BULLETIN 256 JUNE 1942 Increasing Incomes and Conserving Resources on Cotton-Corn Farms in Marion County, Alabama By BEN T. LANHAM, JR., Assistant Agricultural Economist Agricultural Experiment Station and WILLIAM F. LAGRONE, Junior Agricultural Economist Bureau of Agricultural Economics United States Department of Agriculture AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE In cooperation with UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS M. J. FUNCHESS, Director AUBURN, ALA. Contents Page INTRODUCTION Physical Factors F arm T rends ... . . . ..... Size of Farms Labor Supply and Requirements Labor requirements for specified crops HOW TO INCREASE INCOMES AND CONSERVE RESOURCES ON ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-MULE "COTTON-CORN" FARMS ......................... ......... A Representative One-Mule Farm A Representative Two-Mule Farm A Representative Three-Mule Farm General Considerations in System s ... . ........ .__...... .... . ..... . .. .. 1 2 2 2 3 3 8 8 11 16 Developing Alternative .. ..... . . ...--20 .......... _ ----------- 21 21 -... 21 C rop practices ................. Woodland practices SUMMARY Livestock practices .-------------------- Increasing Incomes and Conserving Resources on CottonCorn Farms in Marion County, Alabama* HANGING economic conditions in recent years have focused attention upon such agricultural problems as low farm incomes, low levels of farm family living, one-cash-crop farming systems, rapid depletion of soils and other productive resources, and unfavorable ratios of farm population to agricultural resources. Much of Alabama's agriculture is characterized by such problems. Marion County, located in the northwestern part of the state was selected as being representative of much of the Upper Coastal Plains farming area of Alabama and This (Figure 1). "Mississippi county was studied to point out adjustments that might increase farm income and conserve soil and woodland resources. Farming in Marion County is centered on cotton as a cash crop, in fact 95 per cent of all farms in the County are classed as cotton-corn (type) farms. The need to conserve soil resources and increase farm incomes emphasizes the necessity of developing a better balanced system of farming. When agriculture in this county was first developed (about 1800), production of cotMarion FIGURE 1.-Location County in Relation to ton was only a sideline. Cattle and hogs on the open range and Coastal Upper the Plains Farming Area the accompanying production of feed crops were the major enof Alabama. terprises. Lumbering was important for a short time after the advent of railroads, but the good timber was soon exhausted. Today relatively little farm income is available from farm woodlands. Coal mining provides off-farm employment for a few farm people. However, of *This study represents part of the research work done on the planning phase of "Basic Farm Planning in Alabama" under provisions of a cooperative agreement between the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station and the Federal Bureau of Agricultural Economics. The authors acknowledge their indebtedness to the farmers who furnished the information upon which this study is based, and to production specialists and other agricultural technicians who assisted in the final analyses and recommendations of this study. Special acknowledgment is due the personnel of the cooperating agencies for helpful suggestions throughout the study, particularly to Charles R. Sayre, of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, and Ben F. Alvord, of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. cotton production with its high value per acre has made it possible for the available land resources to support, although inadequately, an increasingly large farm population. Physical Factors The County is gently rolling to hilly, with soils, derived principally from Coastal Plains materials, ranging from silt loams to sandy loams. These soils are readily distinguishable by the presence of small, rounded, water-worn gravel near or on the surface. Major upland soil series are Savannah and Atwood which have reasonably good natural productivity, but erosion has reduced the yields on nearly all upland soils, and upland sediment has lowered yields on many of the bottomland soils not subject to flood hazards. The average annual rainfall is about 52 inches. Frequent torrential showers increase the danger of erosion but these rains usually are well timed to the needs of growing crops. The normal growing season of 200 days extends from the first week in April through the third week in October. Farm Trends From 1900 to 1940 the rural population (97 per cent white) of the county doubled, as indicated by the Federal Census. During this period the number of farms increased approximately 50 per cent, and the average size of farms decreased from 132 to 84 acres. The number of owner-operators declined from 67 to 45 per cent of all farmers. These changes resulted in a decrease of improved farm land per person from 5.5 to 4.3 acres, an extremely small acreage when the present low productivity of the soil is considered. Cotton acreage per farm dropped from 10 acres in 1930 to 6.4 acres in 1940, but yields were increased considerably. In contrast, most other crop yields have scarcely changed since 1900. In recent years, there has been some increase in the use of commercial fertilizers and soil-improving and soil-conserving crops, with but few changes in general tillage practices. Size of Farms Size of operating unit is a major factor affecting farm adjustments and the time required to make those adjustments. In Marion County the number of mules varies in almost direct proportion to the amount of cropland on farms and offers a simple means of classifying farms into size groups. A farm operating unit as considered here includes the land and the accompanying enterprises worked together by a farm operator, his wage hands, and his croppers. Approximately