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DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS

BUCHANAN NAMED DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

A\E\k'.I()B 111cillis CXcitellicilt ikild a sellse ol'a lle\\ beollilillNlost ohis (to llot ha\e the opportlillit\ to (,I)jo\ I colllpletel\ lieW challeill('C' ill illid calver. I asslillie the (111(jes aild accept the responsibilit\ as \olil- Director of, the ALI-

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Imilla Agricultural Experhneiit StLttioll with Ygreat aliticipatioll. I behe\ c there is llojob that oflors it L reiltcr opportullit\ to scl-N c the \x cll-bcill 4 of' litallkilld thall does tll tt
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sit\ Agrricitltural F'Ixperimeiit Statioit. Indeed, the challeligo-, is tll('I(' for each of' its. This challctigc, aiid its accompall\ilig respollsibilitics, is oile that we shoilld accept willilig'k . .111st \\ hat does such ali acceptall(v
JIWMI. A f1tir ciiough (piestjoii. It 111CM111 RICogrilizing agricliltill-al pro bGALEA.BUCHANAN ]eIll," aild de\kilig illethods to Sol\(' them. Nlal)\ problems are techilolog\ dcpciident. For example, \ aricties of, crops alld trees that ll t\ c 1 tstcl growth rates Illd ])lot*(, resistallce to diseascs, insects, alld licillatod.es are ilecded. \VC Ileed to kilo\%illore ahotit soil \x ater and illore efficiellt wa\ s for crops to utilize it. llo\\ call brec(lilig, make inore efficiciit -aii)ers of our Ii\(,stoJIIo\\ call \\ c illerease feed effiejellc\ of ho"s, cattle, alld brodcl s? I to\\ call we get f lsterl('ro\\tll ofphie scedlinas' I to\\ call wc make more COIAI 01* (10ttoll oil all acre. Mall\ problems of' agrictiltille callnot be ',ol%ed h% techllolo 4\ . For exalliple, its we stl.i\ e f, )r greater efficieliu throligh Illecilmlizatioll, \\ e are challell'"(1d Im those with Iittle coliceril or Illiderstalldilig oflilodcl-li agricultill-al productioll teclillolog,- . 'I'lle\ recogllizc \ illcrcascd producti\ it\ , I)Ilt show little coliceril f,()I- slich added beliefits of, ilicc-liallizatioll as relief, fi-olll 1111111all drudger\ . The Mushrooming Illo\ ('111clit fol- "1111111ml lil(dits" for allillials prolnises to off,(,]- a sc\cre challell('e to traditiollal mlillial productioll. Ill \Vcstcrii Europe, at least olle (.olllitl-\ Ilas Illcad\ balloed the lise of, cacs for la\ illi. llel)s, resilltiligy ill decreased prodiletn it\ alld illcreased cost of' cggs. The I-cal, as \\ ell as the illiagrilled, plobleills ofpesticide Ilse I la\ c becil \%(,I] documented. \Vc are \(,t to lvach a poillt ill our pest colitiol strategies, llo\ ('\er, Micre pesticide kise is ]lot crllci d for ecolloild'. production. 114-4, M-C blit a fC\\ oftlic problems alld challcll 4('s filcilig agricu Itill.c. To deal with theill effectkck, \\(, \\ill liceda illaJoreffort fi-olll cach scielitist. Not olll\ 11111"t we "okc thetedillological prob]eIlls, blit we 11111st dispel till, lilt\\ arrallted f'Cars that Illoderil igricultill-al tccjlllolog creates ill the 111filds ol'the lloll-at. riclljtl [ral public. Agricultill-al commodities collstitlite the siligh, illost importalit positiN e f lctor ill oill- interliatiolial balance of 1xi\ melits with the \\oll(l(.()Illlllllllit\ . \Vc producccuot],11 I'Oodfic(I'alld libel-toillect ()ill- domestic deniands and still export o\cr S40 billioll \\()I-tll of' agricultlind ploducts each \ear. I aill \\(,I] a\\Zllv of blid("o Colistl-Mlits thAt \\C I, I( C Mld Ila\ e 111ced (1111-ilig fit(, past I(,\\- Nears. It has beell difficult and will colitillile to be a problem for at least this colllilw \car. 'I'llese "llortages ill oper ttillg aild slippol I s "Ll (' to oldcl equip-t I' illd, trall, Illent, less techilical slipport, aild fc\\er lese krcll slipplics Mlich requires c\ ('11 greater dili 4('Ilce f,()I- satisf'actor\ research accoillplislillicl)ts. llo\\('\(,I-, I aill coldidelit that we shall leccke a higlicl lc\cl of' suppoll ill the not too distalit filture. \Ve loust all \\oi-k together as we f'ice till' challellgc of 1)1'o\i(lili(' the research support of Alahaimt',, most important knd mallkilld's .111.\ esselitial

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WINTER 1980

VOL. 27, No. 4

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Combination Feeding of Extruded and

Pelleted IDiets for Catfish
TOM LOVELL Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures

