trials of
the bacterin are being conducted by four
large poultry companies in the State. Be-
cause fowl cholera now appears at an
earlier age, the field trials are designed
to determine the optimum age for im-
munization. As soon as these and other
field trials are completed, the bacterin
will be made available for commercial
distribution.
In research that developed the im-
proved bacterin, it was determined that
a biodegradable, non-toxic adjuvant was
necessary. The adjuvant selected was pol-
yethylene glycol of low molecular weight.
It was determined that this synthetic al-
cohol solubilized lipopolysaccharides
from the surface of the Pasteurella mul-
tocida bacteria and exposed lipoprotein
antigens on the bacterial membrane. The
Ii o of 'sacc t harde LPN \ nh" r rh
immune response, so the b;
Providing adequate calcium to young pullets by the time they reach s
found to be necessary for best layer performance.
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considered to xwork with txxo adjux ants
the polyethylene glycol and the exposed
bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Because the
polyethylene glycol is biodegradable and
of low toxicity, there are minimum side
reactions following injection and the im-
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(;reosote Bush
Organic solvent extracts obtained from
the creosote bush (the desert plant, Lar-
rea tridentata) were found to have po-
tent biological activities against bacteria,
tungi, viruses, and protozoan parasites.
Because ot the importance to poultry, the
antiprotozoan (anticoccidial) activities
of the solvents are getting special atten-
tion. The anticoccidial activities are ev-
ident in the sporozoite state of
development. All fractions altered the
surface morphology of the sporozoites of
Eimeria tenella, the species that causes
serious problems with coccidiosis in
poultry. The anterior ends of the sporo-
zoites were collapsed and the posterior
ends were swollen. It was found that one
of the fractions, nordihydroguaiaretic
acid, had a potential use as a growth
permittent because it improved weight
gains at the 0.1 percent level in feed.
Calcium Level for Birds
Approaching Maturity
acterin can be 
The practice 
of waiting until 
pullets
are laying at the 5 percent level to in-
maturity was crease calcium to levels needed by laying
hens can be costl. In new Auburn re
search, when dietary calcium was not
increased at the proper time in the tran-
sition from pullet feed to layer teed, eirly
maturing pullets showed an increase in
feed consumption, body weight, and liver
fat and a decrease in shell quality
Mature hens fed diets containing in-
adequate calcium will quickly begin to
eat excess feed, and this increased feed
consumption has no beneficial effect on
egg size or production. Since feed is sev-
eral times more expensive than calcium,
the extra calcium hens obtain by over-
consumption of a calcium-deficient diet
is costly. It represents an even greater
economic loss because once hens become
overweight they may continue to over-
consume to support the increased groxth,
even when consuming diets that meet
their calcium requirement.
The lesson learned from this Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station study is
that young pullets need adequate calcium
just prior to or at sexual maturity, not
after. This is especially critical since an
increase in liver and body fat deposition
may occur in a short period.
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Research in fisheries and allied
aquacultures provides scientific sup-
port for three areas: (1) commercial
fish production, (2) recreational and
sport fishing, and (3) water resource
conservation and use, all of which
Anemia in Channel Catfish
No-blood disease, an anemia that can
cause serious losses in commercial catfish
production ponds, was found to be re-
lated to the presence of some naturally
produced compounds in the diet. Al-
though the disease appears 
related to feed,
results of Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station findings indicate that the
compound causing this anemia may be
formed in the feed while in storage after
it leaves the mill.
In experiments to study the cause of
this problem, four groups of 100 channel
catfish fingerlings (24 grams each) were
fed four different diets. One diet con-
tained 50 milligrams pteroic acid per
pound of feed, the second diet contained
one-third moldy feed, the third diet was
a feed from a commercial farmer whose
are important to Alabama. Problems
in commercial fish production are
unique to this enterprise, so the re-
search program is critical to success
of the industry. Support for recrea-
tional fishing continues to be another
fish had anemia while eating the feed,
and the fourth diet was a freshly manu-
factured, control feed. At weekly inter-
vals, 10 fish were killed and bled for
hematocrits and blood smears. Fish fed
the pteroic acid diet had significantly
lower red blood cell counts than the
control fish, and there were indications
of erythrocyte injury and anemia. Moldy
feed and the commercial feed did not
cause dramatic blood changes. Fish fed
the pteroic acid-containing feed grew
slower than fish in other treatments.
Gizzard Shad Affect Bass and
Bluegill in Ponds
Gizzard shad are a major component
in most reservoir fish populations in the
Southeast. For some time, fisherv man-
high priority item for the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station, as
evidenced by the projects discussed
in this report. Best use of the State's
water resources is of interest to all
segments of society.
agers have been interested in what effect
these fish have on other fish in those
populations, especially on largemouth
bass. Research in response to this interest
found an unfavorable effect on bass and
bluegill in ponds. Research ponds of the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
were stocked with appropriate numbers
of largemouth bass and bluegills to gen-
erate balanced populations, and some of
the ponds were also stocked with gizzard
shad at a rate of 100 per acre. The shad
successfully spawned.
In November of the two test years when
ponds were drained, gizzard shad had
dramatically influenced bass/bluegill dy-
namics. Fewer small bluegill were pres-
ent in systems with gizzard shad and
average size of young-of-the-year bass was
smaller. Also, these small bass were less
numerous (approximately 50 percent
less).
Pale internal organs and abnormal intestines provide evidence of effects of no-blood disease, a problem apparently
caused by mpound formed in feed while in storage.
IU
By the end of the second growing sea-
son (after stocking), ponds with gizzard
shad were not in classic balance. Bluegill
reproduction was in some way hindered
by the presence of shad. Even in ponds
stocked at well below carrying capacity.
which represented expanding popula-
tions, shad were able to influence bluegill
reproduction.