one-third of the farms are operated with one mule, one-half with two mules, and slightly less than onefifth with three or more mules. Thus, over 80 per cent of the farms are operated with two mules or less (Figure 2). Labor Supply and Requirements Fortunately, changes on most Marion County farms will not be hampered by lack of labor or by high cash labor costs. The farm family is the main source of labor and nearly two-thirds of the farms are operated with little or no hired help. The average one-mule farm, family-operated, has 3.1 field workers or 2.6 man-equivalent' workers available compared with 4.3 field workers or 3.6 man-equivalent workers on two-mule farms which also stay largely within the limits of the family labor supply. The operator's family labor on three-mule farms is about the same in man-equivalent workers as that on two-mule farms, but the larger unit usually requires sharecropper labor or wage labor by the month or day. PER CENT 50 40 */o PER CENT 4.6 5.s6 50 40 20 . 10.7. 20 I 0 10 0 0 m" NO MULES ONE MULE NUMBER TWO MULES THREE MULES OVER 3 MULES OF MULES PER FARM FIGURE 2.-Distribution of Farms by Size, Marion County, Alabama. Less than one-third of the available farm labor supply is used for field work each year (Table 1). The unused labor could be better employed under a re-organized system of farming or off the farm in non-farm employment. Labor Requirements for Specified Crops.-Reorganization of the farm business to obtain the maximum use of labor and available equipment can contribute materially to the family income. All the major crops grown in this county compete with cotton for labor to some extent (Figure 3). On most farms work on cotton takes precedence over all other work. The shaded areas show periods during which most farmers perform the particular 'Includes women and children of working age, with allowances commonly done by these groups and for the usual school term. for types of field work TABLE 1.-Labor (Man-day Equivalents) Available and Used for Field Work per Farm Monthly and Annually, for Representative One-, Two-, and 1 Three-Mule Cotton-Corn Farms, Marion County, Alabama . One-mule Days available Man for days field work available 5.2 6.9 10.9 15.0 17.7 19.2 20.5 20.7 20.2 19.0 14.3 7.8 177.4 10 14 21 29 42 51 54 52 43 39 28 15 398 farms Man days used 3 3 Month Two-mule Man days available 12 16 26 35 55 68 73 67 53 48 34 18 505 farms Man days used 3 3 Three-mule Man days available 243 323 50 69 106 133 142 131 103 93 66 36 985 farms Man days used 2 January February March April May June July August September October November December Total 14 19 26 18 4 4 12 19 4 3 120 17 24 41 29 5 6 18 30 6 176 26 36 63 43 8 9 26 45 9 265 Per cent used xx xx 30 xx 34 xx 27 1Days used include labor used for field work on all field crops plus an estimate of the amount of labor used in the family garden and other small patches of crops grown for home use. Allowances were made for women and children. 2 that of the operator Representative three-mule farms are operated by two families plus3 a sharecropper family. Less than one day reported. operation. For example, cotton planting was generally done within a 12-day period. However, planting dates reported varied from April 3 until as late as May 20. Cotton demands a large amount of attention in May and June and again in September and October. During approximately these same periods corn labor requirements are greatest. Some soybean and small-grain operations, however, can be carried on at times when work on cotton and corn is not fully utilizing the farm labor force. It is easy to overestimate the possibility of gaining efficiency by varying the dates for operations such as planting and harvesting. Actually unless these operations are performed on time, severe losses in both yield and quality may result. In organizing cropping systems, the seasonal work load should not exceed that which can be handled under ordinary weather conditions. The estimated days, by months, suitable for work in the field are shown in Table 1. The chief advantages of having more mule power come in spring plowing and harvesting of small grains and hay. Also farmers agree that the quality of work done with two-mule equipment is consistently better even though the time required for some operations is not much less than with one-mule equipment. Planting, fertilizing, and cultivating are one-mule operations. Consequently, two-mule farms save little man labor in these operations (Table 2). CROP AND OPERATION Mon Jtan. .deb.. M Ap~r. May Junie July Ai. Sept. 0c. Nov Dec. ml I PeAcre No Mule cut-& k B.cealc& Ire pre z 1ehilge &$ahi4 16 11 4 I U3 - Chop 1 60 Culiiva . Harts.d (tickc) 21 21 1601 10 3 18 Cut stalksI Z O Break a we~are PrlAii~e&Ip~m uAl.YoeeIM.W27 WMM3 ~{axve45 15 18 11,7 Side -dressWO I I 5 Cu i ~lls E z Br'eak&1,re+are OEM I1 J14 12 q C'u~llrae ov avs SCiii Slals 7 7 4 4 06 +arvesi; (3 ]Ferili 3 e&$a1 eas ra WW 14 12 3 3 5 5 ~'Sow & harroveCh urn rder r~ SBreak&pare 2Plati 5 2 9 6 16 12 5 5 17 17 Ja . [irApr. atb TI ME Q Cuuivae lay June Duty Aug, Gepl. Oct. ARE Nov. Dec.272 OPERATIONS PREFORMED: t J VARIATION FROM PERIOD USUAL USUAL PREFORMANGE PERIOD 1. Man hours required with one mule are based upon use equipment except for harvesting. 2. Man hours required with two mules are based upon use equipment except for planting, fertilizing and cultivating. of one-mule of two-mule FIGURE 3.-Usual Periods and Variations from Usual Periods, Crop Labor Performance by Major Operations, Specified Crops, with Average Yields, Marion County, Alabama. TABLE 2.-Usual Man and Mule Labor Requirements in Days per Acre for Specified Marion County, Alabama. Crops, by Months, Crop Level of euip. (1) Kind of labor Man Mule Man, Mule Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Days of labor per acre Jan. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 Feb. