BULLETINS OF ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station AUBURN INDEX VOL. XVI. BULLETINS ... .. .. ... A N D. '142-143 21ST. ANNUAL AND REPORT CIRCULAR JANUARY TO NO. 2 DECEMBER, LIKA, ALA: 1908 OF THE POST PUBLISHING COMIPANY 1910 CONTENTS. BULLETINS: 142. 143. Corn Breeding in Alabama ................ Feeds Supplementary to Corn for Southern Pork Production ................... ... March, 1908 July, 1908 March, 1908 1908 Circ. No. 2. Cedar Apple and Apple Leaf Rust Annual Report, Twenty-first .......................... INDEX 142: 21 Alabama, future of corn breeding in...............B. R. 21: 7 Agriculturist, report of ........................... 21: 16 nderson, J. T. report of..........................R. Animals used in experiment.......................B. 143: 30 143:.31 Animals, quarters for...........................B. B. 143: 31 division into lots....................".... 14$: 32-33 feeding...............................B. B. 143: 33 pasture crops for ........................ 33-34 periods.............................."B. 143: 34 slaughter data ....................... 143: 34 sales..................................B. values placed upon feeds for................B. 143: 35 R. 21: 33 report of .................... Animal 2: 8 Apples, relative susceptibility to rust of...........tCirc. Apple rust, methods of preventing.................Circ. 2: 9 Average results of three years (feeding) experiments, summary of.....'.. B. 143: 59 Birds nest or Witch's broom of the red cedar........Ciro. 2: 6 21: 30 Botanist, report of................................R. B. 142: 16 .... Breeding corn, how to begin........... B. 142: 20 Breeding plot, (corn) ........................... selection of ears for..............B. 142: 17 142: 8-12 Breeding records (corn)........................B. R. 21: 11 Cary, C., A. report of ........................... 5 ,Cedar Apples..................................'Circ. 21: 14 Chemist, report of...............................R. 7 Circ. 'Club rust of juniper............................ 'Corn breeding- B. 143: Husbandman, 2: 2: records of.............................. B. 142: 8-12 how to begin .............................. literature on............................ future in Alabama..................... ... B. B. 142: B. 142: 16 142: 21-24 21 Cornbreeding plot........................ cultivation of breeding plot.................B. judging, score card of ............. ..... B. 142: 20 142 : 13 B. 142: 20 multiplying plot....................:...... :... B.' 142: 12-13 pollination anid detasseling of .......... B. 142: 19-20 .. . ... .... testing vitality, of, peed ... B. 142: 16 tests of Mosby corn by, farmers ............. Cotton seed '.. 0. .. . .B. 142': 17-18 .. '............. . .... .B. 142: 4 varieties employed ..... meal...................................B. 143:' 50 82 Cowpeas (seed) as hog food .......... Crops grazed by hogs, fertilizing effect of.........B. 143: 76 143: 70 Data, slaughter.................................B. 21: 7 Director, report of..............................R. .............. R. 21:7 D'uggar, J. F. .reprt of ......... E'ar-row method in breeding corn ................ R. 21: 25 .......... Entomologist, report, of............... Explanation of. (corn) plates.....................B. B. Farmers' tests of Mosby corn .................... B. 143: 74 ........ ............ Fattening hogs on corn.alone Fertilizing effect of crops grazed by hogs.........B. 143: 76 Foods, value placed upon different...............B. 143: 34 143: 50 Food for hogs, cotton seed meal'as.................B. 44 Food for hogs, soybeans as.......................B..143: 142: 21 Future of corn breeding in Alabama ............... General view of results of three years feeding.......B. 143: 53 21: 33 Gray, D..T., report of..........................R. R. 21: 25 Hinds, W. E. report of .......................... 143: 46 Hogs, cowpeas (seed) as food for ................. 143: 48 tankage as food.for......................B. 143: 4. feeding of...............................B. 143: 61-64 cost of gain, etc. ....................... 75 succession of green crops suitable Hog -grazing, 142: How'to begin' breeding corn......................B. 21: 20 Horticulturist, report of..........................R. Circ. 2: 7 Juniper, club rust of ............................. 3 Large cedar apples.............................'Circ. Literature on corn breeding.....................B. 142: 21-24 B. 143: 46 B. 142:.6142:'24 142: 16 B. B. for.. B. 143: B. 16 2: Lloyd, F. E. report of ...... .. .. . .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. .R. 21: 30 ......... Mackintosh, R. S. report of .............. Methods of breeding corn, ear-row method ........ Mosby corn, suggestions as to use of score card .... :..... .......... Means of preventing apple rust..... Objects of corn breeding ......................... Peanuts, pasture to supplement corn. .. .. . .. .. ... .. B. 142:,18-19 Circ. 2: 9 B. R. 21: 20 142: 6-7 Pigs, sale of . . . .......................... 143: 1 ...... B. 143: 34 .B. B. 142: 5-6 .. Plates, explanation of (corn)................. Red cedar, Birds Nest or Witch's Broom of ........... 'Relative susceptibility of apples to rust........... B. report of...............................R. Ross, ........... itust,t apple, means of preventing ........ . .B. B. 142: 24 6 Circe 8 Circ. 21: 14 Circ. Sale of pigs.......................................B. Score cards, -suggestions as to use on -Mosby corn.. ....... Selecting seed corn for breeding plot ..... 'Shall B. 142: 18-19 B. 142: 17 2: 2: 2: 143:- 9 34 hogs which nave been' grazed on green crops be finished in a dry lot upon grain....... .B. . . .143:,.57. 83 Shelled corn for planting ........................ B. 142: 20 Slaughter data ................ B. 143: 70 Small cedar apples ............................. Circ. 2: 5 Some general considerations in swine production .... B.143: 72 Sorghum.................................. B. 143: 40 R. 21: 16 Soil and Crop investigations, report on .............. .B. 143: 44 Soybeans as a supplement of corn ................. Summary of average feeding results for three years B. 143: 59-64 Suggestions as to use of score cards for Mosby corn B. 142: 18-19 Succession of green crops suitable for hog grazing B. 143: 76 B. 143: 48 Tankage as hog food .............................. B. 142: 19-20 Testing vitality of seed corn ...................... B. 142: 16 Tests of Mosby corn by farmers .................... B. 142: 4 Varieties of corn employed .......................... R. 21: 11 Veterinarian, report of .............................. B. 143: 34 Values placed upon feed ........................... BULLETIN NO. 142. ALABAMA MARCH, 1908. Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUB RN Corn Breeding inAlabama By E. MEAD WILCOX, Ph. D., Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1908. STATION COUNCIL. Chas. C. Thach, M. A., LL. D.........................President J. F. Duggar, M. S. ........... B. B. Boss, M. S. .................. ............. .......... Director and Agriculturist .Chemist and State Chemist C. A. Cary, D. V. M., B. S................................. Veterinarian, and Director Farmers' Institutes Plant Physiologist and Pathologist and State Horticulturist E. M. Wilcox, Ph. D. .......... R. S. Mackintosh, B. Agr...Horticulturist J. T. Anderson, Ph. D.................................... ........ Chemist in Charge of Soil and Crop Investigation W. E. Hinds, Ph. D...............................Entomologist C. L. Hare, D. T. Gray, M. S............................Associate Chemist Animal Industry M. S....... ..................... ASSISTANTS. A. McB. Ransom, M. S:, M. A............... Thos. Bragg, M. S............................ C. M. Floyd............................ P. F. Williams, B. S .................... L. N. Duncan, M. S ...................... Ward ilitner, D. V. M ........... .. . Assistant Chemist. Assistant Chemist Superintendent of Farm Assistant in Horticulture Assistant in Agriculture Assistant in Veterinary Science Stenographer and Mailing Clerk 0. H. Sellers................. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of~ the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. INTRODUCTION. During the past decade a very large amount of attention has been given to corn breeding, particularly in the corn belt, by the various Experiment Stations and the United Stats Department of Agriculture. The practical value of such work has been so apparent that several private corn growers have undertaken the work and have made important contributions to our knowledge of the subject. The net result is that we now have a rather extensive literature that is freely available to all who are interested in this line ,of investigation. Several factors contributed to show the necessity of undertaking this line of work in Alabama, among the most important of which we mention:-(A) the low average yield per acre of corn, (B) the high market price of corn, and (C) the increasing need of a larger corn yield as feed for the rapidly increasing number of live stock being grown in the State. Besides it seemed important to under take this line of work here to show exactly what could be done in developing a type of corn better suited to our needs in this latitude and one giving higher yields than the sorts in common cultivation. We therefore arranged to undertake this work, and in 1905 planted the first breeding plot. All of our corn-breeding work has been done on the "Hurstview" farm near Montgomery, and to Mr. Jesse M. Jones much credit is due for his very intelligent interest in the work and for numerous valuable suggestions made from time to time. My personal thanks are due to the Funk Brothers, Bloomington, Illinois, Professor P. G. Holden, of the Iowa Agricultural College, and Dr. Cyril G. Hopkins, of the University of Illinois, for numerous kindnesses and suggestions while visiting their institutions. I am also under great obligations to various seedsmen and corn growers for seed furnished for the first year's work. In this Bulletin we have given a summary of the most important practical results secured, but have purposely postponed for subsequent treatment some of the theoreti- cal questions that have come to light during the work. The writer has not had a very large amount of time in the past to devote to this line of work, but it is to be hoped that the very satisfactory results secured will cause several progressive farmers to undertake similar work on their own farms. During the present season the author proposes to continue and intensify this line of work along certain important lines. VARIETY OF CORN EMPLOYED. The original ears employed in the first breeding plot were secured from the Mississippi Experiment Station and were of the sort called Mosby's Prolific. This is a corn of medium sized ear having white kernels on a white cob and with the stalk characteristics of the other prolific varieties. The mere name of the variety is of much less importance than its characteristics which have been found to be very well suited to the soil and climatic conditions of central Alabama where this work has been done. And yet the corn we have today differs in several marked particulars from the ears with which we started. The following table shows the variation as to number of rows per ear for those ears planted each year in the breeding plots, in percentages. Rows per ear 12 14 16 18 20 1905 1.66 43.33 50.00 3.33 1.6G 1906 10.20 55.09 31.62 3.06 0.00 1907 9.18 52.03 28.56 8.16 2.04 It should be understood that no attention was given to the number of rows per ear in selecting the ears for the breeding plots. The small cob generally found in the prolific sorts like Mosby has an advantage that in the South is of greater value than is ordinarily considered. A large cob is generally very sappy at harvest time, and thus such ears dry out more slowly than small ones, and the kernels are more easily injured by unfavorable temperature conditions and are more subject to rotting. OBJECTS OF CORN BREEDING. All plant-breeding has for its object principally an economic one, i.e., the improvement of the plant with reference to some character considered important to man. This character may be one of yield, chemical composition or some mere question of beauty as in the case of decorative plants and flowers. In all cases the methods are much the same. The prime object in corn-breeding is the increase of yield and 'the development of sorts best adapted to the soils on which they. are to be grown and to the climatic conditions there prevailing. In the Illinois work one of the main objects has been to develop strains of corn rich in one or more of the chemical compounds found in the kernel. As a result they have developed a "high-protein" corn and a "high-oil" corn and also a "high-combination" corn, i. e., one high in both protein and oil. But for the Alabama farmer the main point at present is to increase the yield. The present average yield in Alabama, according to the last census, is about 13 bushels per acre. The purpose of corn-breeding is to largely increase this low yield. And our results show that this object can readily be accomplished. We must keep in mind, however, the desirability of correlating the high-yielding tendency with some character of the ear or stalk so that we can predict from a mere physical examination the probable yielding tendency of the progeny of a given ear or stalk. There can hardly be any question that uniformity of stalk and ear is a quality that we should strive to secure. As an example and illustration of what is meant by uniformity or conformity to type in the ear see Plate 2. A study of the ears shown on plates 3 to 7 inclusive will show that we have materially increased the uniformity of the Mosby corn. It will no doubt be found desirable to secure by breeding and selection sorts of corn adapted to the various soil types found in the State. These soil types not only imply soils of different chemical and physical nature, but in many cases involve distinct methods of cultivation. In other words the methods of cultivation adapted to the sandy soils of the wire-grass region would scarcely be desirable for the black-belt or vice versa. We would be pleased to undertake co-operative work in corn breeding with several farmers in various parts of the State to test some of these questions and to demonstrate the highly satisfactory results secured by intelligent selection. THE EAR-ROW METHOD. The ear-row method of corn breeding, which we are using, depends upon the well known individuality of the ear, i. e., its ability to transmit to its progeny various characteristics that it in turn has received from its ancestors. The method mnay be briefly described as follows: We select 98 ears to be planted in what we call a "breeding plot". The tip and butt kernels are removed from each of these ears and the balance of the corn from each ear is planted in a row to itself. In our work we have planted the corn by machine in checks three feet and eight inches apart in both directions. One should have 98 rows from as many different ears and should mark each row with its proper number. The rows should be 100 hills long and in each hill just two stalks should be allowed to grow. This will save much calculation when the results are being worked up for comparison of the different rows. During the growing season this breeding-plot is to be carefully watched to note any peculiarities that may appear any of the rows. Plate 1 shows one row in one of the breeding plots that started its growth much more slowly than the adjacent rows. And as a matter of fact, the harvest showed conclusively that the ear from which this row was planted must have been weak in some particular. The progeny of this row does not enter into our subsequent work, as the yield from it was so low it was at once eliminated. Care should be taken to note any barren stalks and to detassel them at once to prevent the pollen from such worthless stalks falling upon the silks of any of the other stalks and thus perhaps perpetuating this tendency towards barrenness. One should also be on the lookouf in for the finest stalks as to strength and number of good ears on them, and such stalks should be marked so that they can be told when the corn is harvested. Desirable stalks are marked during the summer with tags of the form shown below: 0 Row ............... Ear No .. M. Stalk Height ........................ Leaves N o....................... Diameter...................Cm. Length ........................ Cm. Width ....................... Cm. Ears No. to Stalk.. Angle.... Ear Stalk ................ ............ Height.......C................... Cm. Length........................ Cm. Diameter ................... Cm. At harvest time the ears selected for breeding purposes are marked in the following manner to show their origin and to connect them with the above data regarding the stalk on which they are produced. An ordinary gun wad has written on it the row and ear number, and this is attached to the butt of the ear by means of a strong pin known in the trade as "Bank Pins". These pins are driven into the butt of the ear, and in this manner the wad is rarely lost and can readily be seen when studying the ears in the laboratory. We of course gather a much larger number of ears in this manner than we subsequently use in the breeding plot, but for each ear we have all the data recorded on the tag referred to above. BREEDING RECORDS. It is absolutely necessary that detailed records be kept showing every character of each .ear planted in the breeding plot. It is only by so doing that any definite progress can be made. For our work we are employing the following forms. The form shown on page 9 is the one used in keeping our records of the characters of individual ears planted in the breeding plot. Our register number is so made as to indicate the crop-year in which the ear was produced, and the last two figures show the row number in which said ear is planted. For example, Register Number 642 shows that that ear was grown in 1906 and that it was planted in row 42 of 1907. We are attaching to each of these forms a photograph of the ear so that we believe we have a very satisfactory record of the ears we have employed. The form shown on page 10 is the front page of our field record form. The form shown on page 11 is the back of this same sheet. This sheet is filled out for each row and gives us the exact performance record of each ear planted in the breeding plot. f Variety ar Reg. No. Variety Field Source Row No. First Plant Up Tassel Out Silks Out i All ______ Average ___ 1 Diam. of stem at 20 cm.Height in meters____ Height of: lowest ear _ 2 _ 314 __ __ ___ 5I Av. __ ______ ___ __ __ _____ _ _ -____ ____ CD Ear Mature Hcight of highest ear -I -I II II- I ! ' I I I Ear-angle of good ears Total CD % Ear-angle of rotten ears No. of leaves .I I t I ' I. I Plants with marketable ears 0 _______ c0 Number of marketable ears Plants without marketable ears Number of _______ Blade Blade - length -'width - _______ ii _i _i --I- unmarketable ears_______ Ear-stalk Ear-stalk length diameter Barren stalks________ Leaning and fallen stalks Plants with suckers Number 'of suckers Smutted plants Ears per stalk -_I . -I I I I It VARIETY SOURCE Register No. Annual Ear No. PI 4 ANT EAR COB KERNELS Chem. Analysis Row No. Plant No. Height Height of SLowest Weight Length Shape Weight Tip Circ. Butt Circ. Clr % Corn to Ear Breadth Depth Shape Protein Oil Starch Ash Ear TipCorShpAs Bdettiutostr ti Height of SHighest Ear No. of Ears IdButtn Tip Circ. Color ostr .o a Ear-Angle BttCirc.II Planted Harvested - I Total No. of No. of Ears Wt. of Ears Total No. of Total Wt. of No. of Mark. Wt. of Ears per Stalk per Stalk Ears Ears Ears Mark. Ears Av. Wt. per Ear Number of Stalks Acre_____________________ _ CULTURE How Planted Distance between rows 1st cultivation_____ 2nd cultivation 3rd cultivation_____________ METHODS Notes ____________________ ______________ _____ __________________________ _______ ______ _______ Thinned Replanted__________ ______ _________ ______________________________ __________________________ ____ Barren stalks detasseled Rows detasseled__________ __________________________________ __________________________________ 12 POLLINATION AND DETASSELING. It has been estimated that a single tassel may produce as many as 50,000,000 pollen grains each one of which is sufficient to fertilize one ovule and produce one kernel of corn. These pollen grains to do this must fall upon the end of a ilk that is ready to be fertilized, and there the pollen grain grows and sends a fertilizing tube down into the ovule at the base of the silk. The silks that are connected with the kernels at the base of the ear are fertilized first, and then from there towards the tip of the ear the work goes on. For each silk and each kernel therefore a single pollen grain is required. These pollen grains are blown about by the wind and may travel for some distance before falling on a silk. Of course large numbers are produced to be certain that enough fall on the silks to fertilize each one. Now we may recognize three types of pollination or fertilization as follows: 1. The ovules of an ear are fertilized by the pollen of This is called inbreeding, or the tassel on the same stalk. self-pollination. 2. The ovules of an ear are fertilized by the pollen from the tassel of a stalk that arose from kernels produced on one an&d the same ear. That is these stalks might be called sister stalks and this type is called close-breeding or closepollination. 3. The ovules of an ear are fertilized by the pollen of the tassel of a stalk not closely related to the ear stalk. This type is called cross-pollination or cross-breeding. Now in the field and in the ordinary breeding plot some inbreeding probably occurs, but in the breeding plot we may have continuous and injurious amounts of close-breeding and this must be prevented. This is to be prevented by detasseling and gathering the seed corn for the next year's breeding plot from the detasseled rows alone. Our plan is shown by the following diagram in which stars show stalks not detasseled and D denotes detasseled 13 stalks. Of course the diagram does not show all the stalks in the plot, and shows only ten of the rows: D D D D D * * * S * * * * * D' D D D D D D D D D * * D D D D * * * * * * D D D D D D D * * * * * * D D D D D D D D D D * * * * * * * * * * D D D D D D D * * * * * * J) D D * * * * * * D D D * In other words, it is seen that we detassel alternate halves of adjacent rows. Our seed corn is then gathered only from the halves of each row that have been detasseled. This work of removing the tassels can not be done at one time, but must be looked after at intervals of a week or more until the tassels cease appearing. Just before the tassel is exposed one can, by gently opening the leaves, take a firm grasp on the tassel and remove it by a steady pull, without injuring the stalk at all. CULTIVATION OF THE BREEDING PLOT. The important thing in corn culture is frequent and shal low cultivation. Our breeding plot receives 4 to 6 cultivations and one or more hoeings. Too good care cannot be taken of the breeding plot, for from it you are to secure your improved corn for future planting. At harvest time the plot should be free of weeds, at least this is the ideal condition towards which you should aim. For further information on this subject, and upon the question of fertilizers and other matters of this nature see the Bulletins of the Alabama and Georgia Experiment Stations on Corn Culture. SOME RESULTS SECURED. Ter. increase in yield we have secured is well shown by the following table, which gives the percentage of the rows each year that have been above and the percentage of the 14 rows that were below the average yield for all the rows of that year: P.C. of rows above. P.C. of rows below. Average. 58.4 41.6 30.79 1905 52.1 47.9 36.62 1906 50.0 50.0 36.85 n 1907 A comparison of the average or mean yield for 1905 with that for 1907 shows that we have increased the yield in three years 19.6 per cent. The following table gives the yields of the fourteen bess rows of the crop of 1907, together with the yields of the rows during the two preceding years which have been the ancestors on the female side of each of the fourteen ears. The yields are given in bushels per acre as calculated from the actual yields of the rows. In each case the yield is calculated to a perfect stand: 1905 1906 1907 537 425 642 43.9 41.9 53.7 650 51.2 691 49.2 652 46.9 623 45.3 661 45.1 649 44.1 656 42.9 630 42.3 550 36.2 539 50.4 522 37.7 535 40.8 551 43.9 593 39.6 527 35.6 510 49.9 433 58.2 435 35.4 429 37.7 445 34.7 422 35.1 458 39.8 429 37.7 443 39.8 15 684 42.1 647 41.6 645 40.8 653 .40.5 646 40.5 510 49.9 577 45.3 583 40.0 519 37.9 513 35.2 443 39.8 418 31.6 417 25.2 426 42.9 425 43.9 1905 43 1906 539 2907 642 425 51065 "426 577 .691.S 4458 ~ 55 .65 FIG3. 1 hatsown 7tepdireoftef2tenbs 4~46 rowsof5he11076rop 16 TESTS OF MOSBY CORN BY FARMERS. The following yields are taken at random from a larger number of reports made by farmers in various parts of the State who have planted corn purchased from Mr. Jones. Thiq corn was taken from the breeding plot of 1906: J. G. Little, Greenville, 60 bushels. Clark Adams, Greenville, 65 bushels. Geo. A. Watson, Monroeville, 72.5 bushels. W. M. Newton, Belleville, 97.75 bushels. H. E. Hudson, Monroeville, 30 bushels. HOW TO BEGIN CORN-BREEDING. A farmer who desires to begin the systematic selection of corn should proceed as follows: During this season study carefully your field of corn and select enough of the best stalks to give you at least 200 ears. It does not matter about the name of the corn so much as it does about its be ing suited to your local conditions and to yourself. Where the land will stand it you had best select one of the prolific sorts, but under other conditions a 1-eared sort may be better. Allow the ears so selected to mature on the stalks, and under no circumstances "pull" the fodder from these stalks. When mature gather these ears and tag them in such a way that you will know the sort of a stalk each came from. These ears constitute your basis for further improvement, and should be well cared for during the winter. PREVENTING INJURY BY WEEVILS AND MICE. The corn for the breeding plot should be stored during the winter in some dry and cool place and in some barrel or box to which mice cannot enter, and tight enough to permit of fumigation against weevils. A good method to fumigate against weevils is to place the ears in a tight box or barrel and place an ordinary tea cup half full of carbon bisulphid on top of the corn and cover the whole with a blanket. After twenty-four hours every weevil will be dead. The corn should then be examined at intervals dur- 17 ing the winter to see that weevils or mice have not entered the barrel. SELECTING THE EARS FOR THE BREEDING PLOT. During the winter while you have time study these 200 ears by means of the score card, and from them select the 98 best ears for the breeding plot. THE SCORE CARD AND CORN JUDGING. The main value of the score card to the corn grower is that it causes him to give close attention to the various characters of the ear and teaches him the most desirable features to be looked for in the corn he is breeding. We are well aware that in the ordinary corn shows and in ordinary corn judging little or no attention is given to the relative yields of the ancestors of the various ears being compared. In other words the ears in the exhibit are compared to one another without any reference to the performance record of their parents which may well be expected to appear in the progeny of the ears. For example, it might be possible to gather two samples showing equal perfection as to the points mentioned on the score card, but one sample might have come from a field yielding 50 bushels to the acre and the other from a nearby field yielding but 10 bushels to the acre. But from his high yielding rows in the breeding plot the corn grower must be able to select the ears which are best from the standpoint of the score card. It must be left to future work to develop a score card that is well adjusted to our Alabama types of corn and for the present we offer the score card employed by the author in order to call attention to this line of work: 1. Uniformity. A. Trueness, to type ......................... 10 B Uniformity of exhibit ..................... 5 2. Shape of ear ........................... ...... 5 3. Color ....................................... 10 4. Market condition ............................. 10 5. Tips ........................................ 5 18 4. 7. 8. 9. B utts ......................................... 10 Kernel uniformit ............................. Kernel shape ................. Length .................... ................ . 5 5 10 10. 11. Space. A. Space between rows ...................... B. Space between kernels at the cob ........... Percentage of corn to cob ..................... Total ........................................ . 5 5 15 100 ON :SUGGESTIONS AS TO USE OF SCORE CARD MOSBY CORN. 1. The deficiency and excess in length of the ears that do not conform to the standard for the variety shall be added together and a cut of one point made for each inch thus secured. For the Mosby corn the standard length shall le 8 inches. 2. The deficiency and excess in circumference of all the ears that do not conform to the standard for the variety shall be added together, and for every two inches thus secured a cut of one point shall be made. The standard circumference, taken at one-third the distance from butt to tip, in the Mosby corn shall be 6 inches. 3. The shape of the ear in the standard is such that the proportion between length and circumference is the same as 4 to 3. Cut each ear that is off, 1-2 point. 4. For kernels off in color, i. e., yellow in the case of Mosby corn, cut 1-4 point for each two kernels. That is for 6 yellow kernels, cut the ear 3-4 point. 5. For a red cob in Mosby corn cut each ear 2 points. 6. Vitality is indicated finally by the germination test, but this is out of the question for score card purposes. The ears should be well-matured, firm and sound. For each year that is off cut 1-2 point. 19 9. The kernels should be of uniform shape and true to the type. For each ear that is off cut 1-2 point. 10. The kernels should be so shaped that their edges touch from tip to crown. Cut 1-2 point for ea'ch two ker,nels not so shaped. 11. The proportion of corn to ear should be from 85 to 90 per cent. in the case of the Mosby corn. For every per cent below this standard cut the exhibit 1-2 point. TESTING THE VITALITY OF SEED CORN. This should never be neglected for the breeding plot, and would prove of great value even in the general fields. When we remember that 15 to 20 ears should give plenty of corn to plant an acre, we see that the time and labor to test enough corn for even large fields is not very great. It will certainly pay in better stands of corn and larger yields. The method is simple and requires no expensive apparatus. A box should be made 12 by 18 inches inside and about 3 inches deep. Do not make this water tight. 'At the bottom of this place two thicknesses of canton flannel moistened with water. The upper side of this cloth should be marked off into squares 2 inches square with a lead pencil These squares should be numbered from 1 to 54. Now from the ears numbered in the same manner .remove six kernels as follows: Near the base of the ear remove two kernels on opposite sides of the ear. Near the tip select two kernels also on opposite sides of the ear and directly above those previously removed. Then from near the middle of the ear remove two kernels from opposite side of the ear but at right angles with the kernels already removed. These six kernels are to be placed with the germ up in the square having the same number as that on the ear. Proceed in this manner until all the ears have had samples taken for the test. Then cover the kernels with two thicknesses of canton flannel. Sprinkle with water and cover the box with a piece glass. Ordinarily no more water will be needed. But if so it should be simply sprinkled over the upper piece of cloth. At the end of six days examine the ,of 20 kernels by carefully removing the upper cloth. Ears whose kernels have not given a good strong sprout should be discarded. If any ears must be discarded select others to take their places and proceed to test their vitality. SHELLING CORN FOR PLANTING. To secure the corn from the breeding ears for planting first discard the tip and butt kernels. Then remove all the balance ,of the corn with the exception of two adjacent rows which are to be left as a means of telling at any time the character of the ear and its kernels. This ear should be tagged with a number so that it may be told at any time. These samples should be stored where they will not be injured. The corn should be placed in a paper sack until wanted for planting, so that there is no danger of mixing it with the corn from other ears. BREEDING PLOT. This should be the best and most uniform piece of ground on your farm, and be isolated to prevent the pollination of any of the silks by foreign pollen. The other details as to planting and care of the breeding plots have already been described. MULTIPLYING PLOT. After selecting the breeding ears for the next year all the remaining, good ears should be saved to be planted in the multiplying plot. Place this plot where no foreign pollen can reach it. The corn from this field is to be selected and planted the following year in the general field as follows: 1908 -B. P.1909 BP B. - 1910 B. P. . P.P. M. P. -- M.P. -- G.F. In this diagram B. P. stands for the breeding plot, M. P. for the multiplying plot, and G. F. for the general field. 21 THE FUTURE OF CORN BREEDING IN ALABAMA. There is no doubt that corn-breeding will in the near future occupy much more attention at the hands of Alabama :farmers than at present. To the man who engages in it now with the determination to produce the best type of corn possible this field of work offers good returns on the time and money invested. Not only will the individual cornbreeder secure higher yields, but there is a fine chance to dispose of high-grade seed corn when it is backed by good honest work and detailed records as to pedigree. The time is coming when more and more people will demand seed corn on the ear and from fields that have given high yields. We should be glad to enter into correspondence with all persons interested in this line of work, and stand ready to offer the best suggestions we have on the subject. LITERATURE OF CORN BREEDING. The following list includes some of the more important publications of the Experiment Stations and United States Department of Agriculture that should be read by farmers who desire to undertake work along this line. Publications referring particularly to sweet corn are omitted: Card, F. W. 1906. Corn Selection. Bull, R. Is. Exp. Stat. 116: 1-35. Fig. 1-9. Davenport, E. 1906. Methods of testing variability in corn. Circ. Ill .Exp. Stat. 101:1-7. Davenport, E., and Rietz, H. L. 1907. Type and variability of Indian corn. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 119:1-29. Crosthwait, G. A. 1907. Indian corn. Its production and improvement. Bull. Idaho Exp. Stat. 57:1-59. plate 1-11. f)uvel, J. W. T. 1906. The germination of seed corn. Farmers' Bulletin 253:1-16. fig. 1-4. 22 East, E. M. 1906. The improvement of corn in Connecticut. Bull. Conn. Exp. Stat. 152:1-21. Hartley, C. P. 1903. Improvement of corn by seed selection. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. 1902:539-552. plate 71-77. 1904. Corn Growing. Farmers' Bulletin 199:1-31. fig. 1-23. 1905. The production of good seed corn. Farmers" Bulletin 229:5-20. fig. 1-10. Hayward, H., and Jackson, H. S. 1907. A study of Delaware seed corn with some suggestions for its improvement. Bull. Del. Exp. Stat. 77:1-16. fig. 1-10. Holden, P. G. 1902. Storing and purchasing seed corn. Press Bull. Iowa Exp. Stat. 4pp. 1903. Selecting and preparing seed corn. Bull. Iowa Exp. Stat. 68. 1904. Selecting and preparing seed corn. Bull. Iowa Exp. Stat. 77. 1905. Selecting and preparing seed corn. Bull. Iowa Exp. Stat. 77. Hopkins, C .G. 1898. The chemistry of the corn kernel. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 53. 1899. Improvement in the chemical composition of the corn kerneL Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 55. 1902. Methods of corn breeding. Bull Ill. Exp. 'Stat. 82. Hopkins, C. G., Smith, L. H., and East, E. M. 1903. The structure of the corn kernel and the com, position of its different parts. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 87. 1903. Corn experiments in Illinois. Circ. Hll. Exp, Stat. 66. 23 1905. Directions for the breeding of corn, including methods for the prevention of in-breeding. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 100. Hume, A. N. 1904. The testing of corn for seed. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 96. Miller, M. F. 1905. Suggestions for Missouri corn growers. Circ. of Inform. Mo. Exp. Stat. 19. Scherffius, W. H. 1905. A method of selecting seed corn. 2. A chemical study of the composition of a number of varieties of Kentucky corn. Bull. Ky. Exp. Stat. 122. Scofield, C. S. 1903. The commercial grading of corn. Bull. Bur. Plant Industry U. S. Dept. Agr. 41. Shamei, A. D. 1901. Seed corn and some standard varieties for Illinois. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 63. Shoesmith, V. M. 1906. The study of corn. Bull. Kan. Exp. Stat. 139. Smith, L. H. 1904. Directions for the breeding of corn. Circ. Ill. Exp. Stat. 74. Soule, A. M. 1904. Increasing the yield of corn. Bull. Tenn Exp. Stat. 17-2. Tucker, G. M. 1902. Corn improvement for Missouri. Bull. Mo. Exp. Stat. 59. Walls, E. P. 1905. The influence of the size of the grain and the germ of corn upon the plant. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 106. Webber, H. J. 1905. Selection and care of seed corn. Farmers' Bulletin 229: 21-23. Wiancko, A. T. 1905. Corn improvement in Indiana. Bull. Ind. Exp. Stat. 105. 1906. Corn improvement. Bull. Ind. Exp. Stat. 110. 24 Willard, J. T. 1902. Analyses of corn, with reference to its improvement. Bull. Kans. Exp. Stat. 107. Williams, C. B. 1903. Improvement of corn by seed selection. Bull. N. Car. State Bd. Agr. 24-9. 1906. Selecting seed-corn for larger yields. Bull. N. Car. State Bd. Agr. 27-8. Williams, C. G. 1903. The corn crop. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 140. 1905. Pedigreed seed corn. Circ. Ohio Exp. Stat. 42. 1906. Experiments with corn. Circ. Ohio Exp. Stat. 53:1-11. 1907. Corn breeding and registration. Circ. Ohio Exp. Stat. 66. 1907. The selection of seed corn. Circ. Ohio. Exp. Stat. 71. Wing, D. C. 1904. The improvement of corn in Pennsylvania. Bull. Dept. Agr. Penn. 133. Schulte, J. I. 1907. Corn-breeding work at the Experiment Stations. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. 1906:279294. Soule, A. M., and Vanatter, P. O. 1907. The improvement .of corn. Bull. Va. Exp. Stat. 165. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate 1. Individuality of the ear as shown by differences in height of the stalk during the season. Note particularly the low row in the center of the field. Plate 2. Funk's Yellow Dent corn grown by Funk Brothers of Bloomington, Illinois. Note the great uniformity of the ears. Plates 3 to 7 inclusive. Showing the ears in the ancestry of the ten best ears grown in the breeding plot during 1907. The ears marked with numbers in five hundred were grown in 1905, those marked in six hundreds were grown in 1906, and those marked in seven hundreds were grown in 1907. Ear 702 was from row 42 of 1907, and this in turn from row 37 of 1906. Each horizontal series of three ears is similarly related. °.4. l ; : PLATE, TI. I -} 4 -.-. s; 7 -- Y-- V ,~ ~ I'L.1T'I': 111. 64 65u 4' 1r o911 4I A 6J- 7J8 I'LAIII: V. 623 ,'1 r-. j-t -- PLATE VII. j- 1 l# 1.IT .v 71 ': f BULLETIN NO. 143 ALABAMA JULY, JL,10 1908 Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute Feeds Sulpplemenltary to For Southern Corn Pork Production DAN T. GRAY, J. F. DUGGAR, J. W. RIDEGWAY OPE LKA, ALA: COMPANY THE POSVf PUBLISHING 1908 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. HON. HON. HON. H L. MARTIN----------------------------------------Ozark BETTS---------------------------------Huntsville ------------------------------------ TANCRED A. W.BELL Anniston STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH---------------------------------------------President DUGGAR------------------------Director .J. F. and Agriculturist B. B. Ross---------------------------Chemist and State Chemist C. A. CARY--------Veterinarian'and Director Farmer's Institutes E. M. WILcox-------------- R. S. J. T. ANDERSON------------ Plant Physiologist and Pathologist and State Horticulturist MACKINTOSH--------Horticulturist Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigation Industry D. T. GRAY------------------------------------Animal W. E. HINDS---------------------------------------Entomologist C. L. HARE---------------------------------------------Chemist A. McB RANSOM---------------- -------------- Associate Chemist ASSISTANTS. T. BRAGG--------------------------------- First Assistant Chemist L. N. I)UNCAN---------------------------Assistant J. W. in Agriculture Animal Industry E. F. CAUTHEN- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Farm Superintendent and Recorder RIDGEWAY------------- -- -- - -- Assistant in P. F. WILLIAMS------------------------Assistant N. E. BELL-----------------------------Second I. S. MCADORY----------------Assistant in in Horticulture Assistant Chemist Veterinary Science W. F. TURNER--------------------------Assistant L. A. CASE-----------------------------Asistant 0. H. SELLERS------------------Stenographer in Entomology in Bacteriology and Mailing Clerk FEEDS SUPPLEMENTARY TO CORN FOR ERN PORK PRODUCTION. By .-. . GRAY,. J. T SOUTH- F. DUGGAR, J. W. RIDGEWAY. SUMMARY. 1. This bulletin records a summary of three years' work in swine production, in which 90 hogs have been used. 2. The object in presenting this bulletin is to get together the three years' work so. as to make a comparison betweei finishing hogs upon corn alone and finishing them upon corn supplemented with either green crops or concentrates. 3. When corn was used alone as a ration for fattening hogs both the daily gains and the financial outcome were unsatisfactory. Money was lost in every case where corn was fed without a supplement. 