Vaccinating Bass Against
Tapeworms
In laboratory tests, a vaccine conferred
a slight degree of immunity against the
establishment of tapeworms in large-
mouth bass. More significantly, the av-
erage length of those parasites that became
established was approximately one-half
the size of worms in fish that had not
received the vaccine. These results are
promising for situations where the pro-
duction of largemouth bass in hatcheries
has been reduced by the presence of tape-
worms in the brood fish.
Florida Largemouth Genes
Introduced into Alabama Bass
Research utilizing electrophoresis has
demonstrated that genes from the Florida
largemouth bass are added to the genotve
of northern largemouth bass rather quickly
when the Florida sub-species is stocked
into waters containing the northern spe-
cies. Further, repeated stocking of a
smaller number of fish gave better results
than a single stocking of a large number
of fish. Transfer of the genes indicates
that the two groups of fish intermix dur-
ing spawning, creating hybrid offspring.
The northern species occurs naturally
over much of the United States and has
been stocked in those areas where it did
not occur. The Florida sub-species is now
being stocked in lakes and reservoirs
throughout the country because some of
these fish grow to a larger size than the
northern species.
Papillomas Related to
Water Quality
The safety of water supplies is of grow-
ing concern because of the increasing use
and accumulation of various chemicals
in the environment. The presence of 
a
chemical carcinogen in the chlorinated
effluent of the Tuskegee, Alabama, waste-
water treatment plant was first suspected
because of papillomas on black bullheads
living in the final oxidation pond which
receives the wastewater. Unlike previ-
ously studied bullhead papillomas, virus-
like particles were not detected in these
tumors. Papillomas later developed 
on
caged black bullheads kept in the waste-
water pond.
Mutagenicity of the effluent was de-
-- ki
- i-.I
*1 -4----
Development of papillomas on black bullheads growing in the final oxidation pond
of the Tuskegee waste-water treatment plant was studied.
tected, and hepatic-enzyme induction oc-
curred in channel catfish held in cages
in the final oxidation pond. The preva-
lence of papillomas on wild black bull-
heads exposed to the effluent decreased
after the chlorination rate was reduced.
Approximately 50 percent of the channel
catfish exposed to water entering the pond
died in 8 hours because of chlorine tox-
icity.
How Acid-Rain Affects Ponds
Experimentally produced acid-rain
conditions in earthen ponds at Auburn
resulted in significantly lowered fish pro-
duction in comparison with control ponds
where there was no acid-rain condition.
Sulfuric acid was added to ponds 
to sim-
ulate the effect of acid-rain. These results
indicate that fish production in Alabama
ponds also could be affected by 
acid-rain
in a similar manner to that reported 
for
ponds in the Northeastern United States
where acid-rain fell. Production of fish
was significantly lower in ponds with both
severe and moderate acid-rain conditions.
Rain in Alabama is contaminated 
with
strong acids, but not 
as badly as rain in
the Northeastern United 
States. Further-
more, ponds in Alabama 
often are natu-
rally acidic and must be 
limed to improve
fish production. Application of 
agricul-
tural limestone to ponds 
in Alabama will
counteract the possible influence 
of acid
rain.
Maintaining Catfish Quality
Development of off-flavor is a serious
problem for producers of channel catfish.
One complicating factor is that there is
no good method to determine the con-
centration of the off-flavor compound,
geosmin, in the flesh. A sample of fish
must be removed from the pond, cooked
in a microwave, and tasted by workers in
the processing plant. This detection prob-
lem may be eliminated with an Auburn-
developed analytical method to measure
the concentration of geosmin in catfish.
This research found that geosmin con-
centration in the muscle is a suitable
objective test for off-flavor in pond-raised
catfish during summer. An analysis pro-
cedure for quantitation of geosmin was
developed that recovered about 88 per-
cent of the geosmin from fish flesh. This
level of success was highly reproduceable
in analysis of naturally occurring geosmin
in catfish.
In studies with catfish, it was demon-
strated that including corn gluten meal
in the diet resulted in the accumulation
of a yellow pigment in the flesh near the
dorsal spine. The pigments responsible
were identified as zeaxanthin and leutin,
two carotenoids found in corn. Even when
the corn product was included in the diet
at levels as low as 4 percent, the yellow
color developed. Feeding whole corn does
not cause this problem. Although there
is no detectable flavor associated with the
pigments in the flesh, many customers
find the color objectionable. This con-
dition has led to some rejection of ship-
ments of fish to wholesale outlets.
Manufacturers have been advised to keep
the concentration of these pigments low
in feeds.
Yellow pigment in the flesh near the dorsal
spine resulted from feeding catfish diet that
contained corn gluten meal.
Y
Yi
Meat animal research at the Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment Station
combines highly practical studies,
such as evaluations of forage species
and breeding stock selection, with
biochemical studies of such prob-
lems as excess fat deposition and ge-
netic disease transmission. In 
all
cases, however, the aim of this re-
search program is to help Alabama
reach its potential as a livestock pro-
ducing state.
5 1. %
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Biochemical studies of a potential lethal genetic disease in dairy 
cattle are providing the
basis for a blood analysis to identify carriers.
Biochemical Studies Contribute
A cooperative study with veterinary
medicine indicates that growth hormone
can stimulate milk production in dairy
cattle and that a rumenally protected 
ar-
ginine may have potential as a diet ad-
ditive to increase milk and meat
production. These basic studies have
much application to the cattle industry.
A major problem facing the livestock
industry is the production of animals with
excess fat. In efforts to reduce the fat in
meat producing animals, Auburn research
is seeking ways to alter the partitioning
of nutrients away from fat tissue and to-
ward muscle deposition. A compound
called clenbuterol being evaluated was
found to increase muscle percentage and
greatly reduce the fat content in the car-
cass. The new compound is not yet avail-
able for commercial use, but research
will continue.