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 Mar. Apr. May .8 .8 .6 .9 .8 .8 .6 .9 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.1 .9 .8 1.1 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 2.1 1.0 2.1 1.0 1.1 .8 1.1 .8 1.5 1.5 1.3 2.2 .7 .7 .6 1.0 June 1.3 .9 1.3 .9 .8 .7 .8 .7 .7 .7 .7 .7 .7 .6 .6 1.0 July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total .4 .3 .4 .3 .0 .0 .0 .0 .3 .3 .3 .3 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 (.3) .0 (.3) .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 (.3) .0 (.3) .0 2.2 .3 2.2 .3 .0 .0 .0 .0 .4 .8 .4 .8 .4 .6 .4 '.6 3.2 .5 3.2 .5 .4 .4 .4 .4 .0 .0 .0 .0 .1 .3 .1 .3 .6 .1 .6 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 12.1 5.1 11.6 5.3 4.3 3.7 3.8 4.0 3.0 3.4 2.8 4.1 2.0 2.3 1.8 3.0 Cotton (2) (1) Corn (alone) Soybeans (in rows for hay) Cowpeas (sowed for hay) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) Man Mule TABLE 2.-Usual Level of Crop eus ud' Man and Mule Labor Requirements in Days per Acre for Specified Crops, by Months, Marion County, Alabama. (Continued). Kind of labor Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Man Mule Days of labor per acre Jan. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 Feb. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 are: Mar. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 Apr. May .4 .4 .2 .4 1.0 1.0 .8 1.4 3.6 4.9 .0 .0 .0 .0 .5 .5 .4 .7 1.1 .8 .9 1.0 .9 .5 1.6 1.6 1.5 2.5 June .0 .0 .0 .0 1.3 .7 1.3 .7 .8 .4 .9 .5 .9 .5 July .0 .0 .0 .0 .4 .2 .4 .2 .0 .0 1.2 .6 1.2 .6 Aug. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 Sept. .0 .0 .0 .0 1.4 .9 1.4 .9 1.5 .6 3.9 .5 3.9 .5 Oct. .5 .3 .2 .2 1.3 .1 1.3 .1 1.5 .5 .0 .0 .0 .0 Nov. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 Dec. Total .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 1.4 1.2 .8 1.3 6.5 3.7 6.1 4.3 8.3 6.9 7.6 3.2 7.5 4.1 Winter leg. (turned under) (1) (2) (1) Peanuts (non-com.) S. pot. (non-com.) (2) (2) (1) Sorghum (syrup) 'Numbers (1) (2) (2) under column "Level of equipment used" All one-mule equipment except harvesting which usually requires two-mule equipment. One- and two-mule equipment: all operations are with two-mule equipment except planting, fertilization, and cultivation. These operations are ordinarily done with one-mule equipment even on two-mule farms. HOW TO INCREASE INCOMES AND CONSERVE RESOURCES ON ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-MULE "COTTON-CORN" FARMS The following discussion, based on representative' farms and usual production practices, indicates what farmers can do and what income they can expect from better systems and improved practices. Since most of the farmers in this county are following a cotton-corn system, the emphasis has been placed on reorganizing farms of that type. Substantial increase in farm income and the development of more soil conserving systems of farming will necessitate reorganizing crop and livestock enterprises and improving production practices. The reorganization of crop and livestock enterprises alone, without changing production practices, indicated little improvement in cash income and farm family living. In all of the alternative systems developed, the acreage in crops is increased by clearing farm woodland and putting idle cropland into use. These changes involve an increase in corn acreage, a reduction in soybeans, and the introduction of kudzu, cowpeas, and fall oats as sources of additional feed. Not only were more crop acres handled in the alternative systems, but even more important were the increases in yields of all crops which should come as a result of improved practices. More and better fed livestock are introduced to utilize this additional feed, some of it as pasture. Each alternative system provides fuller and more profitable employment for the labor force found on farms in each group. It was assumed that all the woodland area would be improved by fire control and some would be cleared for crop and pasture. However, additional employment for the farm family can be obtained by improvement work in woodlands now characterized by badly depleted stands of second-growth pine and hardwood, and many undesirable trees2. The work in the woods can usually be done at any time and can be easily fitted in with other farm work. A Representative One-Mule Farm One-third of all farmers operate one-mule farms containing an average of 22 acres of cropland. The representative one-mule farm has a total of 85 acres of land, two-thirds of which is woodland. Pastures seldom exceed ten acres, and 3 or 4 acres of the cropland are usually idle. Cotton and corn yields on farms of this size are slightly below those on two-, and three-mule farms, mainly because operators of the larger farms apply more fertilizer per acre and are and livestock combinations commonly found on the major size groups of farms were approximated from AAA records, livestock survey data, and survey records obtained from farm visits. 2Field work for the woodland phase of this study was done by John M. Deyton, and C. A. McKinney, Junior Foresters, Soil Conservation Service. Details of this analysis are reported in a manuscript prepared for cooperative publication by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station and the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, entitled "Using Farm, Woodlands to Increase Farm Incomes in Marion County, Alabama". 'Crop able to do a more effective job of land preparation. There were no appreciable differences in the hay yields reported among the various sizes of units. Most of the livestock products and livestock are produced for home use. Under the alternative system 8.5 acres of woodland are cleared to make possible an increase of 3 acres in permanent pasture and 5.5 acres in total cropland (Table 3). Hay acreage is increased almost 4 acres, largely from cropland which was formerly idle. The addition of 2 acres of corn and an increase in corn yield from 11 to 20 bushels per acre result in over twice as much corn for feed as is available under the present system. There is no appreciable change in the acreage of cotton. Cotton yield, however, increases 49 per cent with the heavier fertilizer application and the improved cropping system in the reorganized plan. The greater supply of feed resulting from these changes will make it possible to increase rates of feeding and to add two cows and one brood sow (farrowing one litter). This livestock program will provide some livestock products for sale (Table 4). TABLE 3.