4. When corn was supplemented with a partial ration of cotton seed meal the daily gains and the financial outcome were satisfactory. Four deaths occurred as a result of the use of cotton seed meal, but these deaths did not occur while the animals were eating the meal. All of th deaths have occurred soon after the animals were. taken off of cotton seed meal and placed upon a ration which contained no cotton seed meal. This suggests the idea that cotton seed meal may be stimulating in its effects-similiar to, the action of certain drugs-and when it is removed suddenly from the animals that death may occur through depression. 5. Tankage, a packing house by-product, proved to be an exceedingly satisfactory feed to supplement corn. In it was almost as satisfactory as cotton seed meal, fact, and it has the advantage over cotton seed meal in that there is no danger in feeding it. 6. When corn was supplemented with a ration of onehalf cowpeas (the seed) the results were more satisfactory than i hen corn was used alone, valuing the cowpeas at 28 80 cents per bushel. The peas were used profitably until they reached a price of $1.05 per bushel. 7. As a whole, peanut pasture was found to be more aseful than any other pasture tried. Notwithstanding the lact that the peanut pastures were not good two years out of the three they still gave excellent results. Pork was made at a good profit when peanut pasture was used in conjunction with corn. 8. Mature sorghum pasture has very little to recommend it as a feed for fattening swine. Both the gains and the financial outcome were unsatisfactory. When the sorghum was cut and carried to the hogs the results were better than :when the hogs were made to graze the crop. 9. The expense of extracting. the juice from the sorghum and feeding the juice only prohibits its use in this way, although excellent daily gains were made. In no case was the ju:ce found to be worth more than 1.8 cents a gallon as a feed for hogs. 10. Soy bean pasture ranked second to peanut pasture as a supplement to corn. 11. Chufa pasture was not found to be as good as either peanuts or soy bean pasture. 12. The average daily gains were as follows: corn alone, .69 of a pound; corn 2-3 of the ration plus cotton seed meal 1-3, 1.04 pounds; corn 9-10 plus tankage 1-10, 1.04 pounds; corn 1-2 plus cowpeas 1-2, .94 pounds: corn plus peanut pasture, 1.01 pounds; corn plus sorghum pasture, .37 pound; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3 plus peanut pasture, 1.00 pound; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3 plus u.orghum pasture, .46 of a pound; corn plus chufa pasture, .72 of a pound; corn plus soy bean pasture, 1.02 pound,; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3 plus soiled (cut sorghum), .75 of a pound. 13. The cost of one hundred pounds gain in each case, when the cost of putting in and cultivating the pasture Irops was not taken into consideration, was as follows: -rn alone, $7.63; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3, $5.75; 29 corn ;-10 plus tankage 1-10, $5.18; corn 1-2 plus cowpeas 1-2, $:.11; corn plus peanut pasture, $2.28; corn plus sorghum pasture, $5.46, corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3 plus pe'anut pasture, $1.97; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3 plus sorghum pasture, $4.85; corn plus chufa pasture, $3.81; corn plus soy bean pasture, $1.96; corn 2-3 and cotto~n seed meal 1-3 plus soiled sorghum, $3.39. 14. The cost of one hundred pounds gain in each case, when the cost of putting in and cultivating the pasture crops was counted against the gains, was as follows: corn alone, $7.63; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3, $5.75; corn 9-10 plus tankage 1-10, $5.18; corn 1-2 plus cowpeas 1-2, $5.11; corn plus peanut pasture, $3.20; corn plus sorghum pasture, $11.90; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3 plus peanut pasture, $2.14; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal 1-3 plus sorghum pasture, $7.79; corn plus chufa pasture, $8.89; corn plus soy bean pasture, $2.74; corn 2-3 plus cotton seed meal i-3 plus soiled sorghum, $4.86. 15. When hogs have been grazing a green crop it usually pays to inclose and feed them in a dry lot for a short period after the crop is exhausted. 16. When corn was fed alone but 48 cents was realized upon each bushel of corn used. The way to secure a better price for the corn is to feed it in combination with some other feed. 17. When hogs sell for from 5 to 7 cents a pound live weight the farmer cannot afford to sell his corn for 70 cents a bushel. INTRODUCTORY. While Alabama produces a portion of the pork that her people consume she falls far short of meeting home demands. Much of the pork we use is made in Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, and other northern states. It costs the farmer as much, and perhaps more, in those states to produce a pound of pork than the same pound would cost if produced by they Alabama farmer; under present conditions our people pay those northern farmers a good profit upon their pork-making operations and in addition, pay heavy freight 30 rates io get the meat transferred to the South. It is no uncommon sight to see the Alabama farmer hauling to This meat his country home meat killed in Chicago. costs from 10 to 12.5 cents at present prices--and it is a cheap, quality of meat at that. The Alabama farmer could have made that pork upon his own farm for about one-half the above expense, and by the judicious use of supplementary feeds, could have the meat for at least onethird of what he must pay for it at the grocer's store. Besides getting the meat cheaper, thus saving his money, he would have upon his table first class hams, ribs, and chops instead of the poorer quality of side meat. OBJECT OF EXPERIMENTS. These experiments were planned with a three-fold object in view 1. To compare finishing hogs upon corn alone (the usual method followed in the South) with finishing them upon corn supplemented in some cases with a concentrated feed and in some cases with green crops. 2. To study the efficiency of different feeds, or combinations of feeds, in hardening the flesh of hogs after it has been rendered soft as a result of the animals grazing peanuts. 3. To study the effect of different feeds-with special reference to cotton seed meal-upon the strength, chemical composition, and histology of the bones. The first object only is dealt with in this bulletin. The other two will receive consideration in a later report. ANIMALS USED.- This report is based upon three years' experimentation and can be considered only as a report of the progress of the work. Ninety hogs have been used during these three years, divided into numerous lots-six lots each year. While definite conclusions could not. be drawn from the data collected through the use of so few animals in a single year's work, yet the test has been repeated in many respects the third year, so the conclusion drawn can be 31 regarded as fairly accurate and trustworthy. The hogs used, while perhaps somewhat better in quality than the average hogs of the state, can be considered about equal to the animals which our best farmers keep upon their farm,;. They were picked up from neighboring farmers around Auburn, and all of the animals had some improved blood :n them. This improved blood consisted largely of Poland- China or Berkshire blood; there were also a few Yorkshire grades. A few of the animals showed close kinship to the "razor backs." At the beginning of the test they averaged something like seventy pounds in weight, and probably averaged five months in age. QUARTERS. The pigs which were fed upon concentrates only were confined in dry lots which had a good open shed across one end which afforded them protection from both the hot sun and the cold rains. These lots were about 30 by 100 feet in size. The hogs which were running upon a pasture crop were confined upon these crops by means of a moveable fence (or hurdles) ; these lots were also afforded shelter from the hot sun by means of trees and bushes or by artificial structures. All the pigs in all cases were made comfortable. When the pigs were grazing a green crop, in some cases they were given the run of but a small area at a time, and the hurdles were then moved forward on a new area, but in other instances the whole area was fenced in and the animals given the privilege of running upon the whole area at one time. There is perhaps a smaller waste when but a small area is grazed at a time, but the labor in moving the fence is not inconsiderable if the areas are made too small. DIVISION INTO LOTS. Each year when the pigs were brought to the Animal Industry farm the whole lot was put under similiar conditions a sufficient length of time to establish uniformity, after which time, they were carefully divided into six lots as nearly equal as possible in quality, age, size, weight, sex 32 and breed with previous condition and raising taken into consideration. FEEDING. All of the lots were fed twice daily throughout the entire tests, as nearly as possible at the same hour each day, so as to avoid producing restlessness among the pigs. With the exception of the year 1905-'06 the corn was ground and fed in a slop. When the corn was fed with other concentrates the two were always mixed together and fed as a slop. During the years 1905-'06 and 1906-'07 the cotton seed meal was always fermented, or soured, twenty-four hours before feeding, but during the last year, 1907-'08, it was taken directly from the sacks, mixed with the corn meal, and given to the hogs.. Those rations which contained cotton seed meal were fed in a very thin slop-in fact so thin that the animals could drink the feed rather than eat it. It was soon learned that when the cotton seed meal was fed in an exceedingly thin slop that the pigs always maintained a keen appetite for the feed, no matter how long they were kept on the feed, but when the ration was placed before them in a dough state it would be but a few days until the whole pen would "go off feed". All green crops used by the hogs were gathered by the hogs themselves, except in one case in 1905-'06 where sorghum was cut and carried to one lot confined in a pen in order that a comparison might be made with sorghum grazed and sorghum fed in a dry lot (soiled). All the lots at all times had a mixture, consisting of salt, coal and lime, before them. It was very noticeable that those pigs upon corn alone ate much more of this mixture than did the other lots. The quantity of food given those pigs which were confined in the lots was gauged by their appetites, the object being to give each lot all it would eat up clean and still retain the appetite. The lots which received a green ration in addition to the grain were not given a full grain ration. Such lots received a grain ration equal to two per cent of the total live weight of the lot; for instance, if 33 a certain lot weighed 800 pounds the daily grain ration would have been 16 pounds. Thus the lots on pasture crops received what may be considered about half a full ration of concentrated food. THE PASTURE CROPS. The sorghum crops were as good each year as they could be expected to be when grown upon poor sandy soils. The sorghum was grown in drills and cultivated: The yields, green weight, averaged about eight tons to the acre. The hogs were turned upon the pasture just about the time the juice began to sweeten-or about the time the heads began to turn black, when the sorghum phias were usually 5 or 6 feet high. It was hard work for the hogs to graze the sorghum as the juice was secured so slowly by themr that they were never satisfied; so they put in pratically all their time riding down the stalks and chewing the' cane; this is not conducive to rapid and economical gains. The peanut crops were not as good as the sorghum crops. In 1905-'06 there was practically a full stand and yield of peanuts. In 1906-'07 there was a very poor stand and not more than a 40 percent yield. In 1907-'08 the yield and stands were even poorer than the previous year. The poor stands and yields were largely due to the fact that labor could not be secured to work the crops after they were put in. The chufa crop was an average crop, and the soy bean stand was not far below the average, but the yield was cut down somewhat on account of the extremely dry weather just at the time the beans were maturing, so that they finally yielded about 70 per cent of a normal crop. The hogs were turned upon the soy beans two weeks before the beans were matured enough to be eaten, so for the first two weeks the animals ate nothing but the leaves in addition to the corn they received; the records show that the animals made satisfactory gains even these first two weeks. PERIODS. Each year's work was divided into periods because the 34 nature of the work required that it be thus divided, as one of the main points was to study the effect which different feeds might have upon the melting point of the lard when following other feeds, as peanuts. The first year's test, 1905-'06, was divided into two periods. The two following years' work were divided into three periods each. Each period varied in length from twenty-eight to fifty days. thus making each full experiment from ninety to one hundred and ten days in length. SLAUGHTER DATA. At the end of each period one animal from each lot was slaughtered and careful notes collected upon the dressed weights, appearance of the carcasses, the rapidity and the extent of the "setting", the appearance and weights of the internal organs, etc. Samples of fat were taken from each carcass and turned over to the chemist, Professor Hare, who made melting point determinations, and further studies to learn the effect of different feeds upon the fat of swine. The fifth, six, and seventh ribs were also taken from each animal slaughtered with a view to making a chemical and histological study of the effect of the various feeds upon the animal frame work. SALES. The animals were all sold to either the Auburn or Opelika butchers at five cents per pound live weight. If they could have been placed upon the Montgomery or New Orleans market they would have brought from six to seven and one-half cents per pound live weight. The majority of the pigs at the beginning of the test were purchased at a cost of five cents per pound, so under local conditions there was no margin of profit between the buying and the selling prices. VALUES PLACED UPON FEEDS. In working out the financial statement which follows, the following values were placed upon the feeds: 35 Corn .................................... 70-.. cts. per bushel, Cowpeas ........................ 80 cts. per bushel, Cotton Seed Meal-.........25 dollars per ton, Tankage .......................... 40 dollars per ton. As a rule there has been no expense charged against the gains made by the hogs as a result of putting in and working the green crops. This varies so much in different localities that figures would be of very little value. But to give an approximation of what it would cost to make a pound of pork when the crops are charged against the animals the cost has been worked out for the conditions existing here upon the station farm (see table 17 page 61). It has been considered, in this bulletin, that the cost of putting in and cultivating the crop was offset by the good done the soil by having the pigs graze over it and drop the manure. This is not merely an assumption; it has been experimentally proven that where hogs on a partial ration of concentrates have been permitted to graze over an acre of green crops, that the increase yield in the cotton crop followi'g the next year alone was 195 pounds of seed cot ton, and the second year's increase, due to the grazing two years before, was 183 pounds of seed cotton. DISCUSSION OF THE EXPERIMENT. The feeding tests here reported were conducted at different times throughout the year 1905-'06, 1906-'07, 1907-'08. With exception of the first year the general plan was to begin the work in August or the first part of September and carry some of the lots from 35 to 50 days upon various concentrated feeds and the other lots on sorghum, as sorghui,, comes on earlier in the summer than do the peanuts. During the year 1907-'08 both soy beans and sorghum were used as green crops during the first period. After the first period the peanuts were ready to use and the lots were transferred from the sorghum and the soy bean pastures to the peanut pasture. The peanut pasture was exhausted in from 28 to 35 days, after which time the lots were all brought in and fed in dry lots upon concentrates only, for a finishing period of 28 days. The followng tabulated statement displays the plan of the work: 1he 36 TABLE 1. General Outline 1905-6 of the Experiments. No. LOT Period 1, 1 2 3 4 5 6 RATION AND DATE Period 2 (60 days) d~ept. 21-Nov. 10 Peanut pasture Corn Peanut pasture Corn Peanut pasture Coin Period 3 (35 days) Nov. 10-Dec. 15 Corn only Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Sorghum Juice Cowpeas 1-3 Corn 2-3 Cowpeas 1-3 Corn 2-3 Corn only 5. Meal 1-3 Sorghum juice Cowpeas 2-3 Corn 1-3 Cowpeas 2-3 Corn 1-3 Corn only C. 2-3 1906 7 Period 1 (49 days) Aur. 8--Sept 26 1 Cut 50! ghum Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 2 Grazed sorghum Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 3 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 4 Sorghum juice Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 6 Corn only Period 2 (28 days) Sept. 26-Oct. 24 Peanut pasture, Corn Period 3 (35 days) Oct. 24-Nov. 28 Corn only Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1.3 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Japan cane Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn only Chufa pasture Corn Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn only 1907-8 Period 1 (35 days) Sept 6-Oct. 11 Period 2 (28 days) Oct 11-Nov. 8 Period 3 (28 days) Nov. 8-Dec. 6 1 Soy bean pasture Corn 2 Grazed sorghum" Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 3 'Grazed sorghum Corn 4 Corn 9-10 Tankage 1-10 5 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 6 Corn only Peanut pasture, corn Corn 2-3 Tankage 1-3 Corn Corn 2-3 " C. S. Meal 1-3 " " Corn Corn Tankage 1-10 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn cnly Corn 9-10 Tankage 1-10 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn only 9-10 37 PEANUT PASTURE TO SUPPLEMENT CORN. In all cases where peanuts were used the hogs were grazed upon them, thus saving the expense of having them harvested. This method of harvesting a crop has the additional advantage of having the manure scattered upon the cultivated fields just where wanted without the expense of hauling it with wagon and team. The data in this bulletin covers three years' work with peanuts but the first year's work is the only one during which time there was an average crops of nuts, as noted elsewhere; the crops of both the years 1906-'07 and 1907-'08 were very poor ones due to the fact that labor could not be secured to work them. TABLE 2. Summary of the three years' work with Peanuts. o rt CI-I Lbs. Lbs. Corn alone ....... ........... Corn .. Peanut pasture... 15 32 .69 1.01 73 81 611 148 Corn 1...... .45 acre peanuts $7.43 1.85 This table, while illustrating the great use to which peanut pasture can be put in saving corn, does not deal fairly with the nuts as far as the area which is required to produce 100 pounds is concerned; as noted above, the nuts were not a full crop two of the years. Usually the area required to produce 100 pounds gain will be cut down very materally from that shown in the above table, as may be seen in a following table, in which case the peanuts were practically a full crop-or an average crop. Even though in two years out of the three there were poor stands, still the nuts made a good showing. The table indicates that .45 of an acre of peanuts was equal in feeding value to 463 pounds of corn, and that the cost of concentrates 38 required in making 100 pounds gain was reduced from $7.63 in the case of corn alone to $1.85 when the corn was supplemented with peanuts. In this table there has been no expense counted against the animals as a result of putting: in and cultivating the green crops, as it has been experimentally proven that when a leguminous crop, like peanuts, is grown and grazed off by pigs, that the increased fertility, as measured by the succeeding year's crop of cotton, has sometimes more than paid for the expense of putting in the crop. (See page 74). Money was lost in the case where corn alone was fed to pigs, the gains costing $7.63 per 100 pounds and could be sold for but $5.00 per 100 pounds at Auburn. Seventy cent corn calls for seven-cent hogs, live weight, if the feeder expects to come out even and realize 70 cents a bushel for corn. The daily gains were much more satisfactory where the peanuts were grazed than when corn alone was fed. Hogs are never 'satisfied when fed corn alone. Corn alone does not meet the body requirements; it is lacking in protein and ash, so that when a young animal is compelled to eat corn alone he soon fails to make satisfactory gains, becomes restless, and puts in much of his time in rooting about the pen and trying to get out. A peanut-fed hog is always contented, as this feed meets the body requirements and he spends his spare time sleeping. have been saved from all 'of the animals Bone and casual observation shows the bones of hogs which have been fed on corn alone to be much weaker and smaller than in the case where the corn was supplemented with other feeds. Duriing the year 1905-'06, in addition to having a peanut lot upon corn alone, there was another peanut lot which received, in addition to the peanut pasture, a two percent ration of corn and cotton seed meal, in the proportion of tw )-thirds corn and one-third cotton seed meal. -samples 39 TABLE 3. Corn versus Corn and Peanuts versus Corn 2-3 plus Cotton Seed Meal 1-3. 9PA. Corn alone ........... 4 Lbs. Lbs. .67 65 .91 1.00 59 60 Lbs. 560 177 .12 107 51 .08 Corn acres peanuts $7.00 2.22 Corn .. ........ Peanut pasture.... 8 Corn 2-3, .............. . C. S. Meal 1-3...... Peanut pasture... 4 Corn C. S. Meal acre peanuts 1.97 This is the year's work when there was a normal crop of peanuts and represents more accurately what can be expected from the use of peanuts than does the preAll of the lots, even the corn lots, made ceding table. very satisfactory gains for such small animals. The lot upon peanuts, with corn alone added, made 35.8 per cent better gains than did the lot upon corn alone, and when both crn and cotton seed meal were added to the peanuts the gains were 47.7 per cent better than that of the corn lot. The daily gains were increased by 35.8 and 47.7 percent respectively through the addition of peanut pasture or of peanut pasture and cotton seed meal to corn alone and at the same time the cost of producing 100 pounds of pork was decreased from $7.00 in the case of corn alone to $2.22 when corn and peanut pasture were used, and to $1.97 when both cc rn and cotton seed meal were used in connection with the peanut pasture. This table also illustrates the fact that when corn is worth 70 cents per bushel a farmer must secure 7 cents per pound, live weight, for his hogs if he expects to come out even when corn alone is fed. When some cotton seed meal was added to the corn rations of the hogs when running on peanuts, the daily 40 gains were increased and the cost of one hundred gain was reduced from $2.22 to $1.97. No ill results followed the use of the cotton seed meal, but that is not a guarantee that evil results will never follow its use. Tankage can be used to take the place of cotton seed meal when the farmer is afraid of losses from the use of cotton seed meal (as will be seen later), but tankage was foun I to be somewhat inferior to cotton seed meal for pork production. Where corn alone was fed in addition to peanut pasture it was found that .12 of an acre of peanuts took the place of 382.5 pounds of corn, or one acre of peanuts was equal in feeding value to 56.9 bushels of corn. When both corn and cotton seed meal were fed in addition to peanut pasture one acre of peanuts was still more valuable than when corn alone was used. If the land upon which these peanuts were grown had been planted in corn instead of in peanuts it would have perhaps produced only fifteen to eighteen bushels of corn to the acre. SORGHUM. Sorghum is a green crop well thought of in the South as a food for swine. Its chief advantage lies in the large yields and sureness, there being very few seasons in which it fails. But it must be remembered in planning a rotation of crops that sorghum is not a legume, and that the land will not be made better on account of its having been grown. Other things being equal, a leguminous crop should generally be grown for a hog feed, on account of its beneficial effects upon the soil. This bulletin comprises two years' work with sorghum. In some cases the grain fed in connection with the sorghum consisted of corn alone, in other cases of a ration made up of corn two-thirds and cotton seed meal one-third. Only a half grain ration was fed. In all cases the hogs were not turned into the sorghum field until the jtrice began to sweeten, or until some of the heads began to turn black. A test was also made to determine whether it would be 41 profitable to cut the sorghum iu the fields and carry it to the hogs wheu confined iu pens. TABLE 4. Corn alone versus Corn and grazed Sorghum; Corn alone versus Corn 2-3 Cotton Seed Meal, 1-3 and grazed Sorghunm 0- 00 tJ a 0 t Lbs. JLbs. Corn alone..... 6 .78 73 Lbs. 456 Corn .......... Grazed sorghum C. S. Meal 1-3 _ Grazed sorghum Corn 2-3 6 6 $5.70 Corn acre sorghum Corn .37 73 437 .57 206 5.46 . .51 74 103 C. S. Meal .37 acre sorghum 3.86 While the pigs which were confined i dry lots aud fed corn alone made much better gains thau cau usually be corn alone, those animals which expected from the use received. the half ratiou of coru plus sorghum pasture, showiug, the daily gaiu beiug but .37 made o very of a pouud per pig. Another lot of pigs, uot meutioued iu table 4, but treated similarly to the sorghum lot, with the exception that they had soy beans iu the place of sorghum, made an average daily gaiu of 1.02 pounds. In the case above it is seen that .57 of an acre of sorglhum took the place of but 19 pouun1s of corn, which iueaus that one acre of sorghum saved but 32 pouuds of corn when the sorghum was supplemented by corn alone. A feed consisting, of corn and sorghum alone is a very of poor poor feed for either fattening hogs, or for producing grow th. Both are low in protein and ash and high in car- bohydrates, neither feed furnishing enough protein or ash for hcgs which are not completely matured before the finishing period begins. The 'sorghum might have made a 42 better-showing if the pigs used had been matured animals before the fattening period began. When the ration of corn and sorghum was supplemented with a little cotton seed meal, as was the case with lot 3, the results were more satisfactory, but even with the use of cotton seed meal the results do not compare favorably with the results gotten from the use either peanut or soy bean pasture as a supplement to corn. With the use of both corn and cotton seed meal 309 pounds of concentrates were rcquired to make 100 pounds of gain, at a cost of $3.86. Data will be presented later on in the bulletin showing .37 of an acre of sorghum in lot three saved grain to the value t'f only $.56, or an acre of sorghum saved, in terms of concentrates, but $1.57. In view of the fact that it is very hard work for pigs to graze sorghum, as the cane must be ridden down, and as it requires all of the hog's time and more, too-to satisfy his appetite, since the juice is secured very slowly, it was thought that it might be profitable to place the hogs in a of pen alid carry the sorghum to them (soiling). ly this, test was tried in 1906-107 with the following results : TABLE 5. Grazing Sorghum versus soiling ,Sorghum. 0 1o According- Bi Corn 2-3 .5 C. S. Meal 1- 3.... Corn 2-3 Lbs. 1.18 Lbs. 85 Lbs. 212 Corn 106 C. S. Meal 314 Corn 157 C. S. Meal .15 acre sorghum 181 Corn 90 C. S. Meal .13 acre sorghum $3.99 C. S. Meal 1-.3.. Grazed sorgh urn Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3.... Soiled sorghum ... .43 90 5.90 5 .75 82 3.39 Where a combination of corn and cotton seed meal was fed. rapid and economical gains were made; this was inva- 43 riably the case in these experiments no matter under what conditions fed. When cotton seed meal is fed properly the hog will either make rapid gains or die. As stated elsewhere there have been no deaths during these series of tests where the hogs received a large ration of cotton seed meal, but this is no guarantee that deaths may not cur next year. The hogs (lot 2) which grazed the sorghum down made a poor showing,-in fact the sorghum was a detriment instead of a help in this case. Where the hogs had the sorghum carried to them, (lot 3) the data show that .13 of an acre saved but $.60, or a whole acre of green sorghum after being cut and hauled to the hogs was worth but $4.61. Under the conditions in which sorghum was fed in these experiments it was found to be almost worthless as a supplement to either corn or to a mixed ration of corn and cotton seed meal. It would no doubt be more valuable when fed to larger hogs than were used here. As used in these tests it was not found to be adapted t o hogs which were being fattened. Probably one of the chief reasons why it is not a profitable hog feed is that it requires too much work on the part of the hog to extract the juice, and this work prevents the hog from laying on fat. A hog receiving only a two-per-cent grain ration and green sorghum is never satisfied; he always wants to get out of the inclosure, and when he is not trying to get out he is either chewing the cane or rooting in the ground. Sorghum has probably one valuable place as a hog feedto help carry the brood sows through the summer months economically when the pastures become short. Sorghum is a balky feed and is more suited to ruminants-animals with a system of stomachs, as that of the cow and the sheep-than to the hog. The hog makes no use of the leaves and the fibrous part of the stalk at all; his stomach is too small for such bulky roughage. He eats the juice only, oid much of that even is lost while he is chewing the stalk. loc- 44 It should be remembered that this bulletin reports no sorghum experiments in which the plant was grazed when young; in every case the sorghum was far enough advanced so that the juice was sweet to the taste. Some farmers report success with the plant when the hogs are turned into the field when it is about one foot in height, thus inducing them to eat the tender blades along with the immature juice. SoY BEANS. Soy beans is another leguminous crop which has proven very sctisfactory as a green crop with which to supplement corn in pork production. The hogs in this experiment were turnel into the field two weeks before the beans were matured sufficiently to be eaten so that for the first two weeks the swine had only the leaves and the stalks to eat, in addition to the two per cen't corn ration. The hogs did not touch the beans themselves for about fifteen days after being turned into the patch. The leaves, both dead and green ones, were eaten with relish. It might have paid better to have kept the hogs off the beans until the seed were ripened sufficiently to be eaten, that is a point open for further experimentation. TABLE 6. Soy bean pasture as a supplement to Corn. Lbs -. Lbs. Corn alone ...... Corn ................... Soy bean past'? 6 6 .78 1 02 73 77 456 157 Corn .28 acres soy beans $5.70 1.96 Considering the beginning weights of the pigs, both lots made good gains, but the gains of the soy bean lot were much better than those of the corn lot. Running right by the side of the soy bean lot was a lot of pigs which were grazing sorghum, but otherwise treated the same in every 45 respect, yet the sorghum lot made a daily gain of only .37 of a pound. The corn required to make an hundred pounds gain was reduced from 456 pounds in the case of corn alone to 157 pounds when the corn was supplemented by the soy bean pasture, and the cost of producing the pork was reduced in the same proportion. It was noticed that the pigs which grazed upon the soy beans were always contented; they sent the greater part of their time in lying down. The pigs just across the fence, which were grazing the sorghum, were never contented or at rest; it could plainly be seen thaL they wanted something in addition to the corn and sorghum. The above table shows that .28 of an acre of soy beans was equal to 299 pounds of corn, or an acre was equal in feeding value to, or capable of taking the place of, 19.1 bushels of corn. As noted elsewhere, the crop of soy beans as not a good one, as the beans were cut short on accouun of extreme drought at the time of maturing. This crop is a very economical and easy one to put in and cultivate; it is good to use it as a catch crop after oats, thus saving the ground from lying idle during the summer months, and at the same time securing a crop equal to, and in many ways superior to a corn crop. In this way, the farmer secures two crops from the same land each year, cheapens pork production very greatly, and builds up the fertility of his soil rapidly. If the soil be goad much better results can be secured than reported above, :, the soil upon which this crop was grown was a poor sands one. 46 TABLE 7. Sorghum pasture versus Soy Bean pasture. Corn ............ Sorghum past'r Corn-..... 437 Corn 6 6 .37 1.02 73 .57 acre sorghum $5. 46; 1.96 Soy bean past'r .77 157 Corn .28 acre soy beans The soy bean pasture is far above the sorghum pasture both il the daily gains made and also to the economy'of the gains. The daily gains were about three-times as rapid when the beau pasture was used as when the sorghum pasture was- used, and the cost of making one hundred pounds of gain was reduced from $5.46 in the case of sorghum to $1.96 when soy beans were used as a supplementary pasture. The soy bean pasture also had a much greater carrying capacity than did sorghum pasture; that is an acre of soy beans will usually carry a certain number of hogs a much longer time than 8. will an acre of sorghum. COW PEAS TABLE (SEED) AS FOOD FOR HLOGS. Corn alone versus Corn 1-2 plus Cowpeas 1-2. ( 0 ~~00 Lbs. Lbs. Corn alone ..... 4 .7 63 Lbs. 48Cr $5.97 Corn 1-2........ Cowpeas 1.2 ... 4 .93 67 187 Corn 208 Cowpeas 5.11 47 Under the conditions as they existed in this test it was a profitable thing to supplement corn with cowpeas. cowpeas at 80 cents a bushel there was a saving of 86 cents for each hundred pounds of pork made through the use of the cowpeas. Peas at the present writing (July, 1908) are not as cheap as theF were in 1905-'06. Under the test above ed peas would have been a profitable supplement to have added to the corn ration until they reached $1.05 per bushel, and then it would have been better to have fed corn $.70 a bushel. When cowpeas are maintained at alone price they must be fed more sparingly than they a high were i this experiment. In some previous work done at this Station* in the value of cowpeas as a feed for swine, one lot of hogs was fed upon a ration consisting of cowpeas alone. It was learned that vhen corn and cowpeas were fed separately and alone that they were practically equal in feeding value, but that when a ration was composed of one-half corn and lEne-half cowpeas the result due to feeding this mixture *was mtuch more satisfactory than when feeding either alone. The results were as follows: mating Esti- T as report- at testing TABLE 9. Corn and Cowp eas separatelyiversus Corn plus Cowpeas 1-2. 1-2 wIo Lb. Corn alone Lbs. 487 0 ......... ............................. .. .46 $6.09 Cowpeas alone ................................. Corn 1-2, Cowpeas 1-2....................... Corn 1-2, Wheat .59 .62 481 433 521 6.41 5.60 7.05 brand 44 .. .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . .60 Bulletin No. 82, 1897. **Wheat bran valued at 4 $30.00 per ton. 48 i'his table also points out the fact.that cowpeas.were very niuel more efficient than wheat bran as a feed for swine. TANKAGE. While tankage has not been used very extensively in the South as a hog feed, still it deserves a prominent place ainoung the concentrated feeds which are usually to the feed pens from sources outside the farm. It is a byproduct of the packing houses. It is very high in both and protein just the two constituents in which corn is deficient-so it is an exceptionally good feed to use in conjunction with corn. It is somewhat similar to cotton seed meal iii composition but has the advantage over cotton in that there is no danger in its use as a hog feed. It is a very rich feed,.so should be used sparingly; in these tests it made up but one-tenth of the whole ration as, .rule. The results secured through its use are tabulated below : brought as- seed meal TAELE 10. Con alone versus Corn 9-10, Tankage 1-10. z cD Corn alone ... Corn 9-10 ..... Tankage 1-10.... 6 6 Lbs. Lbs. 73 .60 1.04 69 Lbs. 574.7 Corn 352 Corn 39.2 Tankage $7.18 5.18 The tankage and corn meal were fed together as a rather thin slop. ditions as This feed is very palatable. When corn was re- inforced by the use of tankage it was found, under the con- they existed in this test, that 39.2 pounds of tankage were equal to, or 'took the place of, 222 pounds of the 222 pounds 39.2 pounds of tankage cost corn. thus a saving of $2 was realized upon of corn cost The $2.78; $.78; 49 each 100 pounds of pork produced by adding tankage to corn. The test was carried on for 91 days, and it was noticed that those pigs which received corn alone made smaller and smaller gains as the experiment progressed, but the animals which received the tankage in addition to the corn made larger and larger gains as the time went on. The corn lots would have tired of their ration long before they did had it not been for the fact that they always had all the salt, coal and lime before them that they wished to make use of. It was thought that if the proportion of tankage were increased to more than one-tenth of the ration that enough corn might be saved to make up for the extra tankage used. This was tried in a short test where all the conditions of previous feeding favored the lot on the high proportion of tankage; that is, the lot of pigs which received the high tankage ration had just been taken off of a peanut pasture, which insured very rapid gains for at least a short time, while the lot which received the one-tenth ration of tankage had not been upon a pasture at all, but had been fed a uniform dry ration since the beginning of the test. TABLE 11. A one-tenth ration of Tankage versus a one- fifth ration of Tankage. 0 4 Corn 9-10 .............. Tankage 1-10 ...... Lbs. Lbs. 1.26 120 .31.9 Lbs. 350 Corn Tankage 274 Corn 67.3 Tankage $5.01 Corn 4-5 .............. 1.83 142 4 Tankage 1-5 .......... 4.77 By the addition of 35.4 pounds of tankage to the ration 50 for each hundred pounds gain a saving of 76 pounds of corn was secured. This additional tankage cost $.71 and the value of the corn saved as a result of the addition of the tankage amounted to $.96-or a saving of $.24 on each one hundred pounds of the pork was realized. But it must be remembered that the previous management of the hogs placed the heavy tankage lot at an advantage,-how much, it is impossible to say. As tankage is a comparatively new feed to the Alabama farmer it is appropriate to present the following table, so there can be seen at a glance its composition as compared to our more common feeds: TABLE 12. Average composition of some common feeds. zDigestible w. Nutriment in 100 lbs. Corn ------------------------ 93.0 31.7 15.3 4.3 Cowpeas ------------------91.8 Oats -----------------89.0 Cotton seed meal ---------- - 85.2 Tankage ---------------COTTON 89.4 SEED 37.2 9.2 16.9 47.3 1.1 4.2 18.3 7.8 54.2 66.7 12.2 13.6 MEAL. The deaths that sometimes occur through feeding cotton seed meal deter the majority of farmers from using it as a feed for swine. There is no Southern feed to compare with it as a supplement to corn so far as fattening and finishing is concerned. But there is a risk to run, and the man who feeds it has this risk to shoulder. During the last three years this Station has had about fifty hogs upon cottoa seed meal rations fed in various proportion with corn, extending over periods from 28 to 188 days in length. Some of the meal has been fermented and some of it has been fed unfermented. During the first two years above reported the meal was fermented twenty four hours ond 51 before being fed, then mixd with corn meal so as to make a thin slop of about the consistency of thick butter milk and given to the animals. The meal was fed sweet in 1907'08. No pigs were lost at all during the first and the last year's experimentation, but during the progress of the second year's work several pigs died that had previously been fed on fermented cotton seed meal. However, during the three years' work not a pig died while he was actually eating the cotton seed meal; the deaths occured immediately, or within a few days, after a lot of pigs which had been upon a ration of two-thirds corn and one-third cotton seed meal plus sorghum pasture, had been taken out and put upon a peanut pasture plus a corn ration only. That is, the deaths occured-four of them-from one to eight days after the cotton seed meal ration had been discontinued. The animals all died with the characteristic symptoms of cotton seed meal poisoning. Aside from the deaths that may occur, cotton seed meal is a good feed, as will be shown later. It has even now one safe place at least in our swine feeding operations, namely, to be used in a short finishing period when hogs have been taken off of a pasture crop. The following table presents in a tabulated form the average of two year's work with cotton seed meal when both the corn lot and the cotton seed meal lot were fed without any pasture crop. TABLE 13. Corn alone versus Corn 2-3, Cotton Seed Meal 1-3 0 . ri .. , 1P a o Corn alone ........... Corn 2-3 ............. C. S. Meal 1-3....... 11 11 Lbs. Lbs. .65 78.5 1.00 Lbs. 590 303 Corn 157 C. S. Meal $7 38 5.75 77. 52 Not i pig in this particular experiment died while being fed either fresh or fermented cotton seed meal; on the other hand they made good gains, maintained their health throughout, and always had keen appetites for the next feed. Considering the size of the pigs the gains were very satisfactory when the cotton seed meal was used, and the increase in weight was made very much more economically than was the case in the corn lot.- The tests show that 151 pounds of cotton seed meal are equal to, or took the place of, seed meal when 287 pounds of corn; or one pound of fed in combination with corn meal in the above proportion was equal to 1.9 pounds of corn. fed thus the cotton seed meal becomes a highly valuable and cheap feed-provided no, deaths occur as a result of its use. The above tests extended over a period of 1102 days. cotton When TABLE 14. Corn alone versus Corn 1-3 plus Cotton See heal 1-3 versus Corn. 9-10 plus Tankage 1-10 o Tak 0. 