A potentially lethal genetic disease 
in
dairy cattle, associated with 
a deficiency
of uridine 5'-monophosphate synthase,
was studied in 1984 to determine 
if a
blood analysis could be used 
to identify
carriers of this genetic condition. 
The first
phase of this research indicates that 3-
ribosyluric acid in erythrocytes 
is lower
in dairy cattle with the genetic disease.
Current research is also evaluating 
other
factors which might improve the detec-
tion of this genetic disease.
Metabolic studies on cholesterol sug-
gest that polyunsaturated fats facilitate
absorption of cholesterol synthesis when
none is fed in the diet. Also, animals fed
excess cholesterol adapt their metabo-
lism to increased oxidation of cholesterol
to bile acids followed by increased rate
of excretion. These traits are often related
to genetic differences.
Productive Forages Tested
A new birdsfoot trefoil variety, AT-P,
may be a useful perennial legume in
northern Alabama. It persisted well in
association with orchardgrass or tall fes-
cue under continuous grazing and pro-
vided good natural reseeding each year.
Pasture of AT-P trefoil and orchardgrass
provided higher average daily gains in
the spring than Kentucky 31 fescue. A
combination of AU-Triumph tall fescue
and trefoil produced 589 pounds of beef
per acre as compared to 681 pounds from
Kentucky 31 fescue fertilized with 150
pounds of nitrogen. AT-P birdsfoot trefoil
is not yet released and no seed are avail-
able.
AU-Triumph, Auburn's new fescue va-
riety that is more winter productive than
Kentucky 31, was compared to fungus-
infected and noninfected Kentucky 31 in
a 3-year grazing study. AU-Triumph sup-
ported more steers (1.5 per acre) than
noninfected Kentucky 31 (1.3 per acre)
Daily gains and gain per acre for At'-
Triumph, noninfected Kentucky 31, and
fungus-infected Kentucky 31 were 2.09
517. 2.16, 460 and 1.41, 368 pounds
respectively. It was also learned that gain,
on infected fescue were depressed nearly
as much during the cool months of No
vember, December, March, and April a
during the warmer months of May and
June.
Cimmaron alfalfa, Serala sericea, and
Ali Lotan sericea rotationally grazed an
AlU Lotan sericea continuously grazed wen
evaluated in a 3-year study Average dail
gains (pounds) for the four treatment-
were 2.20, 1.47, I83, and 1.85, respe
tively. Stocking rates were 1.3 animal-
per acre for the rotationally grazed treat
ments compared to 1.17 per acre for
continuous grazing. Considering that these
gains were obtained during the summer
months, alfalfa and Al' Lotan show trc
mendous potential as grazing crops. Gains
on commonly used perennial grasses used
in Alabama, such as bermudagrass and
bahiagrass, average about 0.79 to 1.2
pounds per day In addition, alfalfa and
sericea require no nitrogen fertilizer.
Suine Nutrition and
Breeding Advances
Corn has served as the primar- feed
grain for swine diets in Alabama, bit al
ternatives to corn may result in greater
prohits for swine prodicers. Wheat, grain
sorghum, and triticale are excellent al-
ternatives to corn for swine diets. Recent
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
research shows that wheat and triticale
have a greater feeding value than corn
Grain sorghum has 95 percent the feeding
value of corn, whereas wheat has 105
percent the feeding value.
Beagle 82 triticale is a new varietN
which offers excellent promise as a teed
grain for swine in Alabama. This grai)
contains nearly twice the level of lysine
as corn and also contains higher levels
of other amino acids C.urrent research
findings indicate that Beagle 82 may con-
tain slightly less energy than corn, but
the total feeding 'alue appears to be 103
to 104 percent that of corn. The high
lysine level in Beagle 82 would lower
the requirement for soybean meal and
result in considerable savings in the cost
of feed for swine producers.
Improving growth rate in pigs can re-
duce production costs and improve the
efficiency of commercial and purebred
swine operations. Genetic studies at Au
burn show that intensive selection for
growth can result in a 15 percent increase
in weight over the control lines at 20)
days of age. This translates into a 20-day
Current research is evaluating a compound called clenbuterol that has been found to increase
muscle percentage and greatly reduce fat content of carcasses.
improvement for the select line to reach
220 pounds (market weight). The lines
selected for rapid growth had longer car-
casses and larger loin eye areas, but fat
thickness was similar to that of controls.
The lines selected for greater growth
were 7 percent more efficient when fed
a high density diet and 2 percent more
efficient when fed a low energy diet when
compared to the control lines.
A pasture combination of AT-P birdsfoot trefoil and AU-Triumph 
tall fescue produced hiqh
beef gains in north Alabama O4'- grazing tests.
4.i
1..
In keeping with the Land Grant
mission of Auburn University, the re-
search programs in zoology, ento-
mology, and wildlife are continuing
to address both basic and applied
research problems. The entomology
and wildlife research programs are
unique within Alabama. In addition
to contributing research findings of
a basic nature, scientists within these
Waterfowl Management
A study by Auburn's wildlife scientists
at the Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge
indicates that mallards and American wig-
eon wintering in Alabama engage in dif-
ferent activities depending on the
particular ecology of each species. Wig-
eon, because they feed on aquatic plants
low in nutrients, spend nearly twice the
time feeding (57 percent) as mallards
that prefer highly nutritious seeds and
corn. Mallards increased feeding time as
weather got colder, but still rested for
about half of every day. Courtship activ-
ities of mallards were most intense in
November and December and highest for
wigeon from December through Febru-
ary. Time spent in all activities, especially
feeding, varied with habitat types.
Results indicate that management ot
wintering waterfowl should focus on pro-
viding quality, diverse wetlands. This will
ensure that a variety of habitat types arc
available to meet requirements that differ
sharply between species.