-Land Use and Crop Production with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative One-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Land use Cotton, lint Cottonseed Corn Cowpeas in Unit Lb. Lb. Bu. Present system Alternative system' Acres 4.8 10.1 (7.5) 2.3 (.0) .0 .0 (.0) 1.6 3.7 22.5 7.0 53.5 2.0 85.0 Yield 268 402 11 1 .7 Prod. 1286 1930 111 7.5 1.6 Acres 5.0 12.0 (5.0) 1.0 (3.0) 3.0 5.0 (5.0) 2.0 .0 28.0 10.0 45.0 2.0 85.0 Yield 400 600 20 1 1 Prod. 2000 3000 240 corn Bu. Soybean hay Ton Fall oats Bu. Cowpeas Bu. Kudzu hay Ton Vetch Garden and patches Idle cropland Total cropland Pasture Woodland Other farm land Total farm land 5 1 252 75 4 12 1 5 Turned under 'Assumes improved crop practices, including per-acre fertilizer applications of or equivalent to 600 pounds of 6-8-4 on cotton, 225 pounds of nitrate of soda on corn not following winter legumes, and the increased use of improved terraces and winter cover crops. 2 May be cut for hay. The alternative system increases the days of profitable employment for the family from 120 to 150 man days, and the peak load for mule labor is better distributed with the alternative system than it is at present. The fact that available mule labor is one of the limiting factors in crop production, particularly on one-mule farms, is brought out in Figure 4. In March and April 10 TABLE 4.-Livestock Numbers and Production with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative One-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Unit Present system 1 1 Alternative system 1 3 Livestock: Workstock Cows No. No. Sows Hens Production : Milk Calf No. No. Gal. No. 0 25 425 1 1 25 1350 1 Heifer Pork (home use) Pigs No. Lb. No. 0 290 21 1 350 6 Eggs Chickens 'Two Doz. No. 200 50 250 50 pigs bought for home meat supply. the demand for mule labor often exceeds the available supply. The excess man and mule labor that is available during the summer and early winter could be used to advantage on many farms in terrace building and maintenance, construction or repair of farm buildings, equipment, and fences, and cutting and hauling timber products, particularly if two or more farmers should pool their labor and mules. It will be more difficult to carry out proposed changes on onemule farms than on larger units, because the additional expenses involved are relatively greater. The additional investment amounts to about $350, and operating expenses are increased $140. Families on one-mule farms are generally hard pressed for cash. Most of these operators will have to produce much of their seed and plants and, also, raise their additional breeding stock. Further, the greater risk involved with higher cash outlays for fertilizer and purchased seed will make it essential that strong and considerate financial backing be available in case a series of bad years is encountered at the start (Table 5). However, net cash income can be increased 82 per cent - an increase from $102 to $186 (Table 6). The increase in cash outlay adds to the risk, but the additional risk is made worthwhile by the increase in net cash income. With present systems of farming most families have less than $150 per year to meet needs not provided by the farm. Several years will be needed before all the changes suggested in the alternative system can be effected. This time is needed to make capital improvements, to raise the needed livestock and to establish and obtain benefits from improved cropping systems. While these difficulties will be more evident on the small farms, some of the same considerations apply to suggested changes on the larger units. The importance of farm family living on the one-mule farm is emphasized by the fact that the value of food, fuel, and shelter 11 S FIGURE MAN DAYS WORKED [ FIELD WORKDAYS AVAILABLE MULE DAYS WORKED ~'Representative Usual Man an Mule Labor Requirements for Field Work, amule Cotton-Corn Farm, with Present and Alternative System, Marion County, Alabama. which the family obtains from the farm exceeds the total cash income and more than doubles the net cash income (Table 7). Yet, production of many food items, such as milk and other vital foods, is inadequate for the dietary needs of many families on small- farms. There is an evident need for a greater variety of vegetables and lengthening the season during which raw vegetables are available. The alternative system seems to provide sufficient quantities of the most important food items. A Representative Two-Mule Farm Almost half (46 per cent) of the farms in Marion County are two-mule units. These farms more nearly approach the con- 12 TABLE 5.-Cash Receipts and Expenses with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative One-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, 1 Marion County, Alabama . ItemUnit Cash receipts: Cotton, lint Cottonseed Crop sales Veal calf Heifer Dairy products Eggs Pigs Livestock sales AAA payment Total cash income Cash expenses: Seed and plants Fertilizer Ginning Mower and rake hire Miscellaneous Crop expenses Feed Breeding fees Purchases Miscellaneous Livestock expenses Machinery expenses Building repairs Fence repairs Taxes Interest on short-term credit Total cash expenses Net I income IU 1IU -- cash ---UY ~I -U 1 Present system Quantity Value Lb. Lb. No. No. Alternative system Quantity Value 2000 2650 1 1 85 4 $210.00 39.75 $249.75 5.00 35.00 30.00 17.00 52.00 $139.00 45.00 $433.75 20.00 107.10 14.00 13.50 4.00 $158.60 30.00 4.00 9.00 $ 43.00 12.00 11.00 6.00 6.90 10.00 $247.50 $186.25 estimated average prices 1268 1230 1 85 $133.15 18.45 $151.60 5.00 17.00 $ 