0 z c U2' S C 9 r -0. ........ 5 .4C r Corn alo Cornily 2.3 C.e S.meal en o a1.3 ha etnk.6 g7e54.Cnaigcraeul 4.95eaer we.18 h263.8rCoprtonofma.Tectn ma6e103069o131.9oC.porkMalit un69e39.2nTankage thankage 1he10 ankage..s6o1.04 was made for $4.95 when the cotton seed meal was used, 53 but the same one hundred pounds increase in weight cost $5.18 when the tankage was used. No deaths occurred in either lot, but there was some danger of deaths in the cotton seed meal lot while there was no danger at all of any deaths in the tankage lot. between the two There was pratically no difference rations so far as daily gains were concerned, both feeds making extremely satisfactory gains. These tests extended over a period of 91 days. GENERAL VIEW OF RESULTS OF THREE YEARS' FEEDING EXPERIMENTS. The following table is a summary by periods of the feed fed, the average daily gains, the feed required for one hundred pounds gain, and the cost of one hundred pounds gain each year. Each period is tabulated separately. It should be noted that while this is expressed by periods that some of the lots ran through all three of the periods without a change in feed. Lots five and six during the first two years continued through all three periods without a change. Lots four, five and six were all fed in dry lots and no changes at all were made in their ration: Table 15.-Summary of rations, gains, feed required for One Hundred pounds gain, and cost of one hundred pous 1905---06 PERIOD I (........) PERIOD II (Sep. 21-Nov. 10,'05) Feed required p cq c a a 0 Ob be ;"-- gain for the three years PERIOD III oa (Nov. 10-Dec. 15,'05) ar.Feed required pelOlsgi U au~db No. Lot RATION o. v r be v Scc t Lbs C asn Us perlO1sal RATION b.; aRT > , a Feed required t .0barain l oncentrates o Ancen b tates 0 0 ac -" r Strates Lbs As $ Peanut pasture Corn Peanut Pasture Corn Peanut Pasture Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Sorghum Juice Cowpeas 2-3 Corn 1-3 Cowpeas 2-3 Corn 1-3 Lbs Lbs .841191 Corn AcslLbsI .087.$2.38 Corn only Corn 23 Lbs .711587 Corn 83171 USMea 384Corn 192 C.S.Meal 1.01380 Corn 190 C.S.Meal 360Corn 180 Cowpeas .66 Corn 554 342 Corn Acs 1$ 7.34 6 2 3 4 .98 164 Corn C. S. Meal 1-3 Corn Meal 23 Meal 1-3 ,9910- Corn .08 53C.S.Meal Acr 1.11 207 Cowpeas 103 Corn(Cowpeas 1 4.03 C. S. Sorghum juice Corn 2-3 1-3 1-3 7.23 690 6.92 91 264 Corn(Cowpeas5185Corn 2-3.90 .1132 Cowpeas .67560 Corn 1906-07 7.00 Corn only 6 Corn only Period 1 (Aug. 8-Sep. 26, '06 Soiled Srhm.8 Co r n C Period II (Sep. 26-Oct. 24,'06 atr C or n Period III (Oct. 24-Nov. 28,'06 Corn only C o r n 2 3a2 2-3 . M eal 1 3 . 1 9 0 C .S .M ea l Corn '4157 C.S.Meal 9 250 Corn onPau 1.60 573C orn 215C o r n7 71 2 GrzdSrhm314 Con23CS.Meal 1-3 Corn 2-3 C.S el1-3 Corn 2-3 Penut Pasture -15 0' 8 Cor 8 or' A.6 Peanut Pasture I~9 1 16 6 Corn .96 Corn .72930 30.138 .24 $ 2.43 125 C.S.Meal ~Cornr 3 9 C S Meal 1-31 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 aancn Pasture .4 8 .91 5 110 C.S.Meal a 893 Corn j 196 C.S MealN ba 103 C.S.Meal 0 on o ) 6 41 a 7.36 .1 . Sogujae.15 C.S,.Meal S. '9 77 18 212 Corn C.S.Meal .76 483 Corn Meal 1-3 on "1429 112 9 Chufa Corn Corn 2-3 C. S. Meall1-3 .97 206 Corn 3.86 C.or.Meal-3 C.S el13106 7Corn2.3 CS Meal 1-3 96 366 Corn6 183 C.S.Meal .89 516 Corn 86 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 6.45 Corn only 202 C.S.Meal .42 0 ta~ 6 Corn only 6.03 Corn only 1195 Corn 14.93 1907-08 Period 'l (Sept. 6-Oct. 2, 07 I Period 11 (Oct. 2-Nov. 8, 07) Peric)d 111 (Nov. 8-Dec. 5, '07 Corn 4-5 Tankage 1-5 1.3371 Corn 1.68 Tankage 3334 C.S.Meal 1 117 Corn 1 1.35 353 Corn 1 3 3.73 4.39 4.44 5.20 7.09 .461838 Corn 10.47 1 Soy Bean Pasture Corn Grazed Sorghum Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 Grazed Sorghum Corn 4 Corn 9-10 STankagel1-10 5 1.02 162 Corn .51 206 Corn 103 C.S.Meal 37336 Corn 332 .93 57 Corn Tankage 336 Corn 1.01 118 C.S. Meal .78 462 Corn .28$2.02 Peanut Pasture Coin Peanut Pasture .37 3.86 Corn .57 5.57 Peanut Pasture Corn Corn 9-10 4.89 Tankage 1-10 Corn 2.3 4,42 CS. Meal 1-3 5.77 Corn only I 1 1.04r 1.14 195 Corn .241 2.25 C.S Meal 1-3 Corn only 5.66 Corn 9-10 1-10 Tankage 4.61 Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 7.76 Corn only .96 l 480 Corn 43 Tankage Corn Corn C. S. Meal 1-3 6 t 2-3 1.08. 246 123 C.S.Meal Corn only 1 ri vvr 490 lbs S983 lbs 435 lbs Sorghum Juice.- This area represents the average for both periods. The cane from which the juice was extracted was the large Florida. Sorghum juice. Sorghum juice. I ~V I .53 621 Corn I I LI I ~ 56 As a general thing both the rapid gains and the cheap gains were made when the hogs received some kind of pasture crop in addition to, the corn. The best kind of green crops were the leguminous crops, peanuts and soy beans. As far as these experiments show, sorghum has but little value to recommend it as a green crop for finishing hogs-unless abundance of labor should permit the crop to be economically cut and hauled to the animals. Pigs when no larger than those used in these tests cannot graze it to any advantage. Chufas proved more satisfactory than sorghum. Table No. 15, in a way also shows the relative stands or yields of peanuts during the three years. The first year but .08 of an acre was required to make 100 pounds of gain, as against .89 of an :acre for the third year, or the yield the first year was about ten times as great as that of the third year. One acre of the various green crops carried 10 hogs (fed a half ration of concentrates) for the following length of time : One acre of peanuts carried 10 hogs (Av. 3 years) 53 days. One acre of sorghum carried 10 hogs (1906-'07) 153 days.* One acre of sorghum carried 10 hogs (1907-'08) 46.6 dayst. One acre of chufas carried 10 hogs (1906-'07) 32.3 days. One acre of soy beans carried 10 hogs (1907 '08) 34.4 days. Since grain was fed with each crop the length of time that an acre was pastured does not indicate the relative value of an acre of the several crops. It must be remembered that in all of the above cases the hogs received in addition to the green crop, some corn. If the corn had not been fed, of course, it would have required larger areas of green crops to get the same results By taking an average of the three years' work it is seen that peanut pasture has a greater carrying capacity than any of the iother green crops used. * Sorghum was cut and carried to the hogs which were fed in a dry lot. tSorghum grazed. 57 SHALL HOGS WI-IICH HAVE BEEN GRAZED UPON GREEN CROPS BE FINISHED IN A DtY LOT UPON GRAIN ? The majority of the farmers of the State who make use of greea crops for fattening hogs sell the hogs directly upon the market when the crop is exhausted without finishing them upon grain for a short time in a dry lot. A study of period 3 (table 15) will throw some light upon this practice; it will help to determine whether it is profitable to feed in a dry lot for a few days upon grain alone. There are some contra fictions when the three years' work are compared. The work of the first year favors selling hogs directly off the green crops; that is, the finishing period of thirty five days of dry lot feeding was a losing proposition in all cases for this year. In fact the hogs which had been fed in a dry lot throughout the entire test went through the finishing period more economically than did those hogs which had grazed peanuts for fifty days previous to the finishing period. But during the last two years' work those hogs which had been previously grazed upon a green crop made their gains in the third period more cheaply than did those which had never .been given the run of a pasture crop. During the second year's third period money was lost in the case of two lots, 1 and 3, (previously pasturing peanuts) the gains when feeding in dry lots costing from $7.16 to $5.39 per hundred, and these gains could be sold for only $5.00 per hundred on the local market. If these hogs could have been put upon some of the larger markets in the South there would probably have been some profit even in these two lots. In all lots in 1907-'08, where the hogs were finished for a period of twenty eight days after taking off of peanuts, the subsequent period of dry lot feeding was found to be exceedingly profitable. During this year's work the lots which had previously been upon peanuts made unusually large gains, and made these gains economically. While the results are not all in agreement, yet they seem to indicate that it is more often profitable to finish 58 hlogs upon dry feeds rather than to sell directly from pasture sa. In all three years' work cotton seed meal was found to be a very valuable feed with which to supplement corn for finishing hogs after they had been grazed upon a green crop,-in fact the most valuable of any so far tried. That is, these finishing gains can be made more cheaply through the use of cotton seed meal combined with corn than by the use of corn alone, or corn supplemented with tankage. Cotton 'seed meal is an excellent feed for fattening purposes. On the average the data show that corn and cotton seed meal can be used very profitably as a short finishing feed. In other words it is usually advisable to combine corn and cotton seed meal and to dispose of some of the corn on the farm by feeding during a short finishing period, say 20 days, after the hogs have been taken off of the peanut pasture, because usually more than 70 cents a bushel can be realized upon the corn by this practice. It might not be a wise thing to keep the hogs upon this feed for as long as twenty-eight days, as deaths may occur from feeding the cotton seed meal for this length of time. In these tests no animal's have died from feeding cotton seed meal for 28 days during the finishing period. It will be perfectly safe to use the cotton seed meal for at least twenty days. There is another advantage to be gained by finishing hogs for a short period after taking them 'off of green crops, namely, better prices can be realized for them when placed upon the market. The hog looks better, and is actually worth more to the consumer or packer, as hlie is fatter and will dress out a higher per cent of good marketable meat than if he had been sold directly from the pasture. The corn-fed hog has a decided advantage in all the Southern markets. In ihis connection the point should not be overlooked how extremely expensive the gains become along about the last month of feeding when hogs are being fattened upon corn alone, running from $7.00 a hundred in one case to 59 per hundred increase in live weight in anothabout er case. When hogs have been grazed upon peanuts, and certain othe. green pastures, there is yet another advantage to be gained in feeding them upon dry feeds a short time before selling. It is well known that peanuts soften the meat very much, so that it is not as acceptable to many butchers and to the packers as the animals that have been fed upon grain alone, This soft meat can be hardened very materially, if the hogs are fed upon grains only for a short period after the peanuts are exhausted. Corn i's good; corn in combination with cotton seed meal is better than corn alune, as the addition of some cotton seed meal to the ration renders the meat hard more rapidly than when corn alone is used. SUMMARY OF AVERAGE RESULTS FOR THREE YEARS. $15.00 In table number sixteen is brought together the summary, or average, of the experimental work for three years. The average shows that large gains and cheap gains go with the use of green crops and that the best green crops are the legumes. The table also demonstrates strikingly that small gains and the high priced gains go with the use of corn exclusively. Every supplement used with corn cheapened the gains, no matter whether it was a pasture supplement or another concentrateexcept when the cost of putting in and cultivating the crops was charged against the gains, when sorghum and chufa pastures were found to be of no advantage. In comparing lots 2 and 3 there seems to be an apparent contradiction to the data presented heretofore; that is table No. 14 taught that cotton seed meal produced gains more economically than did the tankage, while in this table the cheaper gains seem to have been made with tankage. This is due to the fact that the data for lot 2 in the present table are a summary of two years' work, while in table 14 only the last year's test was used, so that a direct comparison could be made between the cotton seed 60 Tale 16. Average total summary of 1905-'06 ;-1906-'07; 5.1 1907-'CS.tz 0 rii Feed Required Per 100 lbs. Gain .10b Fee" Ui2 - I 1 Corn only.... Corn 2-3. C. S. Meal 15 L bs .69 1.04 Lbs. 611 Corn 303 Corn 157 C. S. Meal 352 Corn. 38 T .nkage 187 Corn 207 Cowpeas 183 Corn. I I > : A cre $7.63 5.75 2 3 4 1.3..6 4 32 Corn 9-10. Tankage 1-10... Corn 1-2. Cowpeas 1-2... *Corn........ 1.04 5.18 5.11 .44 .94 1.01 1.00 .37 2.28 5 Peanut pasture *Corn Meal 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3... 6 4 107 Corn 51 Peanut pasture Corn........ Sorghum past'r Corn 2-3. 6 C. S. Meal .08 .57 1.97 5.36- 437 Ccrn 8 9 C. S. Meal 1-3 11 .46 .72 Sorghum past'r Corn. ............ Chufa pasture. 259 Corn 129 C. S. Meal 305 .26 .41 .28 4.85 Corn 3.81 1.96 . Corn... Soy bean past'r 11 6 1.02 158 Corn Corn Meal 2-3.. C. S. Meal 1-3.. Soiled sorghum 181 Corn 5 .75 90 C. S. Meal .13 3.39 *Lots 5 and 6 are not comparable. It would seem, on the face, lot that the addition of cotton seed meal to the corn and peanut ration worked wonders, but this cannot be compared to takes in. all the years, (and the last two years had very poor stands), while the data in lot 6 were obtained only in 1905 when the stand of peanuts was extra good. Wa2ss of putting in and cultivating the pasture crops not taken into consideration. 5 as lot 5 61 meal and the tankage. Table 14 is more reliable on this single point than the present table. The results from the use of the chufa pasture has not been discussed so far, as so few animals were used that any conclusions drawn could not be relied upon absolutely. But, looking at lot 9, it is seen that the daily gains made apon the chufa pasture, while not as good as those made upon eoy bean and peanut pastures, are much better than those made when sorghum was used. It is also seen that the chufa pasture saved corn. COST OF GAINS WHEN MANURAL VALUE AND EXPENSE OLD PUTTING IN AND CULTIVATING THE CROPS ARE CONSIDERED. In the above table there has been no expense charged against the hogs on account of putting in and cultivating the pasture crops. Neither has there been any credit given to Ihe soil by reason of there having been grown upon it leguminous crops. The manure dropped by the animals while grazing the crops has not been credited to the soil. Of course there is no figure which will express the exact cost of putting in a crop under all conditions, as conditions vary with different localities. Neither are there any exact figures to tell just how much good will come to the soil as a result of growing a leguminous crop; this varies with different soils and with many other conditions. So the following estimate is based upon the approximate average cost of putting in crops upon the Station farm, and the fertilizing value of a leguminous crop is based upon work done here and reported in previous bulletins. The cost of putting in and cultivating each acre of the various crops, counting labor at eighty cents a day and one man with one mule at one dollar a day, was approximateas follows: vly PEANUTS: To To one bushel seed-----------------------------$ 1.90 1.50 commercial fertilizer -------------------------- 64 To To To To To To breaking the land--------------------------harrowing the land-----------------------------.20 putting down the seed and fertilizer--------------1.00 cultivating three times-------------------------1.20 hoeing one time------------------------------.80 rent or interest-------------------------------2.00 Total cost of each acre-------------------------$9.60 By assumed increase in next year's crop due to fertilizer effect of peanuts and grain fed (partly based on Alabama Bulletins 120 and 137)--------------$ 7.50 Net cost of one acre peanuts------------------$ 2.10 SOY BEANS: ----------------------------- $2.20 To one bushel seed To commercial fertilizer--------------------------1.50 To breaking the land------------------------------1.00 To harrowing the land------------------------------.20 To putting down the seed and fertilizer--------------1.00 To cultivating four times---------------------------1.60 To hoeing one time--------------------------------.80 To rent or interest------------------------------2.00 Total cost of each acre---------------------$10.30 By assumed increase in next year's crop due to 7.50 ing effect of peanuts and grain fed-----------$ fertiliz- Net cost one acre soy beans--------------------$ 2.80 SORGHUM: To one-half bushel seed-------------------------$ .75 To commercial fertilizer--------------------------5.00 To breaking the land----------------------------1.00 To harrowing the land---------------------------- .20 To putting down the seed and fertilizer-- -- -- -- -- -- --. 75 To cultivating four times-------------------- ------ 1.60 2.00 To rent or interest on land - -------------Total cost of each acre ----------------------- $11.30 (No credit for soil improvement) CHUFAS : To To To To To To To one peck'of seed-------------------------------$ 100 commercial fertilizer --------------------------5.00 breaking the land----------------------------- 1.00 harrowing, the land ----------------------------.20 putting down the seed and fertilizer -- -- -- -- -- -- - -1.00 cultivating four times --------------------------1.60 hoeing one time -------------------------------- .80 rent or interest on land ------------------------2.00 Total cost of each acre chufas------------:- -- - -- $12.60 To ((No credit for soil improvements). 63 Counting the expense of putting in and cultivatin the green crops as above, the cost of making one hundrcd pounds gain on the hogs in each one the lots was as follows: of TABLE 1.7. Lot L-_Corn alone---------------------------7.63 Lot 2---C. S. Meal 13--------------------------5.75 Corn 2-3 Lot 3-Corn 9-10 Tankage 1-10 _______________---------t5.18 Lot 4--Corn 1-2 Cowpeas-2 --------------------------5.11 Lot 5--Corn Peanut pasture------------------------*3.20 Lot 6--Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 13------------------------*2.14 Peanut pasture Lot 7--Corn Sorghum pa!rture-------------------..9 Lot S- Corn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3 --------- 7.79 Lot Sorghum pasture 9 -Corn Chufa pasture ----------- -8.98 Lot 10 Lot Corn Soy Beans-------------------------1 -iCorn 2-3 C. S. Meal 1-3- -----------------------Soiled sorghunm 2.74 t14.86 When all expenses are charged against putting in these green crops, it is seen that sorghum makes a very poor showing, even inferior to corn when fed alone. Looked at from every point of view it seems that mature sorghum (pastu~red) has place as a feed for finishing swine. It seems that it iuight, under certain conditions where labor can contracted and secured cheaply, be a profitable no be *Lots 50and 6 not to be compared; see foot note to Table 16. (Date, for one year only. thing to grow sorghum and cut it when ripe and carry it to the hogs. In lot II, where it was so handled economical gains were made; but the labor of cutting the sorghym and carryil:g it to the hogs has not been included in the estimate. The hogs made very much more economical use of the sorghum as far as 'the sorghum itself was concerned, when it was cut and fed to them in a dry lot than when they were permitted to graze it, that is, the waste was not so great in soiling sorghum. The chufa pasture also made a very poor showing, but the gains were somewhat cheaper than when the sorghum Neither sorghum nor chufas are pasture was used. legumes. The greatest profits were made when a leguminous crop was used to supplement the corn. In fact, in all cases where either peanuts or soy beans were used profits were realized even if no credit be given for the improvement of the soil. The results in lot 6 more nearly represents what the farmer can expect from the use of peanuts than those with iot 5, as lot 6 represents only one year's experiment, when there was a good stand of the nuts, while lot 5 is an average of all the three years' work, which includes two years of very poor crops. 65 TABLE 18. Financial Statement. (Sunmary'1900-06 1906-'107, 1907-'08.) t z zo( a .p-t- *O o Ui Cd re o .- o C (D vpivp o) (D 0C + -o C e op (_1,D~ 1 2 Corn only......... 15 $ 56.30 $59.60$111.50$i97.90$18.00 $-1.20$ 42.20 2085 54.15 24.49 96.35 45.35 29.63 90.65-5.70 44.35-.99 27.00 199.00 21.80 25.85 55.75 20.05 34.00 30.00 .4 .59 .66 .47 11 Corn 2-3. C. S. Meal 1-3.. orn9-10. Tankage 1-10.. Corn .51 .16 - 3 4 S 6 4 orn 1-2 Cowpeas .... 1-2 1-2._ ......... 13.50 16.13 142.20 2.63 30.80 6.00 .36 .29 1.32 6.54 4.25 .65 Cern......32 Peanut past'r.. Corn 2-3 ........ .6 C. S. Meal 1-3 Peannt past'r.. 7 :8 y 10 11 26.10 168.20 3.95 4.26 10.46 2.33 4.26 15.80 26.21 55.46 18.73 27.46 25.75 .96 tl.53 1.50 .06 .03 .44 1.09 .85 4 11.85 21 95 45.00 16.40 23.20 20.70 2.30 .64 .72 1.10 1.80 1.58 Corn...........6 Graz' dsorgh'rn Corn 2.3 . C. S. Meal 1-3 11 Graz'd sorgh'm Corn .................. Chufa past'r... Con........ Soy bean past'r Corn 2-3.... C. S. Meal 1-3 3 6 5 Soiled sorgh'm *Labor of cutting and 5.05 hauling is not included. tAnd the, other feeds as ifuoted on page 6. tLots 5 and 6 are not comparable; see note to. Table. 16. ttTaking no account of the cost of growing the pasture crops. From the financial statement ill table 18 it is seen that when corn is worth 70 cents a bushel, cotton seed meal $25.00 per ton, tankage $40.00 a ton, and cowpeas 80 cents a bushel, some of the lots made good profits, while other lots were fed a financial loss. That is, some' of the lots of- hogs returned More than. the market price for the feeds used while some of the lots did not make gains economical- at 66 ly enough so that the usual market prices for corn and the other grains used could be realized. By the use of certain combinations of feeds it was a very profitable thing to do to dispose of the corn by means of feeding hogs; more was made by thus disposing of it than if it had been sold directly upon the market at 70 cents a bushel; when the corn was fed incorrectly, or not judiciously, money was lost by feeding it to the hogs. Lot 1, the corn lot, made the greatest loss of any of the pens; lot 6 made the largest profits. The corn lot lost $1.20 per pig. This was a very heavy loss for the pigs weighed but 130 pounds each. From a financial standpoint i- proved to be advisable to supplament the corn ration with cotton seed meal and tankage. The ration of corn one-half plus cowpeas one-half was not as profitable as when corn was supplemented with the cotton seed meal or tankage, there being a loss upon each pig of $.65 when fed on cowpeas and corn. It is but fair to state that under present conditions, and in fact since 1905, the financial showing in lot 4, where corn and cowpeas were fed would not be as good as the above data repres nt, for when the test was made the cowpeas were purchased for 80 cents a bushel, and have been so figured in the financial statement, but it has been impossible to purchase them for the above price since that date. Where pasture crops were used in combination with grain good profits were made possible-that is, more than 70 cents a bushel was realized upon corn from the feeding operations. This last table does not include the cost of putting in and cultivating the green crops, neither does it take into consideration the value to the land in having the pigs graze upon it. But if the manurial value be eliminated altogether and the pigs be charged with the cost of putting in and tending the crops it is still found that excellent profits were made when peanuts and soy bean pastures were used, but when chufa and sorghum pastures were used money was lost. The legumes made the best showing by far. In fact, when the cost of putting in the crops is 67 charged against the hogs the sorghum lots lost more money than did the lots upon corn alone. This table again emphasizes the fact that money cannot be ma'.de by finishing hogs through the use of corn alone. The farmer cannot expect to sell his corn for 70 cents a bushel through hogs when the hogs have nothing else to eat except the corn-that is, he cannot do it when the hogs sell at five cents per pound live weight. The farmer could not afford to feed corn alone, no matter how high hogs might sell, for much more could be made out of the corn by combinng it with some other feeds, either green or concentrat ied. The last column in table 18 brings out some valuable points; here we find tabulated the prices which were obtained for each bushel of corn fed. In lot 1, where corn alone was fed, but $.48 per bushel was realized by feeding the corn to the hogs. When corn was supplemented with cotton seed:meal and tankage the corn was sold through the hogs for $.59 and $.66 respectively. That is, through feeding tankage with corn the value of the corn was increase.1 18 cents a bushel. The greatest value was gotten from the corn when it was fed in connection with the leguminous crops, peanuts and soy beans; in these cases the prices received for the corn varied from $1.53 per bushel up to $1.80 per bushel. 1\Much more was made out of the corn when it was fed in connection with a leguminoiis crop than would have been made had it been sold directly upon the market. PROFITS REALIZED WHEN HOGS WERE SOLD AT VARYING PRICES. The preceding table represents the profits and losses just as they actually occured at Auburn under the local market conditions. The hogs were bought for 5 cents a pound live weight and sold for 5 cents, upon the local market after being fed for from 84 to 112 days. If the hogs could have been placed upon Montgomery, Mobile, Birmingham, or New Orleans markets they would have 68 brought from 6 to 7 1--2 cents per pound on foot. So to illustrate what would have been made or lost under these varying conditions the following table is attached : TABLE 19. Profits realized when~ hogs are sold at various prices.t Profits per Pig when bought at 5~per and sold at:- (after feeding from 84-112 days) a ON 0 lb. z 0 _ 1 ,Corn alone.... ......CVorn 2-3 ............ 2 (CC. IS, Meal 1-3 ... 3 ITankage -1.201$--.551 II-1 $ il1l $ .751 $1.,411 $2.06 2.781 3.60 -. 51 I .311 I 1.131 1.951 [Corn 9-10............I 1-10 ....... 2.791 3.53 4 Co.-ii1-2............. ICowpeas 1-2......... -. 651 .021 .691 2.211 1.331' 2.831 2.041 2.72 4.07 LCorrn..... ............ 5 IPeanut pasture:... I .961 1.581 *6 IC. S. Meal 1-3........I Peanut pasture.. Corn....... Corn 2-3 ............ 3.661 4.20 .......... 7 (Grazed sorghum. 2-3 ............ . I I 5 I. n An 1.781 2.121 2.21 2.62 S IC. Meal 1-3... Grazed sorghum. .S. Corn .041 A ti .541 1.041 1.581 i (Corn................. I 9 (Chufs Corn pasture........ oI 3.76 ................. pasture. 10 (Soy bean 11 1.091. 1.651 .851 1.451 2.211 2.051 2.771 2.651 3.3 3.89 IC. Corn 2-3 ............ S. Meal 1-3... Soiled sorghum..I 5 3.301 3.95 Il I tdost of putting in crop: not taken into account. *Lots5 and 6 are not comparable. 69 TABLE 20. Prices realized upon each bushel hogs were sold at various prices. of corn when Price Actually Realiized for Corn per Bushel when the Ho were bought.. at 5 cts. an d. sold at ogs o _ __ _ 1-Kr cnn o0 cU) n) --r N) n, 1 Corn 'alone Corn 2-3. 2 C. S. Meal ........ 1-3. $ .48! $ .60! $ .72! bI S .84 $ .'96!1.08 1.13! 1.38! 1.49 1.21 [,Corn 9-10........ 3 (Tankage 1-10........ 1.10! 2.33912.9213.95 1.19! 3.03! 4.101 1.43! 1 !Co;n 1-2......... 4 !Cowpeas 1-2......... *5Corn..... ............ *(Peanut pasture.. (Corn 1.67 3.534.03 4.65 5.28 *6 IC. S. 2-3............ Meal Peanut pasture. 1-3... 1 I Corn 2-3............ 7 Sorghum pasture (Corni 2-3............. 8!1C. S. Meal 1-3.. I I 2.74 Sorghum pasture... 1.51 2.28 1.8 I 2 .40! 4.96 3.52 I ! ! 4.15 9 IChufa Corn............ pasture........I .... 1 ! Cor1n................. 10 Soy bean pasture Corn 2-3 ............ 11 IC. S. Meal 1_3 ... .. I 4.60 4.68 Soiled sorghum.. *Lots 5 and 6 are not comparable. tCo t green crop not considered. If the hogs could have been sold at 6 cents a pound instead of at 5 cents a pound, every lot,. even the corn lot would have been fed at a profit. Even when- sold at 5 1-2 70 cents a pound all lots except the corn lot were profitably fed. In these tests when the hogs were bought at five cents per pound and fattened and sold at five cents per pound, but 48 cents was realized per bushel for corn when corn was fed alone.. This is about 22 cents a bushel less than could be secured for the corn if it had been sold directly upon tLe market. But when pigs were bought at five cents a pound and sold at seven cents a pound 96 cents was realized upon each bushel of corn even when nothing but corn alone was used. But in every case where corn was fed in combination with some other feed a better price was secured for the corn when neither the manurial value nor the cost of putting in the crop were considered; that is, corn was made more cfficient by the addition of the various supplements. For instance in lot 5, where peanut pasturage was the supplement, $1.53 was realized upon each bushel of corn (not counting cost of pasture crops) when hogs were bought at fiv, cents and sold at the same price, and $3.53 was realized upon each bushel of corn when they were bought at five cents and sold at seven cents per pound live weight. This table brings out the point distinctly that when hogs sell as they have been selling in the South for the last few years that the farmer cannot afford to sell his corn upon the market at 70 cents per bushel, or even at $1.00 per bushel. The best and most profitable way to sell corn is to combine it with some other feed and sell it through hogs or some other live stock. SLAUGHTER DATA. In many parts of the State the local butchers quote the dressed weights of the hogs two cents higher than the live weight. For instance upon the Auburn market for the last three years the farmers have been given the choice of selling their hogs either at 5 cents a pound live weight or 7 cents a pound dressed weight. These quotations have stood inflexible, no reference at all being made to either 71 the degree of fatness or to the conformation or type of the animals offered. TABLE 21. Should the farmer sell his hogs at five cents live weight or seven cents dressed weight? 1 0z r d . D CifD C CDfif _ D D ( Corn ornly .............. Corn 2-3 C. S. Mdeal ....... 1-3 ........ 12 131 ,1 p i_ r, 96 13 1 73.281 7 .21 $6.501 $6.72918 .01 .0 10 1.16 11 7.3 17 6l5I60 8.12 Corn 9-10 ............... Tankage 1-10 ............ Corn ................1 Peanut pasture ........ 5 111 3.421 7,901 1 While above table does not include all the data that has been collected the slaughtered animals, sufficient .the from facts re presented to bring out the point that when hogs are fa enough to kill out about 72 per cent dressed weight that it makes pratically no difference whether they are sold 5 cents a pound live weight or 7 cents a pound dressed weight. This table does not take into atL tion considera- the expense of killing the hog, which must be charged against the hog when he is delivered dressed, neither does it take into account the value of the internal fat and the oth' r organs which go to the farmer when the contract calls for dressed animals. In most instances the value of the internal organs will just about pay for the expense of killing. The point is brough( out that when a is excessively hog fat, wbich means that he will dress about 80 per cent, it is more t. rofitable. to the farmer to sell, him at 7 cents dressed' weight than to sell him at 5 cents live weight. It would, 72 of course, be more profitable from the butcher's stand-point to buy him on the basis of live weight. That is, the fatter the hog the greater should be the difference between the live weig'it and the dressed weight quotations, so that all parties concerned may be treated with fairness. Then, on the other hand, the type of hog, which is represented by the razor back, the small hammed, narrow backed, long legged kind, will lose the owner more money when they are sold at 7 cents dressed weight than when they are sold at 5 cents a pound live weight, because this type dresses out a small proportion of saleable parts. That is, the nearer the hog comes to representing the razor back type the smaller should the net quotations be over the live weight quotations. The butcher who does not take these things into consideration is not treating his customers fairly. The man who raises hogs of correct type and takes pride in finishirg them to prime condition is being discriminated agaiast when the butcher has an arbitrary price like the above. Before a just value can be placed upon a bunch of hogs they must be seen, so that both type and the degree of fttness can be taken into consideration. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SWINE PRODUCTION. It is sometimes claimed that pork production cannot be made a profitable business in the South since corn has advanced in prices. It is often said that the farmer can buy his pork cheaper than he can make it. But is must be remembered that pork has advanced in price as well as corn, that the cheapest.side meat now costs from 10 to 12.5 cents a pound, and that hams and shoulders cost from 15 to 20 cents a pound. Corn has advanced in price more rapidly than has pork, but the South is in a position to change her feeding methods when corn, as a sole feed,. gets out of reach. The Southern hog prices are higher than at either the S±. Louis or Chicago markets. At the present writing, prices all over the South are substantially higher than they 73 are in Chicago. All conditions here are encouraging for hog production; we can grow the corn, we have the best markets, as far as prices are concerned, in America; and we can grow many kinds of pasture crops, the crops which cheapen pork production more than any other feed. It is generally considered that there is no other feed equal to corn for pork production,-this is true, provided the corn is used judiciously. If it be fed alone for any length of time there are few feeds which are poorer than corn, as the preceding experiments strikingly demonstrate, but if it be fed in combination with other feeds its use is to be highly commended, and it can be used to great economical advantage, too, even though it sells upon the market for 70 cents a bushel. The hog is not adapted to living on corn alone, and when we require it of him we are forcing him to do a thing which is not consistent with his nature. Man likes a mixture of feeds .or a change in diet; so do the lower animals. The hog in its wild state is not compelled to live upon one feed alone. When wild and free to make its own choice he is omniverous, feeding upon roots, nuts, fish, grass, fruit, snakes, and in fact, but few feeds can be mentioned that he will not eat if he be given the opportunity. Our domesticated hogs have inherited the tendency to select their foods from a variety of substances, and when we enclose them in a pen and feed but one feed we can feel assured that we are not allowing them to reach their highest possibilities. Probably those who claim that pork cannot be produced in the South at a profit mean that it cannot be produced on corn alone atf a profit; if so, that is entirely correct. Experimental data show that pork cannot be profitably raised and finished upon corn alone when corn sells for The following table, made up from 70 cents a bushel. data collected from all parts of the United States, clearly demonstrates the fact that the man who tries to finish hogs on corn alone is following a losing business; 74 Table r 22. Corn alone for fattening hogs. Cost 100 lbs. gain when Corn is:{ d "IC r tj a ~50 -+ D CI O . -4 ~1.. Texas...... ,...1101 83 Texas.........1101 83 I Days ILbs. 31 60 1 3I 1 .46 .43 1.00 .50 Tennessee 868 .. .. 1 Tennessee Tennessee.. Alabama.......I 31 60 Alabama........ 1 3 3 Alabama........ 1 3156 I...... 60 S1.00 460 416. 410 806 670 621 611 432 520 I3.09 5.44)$ 6.80'x$ 8.151$ 9.52 6.201 7. 75 9.301 10.85 !3.88) 4.101 2. 3.721 4.46 5.20 2.93) 3.6, 4.39 5.12 5.76) 7. 20 8.031 10.07 15l 96 Indiana ........ I 31 70 Indiana......... 1 41127 Alabama ... 1.40 .69 1. b6 5.981 7.181 r 1 8.37 6.65j 4.36) 3.29) 3.28) 3.57) 4.01 3.861 4.631 4.651 5.57j 4.19 5.03( 4.12 4.95 6.551 7.64 5.40 7.76 6.50 5.87 Oklahoma . .. 4 126 .62 Idwa ........ .. 6 49 2.08 Wis. (4 trials). .13°i .. .f.1. b9 Wis. (4 trials). .131.'. 1.41 3 7I I.67 470 461 4.091 4.87 4.45) 5.45 5.74 5.74 5.51 60 4 6.24 7.02 Average ............... I i..... 11 564 The average farmer under ordinary conditions will not miss the average far. And the average of. the preceeding table points out the fact that corn is worth 70 cents a bushel that the cost of each pound of gain will be just about 7 cents, when corn is selling at 60 cents a bushel each pound of gain put on will cost 6 cents, when corn is worth 50 cents a bushel each pound of gain will cost 5 cents, and when corn is worth only 40 cents a bushel pork can be made for only 4 cents a pound. The table shows that when 70-cent corn is fed to 5-cent hogs that the is losing 20 cents per bushel on his corn. To come out even sn Alabama 70-cent corn must go along with 7-cent pork if the owner is to. trike even on feeding corn alone. As a. general thing the farmers do not get 7 cents 'for their hogs. If corn were worth but $.40 per bushel, as it is in some of the Western States, it would be a very profitable thing to raise corn and feed it to 5 and 6-cent hogs ; good when er feed- s 75 money could be made out of it, as the farmer would then be selling his $.40 corn by means of hogs at from $.50 to $.60 per bushel.- But even in the corn belt States it is more profitable to supplement the corn with other concentrates or green crops,- a'practice followed by the best Northern farmers. The data recorued in this bulletin point the way to cheaper pork production in Alabama. If we are to make the most that there is to be made from pork, and at the same time build up and maintain our soils, we must make a. liberal use of green crops. Alabama can grow green crops almost the year round as indicated by the following table: Table 23. Succession of green crops suitable for hog graziiyg : For fall planting. Crop Alfafa Burr clover Oats Rape Rye Vetch Time to Plant _____________ Amount Seed Per Acre planting time until- grazing __________________time No. days from. Sep't. 1 to Oct. 15 15 to 25 lbs. 15 to 20 lbs.cendse Sep't. 1 to Oct. 136 lbs. incburr Sep't. Sep't. Sep't. Sep't. 1 to Nov. 1 1/2 to 3 bu. 2Oto Oct. 15 5 to 610 lbs.drilled 4to lbs. broadcast 1 to Nov. 1 1/ to 2 bus. 1 to Oct. 15 1 bu. 90 to 120 90 to 120 90 to 120 6 o7 UQ to 120 90 to 120 For spring and sumnmer planting. Feb. Mar. Cowpeas May CowpeasMay Japan clover Mar. Oats Feb. Peanuts May Rape Sorgum Soy beans Alfafa Chuf as 25 to April 1 15 to 25 lbs. 15 to June to 4 pks. 1 o July10 ' bu. drilled 1 o July 132 bu. broadcast 1 to Mar. 15 24 lbs. 1 to Mar. 20 1/~ to 3 bus. 1 to June 30 1 to 2 bu. unhulled Mar. i to Mar. 31 4 to 6 lbs. drilled 9 to 10 lns. broadcast April 1 to June 30 1'/ to 2 bus. 13 75 120 7 7 60 75 90 to 90 to 150 o9 o9 to 75 to 90 to 120 April 6 o7 6 o7 60 to 90 90 to 120 1 to June 30 1/2 bu. broadcast bu, drilled. Through the use of these crops the expense of carrying the brood. sow's and boars through year can also be 'the 76 greatly reduced. Many of these crops would keep the sows in a fat condition without the use of any grain at all,-and it is the grain that costs the money in Alabama. Another point is too often overlooked, but is great moment to Southern soil maintenance, and should be con; sidered in all cases where live stock is handled-the tion of live stock to soil fertility. The farmer who keeps live stock has a fertilizer factory upon his own farm. Stock will improve the soil to such an extent That poor soils can within a few years be made to produce a bale of cotton to the acre. Producing hogs is an excellent method by which can be maintained and built up. In 1898 the Arkansas Station grazed hogs upon areas of peanuts, chufas, and soy beans. The two years following 1898 the land was planted in cotton and data was collected to determine what this grazing might have upon cotton yields. The results per acre were am follows: of rela- soils effect Table 24. Fertilizing effect of crops grazed by 0 hogs: W04 ( ~ ~ Cottn . Y. Y pea ut y gazd b Cottonfollowng og ...... h gs.....1 flloingJ. 1171 I 134 02 soybensgrze o58 Cotton chufas~ ~ ~ os ~..... ~~~~~~c~ grzdb 10 1 fllowing 130. 142.16.1$2.8 1.3 8 190 2.176 Cotton following peannt grazed byho.........).1771 1134, 91.5161..1.$2..81 tesolof oigalgmeadte CTtonefllowin wbyhhogs........1588l1;20o1304st44c61i16.35 soyabns grazedf Thesefsoenupondheaoilsofthroingreaslegumieladocte ton was 44.6 per cent and 61.1 per cent respectively. The 77 effects of growing these crops and grazing them off does not stop with the cotton crop grown the first year following the grazing; the data show that the increase over the corn lot was still considerable in the second year. Of course, in the case where peanuts and soy beans were used the increased cotton yields were not due entirely to the grazing; part of the benefits were due to the fact that the crops were legumes, thus placing nitrogen in the soil for the use of subsequent crops. But with chufa pasture we have a case in hand where the increased cotton yields could have been due to nothing except the grazing and the supplementary grain fed, as the chufa plant is not a legume. In this case the increased cotton yields for the average of the two years following the chufas, which had been grazed off, was 20.9 per cent over the cotton crops which had followed a corn crop without being grazed off by the hogs. That is, a farmer can expect to get more cotton when it is planted on an area where hogs have grazed or where peanuts, soy beans, or other legumes have been grown than he can secure from an area where hogs have not been grazed. BULLETINS ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station AUBURN INDEX VOL. XVII. BULLETINS 144-148 AND 22ND ANNUAL AND REPORT CIRCULAR No. 3 January to December, 1909. List of Available Bulletins, June, 1910 Opelika, Ala. Post Publishing Cempahy 1910 CONTENTS. BULLETINS: 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. The San Jose Scale and Lime-Sulfur Wash .February, 1909 Local Fertilizer Experiments With Cotton ,.........................February, in 1905-6-7-8 1909 Facing the Boll Weevil Problem in Alabama . .June, 1909 Crimson Clover ..................... ... August, 1909 Raising Lambs in Alabama. Maintenance Rations for Ewes. Feeding Cotton Seed Meal to Pregnant October, 1909 Ewes ................................. No. 3. Insecticide Materials and Spraying Apparatus. Addresses of Dealers and Manufacturers . . February, 1909 Report, Twepty-Second ...................... 