Managing the Tarnished
Plant Bug
The tarnished plant bug, a key pest of
cotton in northern Alabama, has been
found to move into cotton from wild host
plants. Although over 300 hosts have been
identified, most of the plant bugs that
damage cotton probably emigrate from a
single host plant, daisy fleabane. Emigra-
tion occurs as the fleabane matures, or
when it is mowed. By incorporating a
rare metal into host plants, it has been
possible to mark large numbers of plant
bugs for movement studies. The Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station studies
showed that after hosts were mowed, the
bugs quickly moved into nearby cotton,
but remained in the crop only a short
time. Laboratory studies have shown that
cotton is actually a poor host for tarnished
plant bugs. Using roadside vegetation
management tactics designed to alter the
abundance and maturation time of daisy
programs also generate timely re-
search information relating to current
problems which exist within the State.
Significant progress has been made
relative to insect pest management
on soybeans, peanuts, cotton, live-
stock, and selected vegetable crops,
as well as mangement of the total
wildlife resource of the State.
Vigorous basic research programs
in cellular biology, molecular ge-
netics, physiology, and marine biol-
ogy have generated new findings
concerning basic processes which
govern living organisms and their en-
vironment. These efforts also may
provide the basis for improved man-
agement of pest species, more effi-
cient production of 
food and fiber,
and conservation of resources.
?+
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1
Waterfowl management resead.,, d.
viding valuable information.
fleabane along highways appears to offer
potential for insect management, and this
possibility is being evaluated in coop-
eration with highway engineers and Au-
burn agronomists.
Cotton in Southeast Alabama
Although cotton has been "out of style"
in southeastern Alabama for a good many
years, there is now renewed interest there
in the crop. Because of the long growing
season in southern Alabama, some pro-
ducers have been able to successfully
double-crop cotton following winter
wheat harvest. This delays cotton planting
past the normal planting date, which is
thought to lead to increased insect prob-
lems. Studies begun in 1984 are provid-
ing preliminary information about insect
~ -arr~msl
poptilations, damage, and sield in con-
ventional and double-cropped cotton.
Boll weevil and bollworm populations
were much lower than normal through-
out the area in 1984. Weevil poptlations
never reached the economic threshold in
dotble-cropped cotton, apparently be-
catse conventional cotton acted as a trap
crop for the low weevil population pres-
ent Bollworm poptlations remained low
throughot the season in both production
systems. The dry weather from mid-June
to mid-July was mtch more damaging to
the late-planted cotton than to the cotton
in the conventional system. Yields were
significantly reduced in the double-
cropped cotton.
Saltuater Marsbes Are
Important Resource
Alabama's coastal environmental re-
sources are of great economic impor-
tance. Althoigh the State's saltwater
marshes rank only eighth in area among
2 I coastal states, Alabama's marine catch
is second in value only to C alifornia
[Therefore, information being gained in
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
research can be valuable in managing
these important resources.
Since I982, poptlations of animals in
the marshes strrotnding Dauphin Island,
in Mobile Bay, ha'e been monitored.
Sttdies of the foraging behavior of blue
crabs have shown this crab to have dis-
tinct requirements with respect to spe-
cies and sizes of food items chosen from
the marsh community. Several of the pre-
ferred food species, in particular fiddler
crabs and periwinkle snails, have been
found to use saltmarsh cordgrass as a
refuge from predation by crawling up-
wards during periods of high tide. Such
behavior also may protect the snails from
experiencing extremely high tempera-
ture on the marsh substrate. Saltmarsh
cordgrass is one of the dominant plants
in the saltmarsh, and it provides resident
animals both a food resource and a pro-
tectise cover from predators. Numerous
snails, mussels, small fishes. and crabs
inhabit the cordgrass commtnity IThese
organisms use the decomposing grass as
food and, in turn, proside food for larger
fish, shrimp, and blte crabs which forage
in the marsh at high tide
Ecological stidies in habitats which are
of importance to commercially valuable
species. stch as the blte crab, are essen-
tial to stccessful management of the spe-
cies. Additionally, monitoring of these
communities is especially critical in the
lace of increased coastal development
pressures.
Understanding the Lesser
Cornstalk Borer
The lesser cornstalk borer is an im-
portant insect pest on many crops in the
Sottheast, btt it is generally rated as the
worst insect of peanuts. Thus, Auburn
research that is providing an tnderstand-
ing of why lesser cornstalk borer pop-
lation outbreaks in peanuts occur may
allow prediction of these outbreaks. This
should lead to much better control meth-
ods
Soil moisture and temperature are now
known to play an important role in the
production of population outbreaks. For
example, lesser cornstalk borer adult fe-
males lay approximately five times more
eggs at a four times faster rate when the
average daily temperature is around 80)F.
Also, small lesser cornstalk borer larvae,
which typically live in the soil, will
emerge when the soil in a peanut field
is moist. This exposes the small larvae to
predation by arihropod natural enemies,
such as big-eyed btgs, which have been
shown to reduce lesser cornstalk borer
larval populations by as much as 6) per-
cent.
Results of 1984 field studies indicate
that lesser cornstalk borers have one to
three generations during the peanut
growing season, and that the abundance
of lesser cornstalk borer eggs is propor-
tional to the abundance of adult females.
[he number of medium-sized larvae re-
sulting from the eggs depends on soil
moisture and temperature.
[he biological relationships describing
the growth, development, and survival of
lesser cornstalk borers in Alabama peanut
fields have been transcribed into cqua-
tions, and a mathematical model of its
population dynamics has been devcl-
oped. Purpose of the model is to predict
population outbreaks before they occur
This is important because, since larvae
live in the soil, sampling for the larvae
involves the destruction of peanut plants
and soil sieving. This is a time constming
and laborious process that may not ade-
quately detect the presence of small lar-
vae which are the easiest to control. [he
model's behavior in hot and dry condi-
tions agrees well with held observations.
Field testing of the model in Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, and lexas will begin in
the 1985 growing season.
Eggs of lesser cornstalk borer are floated out of soil collected from
peanut fields to provide information about the pest.