22.00 35.00 $208.60 10.60 27.80 8.10 3.45 1.00 Doz. No. $50.95 7.50 1.00 6.00 6.15 $ 20.65 10.40 9.30 4.00 6.90 5.00 $107.20 $101.40 for Income and expense items used in this analysis are valued at the period 1935-39. cept of a family-size unit than do farms in any of the other size groups. Ordinarily, these units have about 100 acres of land, over half of which is in woods (Table 8). Cropland per farm averages about 35 acres, of which more than 4 acres are idle and often badly eroded. Pastures seldom exceed 10 acres. Under the alternative system the acreage in crops is increased 16 acres, and pasture is increased 3 acres. This additional 19 acres will have to come from farm woodland and from idle cropland brought into productive use. The alternative system provides enough feed to add one cow, two brood sows, and 40 hens to the livestock enterprises (Table 9). There is no great difference between the possibilities of in- 13 TABLE 6.-Summary of Farm Business and Family Labor Returns with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative One-Mule CottonCorn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Total cash income Total cash expenses Net cash income Depreciation Farm income Interest on investment Net family return Value of family living Non-farm income Family labor earnings Present system Dollars 209 107 102 28 74 39 35 269 35 339 305 35 449 46 109 31 155 248 186 Alternative system Dollars 434 TABLE 7.-Value of Family Living with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative One-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Unit 1 Present system Value per unit Quantity' Value Alternative system Quantity2 Value 15.0 2.5 500 350 105 25 5 50 15 1 $ 12 4 70 100 35 16 9 3 4 22 30 $305.00 include food losses Corn Cowpeas Garden and patches Milk Pork, dressed Eggs Chickens: Fryers Hens Posts Fuel wood House rent Total Bu. Bu. Gal. Lb. Doz. Head Head Each Cord Year $ .80 1.40 .20 .10 .15 .35 .60 .07 1.50 30.00 15.0 2.5 425 290 105 25 5 50 15 1 $ 12 4 55 85 29 16 9 3 4 22 30 $269.00 on 1935-39 prices. 2These quantities refer to amount produced and in many instances from inadequate care and management. 'Value of garden based upon farmer's estimates. 'Based creasing, income either by adding hogs or by adding more cows for butterfat production and raising heifers. The addition of more cows might fit many farms having more pasture and forage if markets for dairy products develop. The increased yields and added corn acreage of the alternative system would increase the days of profitable employment for the family from 176 to 236 per year, thus intensifying the labor peaks in spring and fall (Figure 5). This does not make the labor peaks high enough to require hired labor. However, by hiring 20 to 25 days work done during planting and harvesting, even the more intensified business on the home farm still 14 TABLE 8.-Land Use and Crop Production with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative Two-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Land use Unit Lb. Lb. Bu. Bu. Ton Bu. Bu. Ton Present system Yield Prod. Acres 7.0 17.6 (12.2) 3.8 (.0) .0 .0 (.0) 2.4 4.4 35.2 7.3 54.0 2.0 98.5 293 440 12 1 .7 2050 3080 211 12 2.7 Alternative system Acres Yield Prod. 7.0 22.0 (11.0) 2.0 (6.0) 6.0 7.0 (10.0) 3.0 0 47.0 10.0 39.5 2.0 98.5 2800 400 600 4200 20 440 1 11 2 1 25 1502 4 24 1 7 Turned under 1 Cotton, lint Cottonseed Corn Cowpeas in corn Soybean hay Fall oats Cowpeas Kudzu hay Vetch Garden and patches Idle cropland Total cropland Pasture Woodland Other farm land Total farm land 'Assumes improved crop and livestock practices, including per-acre fertilizer applications of or equivalent to 600 pounds of 6-8-4 on cotton, 225 pounds of nitrate of soda on corn not following winter legumes, and the increased use of improved terraces and winter cover crops. 2 May be cut for hay. TABLE 9.-Livestock Numbers and Production with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative Two-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Livestock: Workstock Cows Sows Hens Production: Milk Calf Heifer Pork (home use) Pigs Eggs Chickens 1One 2 Unit Present system Alternative system No. No. No. No. Gal. No. No. Lb. No. Doz. No. 2 2 0 35 850 1 .51 290 22 280 80 2 3 2 75 1350 1 1 350 15 750 150 heifer sold every other year. Two pigs bought for home meat supply. could be handled satisfactorily and the farm family would have a third of its labor available to work off the farm. The peak load for mule labor is better distributed with the alternative system than it is at present. The excess man and mule labor that is available during the summer and early winter 15 ~o MAN DAYS WORKED V I LASL - ____ ~~b~~MIW~Alternative FIE OM DAY L IECLD WIRK DAYSAVa FASWR(DI wABm ULE DAYS WORKED I FIGURE sUsual Man and Mule Labor Requirements for Field Work, Representative tfnule Cotton-Corn Farm, with Present and System, Manion County, Alabama. could be used to advantage on many farms in terrace building and maintenance, construction or repair of farm buildings, equipment, and fences, and cutting and hauling timber products. A larger investment and larger annual expenditures, particularly for fertilizer, become necessary under the new system (Table 10). However, the added costs are more than offset by more than doubling the present net cash income (Table 11). The value of the food, fuel and shelter (Table 12) obtained from the representative two-mule farm at present almost equals gross cash income (Table 11). An adequate quantity of most food items is produced on these farms but a greater variety of vegetables over a longer period of time each year would be beneficial. Some families may also find it advantageous to use beef (preserved by canning) instead of pork as a part of the meat supply. 