1909 Circ. Annual INDEX Acting Horticulturest, report of..................R. Addresses of'dealers and manufacturers B. 144: 20 and Circ. Addresses of insecticide manufacturers and dealers 22:3: 253 3: .. . . . . . . . . ... . .......... B. 144: 21 and Circ. 3: 4 Addresses of lime works .............. ........ B. 144: 20 Addresses of seed dealers.......................B. 147: 128 Addresses of spraying machinery manufacturers ......... ................. B. 144: 20 and 'Circ.. 3 Agriculturist, report of .......................... R.22:-7 Alexander, J. L., experiment of..................B. 145: 44 Amount of'feedrequired to maintain a ewe before and after lambing (Table 2) ... B. 148: 142 Anderson, J. T. report of........................R.'22: 15 Animal Husbandman, report of......... R. 23 Artificial inoculating material or pure cultures .... B. 147: 113 Atkenson, Thomas Z., experiment of............B. 145:.71 Autauga county, experiment in..................B. 145: 51 Barbour county, experiment in...................B. 145:=69 Benefits of inoculation to crimson clover..........B. 147: 112 .Betts, R. H., experiment of....................B. 145:-76 Best method-of treatment for San Jose scale.....B.'144:-7 146:.100 Bibliography of boll weevil...........B. Blount county, experiment-in....................B. Boll weevil and its stages, plate 1 ............... B. 146:80 89 Boll weevil, description of.... B. 146: bibliography of ..................... how successfully controlled..........B. 146: 95 quarantine regulations against........B. 146: 22: .......... 145:,40 B.O146: 100 861 93B. ,146: recognition of..................."..... . .. ... .. .. . insects often mistaken for ..... . .B. . 146: 100- -Botanist, report of .. .. %~affey, GCary, G. H. -,C. Bullock county, experiment- in ..... Burleson, J. '0. experiment of ........ A. .. .. .. .. . .... .. . . . . . . . . .. . .... .... R.. 22: 145: ..... B. 145:. 68 ........ B. - 145:' 36 .R. . .B. 21, 50- Caution in Chemicals needed, estimate of quantities for -spraying of soils and 'crop fo investigations, report of. . R. 22: 15 cl .:... :: .14:.1.Chemist report of........................ .... '.:R.22 : 11: Chilton -county, experiment in.... ...... 50 Conecuh county, report of experiment in -. . .. B. 76' using experiment of.........................B. ............. report of...... ......... crimson clover 22: .13- hay'. .. . .;....... 147: 120 Chemist, B. 145: 145: 162 Cope, A. M. experiment of....................B. 145: 145: 73 Covington, W. F. report of......................B. B. 145: 58 Cox, T. W. experiment of ... .................... Crimson clover, as fertilizer.....................B. 147: 115 147: 112 benefits of inoculation to..........B. 147: 107 how it improves the soil...........B. 147: 120 caution against use...............B. 147: 106 definition of.....................B. plants to grow with................B. 147: 126 preparatioi for sowing.............B. 147: 121 147: 123 liming...........................B. Crimson clover stubble versus entire growth of crimson clover........B. 147: 118 B. 147: 105 'Crimson clover, isummary of ................. 123 varieties of........................B. Cullman ;county, experiment in.................B..145: 37-41 144: 3 Danger from San Jose scale.......................B. 146: 89 Description of boll weevil.................. 144: 19 Determination of specimens of boll weevils, etc. 147: 120 Directions for seeding crimson ,clover.............B. Directions for inoculating soil or seed..............B. 147: 110 7 Director, report of...............................R. 7 Duggar, J. F. report of..........................R. 146: 92 Effect of weevil work on cotton...................B. Entomologist, report of...........................R. 144. 10 Estimation.of qualities of chemicals needed for scale Ewes, winter feeding of ........................ Experience of two Alabama sheep farmers.........B. 148: 147 41 Fealy, L. A. experiment of.......................B. 145: 45 Fayette county, experiment in .................... 148: 152 .. Feeding cotton seed meal to sheep .............. D. 148: .140 Feeding the milking ewes ........................ 68 147: B. B. 22: 22: 22: B. B.148:'138 B. 145: B. 147: Fertilizer for crimson clover .................... Fertilizer, crimson clover as.......... .. . .. .. experiment of............. Floyd, R. S. and A. Franklin county, experiment. in ................... General usefulness B. B., . .. .. .B. B. 145: 29 B. 147: 115 145: 66 144: 18 122 Geneva county, experiment in. Gibson, J. B. of lime-sulphur wash..........'. .. . . ................ ........... experiment of B. ....... B. 145: 70 B. 145: 45 ..... Gray, D. T. report of ......................... Greene county, experiment in.................... Haddock, J. W. experiment of..................... Handling and -feeding the lambs ............... :......... ............ L. report of....... Hare, Henry county, experiment in.,.... .............. C. How crimson clover improves the soil.:.......... How legumes add nitrogen to the soil............. 148: B.B.-145: 143 R..22: 17 B.B. 145: 71-73 107 B. 147: 105 32 147: R. 22 : 23 B. 145: 46 163 weevil may be successfully controlled-..!B. 146: 95 148: 137 How the old flock is handled ................. How to secure inoculating soil near home.........B. 147: 109 Injury by scale, nature of........................B. 147: 108 Inoculation...................................B. Inoculation, benefits of crimson clover..............B. 147: 112 Inoculation experiments on crimson clover using 147: 114 "Nitragin", results of.....B. Inoculation, soil or seed, directions for...........B. 147: 110 Inoculating soil, how to secure near home.........B. 147: 109 Thoculating soil, where to secure.................B. 147: 129 112 Inoculation, what soils do not need................B. Insecticide manufacturers and dealers, addresses of 4 13. 144: 21 and -Circ. ......................... Insecticide material and spraying apparatus How the boll B. 144:6 147: .. ,,. . ".. .. . ... .. .. . ... .. .B. 144: 20 and 146: 100 Insects often mistaken for the boll weevil, plate II .. 144: 5 Introduction and spread of scale pest................B. 145: 63 Jackson, E. B. experiment of.....................B. 54 Jones, Wesley N. and Sons, experiment of.........B. 145: 57 Jackson, John, experiment of.....................B. 145: 64 Jackson, 'S. C. experiment of....................B. 148: 143 Lambs, handling and feeding of .................. Lambs, raising in Alabama....................... B. 148: 133 31-32 Lauderdale county, experinment in................B. 33 Lawrence county, experiment in...................B. 145: 57-58 Lee county, experiment in.....................B. 144: 11 Lime, properties of..........................B. B. 144: 20 Lime works, addresses of ........................ Lime-sulphur wash-best season for making application B. Circ. 3: 3: 3 145: B. 145:145: .B. ......................... Lime-sulphur wash, general B. 144:-7 .... and Circe.1. 3 144: 18 3 147: 132 usefulness of.......... .. Lime-sulphur treatment for scale .................. Lime-sulphur wash and San Jase scale ...... Liming crimson clover ........... ............... ... Lloyd, F. E. report of ............. Macon county, experiment in ................... county, experiment in ........... . ... .. .. .:... R. Madison B. ........ B. 144: 9 144: B. 22: 21 145: 64-65 . .B. B. 145: 33 Making application of lime-sulphur wash, best season for B.144:7 ....................................... Marengo. county, experiment in ................... B. 145: 53 B. 145: 42 Marion county, experiment in ..... '................ :. B. 145: 70 Metcalf, M". P., experiment of ................ Mexican cotton boll weevil and some of the insects mistaken Milking ewes, feeding of........... for. it .............. .. .. . ...... B. 146:-101 Montgomery county, experiment in............. B. B. 148: 140 145: 54-56 164 county, experiment in .................... Morgan, W.' M., experiment of....................B. McKnight, W. C., experiment of...................B. Morgan B. .B. 145: 36 145: 46 145: 53 145: Nealy,' F. T. experiment of ...................... Necessity for treatment of orchard.................B. 144: 6 144: 6 Nature of injury by scale.........................B. Nitrogen, how legumes add it to the soil...........B. 147: 107 Occurrence of scale in Alabama..................B. 144: 5 Oliver, Thomas W., experiment of..................B. 145: 56 Omary, W. M., experiment of.....................B. 145: 43 Orchard treatment, preparation of..................B. 144: 8 Orchard, necessity of treatment...................B. 144: 6 144: 14 Outfit, for spraying............................B. Parker, J. W., experiment.of......................B. Parker, M. E., experiment of.....................B. Parrish, W. A.,.experiment of....................B. 145: 31 Physiological chemist, report of..................R. 17 Plants to grow with crimson.clover. . 147: 126 Present known distribution of San Jose scale in 144: 4 Preparation of orchard for treatment.............B. 144: 8 Preparation for sowing crimson clover...........B. 147: 121 147: 12 Preparation of wash for scale.....................B. 144: Properties of lime....................B. Pure cultures or artificial inoculating material .... 147: 113 . 146: Quarantine regulations against the boll weevil 133 Raising lambs in Alabama........................B. Raising lambs, objects of, experiments in..........B. 148: 135 Results of inoculation experiments on crimson clover using "Nitragin"...........B. 147: 114 B'. 146: 93 Recognition of the boll weevil ..................... 35 145:'59 145:-62 Ala.'.. B. .. B. 22: B.B. 148: 11 Ross, B. B. B. B. scale, San Jose scale, danger from:.................... B. 144: B. 144: San Jose scale and lime-sulphur wash............. San Jose scale, best method of treatment........... B. 144: San Jose introduction and spread of pest ... 145: 37 ..................... Roberts, 0. G., experiments of 148: 145 Salt fed to sheep...............................B. 144: 4 San Jose scale in Alabama, present known distribution 144: 5 B., report of.............................R. 22: 11 3 3 7 Scale in Alabama, occurrence, of ............. Scale, definition of.............................. .. . .B. 144: 5 B. 144: 5 ... ..- Season Scale, San Jose and lime-sulphur wash.... ...... for ,.making B. 144: 3B. application of lime-sulphur wash 144:-7 Securing inoculating soil near home Seed dealers, addresses of.......... ... ..... .... Seeding crimson clover, directions, for ........... Sheep', feeding cotton seed meal- to........ Sixth District Agricultural School, experiment of B. 147:.120 ........ B. 148: 152 *. ..B.147: 101 .. B. 147: 128' .B.'145: '42 165. Soils.........................................B. 147:'120 Specimens ofthe boll-weevil, determination of and special advice................B. 144: 19 Spraying suggestions for San Jose scale...........B. 144: 17 3 Spraying machinery, manufacturers, addresses of .... 144: 14 'Spraying outfit for San Jose scale................B. 144: 20 Spraying machinery, addresses of..................B. Steps in the culture of cotton for the control of the 146: boll weevil....................B. 145: 40 Staab, John W., experiment of...................B. Suggestions for. spraying 'San Jose scale...........B. 144: 17 144: 11 Sulphur, properties of..........................B. 147: 105 Summary of crimson clover.......................B. Swearington, Yancey, experiment-of................B. 145: 65 145: 59-63 Tallapoosa county, experiment in...............13. 144: 7 Treatment, best method of for scale.................B. 144: 8 Treatment of'orchards, preparation for.............B. Treatment, lime-sulphur..........................B. 144: 9 B. 144: 6 Treatment, necessity for ......................... Two Alabama Sneep farmers, experiment of........B. 14&: 147 147: 123 Varieties of crimson clover......................B. B. 145: 69 Veal, J. D. experiment of ......................... 13 Veterinarian, report of..........................R. B. 145: 33 Wales, H. D. N., experiment of.................. Circ. 3: 97 22: Walker county, experiment in ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .B. 145: 44 B. 146: 85 Weevil, when will it reach Alabama ................ B. 146: 92 Weevil work, effect on cotton ..................... What soils do not need inoculation............... B. 147: 112 146: 85 When the weevil will reach Alabama............. Where to get inoculating soil .. . ... . . ............. B. 147: 129 B$. 144: 5 B. What the 'San Jose scale is ...................... Wholesale sulphur dealers, addresses of Willis, T. J., experiment of...................... Willoughby, Williams, P. F., report of ......................... _J. 1H., B. 144: 20 and Circe 3: 3 B. experiment of................. B. 145: 47 145:'29 R. Winston county, experiment in .................... Winter feeding of ewes ......................... Young, J. W., experiment of..................... ,B. 145: 43 B. 148: 138 "B. 145: 51 22: 25 166 LIST OF AVAILABLE BULLETINS JULY, 1910. 80.-A preliminary list of Alabama fungi. 87.-Soil inoculation for Leguminous Plants. 112.-Orchard notes. 113.-Co-operative fertilizer experiments with cotton, 1899-100. 114.--Feeding experiments with dairy cows. 115.-Commercial fertilizers. 117.-Orchard notes. 131.-Co-operative fertilizer experiments with cotton, 1901-2-3-4. 133.-The manufacture of cane syrup. 134.-Corn culture. 135.--Diseases of sweet potatoes in Alabama. 136.-Chicken pox or sorehead in poultry. 137.-Experiments with oats. 139.-Injurious insects and their control. 141.-Texas or tick fever. 142.-Corn breeding in Alabama. 144.-The San Jose scale and lime-sulphur wash. 145.-Local fertilizer experiments with cotton i 146.-Facing the boll weevil problem in Alabama. 147.-Crimson clover. 148.-Raising lambs in Alabama. Maintenance ration for ewes. Feeding cotton seed meal to pregnant ewes. 149.-Tests of varieties of cotton in 1909. t1905-6-7-8. BULLETIN NO. 144 FEBRUARY, 1909 ALABAMA AgriculturaI Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN. THE SAN JOSE SCALE AND LIME-SULFUR WASH; BY W. E. HINDS, Entomologist The Opelika, Ala.: Post Publishing Company, 1909 COMMITEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. HON. H. L. MARTIN .............................................. Ozark HON. TANCRFD BETTS...............................Huntsville HON. A. W. BELL....................................Anniston STATION COUNCIL. C. J. C. THACH.......................................President DUGGAR......................Director Ross......................................Chemist and Agriculturist F. B. B. C. A. CARY.......................................Veterinarian F. E. LLOYD ......................................... Botanist R. S. MACKINTOSH................................Horticulturist J. T. ANDERSON............ Chemist, Soil and Cr01 Investigations D. T. GRAY ....................................... Animal Industry W. E. HINDS.....................................Entomologist C. L. HARE...........................................Chemist A. RANSOM ............................. McB. Associate Chemist ASSISTANTS. T. BRAGG L. N. ................... First Assistant, Chemist Assistant in Agriculture DUNCAN....................... El. F. CAUTHEN........ .......... Farm Superintendent and Recorder J. W. RIDGEWAY....................... Assistant in Animal Industry P. F. WILLIAMS..................... ...... Assistant in Horticulture N. E. BELL.:........................... Second Assistant Chemist I. S. MCADORY ................... W. F. TURNER ......................... L. A. CASE............................. Assistant in Veterinary Science Assistant in Entomology Assistant in Bacteriology 0. H. SELLERS................. Stenographer and Mailing Clerk NII, 6 t. f(ig.~ I.-Peach tree ,wih top illIed bthe sIccale. Fi,. .- P'enich twi g. mioderatrel infestedI. shoS ing inale aind female .scale. IR. 3.-Peach hmhtl hadIc infested, ht scale. IQi. 2. enlarged 4 times: fig. 3, enlarget %sice.] Ater Quaiitance. t' S. 1). A. ear Ilook. 17115. 2 1 HE SAN JOSE SCALE AND LIME-SULFUR WASH BY W. E. HINDS, PH. D. Entomologist to Alabama Experiment Station. ORCHARD INTERESTS OF ALABAMA.-The culture of or- chard fruits, particularly peach, plum, pear and apple, is already a very important factor in the agricultural prosperity of Alabama. As nearly as we are able to estimate from the data available there are about 8,000,000 trees of these four kinds now growing in this State. Soil climate and market conditions are exceedingly favorable to a large increase in the growth of these fruits. The extension of the present important movement for the production of a greater diversity of crops, the substitution of other, and more profitable, crops for cotton and the adoption of improved methods for the culture of all crops grown will undoubtedly result in a great increase in fruit growing within the next few years. The growth of these fruits for wholesale commercial shipments and for the supply of the home markets as well, should increase largely as a profitable business proposition. DANGER FROM SAN JOSE SCALE.-The principal difficulty to be met in maintaining present and in increasing future fruit culture is the necessity for controlling the insect enemies which, if left uncontrolled, may partially, or entirely, destroy the crops of fruit or even the life of the trees themselves. The most important insect affecting the four species of trees mentioned is the San Jose scale (pronounced "San Hosay") known scientifically as Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst. This is the most deadly enemy of fruit-growing known. The name itself means "most injurious scale" and it was well chosen. IERANKL1NI~MO R!AN -- 1ARSHAL~~ 't 'Q i [- 1 WIN COWAN > FlAYETTE p P+ 1o 1 TUS AL ~iI n,1 B B , 0 SAyGREr'(HAMER f_; -- J TC I LT N -__ --- t Q, $..9 IIAUTAUGAj I"DA L LAS P 4! LOWNIJES I EL MREQ_.; L E 1!- RSE 0,BUOC -1 L Ai 1 K y -V V!BUTLER LC X l. I I J __f _ #KE 4- -- -CLARKSFt " t /! 9..r. + HENRY~ K;i. FIG. 1. Present known distribution Alabama. of San Jose Scale in INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF THE PEST.-This insect is not a native of the United States but appears to have been brought here from China where it occurs commonly upon native food plants. It was introduced into the San Jose Valley, California, about 1870 and the name of that locality where it was first found has been adopted as the common name of the scale. From California the species was brought on nursery stock into the eastern states shortly before 1893. It has since been spread by nursery stock shipments until it now occurs in nearly every State in the Union. During recent years, however, most of the States have passed strict laws requiring the inspection of nurseries for the occurrence of the scale and the fumigation of stock so as to kill any scales which might possibly exist there before the stock can be legally sold and distributed. The nurserymen have co-operated heartily in this effort to prevent the further spread of the pest so that now the buyer of fruit trees is very effectually protected against the planting of already infested trees. Orchards may be started today much more safely than they could ten years ago. OCCURRENCE OF THE SCALE IN ALABAMA.-The known extent of its occurrence in this State is indicated upon the accompanying map (Fig. 1.). Without doubt it exists in many other places from which it has not yet been reported. Very frequently its presence in an orchard is not detected until some of the trees begin to die whereupon the cause of their death is sought for. A characteristic type of peach tree dying from this scale is shown in Plate I, fig. 1. The dying of the trees does not usually begin until some two or three years after the actual introduction of the scale and it has thus an opportunity to spread unchecked through the orchard. WHAT IS THE SCALE.-The San Jose scale is a minute, inconspicuous insect which does not, to server, appear to be a living creature. living insect is concealed beneath the scale which it forms for its protection. the untrained obThe body of the circular, waxen The largest scales are smaller than an ordinary pin-head in diameter and are quite flat (See P1. I, figs. 2 and 3). The scales are hardly more than 1-25 inch across and many of them are smaller still. Beneath the scale the body of the insect may be found as a small, immovable, yellow body (if still alive) which if crushed seems to be filled with a rather thin, yellow, oily liquid. The young of this species are born alive and their powers of reproduction are so remarkable that a tree bearing but few live scales in the Spring may become quite heavily infested by Fall and will then be liable to severe injury during the following season unless some method of destroying the scales is used during the winter. Close observation with the naked eye shows that the scales are marked with rings of light and dark gray around a nearly black center. When very abundant they give a general ashy-gray appearance to the entire bark which is noticeable at some distance from the tree. NATURE OF THE INJURY.-On living infested branch- es, especially on growth two or more years old, the surface becomes irregularly pitted or has depressions in spots where the scales are most abundant. The injury is of two kinds. Much sap is abstracted by the myriads of sucking insects, but more important than this is the effect which these scales have of causing a thickening of the cell walls which are penetrated by their slender mouth parts. This thickening checks the flow of sap in the branches, and this means the ultimate starvation of the parts of the branch beyond. The San Jose produces a distinctive red stain around the point of attack, either upon infested fruit or just under the scale in the bark. This appears upon lightly scraping off the outer bark. NECESSITY FOR TREATMENT.--So serious is the injury of which this scale is capable that untreated, infested trees are certain to be killed within a very few years. The LIFE OF THE ORCHARD IS AT STAKE and the plain conclusion is evident that it is far more expensive to allow the trees to be destroyed than it would be to con- trol the scale which can positively be done so as to continue the life of the orchard and the production of profitable crops. The average annual cost per tree for treatment depends mainly upon its size and ranges, for peach trees, from one-half cent to three cents, averaging between one and two cents, The man who will allow his total investment in trees, land and labor through three or four years to be absolutely destroyed for lack of an additional expense of a cent or two per tree each year, cannot be considered as conducting his work upon anything like business principles. BEST METHOD OF TREATMENT.-The fight against the San Jose scale has developed several methods of treatment which are of positive value. Three points require consideration in determining which of these methods is best and should therefore be used. 1. Safety. 2. Efficiency. 3. Economy. The method which has been shown to best fulfill these conditions is "A WINTER SPRAYING WITH LIME-SULFUR WASH." In spite of numerous efforts to replace this Lime-Sulfur with some other material more easily prepared or less objectionable to handle in application, the fact remains that this is conceded by the great majority of orchardists, as well as by entomologists, to be the best treatment yet found. It may be applied with safety at any time while the trees are in a dormant condition. A single thorough spraying with a properly prepared wash insures the control, if not the extermination, of the scale and is safer and more reliable than is any other. treatment. The cost of treatment, varying in localities and with number of trees to be treated, need not exceed from one to thirk cents per tree according to their kind and size SEASON FOR MAKING THE APPLICATION.-The safest and most effective time for treating trees for scale is during the dormant period, that is, between the time the leaves drop in the fall and the time the buds start in the spring. Experimental work has shown that a single treatment with Lime-Sulfur made in November or De- cember is less effective than is a single treatment made in February or March, and that two treatments, one in the Fall and another just before the buds start, are but slightly more effective than is the later treatment alone. The exact time for spraying after January 1st may be decided by convenience as related to other work and by the continuance of the dormant condition of the buds. A solution strong enough to kill the scale may be applied to the bark without injury at any time during the summer. It may be applied by painting or swabbing it onto the trunks and largest branches to check the summer development of the scale, but such a solution will destroy all foliage touched by it, and cannot therefore be sprayed on as in winter. At about one-fifth of the strength recommended, however, it is thought by some that Lime-Sulfur can be sprayed upon even peach foliage which is fairly matured as at fruiting time, and that at that strength it will be a very effective agent in the prevention and control of the brown rot of peaches which is now one of the most serious problems in peach production in Alabama.. PREPARATION ON THE ORCHARD FOR TREATMENT.-This is a matter of considerable importance and the exact measures to be applied to each tree depend largely upon the degree of its infestation. Slightly infested trees should be pruned before being treated as is best for their fruiting regardless of the presence of the scale. With heavily infested and badly injured trees, the pruning should be much more thorough. Trees which are nearly dead should be cut out and, in a Toung orchard, replaced if desired by new ones. All dead ,ranches should be removed. Branches still alive but which have made very little growth during the preceding season should be strongly cut back, in some cases leaving them as mere "stubs" a foot or two long from the main trunk. If the cuts are more than three-fourths of an inch in diameter their surfaces should be painted over with White Lead. If there is still life enough in the tree a new top may be formed out of several of the best and most vigorous shoots thrown out from these "stubs." In many cases it may be possible to control the scale and to thus renew the top of badly injured trees, so as to have them again of good size and bearing more fruit in two or three years than would young trees if put in their places. This is entirely a question of orchard management for the quickest and best production of fruit. It is certain that the scale may be controlled so the age and condition of the tree, etc., must decide the question whether it should be pruned and kept or cut out. It is advisable to burn removed trees and branches to get them out of the way and to prevent further spread of insect pests from them to living trees. The scale is not liable to spread if the trees and prunings are not burned but .other injurious insects which may breed in the dead wood may spread from them, particularly to scale injured trees and thus cause the death of trees which might otherwise be saved from the scale. Adjacent thickets or trees of wild plums or cherry, etc., should be cut and burned. Beside the trees mentioned many others are liable to attack by this scale. The following are some of those occurring commonly: Crab apple, apricot, persimmon, several kinds of walnut and of poplar, osage orange, chestnut, sumac, catalpa, cedar, several of the willows, ash, elm, pecan, orange, lemon, strawberry, gooseberry, currant, etc. THE LIME-SULFUR TREATMENT.-This wash has been very extensively used in California during the past twenty years. In the eastern United States since about 1900 it has been recognized as the best agent for destroying San Jose scale. Its effectiveness depends upon a chemical combination of the lime and sulfur which is brought about practically only under high temperatures. In a general way, if the chemicals are pure, we may reckon upon using practically equal portions of lime and of sulfur. In practice, however, it has been found better to use a somewhat larger quantity of lime, since commer- 10 ,cial rock lime varies somewhat in purity and is cheap: The excess of lime simply forms a whitewash which :shows plainly the trees that have been treated. An excess of sulfur would remain undissolved in the solution. While this would do no harm, its presence would do no :good and it might be considered as a needless item of waste. Both lime and sulfur are effective for some in.sects and fungi when used separately, but when combined they act far mOre efficiently. The principal object in making the wash is to produce economically a safe and thoroughly effective spraying solution. In planning for making and using this wash a number of practical points require consideration for best results. ESTIMATION OF QUANTITIES OF CHEMICALS NEEDED.- Naturally this is a difficult matter for the man who has never used anything of the kind. The first consideration is the number and the average size of the trees to be treated. If the scale is known to occur anywhere in an orchard, the only safe thing to do is to spray all trees in it, and the treatment should include at least all of our fruit trees which shed their leaves in the Fall. The amount of spray required will obviously depend directly upon the size of the tree. We may take average three to four-year-old peach trees as our standard and estimaste that such trees will require about one-half gallon of spray each for thorough work, and no other kind of work is worth while. Each gallon of spray solution will therefore treat two medium-sized trees, while large trees may require two gallons each. In this way an approximate estimate may be made of the number of gallons of spraying solution to oe prepared. The question of formula must be next considered. As a result of a vast amount of experimental and practical work, it appears that the following formula is safe, efficient and economical: Rock lim e . .----............... .... 20 lbs. Flowers of Sulfur or Sulfur Flour -15 lbs. Water to make ---.. . - - -....... 50 gallons 11 In ordering our chemicals therefore we reckon upon 20 lbs. of lime and 15 lbs. of sulfur for every 50 gallons of spraying. solution which we have estimated to be needed. Emphasis should be laid upon the ultimate economy of using only the best and purest chemicals obtainable, regardless of their slightly greater initial cost. LIME.-This means always freshly burned rock lime or quick lime. The test of quality is the slaking. Good limes should not contain more than ten per cent of impurities. Poor limes may contain 25 per cent of impurities. It is partly on account of these varying percentages of impurities that more lime than sulfur is used in the formula given. A good lime will slake readily and form an even creamy solution with little sediment or coarse matter which is waste. Much first-class lime is produced in Alabama, particularly that made in the vicinity of Calera. The addresses of several manufacturers may be found in the Appendix on page 20. The best grade of lime is shipped and handled in barrels. This is the best form in which to buy it, and the cost should not exceed about $1.00 per barrel or lc per pound for our spray formula. In nearly every town may be found someone who handles a good grade of lime. SuLFUR.L-The sulfur used must be very finely powdered to combine readily and completely with the lime in the making of the wash. Two forms of sulfur to be found on the market are perfectly pure and answer this need' equally well. The "Flowers of Sulfur" is the finest form and is largely used, but may cost slightly more than does, "Sulfur Flour" or "Flour Sulfur" as it is called. Thee choice between these two depends upon availability andI price. Either should be obtainable at about five cents per pound in lots of fifteen pounds or more. If not obtainable at a satisfactory price through local druggists, sulfur may be secured through the wholesale drug firms listed in the Appendix page. 20, and from other firms probably as well. Crystalline Sulfur should not be used under any 12 circumstances, since it is so coarse that it will not combine completely with the lime even with prolonged boiling. The result is a direct waste of sulfur and a wash solution that is liable to contain too little sulfur to be efficient, thus wasting all the chemicals, the labor of application and possibly, too, the life of the trees through ineffective treatment. PREPARATION OF THE WASH. For this work some facility for boiling the solution is essential. Where it is to be made on a small scale, and even in the treatment of several thousand trees where only one barrel pump is to be supplied, the cooking may be done quite conveniently in two large cast iron kettles, one of which may hold about 20 to 25 gallons, while the other should hold 40 gallons. The smaller kettle can be used in heating water while the lime and sulfur are being boiled in the larger one. For treatment of from 5,000 to 10,000 trees it is better to have larger kettles holding 75 to 80 gallons and mounted in a brick frame work or furnace. The cooking should be done when possible near a convenient water supply, but it is better to haul the water than the wash. For more than 10,000 trees it will be far better to cook the wash by steam supplied directly from a portable boiler or some such source. the cooking may then be done in barrels placed side by side and preferably upon an elevated platform. The essential point is that the boiler supply about one horse power for each barrel to be boiled with about 30% surplus power for the pumping and heating of water, etc. Wherever possible the water supply and the cooking barrels should be elevated sufficiently to utilize gravity in the flow of the liquids into the cooking barrels and from them into the spray tanks. The kettle method of preparation will be described particularly as it may be more commonly employed in this State. Much latitude is 'ermissible in the details of the preparation for the cooking. The essential points are to secure the complete and rapid slaking of the lime and the mixture of the sulfur with the lime solution without the 13 lumping of the sulfur. To avoid this the sulfur should always be mixed to a thin paste with hot water before being poured into the large boiling kettle. If this be done it makes little difference in the final result whether it be added before, after or during the slaking of the lime. The following method is as good as any and easy to follow: For each 50-gallon lot of spray solution to be prepared mix 15 lbs. of fine sulfur to a thin paste in hot water in some convenient receptacle. Heat about 12 to 15 gallons of water in the 40-gallon kettle and while it is heating add the sulfur paste taking care to break up any lumps that may exist. Then add, lump by lump, the 20 lbs. of best rock lime. By the time the lime is all slaked the solution should be boiling hot. Add about 10 gallons more of hot water and continue the boiling steadily for about one hour. During this time the mixture must be stirred almost constantly to keep it from burning and to insure the complete solution of the sulfur. When properly prepared there should be no residue of sulfur after this cooking. The wash will appear as a rather thick, reddish brown, or dark orange-colored liquid. It gives off a strong odor of sulfur and is caustic in its action. Impurities in the lime may vary the color of the liquid, as does also the excess amount of lime but a variation in color need not affect its efficiency if the wash has been properly stirred and boiled. From the boiling kettle the wash goes to the spraying barrel into which it should be strained through a brass strainer having about 20 meshes per inch. See fig, 2. This may be purchased or made at home. The strainer should remove all impurities which might clog the nozzles and delay the work in spraying. Never strain the wash through burlap bagging as the lint from the bagging will soon clog the pump. In the barrel the wash may be finally diluted with cold, but preferably with hot, water to make the required 50 gallons of spraying solution. The amounts of lime and sulfur may be varied, still keeping the proportion between them, in lreparing. larger or smaller quantities of the wash as may be needed. In general it is lbetter to spray the wash while it is still Fig. 2. warm or quite hot. It wvorks easier in the pump and 1b the time the spray reaches the tree it is cooled so that there is no danger of its doing injury. It is generally considered as desirable to use the \vash upon the day it is prepared but this does not seem to be absolutely necesa'ry. t;n lilute(l wash standing till cold will crystalize jut the crystals may be again dissolved by reheating thoroughly and the wash is then p~robably just as good for use as ever. SPRAYING OTTFIT.-While it is possible to apply the wash by painting or swabbing it onto the trunks and larger iranches. the smaller branches and twigs cannot be thoroughly treated in this way and this method of application is so wasteful (f time and materials that it will be found more economical as well as efficient to do the work with a 'bucket pump" such as may' be bought for about $6.00. This may serve fairly for the treatment of from 25 to 50 trees if they are small but for large trees, 15 or more of them, every orchardist should have a "barrel pump." These may be had in different sizes and full de- Fig. 3. scriptions may be found in the catalogs of the various dealers whose addresses are given in the Appendix on page 20-21. In selecting an outfit for Lime-Sulfur work it is essential that all of the working parts of the pump be of brass and that there be no leather packings or valves. The caustic action of the wash soon corrodes copper and destroys leather but paratus is the cheapest in this case. The most economical outfit for the average orchardist is a barrel pump that is powerful enough to carry two lines of hose with strong pressure for four nozzles. (See fig. 3). The barrel in which the pump is mounted may well be an ordinary 50-gallon oil barrel such as may be obtained in any town. and the mounting of the pump is a simple affects brass only slowly. The best ap- 16 operation. The hose should be one-half inch in diameter, inside measure, and of at least four-ply stock. Such hose may be secured of some of the firms mentioned at from 12 to 15 cents per foot. The best hose is not liable to burst under the .pressure from the pump and will last much longer than cheaper grades. The length of hose usually furnished by manufacturers with their pumps is too short for satisfactory use. About 25 feet is a good working length for each line as it allows the sprayers more range and insures more rapid and more thorough work which more than-offsets the slight extra cost for the longer hose. Each line should be provided with an extension rod from 6 to 12 feet long according to the size of the trees to be treated. There should be two "cutoffs" for each line of hose: one between the pump and the hose and the other between the hose and the extension rod. These save time and liquid and it is more economical to have them than to work without them. The kind of nozzle to be used is a very important matter. That throwing the best spray is known as the "double Vermorel." There are several types of this nozzle made by various manufacturers which accomplish very similar results. One of these is shown in fig. 4. The Fig. 4. nozzle should be provided with plungers to clean them when they become clogged as is liable to happen occasionally even if the wash has been properly strained. The nozzle caps for Lime-Sulfur work should have an opening of 1-16 inch and extra caps should be kept on hand to replace old ones when they become worn so that they throw too coarse a spray. The pressure from the pump should be kept strong and especially when four nozzles 17 are being supplied care must be exercised to see that the pumper does not take his work too easily. The barrel outfit may be carried through the orchard in any kind of a one-horse wagon or on a drag. The driver does the pumping while a man is needed on the ground for each line of hose. A thoroughly good outfit such as has been described will cost about $25.00 and with proper care it should last for a number of years. It will serve equally well in the application of all arsenical poisons for leaf and fruit feeding insects or for those attacking many of the garden or field crops. It may also be used for whitewashing. Altogether such an outfit is one of the most profitable pieces of equipment that any orchardist can own. Its intelligent use will go farther toward the production of profits with almost any crop than can any equal expenditure made in other ways without the spraying. Information regarding "power sprayers" may be had from the catalogs of manufacturers and suggestions regarding them will be gladly given anyone upon application to the Entomologist, Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. SPRAYING SUGGESTIONS.-While much in regard to spraying can be learned only from experience, there are many suggestions that may be of aid to the beginner. Only the most careful work is worth doing at all. Care should be taken to cover the twigs and small branches as thoroughly as the larger branches and trunks. If the tree is completely dormant, heavy drenching with the wash will not injure it and it is better to use more spray than is really needed than to use too little to do the work thoroughly. Do not undertake to spray when the prospects are for an immediate storm or severe cold spell since if these should occur before the wash has dried thoroughly on the trees the work will have to be repeated to be effective. Good work cannot be done when a strong wind is blowing. Select fair, calm weather for the work whenever possible or else make a second treatment when it is 18 calm or when the wind is blowing from the opposite direction to that during the first spraying. The spray solution must be continually agitated during the spraying and a properly constructed pump will accomplish this. The disagreeable effects of getting the wash on the skin may be reduced by rubbing the hands and face with vaseline before spraying. Rubber coats and gloves are, of course, the best protection for the sprayers but if not available old clothes should be worn so that they may be discarded after the work is finished. Cheap canvas work gloves are a satisfactory protection for the hands. The mules, or horses, and the harness may well be protected by blankets made of old burlap sacks. After the days work is over the remaining solution should be drawn or emptied out and clear water run through the pump, hose and nozzles to leave them in clean condition and reduce the corrosive injury to the outfit which would otherwise be as great through a night of standing as through a day of use. This cleaning should be particularly thorough at the end of each seasons work or when the apparatus is to: be stored for any length of time. All working parts should be kept thoroughly oiled. These measures of care will reduce the expenses for repairs and improve the ease and quality of the work done. GENERAL USEFULNESS OF LIME-SULFUR WASH.