Species and size of food items required by the blue crab have
been determined in studies of marshes surrounding Dauphin Island.
P
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Animal health research continues
to address problems of disease pre-
vention and treatment that are im-
portant to success of Alabama's
livestock industry. Last year's pro-
gram of research not only sought ways
This disease-free
strates the potential
Disease-Free Embryo Transfer
Successful transfer of embryos from
brucellosis-infected dams without the
embryo becoming infected was accom-
plished at Auburn. At present there 
are
three offspring from a Brucella abortus-
infected cow that were born to three
brucellosis-free surrogate dams. The calves
and surrogates remained free of the 
dis-
ease. The embryos were collected 6-9
days after ovulation from both naturally
and artificially infected beef and dairy
cows.
With proper washing and treatment 
of
the embryos after collection from 
a bru-
cellosis positive dam, the safety 
factor
would be even greater. Also, the trans-
mission of virus through the embryo is
being evaluated. An understanding of the
interaction between the embryo and virus
particles is important for two reasons: 
(1)
it will provide a basis for understanding
the epidemiology of vertical transmission
of virus diseases; and (2) with the 
growth
in embryo transfer industry on a national
and international level, the problem 
of
disease transmission by this route needs
to be clarified.
Hormones Affect Animal
Functions
A number of studies were done in 
1984
to determine the roles of insulin, 
glu-
cagon, and growth hormone on lactation,
growth, development, and the 
etiology
of managing diseases of cattle and
swine, but also investigated the po-
tential of disease-free embryo transfer
from infected dams and effects of hor-
mones on livestock development and
productivity.
calf from a brucellosis-infected cow
I for disease-free embryo transfer.
demon-
of metabolic disorders. During lactation,
it was found that the actions of glucagon
and growth hormone were increased at
the liver, to turn on glucose production.
This indicates that both hormones play a
part in maintaining milk production and
that both may be used to increase milk
production. As developing bull calves
changed from a milk diet to a grain diet,
glucagon levels were higher and gluca-
gon actions at the liver greater than when
on a milk diet. These data indicate that
coincident with rumen development,
hormone changes are also taking place.
These hormones are believed to convert
the liver from one that uses glucose, as
in humans, to one of glucose production
from propionate. An understanding of how
these hormones are regulated as well as
how they influence the animal will enable
development of means of increasing
growth rates, milk production, and treat-
ment of metabolic disorders associated
with lactation.
Reproductive Diseases
of Cattle
Young calves are susceptible to certain
infectious agents which are unable to
cause disease in mature animals. The prin-
cipal difference between the ability of
young and adult animals to protect them-
selves against infectious agents is related
to the maturity of the immune system in
adults. The immune system of young an-
imals is able to mount certain immune
responses, but unable to mount other
responses that the adult can. In the Au-
burn study, the serum of young calves
suppressed the ability of lymphocytes to
proliferate when stimulated.
Serum from 15 calves was collected at
1-3, 7-10, 21, 60, and 150 days of age.
The mitogens phy'tohemagglutinin (PHA)
and concanavalin A (Con A) were used
to stimulate proliferation of cultured lym-
phocytes from three adult and three young
animals as measured by uptake of tritium
labeled thymidine. There was no differ-
ence in the ability of young and adult
lymphocytes to respond to mitogens.
However, responses to PHA using serum
from 1- to 3-day and 7- to 10-day-old
calves had 51 percent and 83 percent of
the proliferative activity of serum taken
when they were older, and responses to
Con A were depressed to the same extent
(49 percent and 87 percent).
These results suggest that a serum fac-
tor, possibly corticosteroids, may be in-
volved in the inability of calves to mount
adequate immune responses to certain
infectious agents. Furthermore, treatment
of young animals to reduce the suppres-
sive activity of serum might be beneficial
in treating infections by enhancing im-
munocompetence.
Animal Response to Virus
One of the ways in which animals re-
spond to infectious agents is by killing
virus-infected cells. Because certain vi-
ruses, such as herpesviruses, are capable
of traveling directly from one cell to an-
other, the host cannot protect itself against
such agents by producing antibody. How-
ever, by killing virus-infected cells the
host can reduce the transmission of virus
directly from one cell to another and
thereby reduce the severity of an infec-
tion. Auburn research found that calves
that had been infected and hyperimmu-
nized with infectious bovine rhinotrach-
eitis virus (IBRV), a bovine herpesvirus,
were able to produce such a response.
However, in order to detect the immune
response, it was necessary to cultivate
the cells in vitro for several days and
stimulate them with the virus.
The type of cvtotoxicity that resulted
was different from that which was antic-
ipated. The cells mediating the cytotox-
icity were not typical cytotoxic
lymphocytes. Although the leukocytes
were able to preferentially kill cells in-
fected with IBRV, the effector acted in a
genetically unrestricted manner. Results
thus suggest that a nonspecific increase
of cell mediated immunity may help pro-
tect cattle against this important patho-
gen associated with abortion and shipping
fever.
x~ -; ,1
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Nutrition and textiles continue to
be the primary foci of home econom-
ics research in the Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station. Another
trace element, selenium, is being
added to the nutrients being studied
by nutrition researchers. Too little of
this element may lead to increased
risk of some tumors and to retinop-
athy of the eye of 
premature infants,
while too much can be toxic. The
study of the effect of farm wives'
external employment on family eco-
nomic stability and functioning is en-
tering the data gathering phase in
Manganese Absorption
Manganese is an essential element for
animal growth and development, but only
small amounts are needed. However, the
actual amounts needed by humans, the
availability for use by the body of man-
ganese found in foods, and the mecha-
nism by which manganese is absorbed
from the digestive tract are all unknown
at present. Manganese deficiency in ani-
mals results in impaired growth, bone
abnormalities, retarded skeletal devel-
opment in embryos, reproductive failure,
which 1,000 Alabama families will
receive questionnaires. A new re-
gional housing study on barriers and
incentives to affordable housing was
begun in 1984. Another new regional
project involves ways in which liq-
uids, gases, and solids in solution or
suspension migrate through textile
fabrics. This relates to the comfort
of clothing, since both water vapor
and liquid perspiration must be able
to escape from the body if the evap-
orative cooling process is to take
place. It also relates to the use of
clothing as a protective barrier against
and defects in lipid and carbohydrate me-
tabolism.