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SICKLEPOD AND COFFEE SENNA related weeds that present different problems
D. H. TEEM', C. S. HOVELAND, and G. A. BUCHANAN, Department ot Agronomy and Soils
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Increasing Nitrate Fertilizer Decreases Iron Foliage Content of Container Grown Holly and Azalea in Pine Bark Medium
FRED B. PERRY Department oh Horticulture

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Changes in the Alabama Dairy Industry Since Termination of Retail Price Control
LOWELL E. WILSON Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology

WITH THE EXPANSION

of milk

markets

the ability of the Alabama Dairy Commission to regulate the dairy industry within the State has been reduced. Also, effective authority of the Commission to establish producer quotas and prices has been lost through unfavorable court actions. Absence of these controls has subjected the industry to disruptive marketing practices. Although all sectors of the industry were affected, participants particularly influenced were quota holding milk producers and single unit proprietary milk handlers in Alabama. In the absence of producer quotas, milk processors became free to acquire milk supplies from any source desired. Since minimum prices were not established by the Commission on milk purchased from sources outside the State, some processors began to acquire milk supplies from out-of-state producers at prices below those set by the Commission. Also, out-of-state processors expanded packaged milk sales in the State. Request for a Federal Order Growth in interstate commerce in milk movements led to a decline in state regulatory programs and subsequent growth in federal milk orders. In late 1979, Associated Milk Producers, the major dairy cooperative in Alabama, petitioned the Dairy Division of the U.S. Department of Agriculture for a federal milk order for Alabama and four counties in west Florida. A proposed order prepared by the cooperative was submitted to the USDA. After preliminary investigations, a public hearing was held by the USDA in Montgomery in late June 1980 to receive testimony concerning the marketing of milk and the proposed order. Marketing Area A study of the distribution of fluid milk products in the proposed market was conducted in May 1980 to establish the
1

extent of the market and identity of processors in the area.' Results were presented at the hearing. A total of 523 grocery stores located in the area was surSveyed to determine identity of milk processors and volumes of sales. Of 37 processors with sales in the area, 20 were either located in the market or would probably be fully regulated in the proposed order. These processors had 89% of fluid product sales in the area. Seventeen processors located in eight states outside the market had the remaining 11% of the sales. Packaged milk products were being distributed regularly in the market from plants located as far away as Indiana and Missouri. Four Class I pricing zones were proposed, see figure. The Class I pricing formula included the MinnesotaWisconsin manufacturing milk price, plus a differential for each zone. A processor located in the Northern Zone would pay the lowest Class I price, while processors located in the Southern Zone would pay the highest Class I price in the market. If the proposed order was in effect in December 1980, the minimum Class I price in the Central Zone, North would be $14.72 ($12.42 M-W, plus $2.30). Milk Supply In mid-1980, approximately 950 milk producers were regularly supplying milk to processors that would likely be fully regulated under the order. Number and location of the producers were: 439 Alabama; 378 Tennessee; 106 Mississippi; 27 Florida; and 5 Kentucky. Almost three-fourths of the dairy farmers were members of the three cooperatives furnishing raw milk to processors in the market. The cooperatives were Associated Milk Producers; Dairymen, Inc.; and Southern Milk Sales. The remaining dairy farmers who were not coop members shipped directly to specific processors. Milk supply and use information available from the Dairy Commission showed that in 1979, 53% of the raw milk supply for Alabama was produced in other states and 47% of the supply was from dairy farms in the State. During the past 4

Class I Price Differentials ZMW + $2.10 =MW + $2.45 MMW + $2.30 EZMW + $2.67$2.5 0) (Dothan :MW + Four Class I proposed pricing zones.

years, from 87 to 91% of the milk supply available to Alabama processors was used in fluid milk products.
Need for an Order

Indicative of the need for effective market regulation was testimony that no uniform producer pricing system existed within the proposed area. Some prices paid producers were flat prices and were not based on use. Reconstituted buttermilk, which is priced as a Class I product in federal order markets, was not being priced in Alabama. Inadequate market information was available for Alabama and practically no information existed for the four-county Florida area. Concern was expressed over the existing milk auditing program in Alabama. An unequal sharing of surplus milk among producers was reported. Cooperatives acted as supply balancers for the market and much of the milk diverted to manufacturing use at lower prices by cooperatives was not pooled in the market. The next step in acquiring the federal order will be a recommended decision and order issued by the USDA, probably in early 1981. The industry will have the opportunity to file exceptions to the recommended order. After a final order is issued, producers will vote in a referendum whether or not to approve the order. The order becomes effective after producer approval, probably after mid-1981.

WILSON,

Milk Products in Order Milk Marketing Area. Florida Federal the Proposed Alabama-West Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, June 1980.

LOWELL. Distribution of Fluid

Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station

Pl\F IRFES mlm or declioill,_, to]. %\hiltc\(,r reasoll-discilse, illsects, droll"Ilt, (old i[gle-attlact attcotiol).