-JIts su- perior power of controlling the San Jose scale is but one of the many advantages of this wash. It adheres to the trees for a long time and its good effects are continued through several months after the application. It acts both as an insecticide and also as a fungicide. As an insecticide it is effective for nearly all of the scale insects oscurring upon fruit trees. It destroys the winter eggs of the plant lice which attack the leaves and twigs of apple so abundantly in the Spring. It also controls the "pear-tree Psylla" and the "pear-leaf blister mite" as well as the ,'silvering mite" of the peach and the "peach-twig borer." At the same time as a fungicide it is exceedingly effec- 19 tive against the "peach-leaf curl" and the "brown rot," also for the "apple scab" and "pear scab" and other fungous diseases of fruits. These fruit pests cannot all be reached at the same time with any other of the numerous methods of treatment which are sometimes substituted for the Lime-Sulfur for controlling the San Jose scale. No other insectitude now known can equal in range of usefulness and in economy a single thorough application of Lime-Sulfur wash to fruit trees just before the buds start in the Spring. Manifestly these important considerations in favor of Lime-Sulfur far outweigh all contrary ones based upon the inconvenience in its preparation and the disagreeableness of handling and applying it. To obviate the objections to the preparation of the wash any one who desires may now buy it in a concentrated solution ready to dilute directly with water for spraying. It is sold by several of the manufacturers of insecticides whose addresses are given in the Appendix on page 21-22. This might be particularly desirable for the man who needs but little of the wash. The commercial article has shown up favorably in experimental tests biit apparently has no superiority in effect over the home-made article which, of course, costs somewhat less. DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS AND SPECIAL ADVICE.- Specimens suspected of being San Jose scale, and any other insects attacking fruits, trees, garden and field crops, etc., may be submitted to the Entomologist, Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala., for determination. They should be mailed in a tight, strong box bearing plainly on the outside the name and address of the sender and separate from the letter of advice which should describe as fully as possible the nature and extent of the injury which the insect seems to be doing. The Entomologist will gladly and freely give any suggestions possible for combating insect pests thus brought to his attention. APPENDIX INSECTICIDE MATERIALS AND SPRAYING APPARATUS : ADDRESSES OF DEALERS AND MANUFACTURERS. Believing that much of the failure to adopt recommendations for spraying treatment for insect and fungus pests is due to a lack of definite knowledge as to just where reliable materials and equipment may be secured, we give below the addresses of some of the many firms manufacturing or dealing in insecticide materials and apparatus. In doing this we do not mean to imply that other dealers do not make or handle just as reliable and satisfactory goods. Those listed may be depended upon and are as accessible as possible to the people of Alabama. LIME WORKS. Newala Lime Works, Calera, Ala. Calera Lime Works, Calera, Ala. Keystone Lime Works, Calera, Ala. Longview Lime Works, Calera, Ala. WHOLESALE SULFUR DEALERS. purr Drug Co., Montgomery, Ala. Greil Bros., Montgomery, Ala. Jacob's Pharmacy, Wholesale Department, Ga. Mobile Drug Co., Mobile, Ala. SPRAYING MACHINERY. Atlanta, Morrill and Morley, Benton Harbor, Mich. (Local agency G. W. Barnett Hardware Co., Montgomery, Ala.) 21. Goulds Mfg. Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y. (Goods handled by Beck & Gregg Hardware Co., Atlanta, Ga.; Alabama Machinery & Supply Co., Montgomery, Ala.) The Deming Co., Salem, Ohio. (No local agency so far as we know.) Frost Insecticide Co., Arlington, Mass. (No local agency.) Dayton Supply Co., Dayton, Ohio. (Agency with Macon Implement Co., Macon, Ga.; Alabama agencies are being established also.) F. E. Myers & Bro., Ashland, Ohio. (Agencies with Barney-Cavenaugh Hardware Co., Mobile, Ala.; Selma Hardware Co., Selma, Ala.; and Alabama Machinery & Supply Ca., Montgomery, Ala.) INSECTICIDE MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS. Graselli Chemical Co., Birmingham, Ala. (Make and sell Lime-Sulfur solution, Arsenate of Lead, Bordeaux mixture, etc.) Bowker Insecticide Co., 43 Chatham St., Boston, Mass. (Sell a number of kinds of specially prepared insecti- cides.) Frost Insecticide Co., Arlington, Mass. Rex Co., Omaha, Nebraska. (Sell Lime-Sulfur solution and Arsenate of Lead particularly.) Thomsen Chemical Co., Baltimore, Md. (Sell LimeSulfur solution.) Fred. L. Lavanburg, 100 William St., New York, N. Y. (For Paris Green and Arsenate of Lead particularly.) Merrimac Chemical Co., 33 Broad St., Boston, Mass. (Makers of Swift's Arsenate of Lead.) Adler Color & Chemical Co., New York, N. Y. (Make Paris Green, Arsenate of Lead, etc.) Acme Color Works, 100 William Sreet, New York, N. Y. (Paris Green, etc.) A. B. Ansbacher & Co., New York, N. Y. (Paris Green, etc.) 22 F. W. Devoe & Co., New York, N. Y. (Paris Green, (Various insec- etc.) Leggett & Brother, New York, N. Y. ticides.) Sherwin-Williams Co., Newark, N. J. (Paris Green.) American Horticultural Distributing Co., Martinsburg, W. Va. ("Target Brand" insecticides.) B. G. Pratt Co., 11 Broadway, New York, N. Y. (Scalecide.) BULLETIN NO, 145 FEBRUARY, 1909 ALABAMA. Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN. Local Fertilizer Experiments With Cotton y . and.1898 IN 1 9 0 5, 1 06 , 9 1 97 B J. F. DUGGAR, Director. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1909 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES HON. H. HON. L. MARTIN.....................................Ozark ON EXPERIMENT STATION. TANCRED BETTS. ............................... .................................... Huntsville Anniston HON. A. W. BELL.. STATION COUNCIL. t. C.I 'HACH......................................President Director and Agriculturist Chemist and State J. F. DUGGAR...................... B. B. Ross. C. A. CARY ........ ....................... Chemist Botanist Veterinarian and Director Farmer's Institutes F. E. LLOYD .............................................. R. J. S. MACKINTOSH.. .............................. Horticulturist Soil and Crop T. ANDERSON...........Chemist, Investigation Industry D. T. GRAY...............................Animal W. E. HINDS........................................Entomologist C. L. HARE .................. ........................... ... .... Chemist A. McB RANSOM. Associate Chemist ASSISTANTS. T. BRAGG.................. ...... ....... First Assistant Chemist Assistant in Agriculture L. N. DUNCAN.......................... E. F. CAUTHEN............... Farm Superintendent . ... ... and Recorder J. W. RIDGEWAY ..... BELL... .. .. .. Assistant in Animal Industry Assistant in :;Horticulture Assistant Chemist P. F. WILLIAMS....................... N. E. ....... e.............Second I S. MCADORY................... Assistant in Veterinary Science Assistant in Entomology Assistant in Bacteriology W. F. TURNER......................... L. A. CASE.................... 0. H. SELLERS................... ......... Stenographer and Mailing Clerk LOCAL FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON IN 1905, 1906, 1907, AND 1908. BY J. F. l)UGGAR. For a number of years this Station has conducted numerous local fertilizer experiments, furnishing material and instructions. to farmers agreeing'to make the tests. The number of local fertilizer experiments with cotton, In 1905, ten; which reports were received, was as in 1906, thirteer ; in 1907, ten; and in 1908, twenty-two. This does not include a number of experiments begun and not successfully completed. In all of these years fertilizer experiments were also made on corn and other crops, the results of which will be published later. The chief object of these local fertilizer experiments or soil tests has been to ascertain the best fertilizer or nation of fertilizers for cotton, growing on each of the principal soils of Alabama. Small lots of carefully weighed and mixed fertilizers were. supplied to each experimenter. Detailed instructions as to how to conduct the experiments and blank forms for ing results, were also furnished. The following list gives the name and address of each experimen- follows: of combi- report- ter who has reported the results of fertilizer experiments made under our direction during the past four years, with page of thin bulletin where the results may be found. COUNTY. Autauga Barbour ... Blount .... .Tidnmore . .Prattville..J. POST OFFICE NAME. DATE PAGE 49-52' 69 .39-42 Louisville..J. Fredonia .E. 1908.......78, B Haynes ... Bullock.... .Union Spr'gs Bullock ... Three Notch.. A. M. Cope....1906........ Bullock Chilton F. R. W. Young....1905-6.......... D. Veal..........1906......... 1905.......... Jno. W. Staab ... ...Suspension .. .. 68-69' 78, .0. . M. Hill.......... 1906............ Chambers .... W. Smartt... Caffey ..... H. 1905............ 78" 47-49 39-42 Verbena..... G. H. 907-8.........49-50, Chilton Conecuh Cullman .... .Verben a...J. Betts......... H. Willoughhy .. 1905-6-8 ... ...Cullmnan,.... Betts. ....... 1905-6-7...75-76 1906........... Cullman ... L. A Fealy ....... Joppa......... 0. G. Roberts.. .. 1906-7-8........ 39.40 Fayette. .. .Newtonville Franklin . Russellville Greene -... Geneva.... Geneva...M Eutaw .... . .. ...'P. W. . .J. B. Gibson ... P. Metcalf WV. 1906-7-8. . . ...-. .45.47, 78 29-30 J. Willis........1905-6.......... 1905 ... 1908............ ....... .... 69-70 48 Morgan Henry ..... Heaidland..W. F. Covington Henry..Columiia .. T. Z. Atkeson...1908....... . 1907-8.......... 73 71-73 26 DATE PAGE NAME A. Parish... 1905-6.........30-31 J. W. Haddock. 1907-8. F. T. Nealy.......1905............35 Lawrence. .Hillsboro...... .......... 59 Lee....... Auburn ....... Ala. Expt. Station.. Jno Jackson.... 1908..........57-58 Lee........ Auburn Lee.... ... Bee Hive......T. W. Cox.........1905-6..........58 1905..........61-64 Macon .... Notasulga .... S. C. Jackson. 1906..........61-65 Macon .... Shorter ...... Y. Swearington. 66 Hill .. Robt. Floyd ....... 1806-7....... Macon......Hurtsboro .. .. A. . Floyd ........ 1908...........66 1905.......33-35 Madison ... Huntsville....H. D. N. Wales COUNTY POST OFFICE LauderdaleFlorence ...... LauderdaleFlorence .'.. . W. 30-32 ....... 1905-6 Macon...,.Society Marion .... Marengo... Faundsdale... W. C. McNight ..... 1905..........53-54 Hamilton.... 6th Dist. Agr. School.1906..........39-42 . 35-36 Morgan ... Hartselle.... .J. 0. Burleson...1107-8.. 190-7...........54 Montgom'ry Montgomery. J. M. Jones ........ Montgomry Montgomery . . T. M. Oliver.. 1905.78 W. C. Naftel... Montgom'ryNaftel ........ 1906...........78 D. W. Davis... Gordon ... Pickens 1907............59 Tallapoosa Notasulga.... M. E. Parker .. ... 6163 1907 Tallapoosa Notasulga .... lE. B. Jackson.. 1907..........61-62 Tallap osa Notasulga ... J. W. Parker .. Walker.. .. Cordova.......J. 1907.......5256 L. Alexander .... 1908..........39-44 Winston .. .Nauvoo..... W. M Omary. 1908..........39-43 The directions stated that land employed for this test should be and uniform, not manured in recent years, not in cowpeas the bareceding year, and that it should be' representative of 'arge soil areas in its vicinity. The need of perfect uniformity of standard treatment for all plots (except as to kind of fertilizer used) was emphasized. Fertilizers were applied in the usual manner-that is, drilled before planting. level THE RAINFALL. The following data are taken from the records of the Alabama section of the Weather Bureau, and show the average rainfall for the state : 1905 INCHES RAINFALL. 1907 1908 1906 4.66 2.20 4.28 ... January ................. February .... 5.26 ....... 7.24 2.39 9.26 1.03 4.63 5.04 2.94 6.26 7.94 2.85 5.00 3.50 5.50 1.44 6.15 6 01 6.30 4.7°7 .584 5.34 2.75 4.72 3.44 2.42 1.76 1.52 5.02 48.16 3.70 March ................... 3.69 April ..................... 5.51 May........... ..... ...... 4.56 ........... June........... . .4.56 . July... 5.30 August .................... Septemb~er................ 2.51 4.39 October................... .178 November............ 6.46 December.............. Average........55 Average yearly normal 38 ... ... ... ... .. ... .. 3.45 8.50 3.78 8.44 3 54 2.50 4.19 ... ... . ... . 56 56 54.66 .................... 51 27 THE FERTILIZERS USED. The following prices are used, as representing approximately the average cash price in local markets during the last few years: Acid phosphate (14 per cent. available) Cotton seed meal ----------------------- 25.00 Kainit--------------------------------1.00 _,$14.00 Per Ton. Prices naturally vary in different localities. Any one can substitute the cost of fertilizers in his locality for the price given above. In each experiment two plots were left unfertilized, these being plots 3 and 8. When these yields differed widely the experiment was classed as inconclusive. The increase on plots 4 to 7 is calculated on the assumption that the graduation in fertility is uniform from plot 3 to plot 8. The following table shows what kinds and amounts of fertilizers were used on certain plots; the number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash supplied per acre by each fertilizer mixture; and the percentage composition and cost per ton of each mixture, the latter being given in order that these mixtures may be readily compared with various brands of prepared guanos. PRICE ASSUMED FOR SEED COTTON. The price assumed is $14.00 per ton for seed, and 10 cents per pound for lint, a price found by averaging prices of 9, 11, 11, and 9 cents per pound respectively, for the crops of 1904, '5, '6, '7, and '8. This is equal to 3.8 cents per pound of seed cotton tui'ning out 33 T per cent. of lint. Deductcents per pound as the average cost of picking and ing ginning, and we have left 3.2 cents as the net value per pound of the increase of seed cotton due to fertilizers. This latter is the figure used in all financial calculations. 28 Pounds per acre of fertilizers, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 2L11 potash used and composition of each mixture. FERTILILERS MIXTURE V 1 Al1V I COST OF FERTIL: T7 IZERSC~~ U o KIND O c Ct O MS., I) S.. L 1 Lbs. 200 2 240 4 ... 5 i 6 In 100 lbs. c. s. meal.~ 6.79 Acid phospha+e ........ ...... 3 6.12..... In 100 lbs. acid phos. ..... 1 24.60 ................ 200 In 100 lbs. kainit. .... .... 12.30 200 Cotton seed meal 1.88 3.54 240 Acid phosphate.. In 100 lbs above inixl. 3.09 .80 9.52 200 Cotton seed meal 13.58 5.7i628.14 ............. 200 In 100 lbs. above mixl. 3.39 1.44' 7.03 240 Acid phosphate.. .. ...... ............... 200 Cotton Lbs.L seed meal..;13.58 Lbs. Tbs. 5.76 3.54l 2.88 1.77f $25 .00$2.50. 14.00 1.68 15.00 1 .50 Kainit ...... ..... .. 18.99 4.28 I Kainit Kainit In 19.5 14.45 4.00 3.18 i, -jo I i 5 Average able. 200 240 Acid phosphate..... 13.58 4 1.88 28.14 200 K ainit ........... 2.12 6.54 4.39 In 100 lbs above mi.' 200 Cotton seed meal .. 240 Acid phosphate 13.58 4'1.88 15.84 100 Kainit ........... 7.75 2.93 2.59 In 100 lbs above mixl. 100 lbs. above mtx Cotton seed meal .... . .. 8.21 5.59 17.81 5.68 111.. .... 18.24 5.93 of many Counting all the phosphoric acid in cotton seed meal as avail- analsis. Those. farmers who are more accustomed to the word ammonia than to the term nitrogen, can change the figures for nitrogen into their ammonia equivalents by multiplying by 1/14 29 NORTH-WEST OF RUSSELLVILLE. FRANKLIN COUNTY, 5 T. J. WILLIS, 1905-6, (See Table, p. 30.) .Dark gray sandy soil, with light colored clay subsoil. These tests were made on a hilltop which had been in cultivation about 10 years. The forest growth was hardwoods. It is evident that this soil responded freely to every fertilizer, whether applied singly, by twos, or all three together. In both years a complete fertilizer (plots 9 or 10) was the most profitable application, closely followed in yield and profit by a mixture of acid phosphate and cotton seed meal. On 'plot 9 the complete fertilizer increased the yield by 1000 and by 792 pounds of seed cotton. After deducting the cost of the fertilizer (p 29) this left profits of $26.32 and $19.66 per acre. Phosphate was most effective, cotton seed meal next, and kainit least, but still useful. 1905 1906 Lbs. Lbs Average yield of seed cotton, unfertilized............352 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot............................192 To acid phosphate plot...............72 To kainit plot.................................204 To .acid phosphate and kainit plot.................167 Average increase with cotton seed meal............ 184 MILES added: 376 24 120 144 176 116 Increase of seed cotton per. acre when acid phosphate- was added: 456 To unfertilized plot...............664 552 644 To cotton seed meal plot....................... . ........ To kainit plot ............... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot............... ..... 739 702 600 632 Average increase with acid phosphate...............687 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot ~ ......... To cotton seed meal plot To acid phosphate. plot............................ 560 ................. added: 94 106 169 16 136 160 ........ To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot........ 164 Average increase with kainit........... 133 216 132 Experiment at Rasseilvirre (Franklin Co.) and near Florence (Lauderdale FERTILIZER C) Co.) 1905-6-7-8 T. J. WILLIS T. J. WILUIS J. W. PARISH W. A. PARISH J. W. HADDOCK J. W, HADDOCK Russellville Russellville Florence Florence Florence Florence 1905 1906 1905 1906 1907 1908 a) o 0 a))o .. C o0 0C) P )ov a) O oa) 0 a) a)r KIND 0 '-4H Rv o ro0 UC) o0 0 s-C C -0 s) .ro0 V0 s-)~ H b0 s " C 0 o U s-a H F% Lbs 1 2 3 Lbs.'1 Lbs 432 3237 1184 656 1200 Lbs 192 664 94 836 298 833 Lbs 400 832 392 952 536 992 Lbs 24 456 200 Cotton seed meal . 520 240 Acid phosphate..992 200Kainit ............... Nofriie.... sed 200Kainit .. 608 664 Lbs 336 392 308 857 6061 539 Lbs. 408 368 352 608 320 456 Lbs, 232 192 179 438 Lbs 672 1032 1424 1840 1256 Lbs 72 432 848 18 728 Lbs. 910 650 800 50 1010 710 Lbs. 460 200 340 18 530 220 .1660404 08 16 ea. 576 -160 616 1184 960920 6200 Cotton seed meal ..... 7hopha 8 92 . .. 20 ainit..... 0 No tfeo t ihiezep . m. e. .. ..... . . 13 66 A C i rp ls d a a r . 37 1293 153 ............ . .. 1 768 . . 764 0 0 3 6. . 1000 116 72 . 0.. 816 . . . . .85 . . 1 6 043 . 408 544 368 41 4 8082 . . . . . 81. . 50 0.20 0 . .. 06 8128 372 110 0 460 200 90 240 Acid 200 Kainit..........1 Cotton seed meal.. phosphate ... 16 31 LAUDERDALE COUNTY, 10 MILES WEST OF FLORENCE. W. A. PARISH, 1905-6. (See Table, p. 30.) In 1905 stiff light gray soil with red subsoil; in 1906 darker soil, with red clay subsoil. Both fields had been cleared for 30 or 40 years. The original forest trees are said to have been post oak, red oak, black oak, and hickory. Every fertilizer considerably in-. creased the yield in both years. In both years the largest increase, 857 pounds and 438 pounds of seed cotton respectively, was afforded by plot 5, fertilized with a mixture of cotton seed meal and phosphate. This represents a net profit of $23.14 and $9.73 per acre. In 1904 a test made bv Mr. Parish on gray soil with reddish subsoil showed an average increase attributable to cotton seed meal of 249 pounds of seed cotton per acre; an increase deu to acid phosphate of 584 pounds; and an increase due to kainit of 212 pounds of seed cotton. This indicated a need for the complete fertilizer, while the later tests gave good results without kainit. It seems that this soil needs chiefly phosphoric acid, but that this should usually be supplemented by nitrogen. The soil on which both Mr. Parish and Mr. Haddock made their experiments was that known locally as "The Barrens," and described in soil survey reports as "Clarksville Silt Loam." 1904 1905 1906 Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized..452 340 168 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot ............................ 284 336 232 To acid phosphate plot ......................... 269 465 246 To kainit plot ................... ............... 237 298 - 26 To acid phosphate and kainit plot ................. 208-131 91 Average increase with cotton seed meal .......... 249 242 138 32 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: 696 392 192 To unfertilized plot .......................... 681 521 206 To cotton seed meal plot ...................... 231 114 To kainit plot...............................494 465-198 231 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ................ Average increase with acid phosphate ............ 584 236 188 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: 308 179 To unfertilized plot.........................334 270 -- 79 To cotton seed meal plot...................287 132 147 101 To acid phosphate plot ........................ -54 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot......71-449 Average increase with kainit...................212 09 37 LAUDERDALE COUNTY, 10 MILES WEST OF FLORENCE. J. W. HADDOCK, 1907-8. (See Table, p. 30.) Gray soil, with red subsoil. This field had been cleared about 40 years, and was of the same character as soil used in Mr. Parish's experiment. The stand was uniform. The results both years agree with Mr. Parish's experiments in showing that the most effective fertilizer was a mixture of acid phosphate and cotton seed meal, the phosphate being more important. It is curious and 'inexplicable that kainit when applied alone gave a large increase, but when combined with either or both of the other fertilizers it gave little or no increase. These tests, though presenting some figures that cannot be understood, confirmed the conclusions drawn from Mr. Parish's tests, namely, that acid phosphate is most important, that it should be supplemented by cotton seed meal, and that potash is generally unnecessary. 33 1907 1908 Lbs. Lbs. 540 475 460 880 120 190 Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized. Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot...............................72 To acid phosphate plot............................856 To kainit plote ................................To acid phosphate and kainit plot......................380 added: Average increase with cotton seed neal...............269 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot..............................432 To cotton seed meal plot............................121 To kainit plot......................................-120 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot...................0 Average increase with acid phosphate.................576 478 added: 200 620 0 70 193 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot...............................848 340 To cotton seed meal plot ............... 656 70 To acid phosphate plot ............................. 20 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate............-560-600 A verage increase with kainit...................... 5 MILES WEST added: 315 -43 OF HUNTSVILLE. MADISON COUNTY, HI. D. N. WALES, 1905. (See Table, p. 35.) Red soil, with red subsoil. This worn red lime soil responded freely only to applications of cotton seed meal. Other tests made in Madison County indicate a general need on snch soils for both nitrogen and phospahte. Results from potash have been variable, the majority of the tests showing that little or no potash is needed. 34 Lbs. 376 144 96 144 128 Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized .......... Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot ................................... To acid phosphate plot ................................. To kainit plot ....................................... Average increase with cotton seed meal ..................... Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot ................................... 88 To cotton seed meal plot ............................... 40 32 To kainit plot ...........................................Average increase with acid phosphate ....................... Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot .................................. cotton seed meal plot ............................... 24 1o 72 72 48 24 To acid phosphate plot ...............................Average increase with kainit ................................ 35 Experiments in, Madison, Lawrence and Morgan Counties. HUNTSHILLS]0R0 HARTSELLS HARTSELLE FEIRTI.IERLE V Q. __ _ W I Red land I Gray land 41 O N 4-J O /1s +j O ONW 4_ o KIND .e 0 u1~~~~n O a 0~~.r o~ 0~o~0 :Z 0~C3to) : 0 ) 1 2 3 4 :i2001 Lbs Lbs. 520 200 Cotton seed meal ..... 464 240 Acid phosphate ...... ... No fertilizer..........376 448 t .............. 200 560 205 oto se1ma Kaini Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs .Lbs. 780 210 48 798 144,272 88 40'776!120 1140 370 6 .... 264 2 112 Cotton seed meal ... 0 94 680 744 72 100 1210 184, 496 265 14 247 21 240 Acid phosphate .... 744 126 672 6{ 2101 Cotton seed meal1> Acid phospate 592 216 4410727 416 .. 8 0 5 9 7j240 8 i....j 40 462962 20...64...40.. 7 5 4 No fertilizer .......... 37( . 9 10 200 Cotton seed meal 240 Acid phosphate.,. 200 Cotton seed meal ... 200 Kainit........... 2001 Cotton seed meal 1 5 240 Acid phosphate 100 Kainit........... . 616 376 752 128 10101520 LAWRENCE F. T. COUNTY, 1 MILE EAST 0OFIILLSBORO. NEALY., 1905. (See Table -above.) Gray sandy loam soil, with yellow subs oil. This field had been cleared about 70 years of its growth of hardwoods. It-had grown up in weeds during the four years preceding this experiment. Rains were almost con-~ tinuous throughout the season, making cultivation almost impossible. Under these unfavorable conditions a complete, fertilizer was the most effective and profitable. 36 Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized.........232 Increase seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot....................................48 To acid phosphate plot.................................225 To kainit plot.........................................161 To acid phosphate and kainit plot........................285 -of added: Average increase with cotton seed meal...................180 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phoshate was To unfertilized plot...................................40 To cotton seed meal plot...............................217 To kainit plot........................................198 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot......................314 added: Average increase with acid phosphate.....................192 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot....................................21 To cotton seed meal plot...............................142 To acid phosphate plot................................179 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot...............239 Average increase with kainit............................145 MORGAN COUNTY, 4 MILES WEST OF HARTSELLE. J. 0. BURLESON, 1907-8. added: (See Table, p. 35.) In 1907, soil, red, lime table lan;&Sbsoil, red. The original growth was hickory, remnoved about 80 years before. The soil was the ordinary lime soil of the Tennessee Valley Region. A complete fertilizer afforded the largest yield. Apparently the greatest need was for nitrogen. In 1908, typical sandy mountain land, dark gray soil with red subsoil. The original growth was shortleaf pine and hardwoods, and the land had been in cultivation about 10 years. The largest increase was afforded by a mixture of cotton seed meal and acid phosphate. The chemical chiefly needed by this soil was acid phosphate. 37 Average yield of seed cotton per arre, unfertilized. Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot :... ............................ To acid phosphate plot............................-20 To kainit plot..................................-20.-20 To acid phosphate and kainit plot.....................239 Average increase with cotton seed meal...............78 en Increase of seed cotton per acre wiL acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot...............................120 To cotton seed meal plot...........................-12.462 To kainit plot....................................93 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot...................166 Average increase with acid phosphate................45 added: Lbs. Lbs. 640 530 112 210 402 230 206 added: 370 268 230 333 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot...............................94 To cotton seed meal plot ........................... To acid phosphate plot..........................-119 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot........140 Average increase with kainit.........................19 addcd: 38 126 140 -92 21 50 CULLMAN COUNTY, 2 MILES SOUTH WEST OF JOPPA. 0. G. ROBERTS, 1906-7-8. (See Table, p. 39.) Gray sandy upland with yellow clay subsoil. The original growth was short leaf pines and hardwoods, characteristic of the Mountain Plateau Region. This field had been cleared for about 24 years. In all three years the largest profit was made on plot 5 using tests by a mixtnre of cotton seed meal and acid phosphate. In every case there was no advantage in adding kainit to the ether two chemicals. This inefficiency of potash in these plete is fnrther borne ont by the fact that, of the two fertilizers, the one with the smaller amount of potash conm- each year afforded the larger yield. with the resnits of Mr. Burleson's tests on similar gray pla- These resnlts also agree teau soil. 1906. 1907. 1908. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre unfertilized .. 248 360 312 Increase in seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot ......................... 200 22 144 To acid phosphate plot ........................ 174 218 132 To kainit plot ............................... 190 58 166 To acid phosphate and kainit plot ...............17 43 164 Average increase with cotton seed meal ........... 137 85 152 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot .......................... 288. 174 292 To cotton seed meal plot ...................... 262 370 280 To kainit plot ............................... 342 121 112 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot .............. 135 114 110 Average increase with acid phosphate ............ 257 195 199 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot ........................... 75 182 156 To cotton seed meal plot ......................... 65 210 178 To acid phosphate plot ........................... 129 129 -24 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ..... -62 -46 8 Average increase with kainit .................... 52 119 80 Fertilizer Experiments in Blount, Cul/man, Marion, Winston and Walker Counties. FERTILIZER i JOPPA JOPPA 1906 N N-C a). 1907 C JOPPA 11908 4) a-. a) Ca) C TIDMORE CULLMAN HAM ILTO N NA UVOO CORDOVA 1905 a) v c C 1906 C 1906 a) 1908 I 1908 C a) 4) a. ia ¢ )..c O D.C a)v Ca) a)..-. a',A a) a.) 1-4 N a)7. Lb. a)s. a) s, ON a) l 0 C. KIND 0, a)¢ -4a) . I 4 ) . 0)4. ,-0 I I T 'f T 7 1 T 1 I Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.l Lbs. -Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.j 200 Cotton seed meal... 416 200' 4381 22 472' 144. [568]_ [372] 54 80 276 588 292 504 288' 590 240 Acid phosphate .... 392 196 328 ... . 416, .... .216 .... No fertilizer ....... 7'0 553 264 476 ) 56 3041 75' 576! 200 664 462 764, 392' 200 Cotton seed meal " 380 188{ 9034 5 S240 Acid phosphate .." 322 520 2651 582' 232 Cotnsedma. 376 6r 200 186 832 200 Kainit...........J 240 Acid phosphate." 417' 630 564 268 220 33 800 7 200 Kainit...... 184 512 304 .... 288 2801 .... No fertilizer...... 8 .... Cotton seed meal 188 872 680 4001 650!3450' 720; 432 372 240 Acid phosphate . 9 200 .. .. . fibs. i -L- I 1 r 1 T 7 T '/ L bs. T 1 r Kainit............ 174 620, 182 626 152 196 288 310 Lbs. 10~ 736 424 ..... 136 [464] 368 312 256 312 632 456 544 288 592 324 595 400 480 790 605 550 395 820 Lbs.1 Lbs. Lbs. 90 1460 320 195 1560 420 1140.. 81 1270 120 392 1500 340 208 154 1630 1190 425 465 1560 1800 370 610 450 c3 a 1 1 648 303, 1 f200 i 360 400 10 [ 200 Kant......Cotton seed meal. 240 Acid phosphate..100 Kainit .......... 720 440; 684 380! 726 438 352 168 912' 528 240 860 40 B3LOUNT COUNTY, 2 JOHN MILES NORTH OF TIDnIoaIE. (See Table, p. Y. STAAB, 1905. 39.) lulatto, fine sandy loamrn, with reddish yellow subsoil. rainfall was heavy. Apparently plot 1 was on richer land than the other plots. The chief need was for nitrogen. Phosphate and kainit were of little value. On the other hand, in a similar'experiment made by Mr. Staab the preceding year on apparently the same ter of land, the increase in yield of seed cotton per acre averaged for cotton seed meal 215 pounds, for acid phosphate 282 ponnds, and for kainit 77 pounds. Mhe charac- Average yield of seed cotton, Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was ............... To unfertilized plot................... To acid phosphate plot.................................108 To kainit plot........................................116 To acid phosphate and kainit plot.......................155 Average increase with cotton seed meal..................126 unfertilized.................190 added: Lbs. To unfertilized plot ..................................... To cotton seed meal plot..........................:..... Increase of seed cotton per acre when arcid phosphate was addedI: 80 To kainit plot ............ .. Average increase with acid .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . -37 2 15 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot, ..................... phosphate .............. Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was ........ To unfertilized plot............................ To cotton seed meal plot . ............................. To acid phosphate plot ..................................To cotton seed meal and acid phosphaite plot ................ Average increase with kainit...............8 added: 70 . 47 00 41 CULLMAN COUNTY, 1 MILE SOUTH OF CULLMAN. L. A. FEALY, 1906. (See Table, p. 39.) loam subsoil. Gray sandy loam, with yellow On this upland field, long in cultivation, a mixture of acid phosphate and cotton seed meal gave the largest yield; but this result may have been due to the fact that this plot occupied the lowest position in the field. On this account it is impossible to determine whether potash was needed on this soil. In 1904 on similar land Mr. Fealy made a test in which the average increase from cotton seed meal was 180 pounds, from acid phosphate 176 pounds, and from kainit 98 pounds. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton, unfertilized .................... 452 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot .................................... 152 To acid phosphate plot ........................... 268 To kainit plot........................................232 To acid phosphate and kainit plot ........................ 48 Average increase with cotton seed meal .................... 175 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: 196 To unfertilized plot .................................... 312 To cotton seed meal plot ............................... ................ 176 To kainit plot ...................... 8 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot .......................Average increase with acid phosphate ....................... Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: .............. To unfertilized plot ..................... To cotton seed meal plot ................................. To acid phosphate jlot ............................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ............... Average increase with kainit ............................ 169 136 216 116 -104 91 42 MARION COUNTY, HAMILTOON. .SIXTH DISTRICT AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL, 1906. (Table, p. 39.) S~andy land with yellow clay subsoil. For 3 or 4 years preceeding the experiment this land had been uncultivated and occupied by weeds. The largest and1 most profitable yield was afforded by plo-t 5, fertilized with cotton seed meal and acid phosphate. A test made on the same farm in 1903 (Ala. Station Bul letin No. 131) showed a need for a complete fertilizer, in -which, however, potash was less effective than either or phosphate. gen nitro- Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized.........272 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot.....................................32 To acid phosphate plot.................................298 To kainit plot........................................131 To acid phosphate and kainit plot.........................42 Average increase with cotton seed meal...................126 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was .... ..... .... . ... ......... To unfertilized plot........... added: 64 330 124' 183 To cotton seed meal plot ................................ To kainit plot.........................................213 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ....................... Average increase with acid phosphate ..................... Averge yield of To To Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was ........... seed cotton per acre, unfertilized added: 397 To unfertilized plot .................................. To cotton seed meal plot .......................... 49 148 acid phosphate plot. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. ............ 198 -58 84 cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot............. Average increase with kainit............................ 43 WINSTON COUNTY, 3 MILES NORTH EAST OF NAUVOO. W. M. OMARY, 1908. (See Tabie, p. 39.) land." Gray sandy, soil with a reddish clay subsoil; "coal This field had been in cultivation only about 6 years; original growth is stated to have been short leaf pine. While a complete fertilizer afforded the largest yield, yet the increase on plot 5, receiving only cotton seed meal and phosphate, was almost as large and the profit on plot 5 wa. even greater than on plot 9. the .Average Lbs:. yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized..........397 Increase of seed cotton where cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot.....................................90 To acid phosphate plot.................................197 To kainit plot........................................127 To acid phosphate and kainit plot........................271 added: Average increase with cotton seed meal..................171 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added To unferilized plot.....................................19~ 30 To cotton seed meal plot ................................ 73: To kainit plot ......................................... 21 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ....................... Average increase with acid phosphate ...................... Incraese of seed cotton per acre when kainit 197 was added: 81' ....... 118 4133: To unfertilized plot..................................... To cotton seed meal plot........................... To acid phosphate plot .................................To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot............... Average increase with kainit .............................. 48 44 WALKER COUNTY, 3 -MILES SOUTH OF CORDOVA. G. L. ALEXANDER, 1908. (See Table, p. 39.) Gray sandy upland with red clay subsoil. This field had been cleared for about 40 years. Evidently ,the land had been kept in a high state of fertility. The stand was uniform. It is clear that the chief need of this'soil was for acid no need for potash. The figures phosphate. There nitrogen are confusing, probably due to the relatively productive condition of this land. Apparently plot 10 was on richer soil than the other plots. was fo. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot..................................320 To acid phosphate plot..................................80 To acid phosphate and kainit plot ........................ added: 1165 80 Average increase with cotton seed meal..........54 To unfertilized plot .................................... To cotton seed meal plot................................. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: 420 20 257 To kainit plot........................................330 Average increase with acid phosphate...................... To 'To Average Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot ............................ .......... .. . ... added: 120 30 60 acid phosphate plot ................ o'tih .. .. . . .. .. . .30 cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ................ increase kainit ............................ 45i FAYETTE COUNTY, 1 1-2 MILES WEST OF NEWTONVILLE. J. B. GIBsoN, 1906-7. (See Table, p. 46.) Dark sandy soil with red clay subsoil. This level upland field, on which the original growth was oak and short leaf pine, ha's been cleared about 18 years. There was an increase with either cotton seed meal, acid these were used separately or phosphate, or kainit, in every possible combination. Apparently the greatest need was for acid phosphate. wbether 1906. 1907. Lbs. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton, unfertilized.............560 348 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was 576 To unfertilized plot................................784 86 To acid phosphate plot..............................24 54 To kainit plot....................................72 92 To acid phosphate and kainit plot....................216 added: Average increase with cotton seed meal...............274 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To 202 unfertilized added: 640 150 129 plot................................ 880 To cotton seed meal plot............................ To kainit plot 120 .......... .... ................................. To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ......... 128 28167 349 Average increase with acid phosphate ................. Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was 272 added: To unfertilized plot................................ To cotton seed meal plot.............................. To acid phosphate plot............................ To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot............ 720 611 8 89 100 -32 160 106 Average increase with kainit ........................ 214 227 46 Fertilizer Experiments in Fayette and Greene Counties. FlRTILIZER a) U NEWTONVILLE NEWTONVILLU CTINT'N 190 1906 119( _0 a) a) v U a). a) o ) O~ 0 ).i 2 .0 0 4-1~ KIN o 2 3 4 1 Lbs. 200 240 .... 200 Cotton seed meal. Acid phosphate. No fertilizer......... 5 Kainit............... 200 Cot ton seed meal .... J .. 7 ( 240 Acid phosphate .. 8 9 240 Acid phosphate .. 6( 200 Cotton seed meal 6 20) Kainit ............. Lbs. Lbs. 1304 784 1400 880 520 . 1256 720 1456 904 1360 1432 600 1664 792 848 ... 1064 1000 Lbs 1Lbs Lbs. Lbs. 912 976 952 576 7681 144 640 !611 760; 136 336.'.......624... 1072 1726 a6961 16721149 74 1016 1096 360 1192 1272 665 740 687' 08 L200 ... <{2(0. Kainit ...... ...... J No fertilizer......... Cotton A (2C 240, Acid phosphate .. 200 Cotnsemal.. Kainit seed 622 14 616... meal .... 10) ............. J 832 680 64 240 Acid phosphate .. S100 Kainit.............. GREENE COUNTY, 1600, 912 704'88 6 MILES 1908. NORTH OF CLINTON. W. M. MORGAN, (See Table above.) Dark soil with clay foundation. The original growth, consisting chiefly of short leaf pine, was removed about nine years before the test was made. The two crops preceding the experiment consisted of cotton. No fertilizer very greatly increased the yield. From Mr. Morgan's notes it may be inferred that the land is in poor mechanical condition, much inclined to bake, and that on all plots there was much shedding of forms, but no rust. 4,7 Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertiized.620 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot..................................144 To acid phosphate plot...............................-62 To kainit plot........................................19 To acid phosphate and kainit plot ........................ added: 50 Average increase with cotton seed meal.................38 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot...................................136 To cotton seed meal plot ..............To kainit plot.......................................-35 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot.......................-4 added: 70 .Average increase with acid phosphate.....................7 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot...................................49 To cotton seed meal plot ...............................To acid phosphate plot .......................To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot............. Average increase with kainit ...........................CHILTON COUNTY., 122 40 76 2 MILES WEST OF VERBENA. J. H. WILLOUGHBY., 1905-6-7-8. (See Table, p. 49.) Gray sandy soil with a red sabsoil. Every year this test was ma~de on soil that had been long in cultivation. In each of the four years the complete fertilizer (plot 9) afforded a larger yield than the mi~xture of any two fertilizers. In every test the complete fertilizer afforded the largest net profit. When the chemicals were used separately or by twos their effect was variable, but when all 3 were combined each chemical in this mixture increased the yield more than enough to pay its cost. 48 1905 1906 1907 1908 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre unfertilized ............................... 408 256 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot......................384 104 64 To acid phosphate plot...................104 85 60 To kainit plot ........................... 96 21 -36-18 To acid phosphate and kainit plot..........272 62 279 x"8 550 230 142 256 153 Average increase with cotton seed meal ...... 214 68 60 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot ...................... 168 128 32 50 To cotton seed meal plot .................112 109 156 -38 To kainit plot.............................16 36-101142 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot .......... 192 77 214 132 Average increase with acid phosphate 66 87 75 1 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot ...................... 136 To cotton seed meal plot ..................152 To acid phosphate plot .................... -16 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot . .152 Average increase with kainit ................ 30 added: 206 158 186 123 186 -62 114 25 -6 91 244 108 133 153 57 Verbena ( Chilton County) Experiments by J. H. Willoughby and 0. H. Caffey. FIR fL1LIZ FIR VERBENA VERBEFNA VERBENA VERBENA VERBENA VERBENA W. 1905 W. 1906 U 0 00. W. 1y07 0 OU 0 t 0 00. 0) Q) 00 W. 1908 C. 1907 0 0 0 0 C3 O 00" C. 1908 U U1 0O 0 0 ..- U 0) u1 0 C 0. 0 0 L 50U I'to O z 0 10 KIND CO 0 y SH 0U 0U. H U +_ OO S-i 0 ¢' 20 88 5.0 653 0-s Lbs. 1 2 200 Cotton seed meal . 240 Acid phospha±te .. Lbs. Lbs. 384 168336 272 232 152 Lbs. 376 4(0 272 472 472 380 488 240 544 456 Lbs. 104 128 206 213 227 242 Lbs. 640 736 704 832 736 736. 610 552 888 856 752 536, 3; .... 1No fertilizer.......... 368 4 200 Kainit ............. ..i 520 5 200 Cotton seed meal..t 672 6 200 Cotton seed h eal6.... A i h s m t 648 c 1 200 Kainit ............. 7124() Acid phosphate .. 584 S200 Kainit ............. 8 .... No fertilizes . . . . . . . . . 448 (200 Cotton seed meal .... 1 9~ 240 Acid phosphate .. 872 J 1 200 Kainit ............. meal .... 1 1200 C~otton seed 10~ 240 Acid posphate .. 7601 100 Kainit..............I Lbs. 64 32 158 92 122 57 Lbs. 820 640 590 760 750 710 570 .5:0 00 70. 560 300 10 Lbs. 7L0o Lbs. 160 103 41 .. 710 80 630 ... 6.50 40 910 320 740 680 .530.. 860 170 130 44 424 312 304 216 336 304 810 800 290 952 392 303 280 810 50 CHILTON COUNTY, 1-2 MILE SOUTH OF VERBENA. G. H. CAFFEY, 1907-8. (See Table, p. 49.) Rather stiff, dark, sandy soil, with a red clay subsoil. This piece of high upland was cleared 60 or 70 years ago of its original growth of longleaf pine, oak, hickory, and dogwood. The results for the two years suggest that the fertilizer which pays best one season is not necessarily the one most effective in a different season. In 1907 there was need for a complete fertilizer, in which the most effective constituent was nitrogen, closely followed by potash; phosphate was also helpful when used in combination, with both of the other constituents. In 1908, on the contrary, kainit was of practicallY no value nitrogen being most important, followed by phosphate. A mixture of cotton seed meal and phosphate gave the greatest profit. In 1907 the complete fertilizer on plot 9, costing $5.68 pec acre, increased the yield of seed cotton by 464 pounds per acre, worth at 3.2 cents, $14.85. This leaves a net profit of $8.17 due to the complete fertilizer. Likewise in 1908 the increase on plot 5, with meal and phosphate costing $4.28, afforded a net profit of $5.96. 1907 1908 Lbs. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton unfertilized ............. 652 580 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot ............................... 144 160 To acid phosphate plot .............................. 268 240 To kainit plot ....................................... 18 130 To acid phosphate and kainit plot .................... 361 200 Average increase with cotton seed meal ................ 198 183 51 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot............................91 33 To cotton seed meal plot ................. . 93 ......... . To kainit plot .. '.... .. ............... kainit plot................250 To cotton seed meal added: 80 160 and 90 160 Average increase with acid phosphate................25 123 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added To unfertilized plot...........................196 70 ....... To cotton seed meal plot................. To acid phosphate plot.........................194 287 To cotton seed meal and acid' phosphate plot..... Average increase.with kainit........................187,28 AUTAUGA COUNTY, 2 MILEs EAST OF 40 10 50 10, PIATTVILLE. J. W. YOUNG, 1905-6-7. (See Table, p. 52.) Reddish sandy soil with a red clay subsoil. The; stand each year was good and uniform. 1Results were somewhat obscured by- unfavorable weather conditi ' ns. in 1905 and by the September storm and the occurrence of early chief need of the soil, long frost in 1906. Evidently t in' cultivation, was for nitrogen. Phosphoric acid was also needed. A mixtu~e of cotton seed meal and acid phosphate, (plot 5), in 'all cases gave a profitable increaser In a complete fertilizer in 1905 and 1906 kainit increased the yield to the. extent of 112 and 77 pounds of seed cotton respectively ; but when used alone or in combination .with' either one of the other fertilizers, kainit :was usually un- he profitable, and it was also without effect in the complete fertilizer in 1907. 52 Aulauga and Montgomery (Sandy Land) Experiments. FERTILIZER Prattyille 1904 Pratt- yule 1905 Prattyule 1906 MONsandy oI a ( o KIND a - I .2~vo~i 0 0 ~ . O. 0 Imo FF, _,, cu& o c ' o0Ov U H 11 t^ , U H~ 912 816 UH 156 60 . m' U H Lbs. 1 2 3 4 Lbs. Lbs.(Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 200 Cotton seed meal ... 816 184 936 296 :120 800 160 240 Acid phosphate .... .... No fertilizer.......632 .... 640. 24 680 34 200 200 Kainit.............;640 Cotton seed meal . 6 :752 744,112 664132 756 780 88 892 12 19 632 552 70 66 16 ci 240 200 240 200 8 .... Acid phosphate084 el.752 otnse 20 Kainit........... Acid phosphate "744 1 Kainit .... No 6 801788 18 168 760 101 ... 19 102 72 1 752t 1620 176 696 .... ;672. 30 708 812 .. 93 643~ 73 560 .... 200 240 200 200 10 240 Cotton seed meal 824 1272 936 264 880 Acid phosphate .. Kainit...........3 Cotton seed meal . Acid phosphate .. fertilizer........ 5521 68 12 824; 264 280 1768 216 X856 184 100 Kainit.......... 1800840 was A verage yield of seed cotton, unfertilzed Increase of seed cotton when cotton sesd me,). 1905 1906 1907 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 59 ' ....................... 656 784 added: To unfertilized plot.............................184 To acid phosphate plot...........................40 296 27 156 49 To kainit plot .................................. To acid phosphate and kainit plot..................96 144 67 234 90 151 Average increase with cotton seed meal..........116 156 112 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acd phospalite was added: 60 To unfertilized plot..............................120 160 -47 cotton seed meal plot.........................24-109 -4-105. To kainit plot...................................152 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot...............104 163 -34 -To Average increase with acid phosphate............ 88 53 -3 53 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was 34 12 To unfertilized plot.24 -54 To cotton seed meal plot......................-16-195 To acid phosphate plot.........................56-130-153 112 77 -41 . To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot Average increase with kainit....................44 -53 -59 added: MARENGO COUNTY, 2 MILEs SOUTH OF FAUNSDALE. W. C. MCKNIGTT, 1905. (See Table, p. 54.) Yellowish, gravelly, prairie upland. The largest increase and the only plot showing any decided profit from fertilizers was plot 10, which received 550 ponnds of a complete fertilizer. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized...........414 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot....................................62 To acid phosphate plot.................................170 To kainit plot.........................................48 To acid phosphate and kainit plot........................210 added: Average increase with cotton seed meal .................... 122 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot....................... ..... -82 added: 56 -42 120 ...................... To cotton seed meal plot.......... To kainit plot ......................................... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ....................... A verage increase with acid phosphate...........13 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added : To unfertilized plot.................................... To cotton seed meal plot ................................. To acid phosphate plot ......................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ............... A verage increase with kainit........... ................. -20 56 20 30 21 54 FertilizerExperiments in Marengo and Montgomery Counties on prairie or lime soils. FERTILIZER a) 0) Ca ) U + CJ FAUNS- MINTMONTDAIGOM 'RY GOM'RY DAEPrairie Prairie MONTGOM'RY Prairie l1.. C) ZER O a 0 O0U 00) + 0)..0) 4) 0 D12 0 'U S. Q z 0 T KIND P4 O0Q' 0) b V)CC O0V 4) )U 00)+ O-~ U -0) T 7 T 7 7 7 Y Lbs. 1 200 2 240 3,.... 4 200 Cotton seed meal.. Acid phosphate . No fertilizer......... Kainit Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. bbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 78 643 14 483 454 .... 372 .... 334'.... 498 418' 20 558 183 580, 233 590 372 82 648' 276' 320 516 62' 492, 120.256; 143 15 119 134 .............. 5 200 6) 10 ' 2001 9j r200 2401 4 Cotton seed meal... Acid phosphate.... Cotton seed meal. Kainit ............ Acid phosphate .... Kainit........... No fertilizer......... 540, 434 328 118 528 149 402 42 578 28 528 146 694 322 663 246 593 203 363 853 490 c 62648' 268 690 306 374.... 388...396 ( 200 100 Cotton seed meal... Acid phosphate.... Kainit .... ............. J 522' 148' o94! 310; o72; 27o Cotton seed meal . Acid phosphate .... Kainit............ 638 264 726 338 618 220 723! 360 EAST OF MONTGOMERY. YIONTGOMERY COUNTY, 6 MILES SOUTH in WESLEY N. JONES AND SONS, 1906 7 -. Black prairie soil 1906; reddish prairie soil in 1907; chocolate or "mnlatto" prairie soil in 1908. In 1906 on black or dark gray prairie upland soil, the greatest increase, 338 pounds of seed cotton per acre, and afforded by the complete fertilizer apthe largest profit, plied to plot 10. Apparently the chief need that year was for was acid phosphate, though kainit was also helpful. In 1907 the greatest increase was afforded by a mixture of cotton seed meal and kainit, closely followed by the plot receiving acid phosphate and kainit. In this test kainit was the only profitable fertilizer and was effective whether used alone or in combination with either acid phosphate or k-ainit. The poor results on plots 1 and 5 appear to be partly due to the slightly poorer stand on those plots. In 1908 a complete fertilizer was the most profitable; in this potash was iost important, nitrogen next. Acid phosphate was ineffective when used alone or with meal, but meal, profitable whin combined with both kainit ing a complete fertilizer. [In the 3 tests on this typical prairie soil, the most profiin two cases a complete fertilizer and in table fertilizer one case kainit. 2 and and mak- was 1906 1907 1908 Lbs Lbs Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized 380 365 I: crease of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: -78 To unfertilized plot...........................120 66 To acid phosphate plot......................-127 431 145 149 To kainit plot ............................ 37 89 12 127 187 152 To acid phosphate and kainit plot .............. Average increase with cotton seed meal...........1 42-30 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was a'lcled : 276 -14 -15 To unfertilized plot ........................... 29 120 -11 To cotton seed meal plot...................... 84 73 85 .......... .............. To kainit plot ........ To cotton seed meal and kainit plot........... 164 -46 144 Average increase with acid phosphate........... Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot 130 33 50 .................... 18.3 added: 233 119 To cotton seed meal plot....................... To acid phosphate plot........................ To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot 161 ... 91 26 -8 400 320 234 101 218 356 Average increase with kainit .................. 297 199, 56 MONTGOMERY COUNTY, 7 MILES EAST OF MONTGOMERY. Tuos. W. OLIVER, 1907. (See Table, p. 52.) ree1y Red santdy soil 4 to 6 in deep; subsoil. The field had been cleared perhaps 70 years before. The original growth was r'eported as short leaf pine and oak. The season was unfavorable, the spring being very wet and the late summer very dry and hot. A complete fertilizer, especially the one on plot 10, wa's tile most profitable. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized.........596 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot....................................112 To acid phosphate plot.................................84 To kainit plot ....................................... 228 To acid phosphate and kainit plot.......................191 Average increase with cotton seed meal.................154 Increase of. seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added : To unfertilized plot .................................... 32 To cotton seed meal plot............................... 4 To kainit plot .. .. .. .. .. ................ ....... ........... 139 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ......................102 69 Average increase with acid phosphate..................... Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot ................... To cotton- seed meal plot ............................... To acid phosphate plot.......................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot............. added: .- 148 43 66 50 41 Average increase with kainit ............................. 57 LEE COUNTY, EXPERIMENT STATION FARM. Results of fertilizer experiments in 1905 and 19063are reserved for another publication. Expressed briefly the sults showed that on gray sandy soil (Norfolk sandy loai), the greatest increase was from potash, next from nitrogen, and the least from phosphate. The latter fact may be due to an accumulation of phosphoric acid brought about by fertilization with acid phosphate each year. re- LEE COUNTY, 2 MILES WEST OF AUBURN. JOHN JACKSON, 1908. (See Table, p. 58.) Gray sandy loam, long in cultivation. The largest increase, 500 pounds per acre, was afforleu by plot 9, on which was used 640 pounds per acre of a complete fertilizer. This represents, at 3.2 cents per pound of seed cotton, a net profit of $10.32 per acre above the cost of fertilizer. It should be added that the increased crop as measured by the scales was very nuch greater than the appearance of the plants would suggest to theeye. Every one of the three constituents of the complete fertilizer was profitable in this mixture. Average yield seed cotton. unfertilized................. Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was of. To unfertilized plot....................................190 To acid phosphate plot ............................. To kainit plot..................................... To acid phosphate and kainit plot........ .............. Average increase with cotton seed added: ... 560 .... 10 -140 320 95 meal. To To To To Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosph~ate was unfertilized plot .................... cotton seed meal plot.............................. kainit plot ...... ................................ cotton seed meal and kainit plot ....................... ...............added: ........ 100 -80 -118 350 Average increase with acid phosphate .................... 63 58 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot.....................................290 To cotton seed meal plot.................................-40 To acid phosphate plot...................................80 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot................. added: 390 180 Average increase with kainit............................... FertilizerExperiments in Lee County. FE RTLIZER C) N AUBURN J. Jackson .! . a) i BEEHIVE I BEEHIVI 1a C) a) Ei 0 a C KIND a) 0 C 0 , ° 4-0 , ) Lbs. 1 2 3 4 .... 200,Cotton 200 200 240 200 seed meal . 240 Acid phosphate.. No fertilizer 200 Kainit 8 Kainit............. . Cotton seed meal .. . Acid phosphate .... Cotton seed mneal.. ......... Libs Lbs. Lbs. 190 800 428 424 710, 100 272 610 .... 484 980' 290 680, 110, 552 700' 710 510 Lbs. 156 152 .... 202 260 392 297 .... Lbs. 280 304 184 304 560 400 444 168 640 560 Lbs. 96 120 123 382 525 273 150 180, .... 692 608 10 240 " cid phosphate .. 200 ainit ............ *..No fertilizer.... 200 Cotton seed meal .. 240 Acid phosphate .. 200 Kainit........... 200 Cotton seed meal .. 240 Acid phosphate... 100 Kainit ........... K 320 624 . 1010 . 500 240 304 472 392 750 563 240 LEE COUNTY, 4 MILES SOUTH OF LOACHAPOKlA. AT BEEHIVE. T. W. Cox, 1905-6. Coarse sandy soil with yellow sandy subsoil. This.piece of upland had been in cultivation for many In 1905 rust was 'severeon all The stand of plants uniform. On this very poor coarse sandy soil years. was plots. 59 plot 6, fertilized with meal and kainit, gave the largest yield and the most profit in 1905, in which year every fertilizer was nsefnl when applied alone or by twos. In 1906 plot 9, receiving 640 pounds of complete fertilizer. afforded the largest yield and the greatest net profit. The latter test agrees with Mr. Jackson's in showing the need of a complete fertilizer on the coarse gray sandy soils of this region. 1905 1906 Lbs. Lbs. 296 176 Average yield of seed cotton per acre, To ;unfertilized plot ........................... unfertilized. 156 190 96 260 To acid phosphate plot...........................108 To kainit plot .................................. To acid phosphate and kainit plot....................7 Average increase with cotton seed mneal............115 2 201 140 Increase of seed cotton per acre wien acid phosphate was unfertilized plot.............................152 To cotton seed meal plot..........................104 To kainit plot...................................95 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot.................88 To added: 120 287 150 247 Average increase with acid phosphate...............66 201 Tt. unfertilized Increase of seed cotton per acre whei r- .riit was plot.......................... added- . ... 20 2 12.3 Tc cotton seed meal plot............... ....... ' o acid phosphate plot.................... ...... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot .......... Average increase with kainit....................... TALLAPO5SA COUNTY, 8 MILES WEST OF M. ? '; I45 44 157 129 153 90 124 NOTASULGA. E. PARKER, 1905-6. upland; (See Table, p. 61.) Gray sandy, yellowish subsoil. on representative long-leaf pine land, and This field had been in cultivation about 20 years. The five crops pre- was 60 ceding that of 1905 were cotton fertilized with 200 pounds of guano per acre. cotton rust was severe and a complete fertilizer In was most profitable, (plot 9 and 10); this year every tilizer, whether applied alone, by twos, or all three together grreatly increased the yield. land that had been in In 1906 the test was condncted before. I his was a rainy season on this farm. oats .ii Plot 10, with a complete fertilizer gave the largest increase hile plot 9,i eceiving a complete fer and greatest profit, w tilizer with donble this amount of potash, droppeu lowry i1, Yield. There is no question of the effectiveness ofphosphate and meal. Bnt the resnlts with kainit are here contradictory, this fertilizer making a satisfactory increase when used alone and also when used in the complete ferbnt in other combinations kainit failed tilizer on plot to increase the yield to any notable extent. 1i905 reyear fer- on 10; 1905 1906 Average Increase of seed cotton when To unfertilized plot..............................320 acre, yield of seed cotton percotton seed meal was added: un Lbs. Lbs. 500 621 127 fertilized. To acid phosphate plot.........................128 To kainit plot................................40 To acid phosphate and kainit plot.................. meal.............1273 160 2-64 72 -26 104 88 Average increase with cotton seed Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added. To unfertilized plot .............................. 18:° To cotton seed meal plot ........................... To kainit plot..................................... 166 -5 To cotton Average seed meal and kainit plot................. increase with acid phosphate 136 16 79 .............. 122 Increase of seed cotton per acre when k-init was To unfertilized plot..............................339 Pcotton seed meal plot............... To acid phosphate plot...........................&88 To cotton seed meal and acid added: ..... ICO 22"1 'r1 0 -16 .... 56 phosphate plot.......... 120 150 Average increase with kainit ...................... 70 Fertilizer Experiments in Tallapoosa an~d Macon Counties. FERTILIZER ___________ W.NOTA'CA W. NOTrA'GA W. NO'rA'CA1 W. NOTA'GA W. NOTA'GA W. NOTA'GA SHORTER SwearingS C. E. B. E. B. J. W. M. E. M. E. Parker ParkerParker Jackson Jackson Jacks-n ton3 _1905 1906 ) 0) 1907 0 >V tVViv 1907 1908 0 V0 0 1905 1906 0)0 V V 0 >b 0+4 o0 '7 > 0b S.00) ~L 0 .- rO 0. 40 0 0 .- cd 0 . - 0)0) 00 Z 2S 0 vt V .- V t 0.V ' ~0 -V . , ~ 0 v V '70 .0 oV s.. - 1 2 3 4 Lbs. Lbs Lbs, Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs 200 Cotton seed meal . 840 320 748 127 520 104 240 Acid phuosphate . 784 264 810 189 480 64 No fertilizer......... 520.....621........ 416 ....... 200 Kainit............. .848 336 845 224 512 123 .... 5 200 240 Cotton seed meal..? 20 otnseed ma. 206ii ma. Acid phosphate 896 392 914 293 632! 568 656 Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Lbs, 272 8 0 680I 280 256 64 500 100 192........ 400 ..... 216 25 530 112 296 106 500 84 jbs. 552 2 50 344 Lbs.'Lbs. Lbs. 368 72, 256 40 384 88 2o4 48 296 ...... 216 .. 368 75 544 325 262 464 244 270 ... 872 376 352 ..... 819 810 ........ 198 180 277 405 584 249 312 304 400 124 118 216 650 50 680 3 23 138 270 3 23 60 256 6 76 640 4..... 4 54 416 544 240 Acid phosphate... 20-aii........840 8 .... 200 260 376 No fertilizer......... Cotton seed meal.. 480 .... 280 ..... 184........ 410 ...... 280 .... 9 10 240 200 200 240 100 Acid phosphate ... Kainit ........... Cotton seed meal.. Acid phosphate... K ainit 992 1000 .512.898 520 1026 336 768 576 296 416 232 720 310 536 256 768 544 __________________________________ 62 TALLAPO.OSA COUNTY, 8 1-2 MiiLES WEST OF NOTASULGA. (See Table, p. J. W. PARKER, 1907. 61.) Gray sandy land; yellowish subsoil. This.typical piece of long-leaf pine upland had been cul tivated for many years. The complete fertilizer on plot 10 was the most profitable, affording a net profit of $6.35 per acre, (376 lbs. at 3.2 cents, less $5.68). June and July were very dry. Rust and shedding were severe on plots 5, 9 and 10; plots 4 7 retained their foliage reiarkably well. and Lbs. Average- yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized.........348 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot..................................104 To acid phosphate plot...............................206 To kainit plot......................................126 To acid phosphate and kainit plot............... added: Average increase with cotton seed meal..................138 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot.................................... 64 To cotton seed meal plot................................ 166 127 To kainit plot........................................137 To cotton seed meal, and kainit plot ...................... Average increase with acid phosphate.....................12 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot ................................... To cotton seed meal plot................................ plot To acid phosphate added: 123 ................................. 145 196 106 143 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot.......... ...... Average increase with kcainit ........................... 63 TALLAPOOSA COUNTY, 6 MILES WEST OF NOTASULGA. E. B. JACKSON, 1907-8: (See Table, p.61.) Gray sandy upland; yellowish subsoil. This experiment was made. on typical long-leaf pine land, which had been in cultivation for many years. The stand of cotton were good and uniform. There are no records to the presence or absence of cotton rst. In both years a complete fertilizer was most effective and most profitable. However in a complete pounds of kainit per acre (plot 10) was more advantageous than double this amount, (plot 9.) 1907 1908 Lbs. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertulized . Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed m al was To unfertilized plot...............................80 To acid phosphate plot ............................ To kainit plot.................................99 To acid phosphate and kainit plot .................. Average increase, with cotton seed meal...............80 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate fertilizer,'tOO added: 188 405 280 -16 124 132 130 42 98 was 64 93 92 added: 100 26 34 To unfertilized plot ................................ To cotton seed meal plot ................... 26 -196 To kainit plot ......... ........................... To cotton- seed meal and kainit plot................. Average increase with, acid phosphate............... .69 Increase -9 112 -44 of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: ............. ........ :....... To unfertilized plot ................................ To cotton seed meal plot 25, 44 54 To acid -phosphate plot............................ To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot.........110 A verage increase with kainit...................... 58 38. 186 73 64 MACON COUNTY, $. 6 MILES WEST OF NOTASULGA. C. JACKSON, 1905. (See Table, p. 61.) Gray sandy pine woods soil with yellowish subsoil. The original growth was long-leaf pine. The field been in cultivation for many years. . mixture of acid phosphate and cotton-seed meal (plot 5) was sufficient to give the largest yield and greatest profits. Mr. Jackson noted that on plots receiving the complete fertilizer there were some spots where the plants died, bably from cotton wilt. This may explain why the complete fertilizer did not give a better yield. had pro- of seed cotton per acre, Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot ..................... To acid phosphate plot.................................174 To kainit plot.......................................158 To acid phosphate and kainit plot........................204 yield Average unfertilized..........288 added: 72 Lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal .................... Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was 152 added: 8 To unfertilized pint.................................... To cotton seed meal plot................................ 190 -15 To kainit plot ........................................ To cotton seed meal and kainit plot............31 Average increase with acid phosphate. ..................... Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was 73 added: 2 To unfertilized plot....................... To cotton seed meal plot ................... To acid phosphate plot ............................... To cotton. seed meal and acid phosphate plot ................ 75 .............. :.............161 -28 Average increase with kainit............................. 52 65 MACON COUNTY,9 MILES WEST OF TUSKEGEE. YANCEY SWEARINGTON, 1906. (See Table, p. loam subsoil. 61.) Gray sandy soil with yellow This field was cleared of its growth of long leaf pine about 60 years ago. The'stand was good on all plots. It is' notable that the complete 'fertilizer on plot 6 nearly rupled the yield on the unfertilized plots. This complete fertilizer afforded the largest yield and the greatest profit. but wa- closely followedin yield and profit by plot 6) receiv-ing a mixture of cotton seed meal and kainit. In this test kainit was the most useful single fertilizer, a fact which was probably due to its effect in restraining rust, as indi cated by Mr. Swearington'is careful observations. By July '10 plot 5 was ruined by rust. Plots 4 and 6 suffered least from rust and were the last to show it. The rust was considered worse on plots 9 and 10 than on plot 5. Apparently rust was worse and earlier on plots receiving phosphate. Mr. Swearington draws the following conclusion from this test: "Our lands need more liberal use ofpotash." quad- seed cotton per acre, unfertilized..... .... 220 Average yield Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was ad- of Lbs. ded: To unfertilized plot................................... 40 To acid phosphate plot _..................... ............ 196 To kainit plot...... ..................... To acid phosphate and kainit plot.................... Average increase with cotton seed meal .................... Increase of seed cotton per, acre when acid phosephate was .. . ...... .. .. .. . .. . . . . . ....... 221 ... 184 160 To unfertilized plot ........ ..... added: 48 To cotton seed meal plot ................................. To kainit plot............................:.... ... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot Average increase with acid- phosphate.................. 204 91 :............54 ... 99 a N 66 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot...................................3 To cotton seed meal plot...............................506 To acid phosphate plot.................................363 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ................ added: 356 Avaerage increase with kainit .......................... 389 Fertilizer Experiments near Society Hill, Macon County. R. S. R. S. FLOYD FERTILIZF-&R t r U FLOYD A. B. FLOYD 1908 l4-1 1906 0 1907 05 0 c12. 0 1900 0 0 KIND OU GN j n O Cc .- v 0 H0. 1 2 3 4 Lbs. 200 Cotton seed meal ... 240 Acid phosphate .... 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 100 Lbs. Los. 512 464 352 432 552 448 424 304 616 554 312 280 160 112 90 220 125 j111 Lbs. 472 832 640 720 1112 728 856 792 1168 1224 Lbs. 168 192 49 410 -4 94 Lbs. 420 580 450 750 520 610 550 470 Kainit ...........meal. Cotton seed No fertilizer.... Lbs. 30 30 296 62 148 84 Acid phosphate Cotton seed meal. ..j 10) I I Acid phosphate Kainit ........... No fertilizer...... . Cotton seed meal. Acid phosphate .. Kainit ......... Cotton seed meal. Acid phosphate .. I Kainit ...... Kainit ........... 376 990 900 520 430 I 432 MACON COUNTY, 5 MILES SOUTH WEST OF SOCIETY HILL. R. S. AND A. B. FLOYD, 1906-7-8. Soil in 1907 soil; yellow subsoil in dark sandy loanq; in 1906 and 1908 gray sandy all experiments. All these tests were made on land that had been long in cultivation. The original growth is reported as probably short-leaf pine and hardwood. On gray sandy soil in 1906 and again in 1908 the corn- 67 plete fertilizer ;was by far the most effective and most propre fitable application. In both of these years rust valent but least severe on the plots receiving kainia. On the a year in which no rust troubled 'other, hand, in plot, a mixture of cotton 'seed meal and phosphate on plot 5 gave the greatest increase, kainit being practically without effect. In both years when rust prevailed, plot 10, receiving 200 pounds of kainit in its complete fertilizer, yielded more than plot 10, where only half as much kainit was used in the complete fertilizer. was 1907, any 1906 1907 1908 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 716 Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized 328 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: --- 168 To unfertilized plot.......................160 218 To acid phosphate plot......................108 -53 To kainit plot..............................35 282 To acid phosphate and kainit plot..............201 460 -30 -148 32 436 71 Average increase with cottonl seed meal........126 70 Increase of seed cotton -per acre when acid phosphate was added: 30 192 112 To unfertilized plot ......................... 92 578 60 .............. Tc cotton seed meal plot....... To kainit plot.......... ................... 21 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot...... ...... Average increase with acid phosphate ........... Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot 187 95 380 45 -212 372 71 299 164 -98. . -1 To acid phosphate plot.................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot....... 92'.-34 To cotton seed meal plot........ .............35 Average increase with kainit....... ........... 37 20 ................... added: 90 49 296 178 54 458 247 (; BULLOCK COUNTY, 9 MILEs EAST OF UNION SPRINGS. A. M. COPE, 1906. (See Table, p. 69.) Gray sandy soil with porous yellow sandy subsoil. The original-growth of short-leaf pine had been cleared many years before. The stand of cotton was very uniform There was need of a complete fertilizer. Of the two corplete fertilizers the one containing the larger amount of kainit per acre was more profitable. The need for nitrogen and for phosphate was somewhat greater than for potash. The increase from the complete fertilizer on plot 9 was 760 pounds per acre, thus affording a net profit of $18.61 above the cost of fertilizer and above the cost of pickig th increase. Indeed every fertilizer, -whether used 'singly or in any combination whatsoever, gave a profitable increase. Lbs. Average yield' of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized...........24d Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot....................................256 To acid phosphate plot.................................232 To kainit plot........................................240 To acid phosphate and kainit plot........................400 A verage increase with cotton seed meal...................282 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was unfertilized plot ..................................... cotton seed meal plot ................................ kainit plot ........................................ cotton seed meal and kainit plot.......................328 -fo To To To added:, 288 264 168 Average increase with acid phosphate ..................... Increase of seed cotton 'per acre, when kainit was To unfertilized plot.....................................192 To cotton seed meal plot................................ 262 added: 176 72 240 To acid phosphate plot.................................. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ................ Avrerage increase with kcainit............................170 69 Fertilizer Experiments in Bullock, Barbour and Geneva Counties. lUnn COPEI PEsISVILLE A. M.4 gFIRTILIZR _ ____ GENUVA K D 0 40. P4 bd -40 y ao ro +- 0 G, s Lbs KIsLbs Lb. Ls Ls Tb 1 2 3 200 Cotton seed meal 240 Acid'phosphate . .... 496 - 528 432 760 672 600 256 288 192 4 5 S '20. Kainit ............. 200 No fertilizer.........240. 304 104 72 272 200......448. 232 736 640 720 872 268 192 265 410 6 7 8 9 Cotton seed meal 240 Acid phosphate 200 Cotton seed meal.. 200 Kainit. 200Aidit........ ... 200 520 432 360 456 24 240 No fertilizer .... .... se Kainit 312 480 80 624 150 el .. :...240..... : 240.....480.20Cto 760 240 Acid phosphate . 1000 10 200 Cotton seed meal. 240 Acid phosphate 100 Kainit........)... 808 568 240 872 392 BARBOUR COUNTY,' 3 MILES NORTH OF LOUISVILLE. BY J. D. VEAL, 1905. Gray, sandy soil, .with stiffer gray subsoil. This field had been long in cultivation.. The season was wet ; rust wa's severe and all yields were sniall. Nitrogen afforded a larger increase than did phosphate or potash. The most profitable mixtures contained. cotton seed meal, mixed either with acid phosphate or with kainit. The year before,' on the same or similar land,- a complete profitable. Both years cotton seed fertilizer was the, meal and acid phosphate were needed. In 1904 kainit was profitably .used, giving an average increase of 100 pounds per acre, as compared with an average increase of only 38 pounds in 1905. most 70 Lbs.. Average y:i td of. seed cotton per acre unfertilized...........220 7 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was add-ed :: To unfertilized plot................ ........ 104 To acid phosphate plot.................................168 To kainit plot To acid phosphate and kainit p'ot.......................136 ................. 224 Average increase with cotton seed meal...................158 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot....................................72 To cotton seed meal plot................................136 To kainit plot........................................56 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot......................-32 added: Average increase with acid phosphate.......................58 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kiinit was To unfertilized plot....................................24 To cotton seed meal plot...............................144 To acid phosphate plot...................................8 Tr cotton seed meal and acid phosphate-plot..............-24, Average increase with kainit..............................38 GENEVA COUNTY, added: 4 M. P. 1 2 MILES NORTH OF GENEVA METCALF., 1905. inches Gray sandy pine land 'with stiffer red subsoil eight from surface. The land had been in cultivation six years. Both cotton a seed meal and acid phosphate were very effective, mixture of the two was the most profitable fertilizer. This year kainit was in most combinations useless. In experiments on cotton made by Mr. Metcalf on similar land in preceding years the results indicated a need for and phosphate; and in two of his experiments kainit was also very effective. Nitrogen was also needed except when supplied by a preceding crop of peanuts. 71 Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized..........464 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot...................................288 To acid phosphate plot.................................218 To kainit plot.......................................-13 To acid phosphate and kainit plot.......................290 added: Average increase with cotton seed, meal..................196 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: .192 . To unfertilized plot........ 122 To cotton seed meal plot ............................... To kainit plot......................................-115 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot........................188 Average increase with acid phosphate......................97 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot .................... ............. 265 To cotton seed meal plot..............................-36 To acid-phosphate plot................................