A recent study found that 
one-third of
all children with convulsive disorders 
of
unknown cause had whole-blood 
man-
ganese concentrations significantly 
below
normal. In Auburn studies of manganese
absorption in the small intestine, fasting
rats were given either 
a saline solution
or the saline solution containing 
5 mil-
ligrams of manganese. 
The surface cells
of the intestine were analyzed 
for the
presence of a protein associated 
with the
manganese.
Research with hamsters indicated health benefits from Vitamin E diet supplementation along
with exercise.
__)
e
to ::-
sI n E [1
such potentially toxic 
agents as pes-
ticides. In the Alabama portion of the
project, which deals with the diffu-
sion of aerosols 
and vapor through
single layers of fabric and fabric as-
semblies, various blends of cotton
and polyester are being used. Solvent
tests with perchloroethylene indicate
that initial penetration of the aerosol
is slight but, as 
the solvent evapo-
rates, vapor diffusion increases with
time.
Findings from two nutrition studies
conducted during 1984 are summa-
rized here.
A manganese binding protein was found
and it was determined that this protein
was of lower molecular weight than those
that bind zinc and iron during 
absorption
from the intestine. The amount of man-
ganese associated with the binding pro-
tein was 3-4 times greater 
in the rats given
the manganese supplement than in those
given only the saline solution. Manganese
seemed to dissociate from and recombine
with the binding protein. Studies of the
manganese-protein and calcium-protein
complexes are presently being done for
chickens which lay eggs with a shell and
for those which lay eggs without a shell.
Vitamin E, Exercise,
and Health
Vitamin E and exercise appeared to
offer health benefits in the 
continuing
study of the interrelationships among vi-
tamin E consumption, cholesterol 
pro-
duction, and prostaglandin formation. Test
hamsters were fed a diet containing 
0 5
percent cholesterol and two levels of vi-
tamin E. Animals were assigned to four
groups: (1) control vitamin E diet and
no exercise; (2) supplemental vitamin E
and no exercise; (3) control vitamin E
diet plus exercise; and (4) supplemental
vitamin E plus exercise.
The vitamin E supplemented groups
gained less weight and had lower serum
cholesterol values than did the control
group despite similar food intakes. No
differences in high density lipoprotein
holesterol were found among the four
groups, but exercise did reduce the levels
,)t low density lipoprotein cholesterol.
No differences in production of prostag-
landin were found among the four groups.
Percent mortality among groups was 18.8
for the control diet, no exercise; 
13.3 for
the control diet plus exercise; 12.5 for
the vitamin E supplemented diet, no ex-
ercise; and 0 for the vitamin E supple-
mented diet plus exercise group.I
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Research in agricultural economics
and rural sociology zeroes in on the
bottom line profit aspect of agricul-
ture and the "people approach" to
current events in rural areas. Projects
active in 1984 dealt with costs and
Grain Sorghum Marketing
Research on grain sorghum marketing
indicated that availability of markets is a
major factor related to expansion of grain
sorghum acreage in the State. Limited
volume of sorghum has provided little
incentive for grain and feed firms to al-
locate facilities for storage or to change
feed rations to utilize grain sorghum. Sixty-
eight firms, or 59 percent of those re-
sponding to a questionnaire, indicated
they had bought sorghum in the past and
75 firms (66 percent) planned to buy
grain sorghum in 1984. These firms were
located in 38 counties distributed
throughout most of the major producing
areas of the State.
Lack of markets, which has been per-
ceived by some to be an obstacle to in-
creased sorghum production in Alabama.
does not appear to be a problem in major
grain producing areas. Research disclosed
a lack of reliable price data for sorghum
in Alabama because of low production
and limited cash sales. An analysis of av-
erage prices for the period 1974-83 in-
dicated that Alabama sorghum prices
ranged from $1.90 per bushel in 1977
to $3.22 per bushel in 1983. The 10-
year average price for sorghum was $2.54
per bushel compared to $2.85 for corn.
or 89 percent of the corn value. Alabama
sorghum prices have averaged 21c per
bushel above the U.S. price, but only 89
percent of the corn price compared to
91 percent for the United States.
Opinions on Government
Programs
A sample of almost 1,500 Alabama
farmers surveyed in early 1984 found that
farmers supported voluntary agricultural
programs, with few supporting manda-
tory programs. Farmers with larger op-
erations and those more dependent on
farm income favored target prices and
deficiency payments. Crop farmers fa-
vored maintaining equal or higher target
prices and deficiency payments, while
livestock farmers wanted low grain sup-
port prices. Continuation of a farmer-
owned grain reserve, with a limit placed
on payments, was desired. Loan rates set
prices in relation to production and
marketing of row crops, livestock,
and catfish, as well as providing an
economic analysis of such programs
as bovine brucellosis eradication and
a study of the farm finance situation.
Sociological studies delved into such
things as how well young people suc-
ceed in career goals as they move
into the adult world and farmers'
opinions on government agricultural
programs.
Availability of markets was found to be a major factor related to expansion ol grain sorghum
production in Alabama.
in relation to market prices were desired.
Strong support was found for requiring
farmers to follow recommended soil con-
servation practices to qualify for price
and income support programs.
Seventy-four percent of Alabama's farm-
ers indicated that the federal deficit should
be reduced in order to lower interest rates
to borrowers. More than half the farmers
stated that the federal budget should be
balanced even if it meant a substantial
cut in all government programs, includ-
ing farm price and income supports.