Likc% i,,e uch tree,, promptl\ zittrit( I Primary Pest 111,111\ ,pecie,, of illse( t,,. IX i tl \\(,(,it' i ' o tii olli I ii lith ) of their pic,,clicc illsects Illai, he ill(h-aid, Ii(,'Iltl\ oi. \\ rolitik , its 1-c"pollsibic to], the trec's C"llditioll. Allioll" illscct illit\ bc pi iloill.\ pccic ', citpahfe of call"'ill", lll()Ititlit\ poick ',cc111(1ttitil l ec lii ill( ik.I t t'il',si ()])(lilt- species presclit h(-call',c of' tree collditioll or, prediwcotl itild parasitic iI)c( ic ,, sc(,km,_, flicii hosts. I i i omc cascs, ccrtilill of fit(",(, ill"ccts Illil\ ('X ell IKL\ i I 1I i x i c tiac ti.ii. i. X li li iet he collsidcl-cd it,, cithel prillial.\ ol secolldm-\ dupcildim-1 ()It spcuic of tree ol cilclillistallo.-cs illiok c(l. T he ( ()111111( ill dco(Ltr \\(,(,\ it is it (.it,(, ill poillt.

DEODAR -" WEEVIL
and its association with Coniferous Trees
L. L. HYCHE. Department ot Zoology-Entomology

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Nematodes Damage Perennial Forage Legumes
C. S. HOVELAND. R. L. HAALAND, D. SIDES, AND C. WEAVER
Department of Agronomy and Soils R. RODHIGUEZ-KABANA. Department of Botany. Piant Pathology, and Microbiology

xii

Ak FIG. 2. Red clover plots above showing nematode control, left, and no control at right.

FIG. 1. Alfalfa plots left showing nematode control, left, and no control at right.

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it a 3d(ii ecpetiiniieit t itilI)ti1 ox 3i Uti xisi t ,Ayiiltil IXpciiilit Stationl lahnt L31ccdilig3 1. lilt. , al laite'. indicate tlhat lic ito)(ex are aii i illotallt soil fac, tor A]lalx iii. liesi ini th cIack of' success l it] ti tiliext pcriiitlll(-I lt InexS.

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GlIadiator aI iIfala (IIit Il red( .] cl I, iI He ATl-lI I)iidxfIoot trfol\itc planltedl il calk Ox(ctober 1977 oii at xaild loamil soilI. Some11 of the llot's wetc tireatedl \\ ith ietfix I lbtoilicfe for Nrit xlxeioo of it PMacI111cBith\ i i'tll it, liid orxx a neittoc cotrl i ltil(tIleix \\ ere left itited.Foraige \it,,x ilemitici is ll() ccmloll1)r icii a 1 r(111 re ,tt u. ld ti ls e lixl cttii ill thle hl\ stagic (fklingi, the lixt :3 c ars. P~lots treatedl iiithl lletlix 1bIoidl~e h'o lienlatocle coilti ol Iile fill, Iiighcxet \icd lel1(lx hlile extlblixlillilit \ceir tale 1.x elcx et. al thre lgnliex lotiiiti ealteds IIlii e o xiil xx ei 1978 1979 1980t ttiixiiitcl\ good~ the first xeilxlll. B\x the secondii~ xiaxlt. 1979. xtiicxomidcii ri rceit Tcgitiii ei~o(( i c t"( tc iie i tiie ittatid mlid hirdxfoit ti efoil xtanclx i citr icilr gotte. ~dAltal' soiil xo)ll oi S ilI x(itl soil xtiid clx S(I ~l tilI oil 110o itreatcdlsoil bitt x tclcs wiere itcltc ed abouit 25' Staiclxs of'aallt \\ ere reduicedI 1)x tfie third Scar, 1980,.and foritage Alfalti........... \ ieldx wiere oiilx tine third that oil Plots 7.4 6. 2 4.2 .3.2 .0 Itt lied c el . .. . 4.8 4.0t 2.4 01 0 0 hit\ ing neiiiatocle contr ol. ~lAlta .\ ields x ee lou\ thin notii et 3.7 3.2 1.6 .2 1.1 0i mid i 19S5( leiatxc ifit xi x ii ire diiig. Nemtatioce piipuilattion wetriice igiteatl\i affectec I b> thlesiiil Txiit I 2. 1ARAItIxstC Nc\tAioni l'iiR LItN i0N1 SOIL iND ROOTS o[ treatmntt table 2. Pit ixitic Itittl atoclex wiere highest oil led Ttui. LEtit itiS AS AFFi i iii Nt %iiiiC, (:iNTHIi (:lox cr. begiliittig x itli first xeatl. the Sttihhx rioit ieiliatoce Neitodeslc pcr 5t0 c siiil tilt rotsit \x erc the most49 pe\ alttit species otil ilalfa xi bile oil11red clox cr 1978 19719 allf bircltot tref oil, rootkiiot \\itax the ilaftil species. Mltix Lugi tillt iTreated Utrteated Tritt( i 1i. atreatct stitit nietlatlicis e i also fiiitnc red cliix re on el. miii sil Soil treatinetit \N ith ineth\ I bromide mia-; soiil -soil retduce xsoil fiii igi axii Well as neiatoclex, piohabix benefiting the legumtles. .\o. No. N o. N). Hiixevere the rapicd ireitxe iii popiilatiotis of' parasitic 0 28 18 :37 Hed~~ clox er ........... 34 ncttatocdes on utitreatecd soilI 86 86 indlicates that the\ are likelN it 1(13 t0 49 13 16 IMalir eilue inl stanid anid hoiage x jelcI reclnictoi. Aiibtiiti ( nic iity Ag iculttrai iii Jpiimii
tationi