-42 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot................30 Average increase with kainit.............................54 HENRY COUNTY, 3 1-2 MILES NORTH OF COLUMBIA.- THos. Z. ATRESON., COLUMBIA, 1908. Light gray soil, with yellow loamy subsoil. The field had -been cleared about 40 years, the. principal' growth having been long leaf pine.. There was very little rain from the' time the seed were planted, and cotton wilt and root knot further reduced the yield under these unfavorable conditions. All fertilizers increased the yield, but none to any large extent. Yet the increase on plot 5 was sufficient to pay a fair profit over the cost of the fertilizer. 72 Lbs. 94 Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized ........... Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed was added: To unfertilized plot...................................785 To acid phosphate plot ............................... To kainit plot ....................................... To acid phosphate and kainit plot.......................148 Average increase with cotton seed meal .................. 96 254 144 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot ....................... ............. 35 To cotton seed meal plot ............. ............. 54 To kainit plot ....................................... 74 To cotton seed meal and kainit.............................32 Average increase with acid phosphate ....................... Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot ................................... To cotton seed meal plot ................. .................. To acid phosphate plot .................................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ................. Average increase with kainit ............. ..... 48 33 209 72 124 109 ............. 73 Fertilizer Experiments in Henry County. FERTIIZER FE9RTIIZ0ER1 COLMBIAHEADLAND COLUMBIA908 I Via,,,of HEADI4 AND ) I y¢ o 012 o RIND ... cu 4~ 00 . e$-4 i. o 00) 0 o ) o 00) 0) © 0 t-4 Le0 .- ~ -- 0)(U.. 1 s 0a Lbs -0 .0 Lbs. 1 2 3 4 Lbs. 6 7 8 200, Cotton seed meal 173 78 392 80 1015 240 Acid phosphate.... 130 35 208 104 1130 .. No fertilizer..........95.......312......885. 200 Kainit..............128 33 424 105 1020 200 Cotton seed meal. 25 1 240 Acid'phosphate2.9 200 Cotton seed meal. 380 287 240 Acid phosphate . 200 107 536 198 1170 200 Kainit........ 200 kKaiit ... Lbs Lbs os Lbs. 130 245 150 345 .... No fertilizer..........93 344......810. 9 10 200 240 200 200 240 Cotton seed meal Acid phosphate Kainit..... Cotton seed meal Acid phosphate 1 3485 408 255 305 EAST 656 600 312 256 1425 1410 615 600 HENRY COUNTY, MILE OF HEADLAND. W. F. COVINGTON, 1907-8. Gray sandy soil with yellow loam subsoil.. In 1907.- The experiment in 1907 was made on. land that had been cleared abont 40 years and was very poor, but otherwise representative. The crop in 1906 was cotton fertilized with 500 to 600 pounds of a 9-3-3 gnano. This probably explains in part why there was such poor response in 1907 to applications of phosphate., A further explanation is doubtless found in the -observed fact that rust was fertilized with acid worse Ion plot 2, phosphate alone, than on other plots. Cotton seed meal and both profitably increased the. in whatever combination they were applied. The largest yield was. made by a mixture of cotton seed meal and yield kainit 74 kainit, on plot 6. Mr. Covington writes: "The kainit made good in every test, especially so on plots 4, 6, and 7. On these plots the leaves held longer and the bolls were larger and much better matured, this last being especially noticeable on plot 6." In 1908. The field had been cleared about ten years. On this land, not so deficient in vegetable matter as that used the preceding year, a complete fertilizer gave the maximum yield and the maximum profit. Of the three constituents of the complete fertilizer, acid phosphate was most influential, closely followed by both of the others. It is notable that the complete fertilizer on plot 10, containing only 100 pound's of kainit, in addition to meal ind phosphate, afforded almost as large a yield and a greater net profit than did the complete fertilizer on plot 9, which contained double this amount of kainit. The net profit due to 540 pounds of fertilizer on plot 10 was $14.27 (600 lbs. at 3.2 cents, less $4.93) per acre. Apparently this soil needs a complete fertilizer and this conclusion is not 'shaken by the slight response to acid phosphate under the exceptional conditions of 1907, as stated above; this view is strengthened by the favorable results from complete fertilizers in earlier experiments on what seem to be similar soils in that part of the state. Lbs. Lbs. 1907. 1908. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized ...... 328 848 Increase in seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot ................................... 80 130 To acid phosphate plot ............................ 194 145 To kainit plot ................................... 219 140 To acid phosphate and kainit plot ................... 114 270 Average increase with cotton seed meal .............. 152 172 75 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added . 104 24 ...... unfertilized plot............. 10 260 ........... To cotton seed meal plot.................. 93 195 To kainit plot ..................................... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot....................-12 325. To Average increase with acid phosphate ................ Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit -3 256 150, 100 225 159- To unfertilized plot...............................105 To cotton seed meal plot .............................. ....................... To acid phosphate plot ....... To cotton. seed meal and acid phosphate plot...... Average increase with kaintt .............. was -added: 302 ... 222 ... 218 244 160 Experiments at Betts, ConeculiCounty. FERTILIZER BETTS 1905 BETTS 1906 jBETTS 1907 a o m $-4 o 'c O ~.> KIND Q+ UU o 0' 4- o 2I a ., V 1 2 3 Lbs.- Lbs Lbs 216 784 200- Cotton seed meal. 224 792 240 Acid phosphate .. .... No fertilizer........ 74 .01 ant......880........ 568 Lbs 1048 1064 2 1080 1056. 1040 896 1216 1 168 184 7 193 166 147 Lt Ls. 440 424 384 456 456 440 37 Lbs 56 '40 74 76 62 1200ct tosedameal 61 8 200 Cotton -seed meal. .. 200 Kainit ...... 7 20Acid phosphate . 200 Kainit ... ...... .... ? 864 832 824 302 273 269 . No fertilizer....... 200 Cotton seed meal . Ac id phos phat e . 552 ...... 896 344 9 240 32 464 88 20 oton seed meal. 10200Aintophte. 100...i....... 880 ___.__ 328 1200 ___ 304 _______ 456 80 76 CONECUH COUNTY, 1-2 TO 1 1-2 MILES NORTH EAST OF BETTS. R. H. BETTS, 1905-6-7. Gray sandy soil with red subsoil. The land on which these tests were made had been cleared for 30 or 40 years. The original growth was reported hardwood and short-leaf pine; if so, probably this soil is defferent from the average soil of the long-leaf pine belt. In 1908 there was so much rain and such small yields that all fertilizers were about eqnally ineffective and unprofit able. In 1906 when both fertilized and unfertilized plots yielded well, complete fertilizer (on plots 9 and 10) efforded the largest net profit. In 1905 a mixture of cotton seed meal and acid phosphate was nearly as effective and quite as profitable as a complete fertilizer. 1905 1906 1907 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Average yield of seed cotton per acre, unfertilized 560 888 Average yield of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was 168 To unfertilized plot..........................216 9 To acid phosphate plot.........................78 130 To kainit plot...............................134 To acid phosphate and kainit added: 380 56 34 67 26 plot...............75 173 Average increase with cotton seed meal ... :.......126 120 46 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate wa s added : 184 40 To unfertilized plot...........................224 86 25 18 To cotton seed meal plot....................... 111 53 To kainit plot................................130 71 154 12 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot .............. Average increase with acid phosphate........... 127 139 119 31 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added : To unfertilized plot........................... 36 9 To cotton seed meal plot...................... To acid phosphate plot........................ To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot ........ Average increase with kainit................... 57 -- 2 45 -37 42 127 71 31 20 22 14 16 77 _INCONCLUSIVE TESTS. The following inconclusive experiments were made: Bullock County, O. M. Hill, Suspension, 1906. Bullock County, F. B. Haynes, 7 miles South of Union Springs, 1908. Chambers County, E. W. Smart, Fredonia, 1905. Fayette County, J. B. Gibson, Newtonville, 1908. Pickens County, D. W. Davis, Gordo, 1906. The yields in these tests are given in the next table. a) Inconclusive Experiments in Bullock, Chambers, Fayette, Montgomery and Pickens Counties. FERTILIZER a) aa U Si N UNION SPRINGS FREDONIA 190 )6 (Haynes, '08I UN U 1905 LOs N. NEW TONVILLE TO NEWTL N VIL7 -N A 1 TEL GORDO 1907 O a) 0 190 00a 905 )a) 0 a) 1906 0 )a) kU U y, oa) u-- a a) OO a Qac) O sON ) OO OsS 4- aQa aa rd:d o' 0 Z o o0 4 1 2 3 Sbs 200 240 Lbs. Cotton seed meal.808 Acid phosphate. No fertilizer.........824 a 0a). a). .r3 as-a CC) U - Ca) .r. Lbs. 450 580 600.. 740 570 16 ILbs. .... 5 872 1088 150 20 180 50 150 Lbs. Lbs. 816 888 688 912 768 192 1376 1048 728 200 152 64 288 400 Lbs 1090 1080 Lbs. 650 Lbs. 336 408 264 280 272 232 208. 248 256 232 640 684 728 412 4 200 6 200 2001 240! .... Kainit..............856 Cotton seed meal. Acid phosphate . 440. 1200 1320 1080 Lbs. 72 144 . 19 14 23 Lbs. 608 488 536 688 336 Lbs. 72 48 187 130 129 260 Lbs. 880 752 624 608 688 936 672 688 824 848 fbs. 128 29 38 273 4 Cotton seed meal . 984 1000 "630 540 400. 560 656 360 20Acid phosphae. 20Kainit..... No fertilizer........',800 100 8 424 960 1224 980 230 820 . 1380 1340 560 520 44 . 200 240 S200 200 240 10 100 9 Kainit............ Cotton seed meal Acid phosphate .. ( Kainit ......... ., Cotton seed meal . A cid phospaate 450 390 50 1256 10 208 48 8 -664 16 712 304 352 136 160 ,,,, I 1096 BULLETIN NO, 146 JUNE, 1909 ALABAMA. Agricultural Experiment Station. OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN. FACING TUE BOLL WEEVIL PROBLEM INALABAMA BY W. E.HJND S, Entomologist Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1909 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. HON. H. L. MARTIN.........................................Ozark HON. TRANCRED BETTS...............................Huntsville HON. A. W. BELL........................................Anniston STATION COUNCIL. C. C. J. F. THACH.........................................President DUGGAR........................Director ... and Agriculturist B. B. Ross.......................................Chemist C. A. CARY ................ ....... R. S. Veterinarian Horticulturist MACKINTOSH ................................. J. T. ANDERSON...........Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations D. T. GRAY ..................................... Animal Industry W. E. HINDS.........................................Entomologist F. E. LLOYD.............................................Botanist C. L. HARE........................................Chemist A. MeB. RANSOM............... ............ Associate -Chemist ASSISTANTS. T. BRAGG.................................First Assistant Chemist L. N. DUNCAN........................... Assistant* in Agriculture E. F. CAUTHEN................arm Superintendent and Recorder J . W. RIDGEWAY................... Assistant in Animal Industry F. F. WILLIAMS........................ Assistant in Horticulture N. E. BELL................... ...... Second Assistant Chemist I. S. MeADORY...................Assistant in Veterinary Science W. F. TURNER.................... Assistant in Entomology L. A. CASE....................... ...... Assistant in Bacteriology 0. H. SELLERS.................... Stenographer and Mailing Clerk ...... P1.A . ti i. ,4: TH1E iLOLL kA 1 AND IT S .I(1. Fig. 1, Adlt boll weevil. vie~wed from above'; a, two rtth on fore f mur; fig. 2L. adult weevil, aide view; fig. :3, cgs, of weevil; fig . 4, gi ub al out two ditys ol I; fig. 5. gruh at ontrarno to -co d :u~e after sheodd ing f rt skin, about three Ways old; fig. G3 grub fuilly grown, aboot ten days from egg; fir:,. 7, Irris fa'mat ion or fig. forming; puiil stage, side view, snout, legs and wings Figs. 1, 2. 6,. 7 and 8 8, pupal stage, front vii w of fig. 7. cnlairged about ten diameters; figs. 3. .1 and 5 enlaiged about FACING THE BOLL WEEVIL PROBLEM IN ALABAMA INTRODUCTION. That within three years the Mexican cotton boll weevil will have entered Alabama is as certain as it is that cotton will continue to be produced in this and adjoining states before that time. The certainty that the cotton planters of Alabama will soon have to contend with an enemy more difficult to fight and more destructive to the crop than anything which they have ever been forced to face should be a matter of deep and immediate interest to every citizen of the state regardless of his occupation. If we shall meet this grave problem in a manner to result in a minimum of loss to all branches of commercial and professional as well as of agricultural life, it is essential that we improve to th, utmost the few years which may intervene in direct any united preparation for the great changes in agricultural practice and in economic conditions generally which the presence of this pest has invariably caused wherever it has gone. We may well be willing to profit by the experience for which our sister States of Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi, particularly have paid so large a price.ve should by all means begin immediately to put into active operation some of the fundamental improvements in agricultural practice which have been worked out during the past few years as a direct result of the fight against the weevil. If these practices are advisable and profitable anywhere with the boll weevil present they may be made even more so here and now before the weevil arrives. The great opportunity for gaining experience and determining the immediate applicability of any of these practices to our local conditions is evidently the period before the weevil comes and while we do not have to suffer the losses which it is very certain to inflict wherever it exists. It may be pardonable in this case to mention a few per- 82 sonal facts which may enable the reader to judge of the writer's competency in this subject. From July 1, 1902, until September 30, 1907, he Was engaged constantly and exclusively under the U. S. Bureau of Entomology in the investigation of the Mexican cotton boll weevil in Texas. The seasons of 1902, 1903 and 1904 were spent principally in Touth Texas where the weevil had been abundant for several ,ears and where it was doing great damage. The seasons of 1905, 1906 and 1907 were spent in north Texas, in a region which was then but recently infested. In this work he was associated with Mr. "W. D. Hunter who has been in direct charge of the boll weevil investigation from 1901 to the present time. The most important of the boll weevil publications are referred to in the Bibliography, see page 100. Within the limits of this brief paper it is impossible to touch upon many of the important and interesting points in the discovery, introduction, life history and control of this insect. It spread into the Southern part of Texas from Mexico about 1892 and from that time to this nothing has occurred to more than temporarily check its annual advance into new cotton growing country. Its annual spread is mainly by flight and cannot be prevented by human effort. The best that can be done is to guard against assisting in the spread of the pest and to do everything possible to avoid and to minimize the injury which its very presence involves. As soon as the weevil entered Texas it became apparent that the investigation of methods for its control constituted a National, rather than a State problem. Since 1901 Congress has been making special appropriations for the investigation of the boll weevil and from one to twenty trained men have been giving their time constantly to the study of this most serious problem. The writer was personally engaged in this work for more than five years. Naturally the 'amage which it has done has increased from year ,o year with the increase in the area infested. It is safe to say that the loss which it now occasions cannot be less than $25,000,000 each year, The National government has spent more than $1,000,000 in the investigations which have been made to discover effective methods of controlling the pest, and the various states affected have also expended large sums. The information and recommendations given in the following pages are gathered from the best that has been learned in this great struggle. A few of the important publications concerning the weevil are referred to in the Bibliography on page 100. Since 1892 the weevil has spread Northward through Texas and the Southern half of Oklahoma and Eastward, crossing Louisiana, the Mississippi River and into Mississippi. From the infested territory each year it spreads ever onward as wave after wave spreads outward when a stone is cast into water. The old territory is not abandoned since only part of the host of weevils which is developed by fall will leave the field to seek new territory. Undoubtedly many fly back into previously infested fields where their presence is lost sight of but those which happen to fly in to new localities quickly establish a new line of infestatio which can be quite readily marked. The distance through which they have thus advanced has averaged fully fifty miles each year. The first weevils crossed the Mississippi River in the fall of 1907 and during the fall of 1908 eighteen counties in the western part of that State became either wholly or partially infested. The area now infested constitutes more than one third of the cotton growing area of the United States and produces nearly onehalf of the annual crop. The limits of the infestation, the relationship which this bears to the entire commercial cotton growing area, and the annual progress of the pest during recent years are plainly shown upon the accompanying map, Fig. 1, which was prepared by Mr. W. D. Hunter during the fall of 1908 from data collected by the numerous field agents of the Bureau of Entomology investigating the spread of the boll weevil. 1 I.EGENC) 1a94= tiNITOr INFE9TEp AREA IN 1904 1894 1904 1905 = 1005 1906 1907= 19061908 = 1907 1908 -LEGEEJO4 MPSHIOWNG INFESTED AREA BY THOE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.OOTOBEB 10,50859N5 VARIOUS Al TIMESPREVIOUS. Fig. 1, The cotton growing area showing the area infested by the Farmers' Bul. 344.) boll weevil during various years. (After Hunter, 85 WHEN WILL THE WEEVIL REACH ALABAMA? A brief study of this map with the facts stated relating thereto should be enough to convince anyone that the advance of the boll weevil will most certainly continue. The present northern limit of infestation is farther North geographically than is any portion of Mississippi, Alabama, or Georgia. The existence of the boll weevil depends primarily upon the occurrence of cotton which is its only known food Besides its dependence upon this food supply the plant. continued existence of the weevil depends also upon its ability to survive the winter climatic conditions in order to pass from the crop of one season to that of the next. The weevil has already shown that it can withstand successfully temperatures reaching nearly if not quite to Zero F. which is as low as is likely to occur anywhere in the cotton belt. The eastward spread of the weevil therefore promises to be as certain and as rapid as was its northward spread through Texas and Oklahoma until ultimately it shall infest cotton wherever grown commercially in the Southeasterr States. Its spread may be accomplished in two general ways. In the first place the weevil will continue to spread by its own unaided flight which man is powerless to prevent. The entire area embraced within a line passing through the outermost points thus reached each year must be considered as constituting the "area of general infestation" although the weevil may not occur at many of the places included within but near the outermost edge of this area. The line referred to is "the line of general infestation" and this is what we reckon with in the annual spread of the boll weevil. It may be shown that this line has been steadily advanced through an average distance of about fifty miles each year. We may expect this rate to be maintained as the weevil continues eastward to the Atlantic Coast. From this basis we may easily and quite certainly determine that in two seasons more, that is by November 1910, we may expect the line of general infestation to reach the Mississippi-Alabama boundary. It is quite likely that some of the western tier of 86 ,counties in this State may then become partially infested. It will require only about three years more for the weevil to spread over the entire State and to reach Western Georgia. Therefore we may consider it practically certain that throughout the western third of Alabama by the summer of 1911, through the central third by 1912, and through the eastern third by 1913, and in each case constantly after those dates, every cotton planter will have to reckon with the presence of the boll weevil and some degree of injury by it. In the second place, we must consider that the boll weevil is liable to be brought into the State at any time ahead of the general infestation by the various methods of transpor tation, principally by railroads, with persons, household goods, cotton and its products, or with any other articles -which may contain or shelter them. This danger naturally increases as the line of infestation approaches more closely. in numerous instances in Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi and elsewhere it has been clearly established that the weevil has been carried long distances in shipments of cotton seed from infested areas although fortunately it has not yet happened in the direction of uninfested territory. Infested cotton :produced in the edge of the infested area has been hauled considerable distances beyond for ginning and planters bringing their cotton from other directions have carried away weevil-infested seed with them. Tenants and cotton pickers moving from infested to uninfested territory are very liable to carry weevils with them and thus establish new centers of infestation. These are among the considerations which have made necessary the establishment and strict enforcement of quarantine measures to guard against the accidental introduction of the weevil. QUARANTINE REGULATIONS AGAINST THE BOLL WEEVIL. Alabama passed such a law in 1903, and placed the enforcement of the act in the hands of the State Board of Horticulture, as at that time there vwas no special Ente- 87 mologist connected with the State Experiment Station. TEXT OF ALABAMA BOLL WEEVIL LAW. AN ACT to prevent and prohi'bit the importation of seed from cotton affected with the Texas boll weevil. )SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the legislature of Alabama, That no person shall import or bring into the State of Alabama any seed from cotton affected with what is known as the Texas boll weevil, 'nor the seed from any cotton from any place where the cotton has been affected with said boll weevil. SEC. 2: Any person who violates the provisions of section 1 of this Act shall 'be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction shall be fined not less than ten dollars ($10.00) and not more than five hundred dollars ($500.00). (H. 877, No. 559, approved Oct. 6, 1903.) In addition to the above, the State Board of Horticulture organized by Act of the Legislature No. 121, approved March 5, 1903, has established regulations governing the shipment into and through the State of cotton products, packing materials, household goods, etc. The text of the regulations which are at present in force is as follows: RUiLES AND GOVERNING THE IMPORTATION THE MEXICAN REGULATIONS OF ARTICLES LIABLE TO CONTAIN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. RULE 11. In accordance with an act of the Legislature of the State of Alabama entitled: An act to Further Protect Horticulture, Fruit Growing and Truck Gardening, and to Exclude Croy Pests of all kinds in the State of Alabama, approved March 5, 1903; the following rules and regulations relative to the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil were adopted: (a) That in order to prevent the introduction of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil into the State of Alabama, a rigid quarantine is hereby declared 'against all infested localities in Texas or Louisiana, and of other sections that are or may hereafter become infested. (b) That cotton lint (loose, baled flat or compressed) cotton seed, seed cotton, hulls, seed cotton and cotton seed sacks (which have been used) and corn in the shuck, originating in cotton boll weevil infested localities, shall be excluded absolutely from the State of Alabama. (c) All shipments of household goods from infested areas shall be prohibited unless the same is accompanied by an affidavit, attached to the way-bill stating that the shipment contains no cotton 88 lint, cotton seed, seed cotton, hulls, seed cotton and cotton seed sacks or corn in the shuck. (d) All shipments of quarantined articles, mentioned in section (b) above, through the 'State of Alabama shall be made in tight, closed cars. (e) No common carrier shall use for bedding, or feed for live stock, any of the quarantined articles when the shipments originate in regions infested with the cotton boll weevil. (f) All railroads, steamboats, express companies and other common cariers, and all private vehicles, boats, etc., entering the State of Alabama from the states of Texas or Louisiana,-or passing through the State of Alabama from any of the infested districts of the States of Texas or Louisiana, are especially enjoined to comply with the requirements of this order and of laws of the State of Alabama governing the same. RULE 12. The State Horticulturist is hereby charged with the enforcement of the rules and regulations relative to the Mexican boll weevil. The form of affidavit accompanying the waybill with shipments of household goods should specify the prohibited articles as not included, as follows: , State of .................... County of .................... Before me .......................... Notary Public in and for said State and County, personally appeared ............... who being duly sworn states on oath that the .................. waybill of which this affidavit acshipment of .................. companies, does not contain any cotton lint, cotton seed, hulls, seed cotton and cotton seed sacks or corn in shuck. Sworn to and subscribed before me this...... day of ......... 190.. N otary Public. (Seal) ...................................... At the bottom of all law lies the general consideration that the safety and welfare of the public is more important than the convenience or interest of any private individual. It is certainly of public advantage that every possible precaution be taken to prevent needlessly hastening the spread of so dangerous an insect pest as this. The advance of the weevil will gradually transfer states, counties, and localities from the uninfested to the infested territory and thus reduce the area in which quarantine measures apply. Within five years, therefore, the boll weevil quarantine may become a thing of the past in this State. In the meantime it 89 is of highest importance that we be able to definitely establish the limits of infestation and determine just where the application of the quarantine will do good instead of harm. Obviously no restriction of personal or commercial movement is justifiable or desirable if no protection or benefit may result. We therefore urge upon all concerns or individuals to whom the provisions of this quarantine may apply that they continue to give it their cheerful and complete support so long as may be necessary. More detailed information will be furnished all who may request it upon any specific points by the "Entomologist to the Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala." DESCRIPTION OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. It is of extreme importance that we learn of the presence of the weevil anywhere in the state as quickly as possible after its arrival. For information on this point we must necessarily depend principally upon the reports of cotton planters and others directly interested in this subject. As a rule we cannot depend for this information upon newspaper reports, even when these are vouched for by some planter who "came from the boll weevil country". With the boll weevil, as with most other insects, the ordinary casual observer fails to notice any but the most obvious characters on account of their small size. Therefore the char--acters noted are more than likely to be only those whicli are common to a group including hundreds of closely related species rather than those distinctive of a single species. By careful attention to the following brief description and to the illustrations given herewith we believe that the reader of average intelligence may be able to distinguish the boll weevil from the numerous other insects occurring on cotton, which are often mistaken for it (see appendix) and to recognize its attack on the plant with a reasonable degree of certainty. In any case of doubt specimens should libe sent immediately in a strong, tight, tin or wooden box, with a letter of explanation to the Entomologist, Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. He will gladly determine 90 such specimens and report to the sender entirely free cost. of The boll weevil is a beetle belonging to a large group, all of which are characterized by having part of the head in front of the eyes greatly extended to form a long slender snout. There are many hundreds of species of these insects, all of which are commonly called "weevils", but the Mexican cotton boll weevil is the only one of these many species which is at all serious as an enemy of cotton. While other species may be found upon cotton plants, their occurrence there is mainly accidental. Rarely indeed does any other species breed upon cotton. The boll weevil breeds upon cotton and upon nothing else. Like all other beetles the boll weevil has four distinct stages in the development of each individual. These are the egg (P1. I, fig. 3), which is only about 1-30 of an inch long, white and delicate. This is always deposited in a cavity which the female eats in the square or boll and upon no other part of the plant. From the egg there hatches in a few days a white, legless grub or worm (P1. I, figs. 3-6) which does not at all resemble the beetle which it may finally become. The grub of the boll weevil resembles very closely that of the "plum curcuiio" which is so familiar a pest in peaches, plums, cherries, etc., working in the fruit and usually around the stone. The boll weevil grub grows steadily from its initial length of about 1-25 of an inch until it becomes fully grown and measures from 1-5 to 2-5 of an inch in length. The body is strongly curved in the form of a crescent, in this respect being more curved than the "worm" in peaches, etc. (Pl. I, fig. 6.) In order to attain the beetle form the grub must pass through an intermediate "transformation stage" which is known as the "pupa." (P1. I, figs. 7 and 8.) In this stage no food is taken, and there is a complete change of the appearance and of structure. The grub sheds its skin and instead of the legless, wingless, snoutless worm, the pupa appears with all of these organs forming in sheaths closely applied to the body. In this stage the insect is very delicate, 91 and perfectly helpless. It, as well as the egg and grub stages, is passed wholly within the interior of the square or boll.. These three constitute the immature stages in the life of the weevil, but are as characteristic of the insect as is the adult form. After a few days the pupa sheds its skin and becomes the fully formed adult weevil as shown in P1. I, figs. 1 and 2, having the legs and snout free and usable, as are also the wings, which are folded back, under and protected and hidden by, the hard wing-covers, which meet in a straight line over the middle of the back of the beetle. For a few days the adult also remains protected within the square or boll while it becomes hardened and more able to care for itself. It then cuts a circular hole just the size of its body in the wall of its cell in the square, and through this opening makes its escape into the outer world, where from that time on it leads 9 free and active life. The adult weevil, therefore, is the form most commonly seen around infested cotton, and this stage needs a more detailed description. The full grown weevils vary considerably in size and in color. In length they range between 1-8 and 3-8 of an inch, while the breadth of the body is approximately 1-3 of its length. The general color is uniform over the body and varies from a chocolate brown in the darkest specimens, which are usually below average size, to a grayish or yellowish brown in the lighter colored larger forms. The lighter colors are due to light colored scales or modified hairs which occur most abundantly in the larger specimens. If these are undeveloped or become rubbed off, then the dark brown ground color of the weevil appears. The slender snout is only slightly curved and is about 1-2 as long as the length from the head to the tip of the body. Neither the size, nor the structure or general appearance of the weevil changes at all after its emergence from the square or boll in its adult form. The adults feed and mate and the females then deposit eggs. This completes the "Life Cycle" and starts another generation all within a period of from three to four weeks. 92 THE EFFECT OF WEEVIL WORK ON COTTON. The recognition of the presence of the boll weevil may depend upon the identification of the adults or the immature stages in squares and bolls or just as certainly upon the recognition of its feeding injuries or the effect of its work upon the fruiting of the cotton, as these are also characteristic. No other insect produces at all similar injuries to cotton. The excrement deposited by the adult weevils on the squares upon which they work is of a bright orange color and so forms a conspicuous sign of boll weevil presence. The egg punctures, like those made for feeding, are eaten out but are only made large enough to receive the egg which is placed just inside of the floral coverings and usually near the base of the bud. The natural tendency of the green parts of plants to heal wounds in which decay does not occur causes a growth of plant cells to more than fill the ca nal leading to the egg cavity. The excess of this growth bulges outward so that it forms a distinct "wart". This 'wart" is therefore characteristic of a boll weevil egg punc ture. As the grub feeds and grows inside the bud it destroys the very heart of the square, until when about half grown its injury thereto becomes so great as to cause the destruction of that bud. The leaflets enclosing the bud spread apart, or "flare" as it is called, and the whole square turns yellow, wilts and is shed as are leaves when they can be of no further use to the plant. It is Nature's surgery in removing a diseased and useless member. Upon the ground the development of the grub continues and its transformation through the pupal stage to the adult beetle takes place. Practically one-half of the developmental period is spent in the square on the plant and the other half in the square after it has fallen to the ground. Badly infested cotton produces few, if any, blooms, while the infested squares shed by the plant as fast as they form are thickly scattered beneath it on the ground. Squares may be shed as a result of adverse cultural or climatic influences, but 93 when shed from such causes they show no signs of weevil or other insect injury such as have been described. RECOGNITION OF THE WEEVIL. We may summarize briefly the most important characteristics upon which we may depend for the prompt recognition of the weevils' presence in Alabama: 1. The adult beetles (P1. I, figs. 1 and 2) probably found on cotton only, are about 1-4 inch long, with slender, slightly curved snouts, of dark brown, ashy-gray, or yellowish brown color. 2. The crescentic grubs (P1. I, fig. 6) about 3-8 inch long and the pupal stages (P1. I, figs. 7 and 8) occur only in squares and in bolls. This is the only insect which breeds in this way in cotton. 3. The occurrence of open cavities 1-16 to 1-20 inch in diameter and reaching down to larger excavations among the pollen sacs, the presence of "warts" marking the egg punctures of the weevil, the occurrence of the orange-colored excrement on the buds, the abundant shedding of squares and the consequent scarcity of blooms without accompanying rain or cultural conditions to cause the shedding; these are among the most conspicuous signs of boll weevil presence and injury. Whenever any specimens of weevil or cotton squares or bolls showing weevil stages or the signs of their work are discovered anywhere in Alabama in advance of the general infestation by the weevil, it is of the utmost importance that they be immediately submit- ted to the Entomologist, Auburn, for positive identification. We must depend upon the hearty co-operation of cotton planters in this work, as upon the promptness with which the first occurrence of the weevil in a locality is discovered and reported to the Entomologist 94 depends entirely the possibility or advisability of undertaking any measures for the extermination of the weevil which might prevent the infliction of damage to that locality for several years before it would necessarily occur through coming within the area of general infestation. Undoubtedly during the next few years local newspapers, as well as the leading papers of the State, will frequently receive reports of the occurrence of the boll weevil in their vicinity. Editors, before publishing such items, should secure specimens and forward them to the Entomologist and await his report as to their genuineness. Published statements, if untrue, can only do harm among their readers, and for a time the harm will be as great as though they were true, as they will affect all agricultural and business interests. This is too serious a matter to permit of the creation of undue excitement through the circulation of misleading impressions. The situation should be faced calmly, intelligently and courageously to safeguard the best interests of all who may be affected by whatever effects the production and sale of cotton. If faced in this spirit there is absolutely no need for the existence in Alabama of the feeling of "panic" which has heretofore accompanied the weevil during the first few years of its occupation of new territory. 95 HOW THE BOLL WEEVIL MAY CONTROLLED. BE SUCCESSFULLY The great difficulty in fighting the boll weevil has arisen from the fact that the peculiar habits of the adult and the protection of the immature stages within the squares and bolls render it practically useless to attempt to destrpy them by any usual methods of insecticidal treatment. Hundreds of remedies have been tested and found ineffective for the above reasons, if for no others. As in human warfare, one of the most effective measures of subduing an enemy consists in destroying their food supplies, so it is equally true in the case of an insect which is dependent upon one species of food plant as is the boll weevil. That the weevil can be effectively controlled and the culture of cotton continued at fully as greatprofit as has usually been realized without the weevil, has been proven possible through the practical application in many thousands of cases in the weevil area of improved methods in cotton culture and in general agricultural practice. Some of these measures take advantage of and increase the effectiveness of certain factors of natural control. Most of them, however, are merely steps in a system of cotton culture which prepare the way for the application of the one most ef- fective direct method of destroying immense numbers of weevils by cutting off their food supply at the only season of the year when the destruction of cotton is possible, practicable and most effective in reducing the number of weevils. The final step is the complete destruction of all green cotton at least three or four weeks before the usual date for the occurence of the This has often first killing frost in the fall. been called the most important single step in the cultural system of controlling the boll weevil. It miay seem to many that it cannot be successfully applied under the conditions existing in Alabama. That has been claimed 96 also in Texas, Louisiana and elsewhere, but it has been found always that it is possible under almost all condi- tions if the necessary steps leading up to it are also employed. We must remember that the presence of the boll weevil inevitably produces a change in the conditions of cotton growth. Practically, there can never be "late cotton" in the infested area. The only portion of the crop to escape the weevils and mature is that which develops early in the sea-son before the weevils have reached their maximum abundance. Therefore the very presence of the weevil tends to limit cotton production to the early crop and to clear the way for the proposed and necessary destruction of the stalks. The effectiveness of this practice has been most positively established by the repeated experience of planters on large as well as upon small scales, and also through Nature's object lessons whenever through the effects of unusual climatic conditions or when by the defoliation of the plants by the cotton leaf caterpillar or cotton worm there has resulted the practically complete destruction of cotton at an unusually early date in the fall. In every such case the fall destruction has been followed by larger crops, less weevil injury and a great increase of net profit in the crop of tho following year. We have not room in this paper to give details regarding any of these great demonstrations, but can merely state that in many cases where the work has been conducted most carefully with adequa te checks the 'value of the in- crease in the crop on the area where stalks were destroyed has been from $15.00 to $20.00 per acre, as compared with the yield on the check areas on which the stalks were allowed to stand until the usual time of preparation for planting in the spring. In all other respects both areas received similar treatment and were grown under like conditions. 