Farm Finance Situation Studied
A survey of Alabama farmers carried out
in November 1984 provided useful in-
sights into the critical financial condition
of the agricultural sector. The data re-
vealed that 16 percent of farmers were
delinquent in real estate debt payments,
17 percent on machinery and equipment,
and 18 percent on operating loans. The
debt-to-asset ratio averaged 29 percent.
compared to the national average of 22
percent. Delinquency rates on real estate
debt were highest in Piedmont, Black
Belt, and Sand Mountain areas of Alabama.
Considering the overall debt situation,
Limestone Valley area farmers appeared
to be least affected by debt problems. The
highest debt-to-asset ratio for farmers was
in the Black Belt, where the average was
42 percent. Major causes for financial
difficulties reported by farmers were low
product prices, high interest rates, in-
creased costs for inputs, and unfavorable
25
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A tripling of the size of the catfish 
industry in 16 years will be
required to meet growing market demand.
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The accelerated eradication program for brucellosis was found to
yield a benefit of $4.17 per dollar of cost.
weather. Less than 1 percent cited high
land prices as a primary cause of financial
difficulty.
Over 38 percent of the farmers re-
sponding said they planned to leave farm-
ing in the next 5 years. The primary reason
given was retirement, although financial
and health problems were also reported
as major reasons.
Economics of Catfish Industry
Per capita consumption of commer-
cially processed catfish has increased ten-
fold since 1970. Since most of these fish
are raised on farms in Mississippi, Ala-
bama, and Arkansas, the growth in catfish
consumption is a significant development
for Southern agriculture. Some economic
effects of the growth were apparent in
1984 economic research data.
An obvious effect of the catfish industry
growth is increased land use for this en-
terprise. Establishment of additional pro-
cessing plants and feed mills can be
expected as a result of the growth in
catfish demand. A major finding of the
study was that consumers appear to be
quite sensitive to changes in the price of
catfish (price elastic demand). With a
commodity that has a price elastic de-
mand, small changes in price induce rel-
atively large changes in the quantity
demanded. This means that consumers
substitute other fish, or even poultry, 
beef,
and pork, for catfish when price in-
creases. The elasticity coefficient for cat-
fish was found to be -1.54, which means
that if the farm price of catfish increased
1 percent and other factors affecting cat-
fish demand remained unchanged, the
quantity of catfish demanded would de-
crease 1.54 percent.
This relationship between price changes
and quantity demanded has implications
26
for the catfish industry. An industry facing
an elastic demand curve for its product
finds that its revenues vary inversely with
price. When prices fall, revenues increase
and when prices rise, revenue falls. Thus,
the market can absorb relatively large
increases in supply without declines in
producer revenues.
The demand for catfish is projected to
eventually represent 6 percent of all fish
consumed by Americans. The present
market share is 2.4 percent. Most of the
growth will occur by the year 2000, re-
quiring a tripling of the size of the in-
dustry in just 16 years. However, the
industry must remain efficient and price
competitive while achieving this growth.
Attainment in Nursing Careers
In a study of youth from high school
to young adulthood, it was found that
many who planned to be nurses when
seniors in high school had not reached
their goal when they became young adults.
Results of the study suggest that many
did not have the aptitude necessary to
pursue a career in nursing as their oc-
cupational goal. Persons of low socio-
economic status were less likely to
become nurses than were those of high
socioeconomic status, but that effect was
linked with race and ability.
Of the youth who planned to become
nurses, 66 percent did not attain their
goal within 7 years after graduating from
high school. The largest percentage of
these were found to be employed in sales
and clerical occupations. However, about
18 percent of the persons who planned
to enter nursing retained their original
interest by diverting to other occupations
within the health field, such as becoming
a nurse's aide.
Data indicated that recruitment into
nursing is changing. An early decision to
enter nursing was related to greater com-
mitment to a career in the nursing profes-
sion. Marital status had little relationship
to whether a nurse was actively employed
in the profession.
Economics of Brucellosis
Eradication
It is estimated that brucellosis infected
herds can lose up to 40 percent of the
calf crop and about 20 percent in milk
production. Because of the seriousness of
the disease, Alabama is involved in a na-
tionwide accelerated eradication pro-
gram. Results of a benefit-cost analysis
conducted by economists of the Alabama
.Agricultural Experiment Station indicate
that the eradication program is valuable
to the State.
A simulation model was used to project
losses for both the beef and dairy industry
under the present eradication program.
Annual beef losses under the program by
the year 2000 were projected to be only
3 percent of the 1983 value. In contrast,
losses would increase if there were no
program. With no program, dairy losses
were projected to increase at a rapid rate
because of the potential for spreading the
disease. The accelerated eradication pro-
gram yielded a net present value of $141.2
million by the year 2000. Without the
program, it was estimated that losses
would be $331.8 million. The acceler-
ated program yielded a benefit of $4.17
per dollar of cost.
Management is a key to control and
eradication of the disease. The brucellosis
program has the capability of increasing
a producer's average return to the live-
stock operation. Adherence to the erad-
ication program can lead to lower
production and health maintenance costs.
thereby helping maintain the farmer's
competitive edge.
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DIRECTOR
WD A a i:C S I%
Winners of the Director's Research Award, an
annual recognition of particularly noteworthy
performance in research, for 1984 were Dr. Dale
Huffman, Department of Animal and Dairy Sci-
ences, and Dr. Joseph J. Giambrone, Department
of Poultry Science. Huffman was selected for the
Senior Award, which goes to a scientist with the
rank of Professor, and Giambrone received the
Junior Award, which is restricted to researchers
of Assistant or Associate Professor rank.