BABY PIGS are particularly sensitive to cold and chilling. Although new-born pigs can increase their heat production in a cold environment, conservation of body heat is a problem. The application of radiant heat from heat lamps or catalytic heaters can reduce heat loss from the baby pig and decrease the piglet's metabolic rate. Producers also have been encouraged to dry piglets at birth to prevent heat loss associated with natural drying by evaporation. Although many farrowing houses today have insulated or heated floors and supplemental heat, there are limited data to show how supplemental heat and drying of pigs at birth affect piglet survival. Therefore, a study was designed to examine the effects of floor temperature, supplemental heat, and drying pigs at birth on rectal and skin temperatures, weight gain, and survival rate to 5 days of age. Different Floor Temperatures Maintained The Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station study involved a total of 326 pigs from 33 litters. Sows were placed in a farrowing house that had conventional farrowing crates, concrete floors, and hot water heat in the creep area. The floor of the creep area on one side of the house was maintained at 860 F, while the creep area of the remaining crates was held at 68°F. Air temperature was approximately 72 0 F. Alternate litters within each floor temperature group were provided with sunnlemental heat in the fonn of a 250-watt heat lamp. For the remaining litters, a 100-watt light was suspended over each crate. The heat lan ip increased the temperature of the nursing area floor to app roximately 115'F, but the light bulb did not alter floor tempe rature. Drying at Birth Evaluatted

Farrowing House Conditions INFLUENCE Baby Pig Performance
D. N. MARPLE, R. M. McGINNIS, and T. J. PRINCE, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences V. K. GANJAM, Department of Animal Health Research J. F. PRITCHETT, Department of Zoology-Entomology

were not dried had higher temperatures than those which were dried. Economic Questions Answered Two questions of economic importance were addressed in the study: (1) Which factors altered body weight at 5 days of age, and (2) which factors improved or altered survival rate to day 5? At day 5, body weights and survival rates were not improved or otherwise altered by providing supplemental heat from heat lamps. The relationship between floor temperature and drying at birth was significant for body weight, in that pigs on the warm floor which were not dried weighed more than those that were dried. In contrast, pigs on the cool floor which were dried weighed more. Survival data also revealed that pigs not dried at birth and those on the warm floor had similar high rates of survival to day 5. However, pigs dried at birth and maintained on the cool floor had approximately a 12-16% lower survival rate. Thus, baby pigs can survive well on a cool floor (68'F) without supplemental heat provided they are not dried at time of birth. The results suggest that expenditures for supplemental heat in the farrowing house (either floor heat, heat lamps, or catalytic heaters) may not be necessary so long as pigs are maintained in a moderately warm (68 0 F) environment and provided the sows and litters are free of any health related problems. Supplemental heat may be beneficial during periods of disease stress if the pigs are subjected to environmental temperatures below their comfort level (approximately 86'F). Furthermore, supplemental heat may be of value when floor temperatures are lower than those maintained in the study reported. Results of these Auburn studies suggest that drying pigs at birth increases heat loss from the skin surfaces. Pigs that were not dried had lower skin temperatures during the first 8 hours after birth, but they survived better than those that were dried. Therefore, it may be that the normal responses of the pigs to a cool environment (cool floors and not dried at birth) triggered mechanisms responsible for the conservation of body heat and energy by the pig, and this may have improved their rate of survival.

Alternate pigs within litters were dric d at time of birth and birth weight was recorded at 1 hour. Th e skin temperature of each pig was recorded at 30 minutes and 1 hour after birth and at hourly intervals for 8 hours. Rectal te mperatures also were taken at hourly intervals for 8 hours. Survival rates were monitored daily and body weights were recorded at 1,2, and 5 days of age. Results of the Auburn study indicate that piglets exposed to heat lamps had higher skin and rectal terimperatures from 4 to 8 hours after birth. These differences werre expected, although increased skin and rectal temperature s did not show any particular advantage on the basis of bod y weight and survival data recorded. The responses to drying pigs at birth were not the same for the two floor temperatur e treatments. On the warm floor, pigs that were dried had h igher rectal temperatures than those not dried, whereas pigs on the cool floor that

EFFECTS OF FLOOR TEMPERATURE AND DRY'ING ON SELECTED VARIABLI ES

OF PIGS AT BIRTH

Variable Rectal temperature of pigs On 68 0 F floor ....................... On 86°F floor ....................... Pig body weight at day 5 On 68°F floor ....................... O n 86' F floor ....................... Percent survival at day 5 On 68°F floor ....................... On 86'F floor .......................