16 A Representative Three-Mule Farm Eleven per cent of the farms in Marion County have 3 mules while 8 per cent have more than 3 mules. The farms in this group are usually operated by an owner and one or more share- cropper families. Average cotton and corn yields are also slightly higher on the three-mule farms owing primarily to heavier fertilizer applications. These operators have more labor and equip- ment to do pasture and woodland improvement work than other farmers, but they, too, have depended almost altogether upon their cropland for income. TABLE 10.-Cash Receipts and Expenses with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative Two-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Cash receipts: Cotton, lint Cottonseed Cowpeas Crop sales Veal calf Heifer Dairy products Pigs Eggs Chickens Livestock sales AAA payment Total cash income Cash expenses: Seed and plants Fertilizer Ginning Mower and rake hire Miscellaneous Crop expenses Feed Breeding fees Purchases Miscellaneous Livestock expenses Machinery expenses Building repairs Fence repairs Taxes Interest on short-term credit Total cash expenses Net cash income Unit Lb. Lb. Bu. Present system Quantity Value 2050 2680 - Alternative system Value Quantity 2800 3800 11 $294.00 57.00 15.40 $366.40 5.00 35.00 30.00 172.00 120.00 24.00 $386.00 60.00 $812.40 31.00 175.00 21.00 22.50 5.00 $254.50 45.00 6.00 20.00 $ 71.00 17.50 17.00 7.50 7.80 15.00 $390.30 $422.10 $215.25 25.20 $240.45 5.00 17.50 10.00 32.00 10.00 $ 74.50 55.00 $369.95 17.50 64.15 14.00 5.70 2.50 $103.85 13.35 2.00 6.00 16.80 $ 38.15 15.75 13.85 6.00 7.80 9.00 $194.40 $175.55 No. No. No. Doz. No. 1 .52 160 25 1 1 13 600 60 'Income and expense items used in this analysis are valued at estimated average prices for the period of 1935-39. 'One heifer sold every two years. 17 TABLE 11.-Summary of Farm Business and Family Labor Returns with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative Two-Mule CottonCorn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Total cash income Total cash expenses Net cash income Depreciation Farm income Interest on investment Net family return Value of family living Non-farm income Family labor earnings Present system Dollars 370 194 176 44 132 65 67 315 35 417 336 35 681 Alternative system Dollars 812 390 422 46 376 66 310 TABLE 12.-Value of Family Living with Present and Alternative Systems Representative Two-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Value per unit1 Corn Cowpeas Garden and patches Milk Pork, dressed Eggs Chickens: Fryers Hens Posts Fuel wood House rent Total on 1935-39 prices. These quantities refer to amount produced and in from inadequate care and management. 3 Value of garden based upon farmer's estimates. 1 2Base Present system Quantity 2 Value 15.0 4.0 500 290 105 25 5 75 20 1 $ 12 5 703 100 29 16 9 3 5 30 36 $315 Alternative system Quantity2 Value 15.0 4.0 500 350 105 25 5 75 20 1 $ 12 5 85 100 35 16 9 3 5 30 36 $336 food losses Bu. Bu. - $ .80 1.40 .20 .10 .15 .35 .60 .07 1.50 36.00 Gal. Lb. Doz. Head Head Each Cord Year many instances include About 19 acres of woodland is cleared to provide the additional crop and pasture land required in the alternative system and in addition 6 acres of formerly idle cropland is put to productive use (Table 13). The additional feed provided by the proposed plan will be utilized by adding 1 cow, 1 sow, and 45 hens (Table 14). Three-mule farms have more surplus labor than any of the other groups. The operator's family alone could operate the entire unit by hiring only 15 days of labor during the cultivating season. The net value of the cropper's share of crops is the cost to the operator for the cropper's family labor. As now operated, this amounts to $141 (Table 15). Sharecropper families finding employment elsewhere are not being replaced by many opera- 18 TABLE 13.-Land Use and Crop Production with Present and Alternative Systems 1, Representative Three-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Land use Unit Lb. Lb. Bu. Bu. Ton. Bu. Bu Ton Present system Acres Yield Prod. 10.1 28.6 (14.0) (6.0) 0 0 0 (5.0) 2.4 6.2 53.3 10.8 75.4 2.0 141.5 302 452 12.5 1 .7 3050 4570 358 14 4.2 Alternative system Acres Yield Prod. 10.0 33.0 (14.0) 3.0 (8.0) 8.0 8.0 (12.0) 5.0 0 67.0 16.0 56.5 2.0 141.5 400 4000 6000 600 660 20 1 14 1 3 2003 25 4 32 8 1 Turned under 2 Cotton, lint Cottonseed Corn Cowpeas in corn Soybean hay Fall oats Cowpeas Kudzu hay Vetch Garden and patches Idle cropland Total cropland Pasture Woodland Other farm land Total farm land Turned under 1Includes both operator's and cropper's crops. 2Assumes improved crop practices, including per-acre fertilizer applications of or equivalent to 600 pounds of 6-8-4 on cotton, 225 pounds of nitrate of soda on corn not following winter legumes and the increased use of improved terraces and winter cover crops. 3 May be cut for hay. TABLE 14.-Livestock Numbers and Production with Present and Alternative Systems', Representative Three-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Livestock: Workstock Cows Sows Hens Production: Milk Calf Heifer Pork (home use) Pigs Eggs Chickens 2 Unit Present system 3 2 1 30 750 1 .52 290 6 240 60 Alternative system 3 3 2 75 1350 1 1 350 15 750 150 No. No. No. No. Gal. No. No. Lb. No. Doz. No. 'Includes only the operator's livestock. 0ne heifer sold every other year. tors. The number of sharecroppers reported in the 1940 Census was 44 per cent below 1935. The sharecropper family on the three-mule farm can benefit by the reorganization (Table 15). The net cash income of the sharecropper can be increased from $141 to $215 by following the alternative system for this part of the farm business. Since acreage shifts are only slight, most of the increased income would result from increased yields. 19 TABLE 15. Cropland Worked by Cropper, Cropper's Livestock, and Value of Cropper's Share of Products Produced and Expenses Paid with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative Three-Mule Cotton-Corn Farm, Marion County, Alabama. Item Crops: Cotton Corn Cowpeas in corn Cowpeas Soybean hay Garden and patches Total cropland Livestock: Cows Pigs Hens Value of cropper's share of crops and AAA payments Cropper's share of crop expenses Net value of cropper's share of crop Present system Acres 4.7 10.5 (3.5) .0 1.4 0.9 17.5 Number ,1.0 2.0 20.0 Dollars 160 19 141 Alternative system Acres 4.5 11.0 (6.