Huffman was selected in recognition of his
outstanding accomplishments in the field of
meat science since joining the Auburn faculty
in 1963. His work in the development of res-
tructured steak and chops with a bite more
typical of muscle meat than either ground or
flaked products has brought international rec-
ognition to Auburn, both to himself and to the
research programs of the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station. He also pioneered work in
the use of gas atmospheres to extend the shelf
life of fresh meat, work that led to the more
economical use of gas atmosphere storage in-
stead of vacuum packing for shipment of meat
products.
Giambrone's honor recognizes his state, na-
tional, and international standing in the science
of immunology and disease control of poultry.
He is considered the foremost authority in the
world on infectious bursal disease, commonly
called Gumboro. He has worked extensively
with coccidiosis, newcastle disease, malabsorp-
tion syndrome, and fowl cholera. Three serol-
ogic tests for detecting antibodies to several
important poultry diseases were developed by
Giambrone and are now routinely used 
by poul-
try disease researchers throughout the world.
He has been on the Auburn faculty since 1977.
Dr. Joseph J. Giambrone (left) and Dr. Dale Huffman (right) were winners of the 1984 Director's Research Award.
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The Southeast No-Tillage Systems Conference, held
July 10 at the Wiregrass Substation, Headland, was the
most ambitious event of the 1984 field day season that
displayed research to thousands who visited field units
of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station.
The No-Tillage Conference alone drew more than
3,000 people from Alabama and neighboring states who
came to learn about no-tillage and limited-tillage farm-
ing methods. Guided tours of the Substation allowed
visitors a first-hand look at plots and field-size tests
involving innovative cropping systems. In addition, re-
searchers from other Southeastern States contributed
reports of no-till experiments, which were distributed
to guests in a printed proceedings produced at Auburn.
Newest equipment for limited-tillage farming was ex-
hibited and demonstrated.
Two months later at the other end of the State, a
"State Soybean Management Field Day" drew an inter-
ested crowd that toured research areas of the Tennessee
Valley Substation, Belle Mina, and heard researchers
from four departments of the Experiment Station ex-
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plain research on varieties, row spacing and plant pop-
ulations, no-till production, fertilization and cropping
systems, soil erosion, and control of soybean diseases
and insects.
Another gathering of statewide scope, at the E. V.
Smith Research Center, Shorter, the Plant Breeding Unit,
Tallassee, the Lower Coastal Plain Substation, 
Camden,
and the Chilton Area Horticulture Substation, 
Clanton,
featured research tours that were a part of the 1984
Commodity Conference. Field crops were the emphasis
of tours and discussions at Shorter and Tallassee, while
swine research was featured at Camden and fruit and
vegetable research was displayed at Clanton.
Field days or other meetings held at each substation
in the Experiment Station System during the year high-
lighted specialized research underway to serve partic-
ular needs of farmers in each major farming region of
Alabama. These programs covered major farm com-
modities produced in the State, including 
grain crops,
soybeans, cotton, peanuts, fruits, vegetables, beef cattle,
swine, ornamentals. dairying forestry and pecans
Field days dealing with ornamental horticulture research (above) have been popular with Alabama nurserymen. Growing interest in grain
production brought farmers to research tours to view work with grain sorghum (below).
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The Southeast No-Tillage Systems Conference (above) drew more than 3,000 from the region to view research on different conservation
tillage practices. Research on vegetable production (below) is of interest to both commercial producers and home gardeners.
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Members of the Alabama Pecan Growers Association had the opportunity to study pecan research during tour of test plantings held in
conjunction with the organization's annual meeting (below).
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FUNDS AVAILABLE
Appropriated
State
Federal
Total Appropriation
$ 8,701,497
$ 3,817,823
$12,519,320
$ 3,833,127
$ 4,524,674
$20,877,121
Grants
Sales ______
TOTAL FUNDS
EXPENDITURE BY COMMODITY
Beef Cattle
Cotton
Dairy Cattle _______________
Feed Grains _____________
Fish andl W ildlife__ _________
Forestrv
Fruits, Nuts, and Vegetables
H uman and Resource Development
Ornamentals and Turf
Pasture and Forage
Peanuts
Poultry
Soil, Land, and Water
Soy beans
Swine
Other
Appropriated Funds
1.5171_
______2.7(7
________2.4C7
______5.0%
9.4%
6.5%7
5.47
______4.017
________3.717
8.4%
5.317
7.4171
9.6%
______4.9%c
100%
All Funds
6.8%
2.5%7
4.4%
3.1%7
9.417
7.9(7
6.9%
4.1%J
3.8%
3.9(%
6.8%
4.77
7.0%
9.917
4.5%
100%
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~* Main Agricultural Experiment Station.
Auburn.
E. V. Smith Research Center, Shorter.
IS-11 1 Tennessee Valley Substation, Belle
Mina.
2. Sand Mountain Substation.
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Crossville
"KE3. North Alabama Hortictulture
,,,~, CSubstation, Cuilman.
4. UIpper C oastal Plain Substation,
Winfield.
5. Forestry U nit. Fayette County.
6. Chilton Area Horticulture
Substation, Clanton.
-- '. Forestry U nit, C2oosa C ounty.
8. Piedmont Substation, Camp Hill.
9. Plant Breeding I nit, Tfallassee.
10. Forestry U nit, Autauga (County.
11 . PrattvilleI Experiment Field,
Prattville.
~~oF12. Black Belt Stubstation, Marion
Junction.
13. TIhe TIurnipseed-lkenberry Place,
<1Inion Springs.
~14. Lower C oastal Plain Substation,
Camden.
t? ?FF15. Forestrv Unit, Barbour Countv.
16. Monroeville Experiment Field,
_ MonroevilIle.
.w .M 17. iregrass 
Substation. Headland.
18. Brewton Experiment Field, Brewton.
19. Solon Dixon Forestry Education
Center, Cov ington and Escambia
counties.
20. Ornamental Horticulture Substation,
Spring Hill.
21. Gulf Coast Substation, Fairhope.
.. _ _.