Pigs dried 101.1°F 101.3 0 F 4.4 lb. 4.2 lb. 80.9% 94.5%

Pigs not dried 101.3 0 F 100.9 0 F 4.2 lb. 4.4 lb. 97.2% 93.1%

Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station

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ATER APPLICATION UNIFORMITY

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an important consideration when designing and selecting traveler irrigation systems. Factors such as lane spacing, nozzle size, and pressure determine application uniformity. Many systems depend on starting the irrigator some distance inside the field boundary to achieve maximum lane distance. This practice, which may result in underwatering near the field boundaries, is the subject of a study now being conducted at the Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station. The study utilizes computer simulations and experimental field data to predict water application in the field under no-wind conditions. Wind effects are being evaluated in a separate study. Simulation Shows Variable Watering The first simulation, figure 1, presents water application amounts for two 850ft.-long travel lanes spaced 325 ft. apart. Water application at each of the grid points on a 25-ft. spacing was computed and lines of constant water application plotted. The area bounded by the lanes and the start and stop positions is used as a reference area. This area has an average application of 1 in., with most of it receiving between 0.75 and 1.25 in. The high application area located between lanes is caused by utilizing recommended lane spacings for moderate winds, thus providing a closer spacing
1 . __ I

Range of Traveler Irrigation by Use of Delayed Start Mechanism
EUGENE W. ROCHESTER, Department of Agricultural Engineering

EXTENDED

than desirable for no-wind conditions. The low application areas along the lanes are caused by operating the sprinkler with a 30-degree dry angle to the front. The wetted distance to the rear is equal to the wetting radius of the sprinkler (in this case 230 ft.). This wetted area can be utilized well when the starting point is in the middle of the field and another travel lane can be utilized to overlap this end wetting area. If the starting point is near the edge of the field, however, no overlapping can occur, and the best location of the starting point becomes questionable. In the example shown in figure 1, the application behind the sprinkler varies from 0.75 in. near the sprinkler to none at the outer edge, leaving this area underirrigated. The alternative is to start the irrigator at the edge of the field and to

waste the water applied behind the starting point. Delayed Start Mechanisms Available As an option to the alternatives described, some manufacturers are offering delayed start mechanisms to provide additional water behind the start position. (Delayed starts can be accomplished on any traveler manually.) The desired result is to extend the effective length of the travel lane. One proposed delay time is computed
utilizing travel speed and sprinkler wet-

ting radius and is equal to the time required for the travelers to move one sprinkler radius. In this example, the travel speed is 2 ft. per minute and the wetting radius is 230 ft.; thus, the proposed delay time is 115 minutes. Figure 2 shows the result of a 115minute delay. Water application at the stopping end of the field remains unchanged. At the starting end, however, more water has been applied so that an additional 150 ft. of field has been irrigated with at least 0.75 in. of water. Unfortunately, a portion of the field between lanes has had an excess of 1.75 in. applied. The trade-off then has been to extend the effective lane distance while at the same time applying extra water in front of the sprinkler. Of course, a shorter initial delay would decrease the overwatering problem but would also decrease the extra lane distance. In fact, one manufactureri recommends this delay as a maximum time, with one-half this value being the minimum delay. Additional studies underway at Auburn will provide further information about travel delays, both initial and final, and will consider field application uniformity and energy usage.

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FIG. 2. Wetting pattern from a traveler with initial delay.

'Telephone conversation with Alain Vezes, Vice President, Irrifrance U.S.A., Inc., October 20, 1980. 11

Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station

The structure of the agricultural credit market
WILLIAM E. HARDY, JR. Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology

Commercial banks 39.8% Life insurance companies 210/ Production Credit Associations 7.5% Farmers Home Administration 3.6% Farmers Home Administration 6.7%
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45% 1950 950 Distribution Federal Land /Bank 34.1% Distribution

Federal Intermediate Credit banks 1%

TOTAL FARM DEBT in the United States increased from $10.7 billion in 1950 to $132.2 billion in 1979-an increase of more than 1,135%. During the same period, total farm production expenses rose from $19.5 billion to $114 billion, a 484% increase. Total fanr cash receipts rose about 359%, increasing from $28.8 billion to $132.1 billion. With production expenses increasing faster than farm receipts, farmers who were once self-sufficient in terms of generating adequate capital to continue and expand farming operations, are less able to do so. Profit margins have narrowed and, subsequently, the farmer's ability to finance his operation with equity capital firom profits earned in previous years has decreased substantially. In many instances, increased utilization of credit has become a necessary component of the farm management plan. Increased dependence upon borrowed funds and leverage in farming has developed from at least three occurrences: (1) The consolidation of agriculture into fewer and larger farms to achieve greater economies of scale from improved technology and management techniques; (2) High land values brought about by capitalization of the benefits of new technology, economies of scale, government payments, and increased demand for farmland from nonagricultural sources; and (3) The increased substitution of purchased for non-purchased inputs, and the increased prices of these inputs caused by inflation. An obvious consequence of the increased use of borrowed capital has been a growing pressure on financial institutions to provide more loanable finds. All agricultural lenders have higher levels of outstanding loans than ever before. However, the relative importance of each lender has changed over the years. Some have been more aggressive in the agricultural lending market and , as a result, have a larger market share than in the past. When one looks at the farm real estate market, the Federal Land Banks have emerged as the primary institutional 12