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 24.5 Number 2.0 2.0 30.0 Dollars 270 55 215 Operators on three-mule farms have approximately $176 after all necessary cash expenses and the cropper's share have been deducted (Table 16). If allowances for depreciation and ,interest are subtracted, there is only $2.00 left as payment for the operator's labor and management and his unpaid family labor. Obviously these farmers have great difficulty in replacing buildings and equipment, and in making needed farm improvements. Net cash income can be increased from $176 to $479 with the alternative system when the cropper stays on the farm. The net family return can be increased from $2 to $280. Under the alternative system if the cropper should leave the farm, and the net value of the cropper's share of crops and AAA payTABLE 16.-Summary of Farm Business and Family Labor Returns with Present and Alternative Systems, Representative Three-Mule CottonCorn Farm, Marion County, Alabama 1. Item Total cash income Total cash expenses Net cash income Depreciation Farm income Interest on investment Net family return Value of family living Non-farm income Family labor earnings Present system Dollars 578 402 176 68 108 106 2 300 25 327 338 - 25 643 122 280 77 402 709 479 Alternative system Dollars 1,188 'These figures refer to the operator only. 20 ments were added to the operator's net cash income, it would increase from $176 to approximately $695. General Considerations in Developing Alternative Systems Most of the current crop and livestock practices are such that a low level of production is common for most enterprises. Improvements will involve more effective tillage, planting, fertilizing, and feeding. Present crop and livestock practices are shown in Tables 17 and 18. Most farmers will find it necessary to make these changes slowly and in line with some definite plan. At least 5 years probably will be required to put these changes into effect. Kudzu, an important hay crop in the alternative systems, requires three years at least before a full crop of hay can be harvested. A high proportion of the Marion County farmers will need technical assistance to effectively improve pastures, construct improved terraces, grow kudzu, improve woodlands, and make other needed improvements. Tenants face more difficulties than owner operators in making the TABLE 17.-Normal Yield, Usual Seeding Rates, and Usual Kinds and Rates of Fertilizers Used for Specified Crops, Marion County, Alabama. Crop Cotton Corn (alone) Corn (interplanted) Yield. \, LI~LIL)~ILII~I~ Seeding rate I\,\ILAII\,L~ ULLLU~) 1~~UI Unit Normal 290 12 13 1400 1000 14 2 2 Fertilizer Unit Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Lb. Lb. Lb. Bu. Pit. Lb. I1.2 Lb. Bu. Percent Normal purchased Kind Rate per acre 1.2 .2 .2 45 14 14 100 48 100 100 100 100 0 50 0 6-8-4 6-8-4 Soda 6-8-4 Soda None None Soda None None None Phos. 6-8-4 6-8-4 figures Bu. Lb. Lb. Bu. Lb. Lb. Lb. Bu. Bu. Gal. 230 100 75 100 75 75 Soybean hay Cowpea hay Oats (alone)' Vetch Crimson A.W. Peas Peanuts (non-com.) Sweet potatoes Sorghum (syrup) 2 30 95 60 .5 1.7 2.0 26.0 26.0 32.0 1.3 4300.0 6.0 190 285 240 are for 1 Oats (grown alone) were cut and fed unthreshed. Th,e above yield spring oats and are farmer estimates. 2Normal yields for winter legumes were not obtained. TABLE 18.-Feed Normally Fed to Workstock, Milk Cows and Hogs, Marion County, Alabama. Kind of feed Corn Cottonseed meal Cottonseed hulls Hay Pasture days: Native Crop aftermath Unit Bu. Lb. Lb. Ton Days Days Work stock 54 1.42 271 26 Hogs 21 50 274 26 Milk cow 13 1103 484 .9 329 35 for a part of 'Occasionally fodder is substituted the meal and hulls. 2Includes some cottonseed hulls. for part of the hay and cottonseed 21 desired changes. In many cases, systems of rent payment will need to be revised before a greater proportion of income comes from livestock and livestock products. More extensive use of the long term lease will help tenants in carrying out long-term plans such as those which have been presented. Crop Practices.-The improved practices in each of the alternative systems are intensifications of cropping practices already being followed to some extent; but there is variation in present practices on the different sizes of farms. The adoption of the alternative systems involves additional outlays and at first greater risks, but over a period of years, the changes will benefit most farmers. However, simply carrying out the improved practices does not constitute the entire job. Improved cropping systems, made possible by larger cropland acreages, are very important factors in yield increases (Table 19). These systems include vetch followed by corn, oats followed by either cowpeas or annual lespedeza, and a rotation of cotton followed by vetch to be turned under and followed by corn on land which will produce good yields of cotton or corn. The increased use of winter cover crops for green manure is an outstanding feature of the improved cropping systems. TABLE 19.-Present Yields Compared with Yields under Alternative Systems for Representative One-, Two-, and Three-Mule Farms, Marion County, Alabama. Crop Cotton (Lb. lint) Corn (Bu.) Hay (Lb.) Yields per acre with present system One-mule Two-mule Three-mule 268 11 1,400 293 12 1,400 302 12.5 1,400 Yields per acre with alternative system All sizes of farms 400 20 2,000 Livestock Practices.-Livestock practices included in the alternative systems are concerned primarily with improved feeding practices and increased numbers of livestock. The introduction of protein supplements into the hog ration enables greater gain per bushel of corn. It was assumed that approximately 6 pounds of protein supplement would be fed per bushel of corn. Greater quantities of skim and buttermilk would be fed to chickens and hogs in order to furnish a balanced ration. The increased number of pigs farrowed and raised would efficiently use the additional amount of corn. Improved pastures and increases in feed and forage crops would be available for feeding more adequately the increased number of dairy cattle. Woodland Practices.