Life insurance companies 14.10/6

Farmers Home Administration 5.7 % 1979 Distribution 1979 Distribution

FIG. 1. Distribution of real estate debt by lending source, 1950 and 1979. supplier of credit, lending $24.6 billion for real estate purchases in 1979, about 34% of the total market. Individuals were also important, providing 34.3% of the total volume, $24.8 billion. This importance of individuals as a source of funds was emphasized during the tight credit periods of 1979. Life insurance companies were the third largest farm real estate creditor, $11.9 billion, followed by commercial banks, $8.6 billion, and the Farmers Home Administration, $4.4 billion. The relative positions of these lenders in 1950 and 1979 are illustrated in figure 1. Commercial banks have long been the major source of non-real estate credit in the United States, providing at least 40% of the total each year since 1950. In 1979, they supplied $28.3 billion, 47.2% of the total market. Competition in this market has increased, however, with the Production Credit Association share rising from 7.5% in 1950 to about 25% in 1979. While the Farmers Home Administration and private individuals supply a substantial amount of non-real estate credit, neither offers a significant challenge to the major market portions held by commercial banks and PCA's. Figure 2 illustrates market shares held by the principal non-real estate lenders in 1950 and 1979. In looking to the future, the agencies of the Farm Credit System (Federal Land Banks and Production Credit Associations) will likely continue to have a major share of the total agricultural credit market. These organizations have services

FIG. 2. Distribution of non-real estate debt by lending source, 1950 and 1979. and operating policies tailored to meet farmer needs. Commercial banks will probably continue to be a primary source of credit, particularly for non-real estate purchases. Some banks in agriculturally oriented areas are hiring lending specialists trained in handling agricultural credit problems. The individuals category, which is composed of private individuals and nonfinancial businesses who extend credit to help in the promotion and selling of their products, will continue to decline in importance. They are becoming less willing to bear the expense and risk associated with lending. The reluctance of individuals to extend credit is intensified when interest rates are high. This occurs because funds are not as readily available and the cost of capital to the business increases, making the credit service very expensive. The same trend is likely to be found with insurance company participation in the farm land market. Recent history has shown clearly that insurance companies are preferring to invest their funds in ventures other than lending for farm land. The level of participation of the Farmers Home Administration is dependent upon congressional appropriations and the balances in the revolving funds of the organization. All indications, however, point to continued strong lending, particularly in specialized categories such as emergency, young farmer, and community development loans.

bAuburn University Agricultural Experiment Station

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Conidia producing appressoria, pct.

The Predisposing Effect of...

Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus Infection... in Corn
ELL STEVENS and ROBERT T. GUDAUSKAS lent of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology
AIZE DWARF MOSAIC VIRUS (MDMV) is

Incubation time, hr.

an important pathogen of corn in Alabama and other states. Not only are there direct detrimental effects from MDMV which can lead to reduced growth and yield, but it has also been established that corn plants infected with this virus are more susceptible to attack by root and leaf-infecting fungi. Earlier work at the Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station showed that Race T of the southern corn leaf blight fungus, Helminthosporium maydis, produced more and larger lesions on leaves of MDMV-infected corn than it did on virus-free corn. Recently, similar results were obtained using the more common Race O of the fungus. Some of this work, along with that aimed at determining possible mechanisms for this increased susceptibility of MDMVinfected corn, is summarized here. Reactions On MDMV-Infected Plants A drop of water containing conidia (spores) ofH. maydis was placed on each of several leaf sections from MDMVinfected and virus-free plants. The leaf sections were incubated in moist chambers and the numbers of conidia that germinated and formed appressoria (padlike structures that facilitate attachment and penetration by the fungus) were determined periodically. In another experiment, corn seedlings were inoculated with MDMV and after symptoms of virus infection appeared, the plants were sprayed with a suspension of H. maydis conidia. An equal number of virus-free seedlings were inoculated with the fungus to serve as controls. All plants were placed in moist chambers for 24 hours, and the numbers and lengths of H. maydis lesions were determined 24-48 hours later. The percent germination ofH. maydis conidia was similar on both types of leaf sections. However, twice as many conFrom top: Appressorium formation by H. maydis conidia on leaf sections from MDMVinfected and virus-free corn seedlings; electrical conductivity of leachates from MDMVinfected and virus-free leaf pieces; and concentration of orcinol-and ninhydrin-positive substances in leachates from MDMV-infected and virus-free leaf pieces.

idia on MDMV-infected sections produced appressoria as those on virus-free sections, figure 1. Also, the fungus produced 37% more lesions on MDMVinfected seedlings and the lesions were 70% larger than those on virus-free seedlings. Analyses of MDMV-Infected Plants Leaves were removed from MDMVinfected and virus-free corn seedlings and cut into small pieces that were suspended in sterile water in flasks on a rotary shaker. At intervals of time, samples were removed from the flasks and analyzed for electrical conductivity and for cations, carbohydrates, and amino acids and similar compounds leaked from the leaf pieces. In another experiment, intact, infected, and virus-free seedlings were suspended in water in flasks and the contents were sampled periodically and analyzed as above. Samples from MDMV-infected plants showed 30-100% greater conductivity, figure 2, and 20-100% more orcinolpositive (some carbohydrates) and ninhydrin-positive (amino acids and similar compounds) substances, figure 3, than samples from virus-free plants. The samples from virus-infected plants contained 60-100% more copper and potassium ions than did those from virus-free plants. The total amino acid content of samples from MDMV-infected leaves was over twice that of samples from virus-free leaves. Seventeen amino acids were identified in the samples and all occurred in higher concentrations in samples from virus-infected leaves. These results indicate that MDMV infection alters the permeability of affected tissues, and consequently there is an increased leakage of metabolites into intercellular spaces and onto leaf surfaces. These metabolites in turn could serve as nutrients for a subsequently invading pathogen like H. maydis, leading to greater and more rapid development of the fungus in the virus-infected plants. Further, the enhanced development of a pathogen like H. maydis on MDMVinfected plants could lead to greater production of spores or inoculum of the fungus available for dispersal to other plants.