-Forestry technicians report that, on the average, the cubic foot volume of present stands can be more than doubled. Growth rates can also be doubled if such areas are placed on sustained yield bases. To achieve these conditions, however, will require from 30 to 40 years of improved farm woodland management. 22 Two principal practices' are (1) protection from fire and grazing, and (2) improved woodland practices, including (a) thinning, release cutting, and removing or girdling undesired trees, as necessary; (b) spot planting large openings which appear from cutting undesired trees; and (c) selective logging as trees become 16" diameter-breast-high, if growth indicates they should be cut. In addition, all undesired trees which cannot be used should be cut, hacked and lopped over, or girdled. SUMMARY Marion County is an Upper Coastal Plains farming area in which the productive capacity has been lowered by a cottoncorn system of farming that omitted adequate conservation practices. The gap between population needs and farming resources is slowly widening. Farm ownership has been decreasing steadily, and the one- and two-mule small units have become more common. These trends may be reversed by more fully utilizing farm resources, by taking advantage of outside opportunities for employment, and by further developing local industries - mining or manufacturing. Some possibilities for fuller utilization of farm resources have been considered in this analysis. Cotton continues as the most profitable intensive enterprise but it is evident that the present cotton-corn systems on small farms (one- and two-mule units) cannot adequately support a family. Net cash incomes (193539 prices and usual yields) for representative one-mule farms are $102, and for representative two-mule farms $176. The net cash incomes resulting from the alternative systems are $186 and $422, respectively, for the one- and two-mule farms. Cropland area of these groups was 35 acres or less and more than 80 per cent of the operating units are in these groups. Nearly one-third of the County's farm land is used for growing crops, one-half of which is in corn, one-fourth in cotton, onetenth in hay crops, and most of the small remaining acreage in farm gardens and scattered patches of minor crops for home use. Soybeans are used as the principal hay crop. Less than five per cent of the cropland is planted in winter legumes. More than 50 per cent of the farm land is badly depleted farm woodland. Woodlands now furnish little employment or income, and production rates are far below the estimated potential productive capacity. Pastures are generally small, of poor quality, and of low carrying capacity. Tenants, of which one-fourth are share-croppers, operate 50 per cent of all farms in the County. Nearly 98 per cent of all operators are white. One-, two-, and three-mule units make up nearly 90 per cent of all farm operating units in the County, one-third of which are one-mule, one-half two-mule, and the remaining number threexImproved farm woodland practices as outlined by forestry technicians of the Soil Conservation Service. 23 mule units. One-mule units average 22 acres of cropland, twomule units 35, and three-mule units 53. Most one- and two-mule units are worked by the operator and his family labor; whereas, most three-mule units are worked by the operator and his family plus the additional labor of one sharecropper family. Crop sales are confined largely to cotton and cottonseed, and on many farms these are the only sources of cash income. Most livestock and livestock products are produced for home use, although occasional sales of butter, eggs, and chickens are made to "rolling stores". The value of food, feed, and shelter from the farm often exceeds total cash income and more than doubles net cash income on many farms. Non-farm employment opportunities are limited to coal mining, public works projects, and a few scattered sawmills. At least four months of the year, farm family labor is idle except for chores, and in only a few months is there employment for half the available labor. Mule labor is utilized to capacity during March, April, and May, but during the remaining nine months of the year, it is utilized very little. In the organization and operation of farms mule labor is more of a limiting factor than man labor. All major crops grown in this county are, to some extent, competitive with cotton in their demands for land, labor, and equipment. Principal changes needed to bring about improvements in farm returns include: 1. Full utilization of all available cropland, including idle cropland and parts of the present woodland. 2. Improvement of present pasture and farm woodland areas. 3. Introduction of crops not now generally grown in this county, especially fall oats, winter legumes, kudzu, sericea, and annual lespedeza. 4. Increase in yields of all crops by the use of suitable varieties, heavier applications of manures and approved fertilizers, improved cultural practices, and the use of more legumes. 5. Use of summer legumes to follow small grain and provide summer cover for the land, food (cowpeas) for the farm family, and grazing and forage for livestock. 6. Increase in the acreage and production of land devoted to gardens and patches to provide a more adequate diet for farm families throughout the year. 7. Increase in number and production rates of livestock as feed supplies are increased. 8. Use of better management practices, including such conservation measures as terracing, planting perennial legumes on steep slopes, and the use of winter and summer legumes. 9. Home production of seed. 10. Increased and more efficient utilization of surplus farm labor.