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Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station

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POTENTIAL for expanded sales of local produce:
A Case Study of the Chattanooga Trade Area
JOHN ADRIAN Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology

TENNESSEE

ALABAMA
GEORGIA

MARKETING is a crucial aspect of any farm business. Ultimate success of the firm hinges to a large extent on its ability to locate and utilize viable markets. This is especially true for fruit and vegetable operations which produce for the fresh market. Direct market outlets such as farmers' markets, roadside stands, pickyour-own operations, peddlers, and even wholesalers and retailers have received increased attention in recent years in this respect. Little current information exists concerning the status and potential of fresh fruit and vegetable production and marketing in a region outside the traditional fruit and vegetable supply areas. Thus, research was initiated by Auburn University's Agricultural Experiment Station in cooperation with the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station and the Tennessee Valley Authority to describe and analyze the existing fruit and vegetable marketing system in the Chattanooga, Tennessee, area. Special emphasis was given to examining the potential for expanded sales of locally grown produce to wholesalers and retailers and through direct market outlets in 13 counties in the tri-state area. Data were collected from 18 produce wholesalers and 52 retail food stores in the Chattanooga metropolitan area and 108 fruit and vegetable producers in the Chattanooga trade area, see figure. These surveys were completed between June and August 1979. Analyses of farmer, wholesaler, and retailer data indicated that much latent potential existed for expanded sales of locally grown produce in the Chattanooga area. However, markets were not readily available to farmers because many impediments to entry and use were present, especially for wholesale and retail outlets. On the farmers' side of the market, fruits and vegetables were often being produced on small operations which lacked the labor, volume of product, and manager's time to meet the requirements

of the market. Producers were often older individuals or part-time farmers
who were attempting to supplement their income; i.e., they were not full-time produce farmers. These characteristics plus the farmers' preference for direct markets, especially farmers' markets, resuited in infrequent marketings to wholesalers and retailers. Farmers seemed to be generally satisfied with markets even though the availability of buyers and distance to markets were commonly expressed problems. There was little reason to believe that producers in the area had the willingness or desire to initiate an expansion in production. Overall, only half of the producers felt "good" about the future of their fruit and vegetable operation. Further, in terms of production, farmers indicated indifference to hypothetical higher price levels. Insufficient labor, health and age of the operator, and lack of time were frequently mentioned reasons for this lethargy. On the demand side of the market, wholesalers and retailers were basically pessimistic concerning the relationship of local farmers to their businesses. Managers of both outlets indicated that they were willing to purchase locally grown produce if reasonable quality and price levels could be achieved. Both wholesalers and retailers identified the primary impediment to purchasing locally grown produce as the inability of farmers to provide a dependable volume of a quality product for a reasonable period of time, generally about 2 months. A few outlet managers indicated that they had established a good relationship with a few producers who could meet the needs of the marketplace. However, in other cases, problems of grading, packaging, and handling locally grown produce precluded a viable relationship. Given the characteristics of participants in this market and the requirements for effective entry, it would seem doubtful that wholesale and retail outlets

could be developed and utilized adequately by local producers. For example, assuming that all production was identified in the Chattanooga area, all of it met grade standards for wholesale

and retail markets, the percentage of production was evenly marketed by weeks, and all of the local produce was marketed through retail outlets in Chattanooga, local producers could provide 69% of the tomatoes, 32% of the sweet corn, 24% of the okra and field peas, and 19% of the green beans, and 15% of the watermelons within the peak production month. Thus, with the exception of tomatoes, local producers had the potential to satisfy only a small portion of the retail demands even in the peak production month with all production marketed at these outlets. Even then, this would entail cooperation among farmers in terms of volume, assembly, handling, grading, and packaging, an unlikely occurrence. Also, retail outlets must be willing and able to disrupt their normal supply channels to accept this produce for a short time period. This analysis was not intended to present wholesale and retail outlets as prime alternatives for producers. It was intended to provide an illustration to the substantial expansion in use of these outlets that could occur under the appropriate circumstances. Given the extent and nature of fruit and vegetable production in the Chattanooga area, expanded utilization of direct markets seemed to be the most favorable alternative. Farmers were generally satisfied with these outlets although they expressed some dissatisfaction with prices received and market availability. Market alternatives were evident in the area because the majority of the farmers used at least two outlets. However, they expressed a desire for more farmers' markets. Even with more farmers' markets and the availability of other direct market outlets, marketing can be a problem. As one farmer indicated, sitting in the open air or sun for a long period of time with little produce and few customers is often an unpleasant experience.

18

Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station

A in intermittent erated

GOOD DEAL of interest has been gen-

lighting regimes for chickens during the past decade. Most of the research has dealt with broilers and generally encompassed repetitive short periods of light and dark. This essentially resulted in intermittent activity and feeding with improvements in feed conversion. More recent work with commercial layers has produced similar results. However, a totally-enclosed, environmentally-controlled house is necessary and few totally-enclosed poultry houses exist in Alabama. Consequently, a study was designed to further investigate the basic principles of intermittent lighting regimes and their possible utilization in open poultry houses. Twenty HISEX SCWL hens were housed at 22 weeks of age in each of five environmental chambers at the Avian Environmental Physiology Laboratory at Auburn University's Agricultural Experiment Station. The chambers were maintained at 75 0 F and 40% relative humidity throughout the 40 weeks of production. The 20 hens were divided into two replicate groups so feed consumption could be determined on a weekly basis. Egg production was determined daily on an individual hen basis. Average time of lay, egg weight, and shell quality (specific gravity) were determined from 4 consecutive days at 4, 8, and 32 weeks of production. Five different lighting regimes were employed. The control regime was 15 hours of light (15L) followed by 9 hours of dark (9D) thus producing a 15L:9D cycle. This and the remaining cycles began at 7 a.m. (c.s.t.). The second cycle was 15L:5D:1L:3D. This was designed to mimic the midnight feeding often used during hot weather. The third cycle was basically a 15L:9D cycle. However, a ID period was imposed during the 15L so the cycle changed daily. The ID was moved backward so daily cycles of 14L: O10D, 13L:ID:1L:9D, 12L:I1D:2L:9D,

The Relationship of Intermittent Dark or Lighted Periods to the Performance of SCWL Hens
JOHN T. BRAKE, Department of Poultry Science, J. L. KOON, C. A. FLOOD, JR., and J. G. MANNIX, Department of Agricultural Engineering

etc., were produced. This unusual regime was employed to illustrate two important principles. First, a bird essentially ignores a short dark period between two lighted periods with respect to daylength. Simply stated, the bird considers daylength to be the period from the beginning of the first lighted period to the end of the second. However, the bird probably does consider the dark period important with respect to synchronizing important metabolic events. Second, a bird can "store" lighting information for several days so a reduced photoperiod restored to normal within several days should not harm reproductive performance. The fourth cycle of 1L:1D:13L:9D was designed to subject the hens to a dark period early in the day. The fifth cycle of 13L:1D: 1L:9D was designed to expose the hens to a dark period late in the day. Both of the latter cycles could be employed in open houses. The results of the experiment are shown in the table. The 15L:9D cycle should be considered a normal management situation and represents the control. Only the 13L:1D:1L:9D cycle significantly affected the average time of lay

with these hens laying eggs 36 minutes earlier than any other cycle. This cycle also produced the only significant improvement in egg production when compared to the control group (15L:9D). This improvement in egg production was also reflected in the numerically best feed conversion. However, the 13L:ID:IL:9D cycle also exhibited the lowest egg weight. Therefore, this cycle produced more eggs by reducing egg size. A simple calculation reveals that the total pounds of eggs produced was the same for both the 13L:1D:IL:9D and 15L:9D cycles. The 15L:15D:1L:3D cycle resulted in the lowest egg production. However, it should be noted that this cycle performed as well as any other treatment initially. It would appear this type of cycle has adverse effects on a long-term basis. The performance of the 15L(1D):9D cycle indicated that SCWL hens are quite flexible with respect to their lighting cycles. The hens demonstrated an ability to perform on reduced daylength on 2 out of 15 days. This supports the idea that hens can "store" the daylength for several days. In a practical sense, the egg producer can correct short-term problems with time clocks (i.e. power interruptions) with minimal damage. A comparison of all the performance factors revealed that the 1L:1D:13L:9D cycle was equal to or exceeded the control (15L:9D) in all categories. This was noteworthy since it may be possible to use this in an open house situation. The results of this research indicate that with further research in avian environmental physiology and applied management technology, the benefits of intermittent lighting can be extended to open-type houses.

RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIFIC LIGHTING REGIMES TO PERFORMANCE OF SCWL HENS DURING 40 WEEKS OF PRODUCTION

Lighting regime'
15L:9D ............ 15L:5D:1L:3D ..... 2 15L(1D):9D . . . . . . . 1L:1D:13L:9D ..... 13L:1D:1L:9D .....

Average time of lay 12:25 12:32 12.29 12.11 11:35

Hen-day production,

Feed conversion,

pet.
84.04 80.07 85.56 87.29 88.39

lb./doz.
3.45 3.56 3.65 3.43 3.19

Egg weight, oz./doz. 24.19 23.46 24.45 24.14 23.14

Egg specific gravity 1.0836 1.0837 1.0854 1.0851 1.0833

1L refers to continuous lighted hours, D refers to continuous dark hours. All regimes begin at 7 a.m. (c.s.t.). period 2The 1D was moved backward through the 15L period on a daily basis so that a complete cycle was completed every 15 days. Therefore, this regime produced a 14L: O10D cycle on 2 days and an intermittent cycle on 13 days. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station

19

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