97 STEPS IN THE CULTURE OF CO3TON FOR CONTROLLING THE BOLL WEEVIL. The immediate adoption of such improved agricultural practices, as rotation and diversification of crops, better culture and more careful selection of seed for cotton as soon as the weevil is known to be within less than 100 miles of any locality. In order to practice early destruction of stalks it is essential that part, at least, of the other steps be also adopted as they are of prime importance in leading up to the early maturity of the crop. It is impossible for us here to attempt to describe these steps at all fully. Much more can be learned regarding them from a study of the publications referred to in the brief Bibliography on page 100. If we begin this work for the control of the weevil in the fall, as is desirable for securing its greatest effectiveness, it may involve the sacrifice of a small amount of cotton from the late maturing bolls. It is not necessary to make this sacrifice until the first year that the weevil is likely to reach the locality. After that time the possible loss of a few pounds of "scrappings" should not be allowed to count as against the necessity for and larger benefits of early destruction. DESTRUCTION OF STALKS.-The best method of destroying the stalks is by uprooting and burning them. The roots, if cut, should be cut below the surface to prevent their putting The plants should be thrown into out sprouts later. windrows or piles while still green so that the leaves, squares and bolls may not be scattered but will remain on to assist in the early burning of the stalks and also because it is desired to destroy immediately the immature stages which Sometimes it will be found worth while may be present. to apply crude oil to faciliate the burning before the stalks have time to fully dry. stops absolutely ADVANTAGES OF EARJLY BURNING.-1. It the development of weevils late in the fall by destroying the immature stages then present in squares and bolls. 2. By the complete removal of their only food it forces the dispersion and starvation of the weevils already adult. Obviously the longer the period between the destruction of all green cotton and the occurrence of the first killing frosts, at which time the weevils may go into winter quarters with most assurance of survival, the more complete will be the destruction of the adults. 3. It removes a large amount of rubbish within which those weevils which escape destruction would find the most favorable conditions for their successful hibernation. 4. It prevents the development of adults emerging shortly before frost. These are the weevils which ordinarily stand the best chance of living through the winter. Where one weevil may live through the winter if stalks are destroyed by the 15th to the 20th of October, there will be at least ten survivors if the destruction of stalks is delayed until the middle of November. There is a constant increase in the percentage of survival between these dates. PREPARATION OF THE LAND FOR COTTON. This should be soils On light more thorough than is usually given. fertilizers are needed for cotton, and those containing a relatively large percentage of phosphoric acid tend to promote the early maturity of the crop. PLANTING. Let this be done as soon as danger of frosts is passed. Early planted cotton invariably does better than even medium planted where the weevil occurs. It is desirable that the planting in a locality should be done as near the same date as possible, so that all of the cotton will be coming on together. The weevils thus have no chance to get a start upon any of the fields. Plant the rows at such distance apart as has been found to give best yields in any field. CHOPPING.-Chop to a stand early, as this gives the plants that are left a better start. Space the plaits as has been found best for yield in any field. CULTIVATION. This should be frequent ',nd shallow. Its first object is to keep the soil in favorable condition for producing a steady and rapid growth of the crop. The destruction of weeds is accomplished incide: 1 tally. The surface crust that may form after rains should be broken up as soon as possible. HARVESTING. Let this be done as quickly as the bulk of the crop is open. Every effort should be made to have ready the necessary labor supply for this work as soon as it may be done. Remember always the need for keeping a winter cover crop on the soil and for clearing the way for the early destruction of the stalks. The earlier these may be destroy- ed the better. Their destruction constitutes the last step in dealing with the cotton crop each year where the boll weevil is present and is also the first step in preparation for the next crop of cotton, even though the cotton may occupy some other field through the system of rotation. CONCLUSION. We hope that we have made plain that the coming of the boll weevil is assured, and that we shall very soon have to reckon with it constantly in the culture of cotton. We hope also that what we have said may help the cotton planters -of the State to face this serious question more intelligently and more courageously than they would otherwise have done. In spite of the admittedly serious nature of the weevil as an enemy of cotton, there is no need for a "feeling of panic" if the recommendations given herewith are put into practice immediately. Their general application will improve the conditions of farm life, increase the value of farm property and multiply profits to both owners and tenants. In most sections where the weevil has already gone there have been heavy losses during the first two or three years of infestation because planters have been slow in adopting just the changes in cotton culture which have been outlined herein. They have thought at first that they were perfectly familiar with the best methods of raising cotton, and that no "scientists" could tell them anything about it. As a result, they have been finally forced to give up cotton .ltogether, or to adopt part, at least, of the methods which 100 have been described. With the adoption of the improved practices the control of the boll weevil has ceased to be an exceptionally serious problem, and they have found that in this way it is entirely possible to raise as much, or even more, cotton per acre as they were accustomed to raise be-The diversifying of crops has fore the coming of the weevil. helped to make the farmers of the boll weevil area more in-- dependent of cotton as a single crop, and in many sections they are now more prosperous than ever before. In many respects the advent of this pest has resulted in greater final benefits than its injuries, and there has been brought about within five years a greater agricultural development than would have been likely to have come in two or more times as long but for the coming of the weevil. If it shall lead to the immediate application of many of the improvements herein recommended, then the coming of the boll weevil shall bring a blessing and not a curse to this State. May every agency be united in a helpful co-operative campaign of progressive education that shall prepare us to best meet and to most effectively overcome the boll weevil in Alabama. BIBLIOGRAPHY. This is intended to be only a very partial list of the publications relating to the boll weevil, but to include those available which may be most useful to the planters of Alabama. Publications of United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C. Bulletin No. 51. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. Hunter & Hinds. 181 pp. Published 1905. (Write your Congressman for a free copy.) Bulletin No. 74. Some Factors in the Natural Control of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. Hinds. 79 pp. Published 1907. Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 47, 130, 163, 189, 209, 211, 216, 217, 223, and 344. (All of the above relate to cotton insects, the boll weevil or to cotton culture, and may be obtained free upon request to the Department.) Publications of Louisiana Crop Pest Commission, Baton Rouge. Circulars 8 and 23. La. IL1ATE 11 . L. " two y r t J 'p., . 4Cf d" P, n- OFTIIEN il1k 'I'AKEA FUJ THlE GL'(L WVEEVIL. I N,'I'('N Fig. 1, B'all w eevii (.1 ,,theo,,os gr' odii Bo~h. ) ;fig. 'L, rice weevil wvhich brccdiL abuinlantly in corn (( 'o/,idru oryzui' Linn.o 4, (>'u,,ltriiIloir i uetrp/a Hhst .) ;fig. fig. : , plum ciiiitilioi i~b s.hhnb. Peck.); fig. 5, tasverse white pine weevil (I'u~c houtir, , ri Say) ; fig. Ii, a click beetle (3.1/ue C~Ilaris (P~ui 7T cow pen pod weevil I(/gi'uM, ipidiuu rcxpc rtioofs' Fab .) ;fig. 8, Pales weevil (II llbius-pales Hhst. mo Ii 0' ,cos Boh. ) ;fig. s p .) ; fig~. 10, sharpshooter fig. 4. an acorn weevil (iI/oloifs A enlargedc abotut five dinmete-. .ll 10 J l,,iuolttl.sctO triuiwhw lab. 101 APPENDIX The Mexican Cotton and Some of the Insects Most Frequently Mistaken for it. For the sake of facilitating comparisons a figure of the boll weevil is included on Plate II. Fig. 1. All figures have been taken at the same magnification of approximately four diamleters. In this list the "rice weevil," (Calandra oryzae Linn), P1. II, fig. 2, has been included not so much because it has been, or may be, mistaken for the boll weevil, as because its size and general appearance may be more familial to the general reader than any of the other species mentioned. A comparison of the adult insect with the illustration may aid in conveying a more correct conception of the other less familiar species. This weevil breeds very abundantly in corn, but does not injure cotton. The "plum curculio",- (Gonotrachelus aphar llbst.), P1. II, fig. 3, which attacks peaches, plums, etc., very conmonly, is about the size of the boll weevil but is much dark er in color with markings of white or light colored scales on its back and legs. It has a shorter, more strongly curved snout and but a single tooth upon the thigh of the fore legs. It never attacks cotton. The "whtite pine w;eevi l"', (Pssodes sirobi Peck.), P1. II fig. 4, occurs in Alabama and must attack also some southemn species of pine. The body is longer and* more cylindrical, while the snout is relatively much shorter. than in the Boll Weevil en boll weevil. Its wing-covers bear each a prominent white spot toward their tips. The "pales weevil", (Hylolius pales Hbst.) Pi. II, 8, is another species which attacks pine. It is a large species, being from 1--3 to t-2 inch long. Its color is a dark with smnall spots of light colored scales scattered ov er thie fig. brown wing-covers. pod weevil," (Chaleodermuis aen eows Boh.)-, Pl. fig. 7, is often taken on cotton following a of cow peas in the same or near vicinity. It is the only The IT, "cow.-Pea This species is very comm-inon in Alabama. field crop one of the species mentioned herewith which may do some 102 slight damage to cotton. It sometimes feeds on the young cotton plants, boring into the main stems or leaf stems and causing the death of leaves and tips, but there is only one record of its having bred in a cotton square. The adults are shining black in color, somewhat shorter and more stoutly built than is the boll weevil, and the back of the body shows numerous small, circular pits arranged in several rows along the wing-covers. The "transverse Baris", (Baris tarnsversa Say), P1. II, fig. 5, is a small, black weevil much shorter, broader proportionately and flatter than the boll weevil. Its snout is very short and strongly curved. This species breeds in the roots of cocklebur, and the adults occur accidentally upon cotton as may another closely related and similar appearing species that breeds in the roots of ragweed. There are several species of "acorn weevils" belonging to the genus Balaninus. One of these is shown in P1. II, fig. 9. All have very long, slender snouts, sometimes even longer than the body. All breed in acorns, and are often attracted to lights, as the boll weevil never is. Some of the "click beetles" have a habit of hiding during the day in cotton squares, and are therefore mistaken for the boll weevil, although they do not resemble it in the least. One of these (Monocrepidius vespertinus, Fab.), P1. II, fig. 6, is most commonly mistaken. In its early stages it 'lives on the roots of grasses in the cotton field, and the adult hides around the plant, but it does not attack cotton1 at all. These are all long, slender, flat-bodied beetles which, if turned over ,on their backs, will spring into the air with a "click" and thus regain their footing. The last species that we have space -cu mention here is a bug belonging to a group of insects known as "leaf hoppers". These insects have the habit of sucking sap from the stems of plants and may occur on cotton where they have sometimes been called "sharp-shooters". These are grotesque insects which do not resemble the boll weevil at all. One species, (Hon'p~adisca triquetra Fab,), is shown in Pl, II, fig. 10. BULLTTIN No. 147 ALABAMA AUGUST, 1909 AGS,10 AgricuItural Exoeriment Station Alabama Polyxectinic lnstitute. AUBURN CRIMSON DI RECTOR CLOVER AND) AGRICULTURIST Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1909 COMMITTEE OF TIRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. . ...... )ON. H. L. MARTIN. NION. TRANCRED BETTS ............................. .SON. A. W. BELL......................................Anniston ...... . ... Ozark Huntsville STATION COUNCIL. C. J. C. F. THACH..........................................President DUGGAR......................Director and Agriculturist B. B. C. P. .................. Veterinarian A. CARY '"... ............ F. 'WILLIAMS ............................. Acting Horticulturist J. T. ANDERSON............Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations Ross.....................................Chemist D . T. F. C.J L. W. E. HINDS.................... GRAY.............................Animal Industry Botanist Entomologist E. LLOYD............ ..................... HARE. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .... Chemist ASSISTANTS. T. BRAGG.............................. First Assistant Chemist E. F. CAUTHEN.............. Farm Superintendent and Recorder J. W. RIDGEWAY.................. Assistant in Animal Industry Assistant Chemist E. BELL.................:.......'Second I. S. McADORY............... Assistant in Veterinary Science W. F. TURNER................ ..... Assistant in Entomology M. J. FUNCHESS..................... Assistant in Agriculture N. C. 0. S. RIDGWAY................................ Assistant in Botany H. SELLERS.................. Stenographer and Mailing Clerk CRIMSON CLOVER BY J. F. DUGGAR. SUMMARY. Crimson clover is an annual soil-improving plant. It suits most soils in A labama. The seed are sown in September among the growing plants and covered. The plants in early bloom can be plowed under about April 1, as a fertilizer for cotton, corn, sweet potatoes, or other summe- crop; or the clover can be cut for hay in the latter part of April and the stubble used as fertilizer. The yields of summer crops following the plowing in of either the entire growth, or merely the stubble, of crimson clover have been much greater than where no crimson clover has been sown. The condition most essential to success in growing crimson clover consists in inoculation. This is most certainly effected by sowing with the seed as much as practicable of the soil from a spot where crimson clover, red clover, white clover, or annual white clover, has recently grown successfully. The last mentioned occurs in nearly all parts of Alabama, but is not easy to find after Miay, when its white heads turn brown and the plant dies. White clover and annual white clover can usually be found in old lawns and spots in pastures. Both are low plants with white heads on the end of the short flower stem, and both have leaves consisting of three roundish or heartshaped leaflets each about the size of the finger nail of one's little finger. Soil from lespedeza (Japan clover) does not inoculate crimson clover. Soil has been found to be a more reliable method of inoculation than the use of artifical inoculating material> called pure cultures. 106 INTRODUCTION. The most urgent need of southern agriculture is the enrichment of the soil. To improve southern soils the principal additions needed are (1) vegetable matter and (2) nitrogen. Crimson clover adds both vegetable matter and nitrogen to the soil on which it grows. In fact, this method of improving the soil by the growing of crimson clover seems to be the most generally practicable method that can be put into immediate effect by southern farmers. This is partly because crimson clover is suited to a wide range of soils, because usually the seed are cheap, and because the seed can be sown in September among the growing cotton plants without special preparation of the soil. During each of the last fourteen years numerous experiments have been made at Auburn, both on gray sandy soil (Norfolk sandy loam) and on reddish loam (Cecil series). In addition to these accurately conducted experiments, tests have been made by farmers throughout the State under the direction tof the writer. Many of these local tests, especially during the past few years, have been made in co-operation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The conclusions here presented are based chiefly on experiments at Auburn and on local tests in Alabama, full data for which would be too voluminous forrecording in this bulletin. WHAT CRIMSON CLOVER IS. Crimson clover is also known as scarlet clover, and its botanical name is Trifoliumn incarnatumn. It is an annual plant, making its growth between September and May. The seed must be sown each year, for while this plant seeds freely here, yet these seed on dropping to the ground in May and June, germinate promptly, and the young plants are killed by the heat of summer. Crimson clover produces abundant crops of seed and farmers can save their own seed. To do this the seed must be flailed or threshed from the plants, and the seed still in the chaff sown without recleaning. 107 ()rim. &cevover is a leguminous plant, or legume,.and is velvet plant. ranked with the other cultivated legumes, cowpeas, beans, vetches, red clover, etc., as a soil-improving THE SOIL. HOW, 6RIM.SON CLOVER IMPROVES Crimuson clover improves the soil on which it grows by the followiaig means t() ine it during winter, its roots utilize any aitrates or other soluble plant food which would be washed or leached from the soil. (2). On -account of its winter growth it decreases snrfare washing of the soil. (3). When either the stubble or the entire plant-is plowed under, vegetable matter of a kind readily rots is added to the soil. (4). Crimso A clover, like all the other legumes, is able, when properly grown, to.take nitrogen from the air to add it to the soil. grows that soil-improving HOW LEGUMES ADD NITROGEN TO THE SOIL. Crimson clover, like cowpeas, when grown under proper conditions, adds much nitrogen to each acre of soil. It takes this nitrogen from the air, where it is corn, cotton, and most other farm crops. The only cultiva- unavailable to ted plants that can thus utilize the free nitrogen of the are air for their own growth and for subsequent soil enrichment the legumes, or legumin-ous plants,, such as cowpeas, clovers, vetches, etc. Even these legumes cannot make of the nitrogen of the air and cannot improve the, soil exbuimpi, called tulberclesq or nodules: use cept when they bear on their roots certain enlargements or examples nodules are the roundish enlargements on the roots of cowpeas. Tubercles may be regarded as fertilizer factories for the manufacture of fertilizer nitrogen from the unlimited quantities of free-, or gaseous. nitrogen in the. above.. Tlhe ;ir nenetra tes. all cultivated and drained soils and thus comps- into ontact, with the tubercles on the roots of lee uminous -plants, where it is used as the raw muaterial for the manufacture of fertilizer nitrogen. an of (See Fig. 2.) familiar ,air 108 element which costs 15 to 18 cents a pound when bought as cotton seed meal, nitrate of soda, ammonated guano, etc. INOCULATION. The interior of 'these tubercles is swarming with microscopic life, called germs or bacteria. These bacteria, which belong to the vegetable kingdom, may be regarded as the workmen in these fertilizer factories. A tuberele does not develop on the roots of any legume unless the right kind of germ, suited to that particular kind of plant, is present on the seed sown or in the soil, ready to enter the tiny root. For example, the writer has examined scores of samples of crimson clover plants from all parts of Alabama that had no tubercles on the roots, These clover plants without tubercles, were dwarfed, pale or yellowish, and 'showed the crop thus grown without tubercles to be complete failures. The greater part of several hundred failures with crimson clover which the writer has investigated have been found to be due to the absence of tubercles. (See Fig. 1.) Failures of this character need not occur. There is a simple, invariably remedy. It is called inoculation. Inoculation of this kind means the supplying of suitable germs to the seed to be sown or to the soil where crimson clover is to be grown, so that these germs thus supplied may penetrate the roots of the young plant and cause tubercles to develop. If the proper germ for causing tubercles on clover be present in the soil there will be no need of artificial inoculation. However, large numbers of local tests under our direction made in almost every county in Alabama, lead to the conclusion that throughout most of Alabama the clover germ is not already present in the soil. But this germ is present in soils where any true clover has grown for several years and borne tubercles. Hence, the suresf method of inoculating crimson clover consists in sowing on the field where this legume is to grow some soil taken from around the roots of any true clover. One may use the upper two ,or three inches of such soil. The true clovers may be ie:I(Is at fl Ilse til /ii of the tlo~vee SteII. rolled1f .llfn 'I'llis e's4lIlds Lesjpwi c in rtssh Ia iiio ju crju r. (Opi /r Ah ,? -a 4-f~ plfaut with se, 'OrtShowing Pubrces flu w the~ t, au avLerage plant from. ae adjacent plot, not inoculatfed; tlhere are no tubercles on th~e c-maller piant Fr,- 1. 110 Crimson clover, red clover, white clover, and annual white or Carolina clover. Fortunately, careful search in April will usually be rewarded by finding the annual white clover in practically all parts of the State, in old lawns, old pastures, along roadsides, etc. Unfortunately, this clover dies in May, the white heads changing to brown and the plants soon disappearing until the next winter, or showing only a mass of short, slender, dead stems against the ground under the Lespedeza, or other summer growth. White clover is not so widely distributed as the annual white clover, but the former may be found even up to midsummer in some parts of the State in old lawns and in old pastures where the soil is rich and moist. DIRECTIONS FOR INOCULATING SOIL OR SEED. The details of inoculation may vary according to the amount of soil available. If there is an abundance of soil it is only necessary to sow, immediately after the sowing of the seed and before covering the latter, at least one ton per acre of the inoculating soil. This method of inoculation may be made even more effective by combining it with the following method: When there is only a limited amount of soil a gallon or more of it should be stirred into two or three times as much water; the seed should be thoroughly moistened with, or dipped into, this water and dried by mixing with another part of the very dry inoculating soil. Whatever soil remains should be sown broadcast before the seed are covered. This method is not well suited to seed as In this way small as those of crimson clover. i few pecks of suitable soil may partially inoculate the seed for an acre. A part of the seed would escape inoculation and plants from these would be small; the thinner stand of vigorous plants thus obtained would make the inoculated plants spread out more and grow not so tall as they would in a thick stand with all plants bearing tubercles. If much less than a ton of pulverized inoculating soil is used, one need expect only a partial success with crimson 111 cloyer the first year. By sowing seed a second year in succes- sion on such a partially inoculated soil, without further inoculation, the second crop should be thoroughly inoculated. START AT ONCE ON A SMALL SCALE. The importance of getting a start of a small area thoroughly inoculated is obvious when we remember that soil from such a spot will suffice the next fall to inoculate several hundred times as large an area. 'Those who find any difficulty in securing any considerable amount of soil from a spot of red, crimson, white, or annual white clover, should sow only a small area of crimson clover, say one quarter nor one acre. No pains nor expense should be spared to get this thoroughly inoculated by using a liberal amount of inoculating soil. This area should be fenced against stock. It may even be lightly dressed with stable manure, after the plants are well up, though this is not necessary nor practicable on large areas. This "starter" patch should not be located in an old garden spot, for fear of possible presence there of nut grass, root-knot organisms, or germs of plant diseases, which would thus be scattered over the entire farm in the soil from this spot used in future to inoculate larger areas. Especially avoid for this "starter" patch any spot where black-root, or wilt, of cotton occurs, or where cowpeas die permaturely, or where there are root-knot swellings on the roots of cotton, turnips, etc. Too much care cannot be taken to ascertain that the spot selected for a "starter" patch is free from all plant diseases. This does not entirely prohibit the growing of crimson clover where certain plant diseases occur, provided the soil from such spots be not carried elsewhere as inoculating material. Crimson clover may again be sown the second fall on the area used the year before as a starter, not repeating the inoculation. In brief, start with an area so 'small that it can be thoroughly inoculated; and, especially if it proves to be only 112 partially inoculated, again sow crimson clover there next season. After one crimson clover crop, well inoculated as shown by abundance of tubercles, grown for one season on the "starter" patch, use soil from this to inoculate larger areas. Or, the next April locate in pastures, etc., spots of annual white clover in bloom, and place stakes at each corner of such spots, so that inoculating soil from these spots can be used the following September when the annual white clover is dead. WHAT SOILS DO NOT NEED INOCULATION. To sow crimson clover without inoculation means on most soils in Alabama complete failure. However, there are a few fields that do not require it. Such are fields where there have been, in the preceding year or two, successful growths of red, or crimson, nor white, or other true clover, (not lespedeza). BENEFITS OF INOCULATION TO CRIMSON CLOVER CROP. There are two, viz., (1) increase in the yield of crimson clover, and (2), increased fertilizing effect of crimson clover, as shown in yields of subsequent crops of corn, sorghum, etc. All the experiments here mentioned were made on the Experiment Station Farm at Auburn. In all those mentioned in this section the inoculating material was soil from an 'older crimson clover field, applied broadcast at the rate of at least one ton per acre at the time of sowing the seed. In May, 1903, on reddish sandy upland loam soil (Cecil series), where a moderate dressing of stable manure had been used on the preceding crop of small grain, the yields of crimson clover hay were as follows:: Inoculated Not inoculated -----------Gain from inoculation -_ 6100 lbs. per acre 000 lbs. per acre 6100 lbs. per acre 113 The inoculated plants were green, tall, and their roots were abundantly supplied with tubercles. The plants not inoculated were yellowish, not branched, two to four inches tall and there were no tubercles on the roots. There was Fig 1 not enough for cutting with scythe or sickle. shows the contrast between typical inoculated and noninoculated plants. In the fall of 1908, on poor, whitish, sandy, upland soil (Norilk sandy loam), although too late for best success, a plot of crimson clover was inoculated with soil from an older crimson clover field, and another plot left without inoculation. These plots were not harvested, but the marked difference in appearance were as follows: The inoculated plants were green, thrifty, about 14 to 16 inches tall, and their roots were covered with 'tubercles; the yield was estimated at about one ton of hay per acre. The plants not inoculated had no tuber' cles, were yellowish, and had but one or two stems per plant, and were not tall enough to cut, most plants dying before blooming, or blooming at a height of only 2 to 6 inches. PURE CULTURES, OR ARTIFICIAL INOCULATING MATERIAL. In August, 1897, and in August 1898, the writer publish'd results of inoculation of crimson clover by the use of pure cultures, or bottled material prepared in the laboratory. As these bulletins (Nos. 87 and 96 of the Alabama Experiment Station) are now out of print, some of the results of these earlier tests will we referred to here. In both of the following tests the pure cultures used was imported from Germany under the name "Nitragin." 114 Results of inoculation experiments on crimson clover, using "Nitragin." Hay, per Acre Date of K Kind of Soil E p Increase from Sowing 0 Lbs. Cz Lbs. Inoculation Lbs. Per ci. 7 Fall,1896 In pots Sandy, 20 years in cotton ............ since cleared .' Sandy, 5 years........................7 Fall,1896npots Fall,1896 In pots Woodland, sandy. Fall, 1896 In pots Sandy,after cowpeas................... .. . 326 379 761 3296 433 Fall,18971In fieldlSandy, worn....... 4057 Thus, it may be, seen that when attempted inoculation with pure cultures is effective, the increase incrop is highly satisfactory. In the experiments tabulated above, inoculation in several instances increased the yield more than three-fold. The above figures give the favorable side of inoculation with "Nitragin." Its use was, however, found impracticable because so often the germs in it were dead and inoculation did not result. EXPERIENCE IN RECENT YEARS WITH PURE CULTURES OR ARTIFICAL INOCULATING MATERIAL. In recent years the United States Department of Agriculture and a number of commercial firms have engaged in the manufacture of pure cultures, a special kind for the inoculation of each particular legume. At first these were with sent out in the form of wisps of dried cotton, on which the proper germs were lodged. This Station had numerous tests of these cultures made on a great variety of soils. The result was 'a long list of failures, with few, if any, successes. A later improvement was the sending of the cultures in liquid form in sealed tubes. The experience of this Station these was, on the whole, unsatisfactory. For example,. 115 attempts to inoculate crimson clover were made in the fall of 1908 with pure cultures from crimson clover, both from the Department and from a commercial firm. Parts of both plots were occupied by small pale plants without tubercles, and the spots that were inoculated may have accidentally secured their inoculation, by wind or surface water, from an adjacent check plot inoculated with soil Both culture plots were distinctly inferior to the plot inoculated with soil. Constant improvements are being made in the methods of manufacturing and distributing the pure cultures made by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The improvement and the successes sometimes reported give reason to hope that in due time this may become the best means of inoculating legumes. Its advantages are convenience; economy of labor; avoidance of the danger that is inherent in the use of soil, namely, spreading disease germs, root-knot organisms, weed seeds, etc. The only objection to pure cultures is their frequent failures, at this and at other Experiment Station, to cause the formation of tubercles or the obvious fixation of nitrogen. Our experience compels us to advise that at present pure cultures be not relied upon as a means of inoculation. Inoculation with soil has never, in our experience, failed; pure cultures have often done so. Still less advisable generally is the purchase, at additional cost, of seed said to be inoculated. CRIMSON CLOVER AS A FERTILIZER. When grown largely for fertiizer, crimson clover may be disposed of as follows: (1). It may be cut for hay, plowing under the stubble as a fertilizer. (2). The entire growth may be plowed under as fertilizer. (3). During the last few weeks of growth crimson clover may be grazed, probably without sacrificing a very large part of its fertilizing value. 116 At Auburn crimson clover is in full bloom and ready to be cut between April 15 and 80. Observation has indicated that at Auburn the first few days in April constitute a suitable average date for plowing under crimson clover that is to be followed by a cotton crop. At this date it should be just begining to bloom and 12 to 15 inches high. By plowing the entire growth under at this time, and allowing 'the land to settle for about two weeks, before planting, cotton near the middle of April, the yield of cotton has ranged as high as one and one-half bales per acre on gray sandy upland, naturally poor. The cotton crop following crimson clover receives its quota of commercial fertilizers, which in this case should be especially rich in phosphoric acid. By waiting until the clover should be in full bloom, say .April 15, doubtless the amount of vegetable matter and nitrogen added to the soil would be greater than by plowing it under about the first of April. Not all the land intended for cotton could have its preparation delayed until this date, but crimson clover can be followed by late cotton, by corn, sweet potatoes, sorghum, etc. Where it becomes necessary to plow under crimson clover before April 1, its fertilizing effect is greatly reduced. If crimson clover is grown chiefly for fertilizer, with pasturage also as a consideration, the nearer it comes to the blooming stage before being pastured the greater the fertilizing effect. The following table gives the results of several experiments at Auburn, showing the increase in the next crop due to crimson clover or crimson clover stubble. Yield of sorghIm hay grown after crimson clover stubble in 1901. Yield IncreaseL Sorghum Hay Per Acre Lbs. % Yield crimson clover hay .......... 2900 Yield of sorghum hay after rye stubble ........ 6460 Yield of sorghum hay after crimson clover stubble 12710 Increase due to clover stubble .................. 6250 97 ...... 117 This shows that in 1901 on gray, sandy land after crimson clover cut for hay, the yield of sorghum hay was practically twice as much as where the preceding crop was rye, used for hay. On another field; also in 1901, on poor gray sandy soil, the results were as follow s: Yield of sorghum hay per acre grown after crimson clover and crimson clover stubble in 1901. Preceding crop as fertilizer Yield sorghum hay Increase per acre Lbs. Lbs. % Rye stubble .......................... 5525 Crimson clover stubble ... . 9750 445 76 Crimson clover, entire ............... 10300 4775 86 This table shows that by plowing under crimson clover in April the yield of sorghum hay grown immediately after was nearly doubled. When the crimson clover was cut for hay the sorghum yield was increased by 76 percent. The yield of crimson clover hay on this stubble plot was 2741 pounds per acre, and the increase in sorghum hay due to the use of clover :stubble as a fertilizer, was 4225 pounds per acre. A third experiment on this line was made in 1903 on reddish loam soil which was naturally richer than the gray soil of the two experiments just mentioned. This reddish loam had also been helped by a light application of stable manure applied to the crop of small grain which preceded the crimson clover. Under these favorable conditions the yield of crimson clover hay was 6100 pounds per acre. The adjacent plot had been treated exactly like the crimson clover plot as regards previous cropping ind manuring. Yield of sorghum hay per acre grown after crimson clover in 1903. Yield sorghum hay Increase per acre. Lbs. Lbs. Winter and spring weeds ............ 4400 Crimson clover as fertilizer (stubble) 13000 8600 Preceding crop Here we have an extreme or maximum fertilizing effect 118 of the crimson clover stubble of 8600 pounds of soighum hay per acre. By adding to this the yield of clover hay, 6100 pounds, we have a total of 14700 pounds per acre of the two kinds of hay, as !the. measure of the advantage of sowing the land in crimson clover as compared with permitting it to grow up in winter weeds. Both the crimson clover hay and the sorghum hay when weighed were dry enough for safe storing in the barn. Even if we assume a shrinkage of 25 per cent in the barn we should have a total yield of more than 7 tons of hay per acre produced in one season and a gain of about 5 1-2 tens as the result of devoting the land to clover instead of to weeds. CRIMSON CLOVER STUBBLE CRIMSON VERSUS ENTIRE GROWTH OF CLOVER. In 1908 cotton was planted very late after oat stubble, after crimson clover stubble and after attempting to plow under the entire growth of mature and thoroughly dry crim.. son clover. Only a part of the mature plants were covered by the plow, so that the full effects as fertilizer were not obtained. The late planting, the period of extremely unfavorable weather in August, when this late cotton suffered especially, and the necessity of preparing these plots before frost for another crop, obscured the full fertilizing effect of the crimson clover. In the part of the season for which records were kept the yields of seed cotton per acre were as follows:: 342 lbs. After oat stubble --------------------------456 lbs. After clover stubble ------------------------_- 528 lbs. -----After clover, entire growth-The color and size of plants on these three plots gave promise of much larger yields and much greater differences, if the experiment could have been carried to a normal conclusion. Measurements showed that the bolls were largest on the 119 jlot where the entire growth of crimson clover was plowed under and smallest on the plants growing after oat stubble. In one of the experiments described above the yield sorghum hay after plowing under the entire growth of crimson clover was only 550 pounds greater than after plowing under crimson clover stubble, on land where the yield of crimson clover hay was 2741 pounds per acre. In another experiment the superiority of the entire growth of crimson clover as a fertilizer over the stubble alone was measured by an'increase of only 800 pounds per acre in the yield of sorghum hay. Here the yield of clover hay on the stubble plot was 1441 pounds per acre. Thus both experiments ,show than it was more pi ofitable to cut the hay than to plow the entire growth under as a fertilizer for sorghum. Doubtless the principal advantage of plowing under the entire growth, rather than the stubble, consists in the greater permanancy of the improvement in the land. The analysis of the entire plant of crimson clover, including the roots, and of the stubble alone, (Alabama Station Bulletin No. 96.), showed that only about 16 percent of the total nitrogen was contained in the stubble and roots of crimson clover. With stubble of the usual length, probably 20 percent or more of the nitrogen would be found in the stubble and roots. The conclusions suggested by considering together both field tests and analysis are the following: (1). A greater immediate profit results from using only the stubble as a fertilizer. (2). A much larger amount of nitrogen and of vegetable matter is added to the soil by plowing under the entire growth of crimson clover, and hence doubtless this course results in a greater and more permanent improvement of the soil. (3). By plowing under the entire growth a farmer may prepare the land three or four weeks earlier than by waiting to cut the bay. thus making it practicable to grow cotton on a field where the entire growth is plowed under. of 120 CAUTION IN USING CRIMSON CLOVER HAY. Cases have been reported where horses eating hay from very ripe crimson clover have had trouble from the formaThese tion of balls of matted hairs in the stomach. hairs stiffen as the seed approaches maturity. It is besieved that this trouble can be avoided by cutting the hay ore it is past full bloom and by feeding partly on some other hay, if that from this clover is overripe. ,ef DIRECTIONS FOR SEEDING CRIMSON CLOVER. The amount of seed required is 15 pounds, or one peck, per acre. We have more frequently sown 20 pounds. The time of sowing at Auburn has varied from early in September to late in October. From a study of the results of our many experiments the conclusion is reached that safe dates at Auburn are at least as early as September 10, and as late as October 10. Sowing the latter half of September is preferred. If crimson clover seed are sown too early, the hot weather of September sometimes kills the sprouting seed, or the young plants before they become well rooted. If the sowing is postponed much beyond the 10th of October at Auburn, the stand is sometimes injured by the cold of a severe winter. The following dates are suggested as suitable periods for sowing in different parts of Alabama September 1 to 'September 30 in north Alabama, September 10 to October 10 in central Alabama, and September 20 to October 20 in south Alabama. SOILS. Crimson clover thrives on a wide range of soils from sandy to black-waxy, or prairie. In the sandy regions it does better on the loam soils or those containing a medium amounit of clay. In regions of stiff soils it requires good drainage. On deep gray sands it is apt to fail, though where the stiffer subsoil is not too deep, it may succeed ere. It is not wise to risk large areas of crimson clover on acid soils unless lime is used. 121 PREPARATIONS FOR SOWING. At Auburn crimson clover has grown equally as well when sown among the growing cotton plants as when the land was thoroughly plowed and harrowed. Sowing of crimson clover seed in the cotton field should be done immediately after the first or second picking to avoid knocking any .of 'the seed cotton out of the bolls. This crop has repeatedly succeeded well when the seed were harrowed in among the stubble on a field that had received clean culture while growing a crop of drilled sorghum. The sorghum stubble or the cotton stalks, are, however, inconvenient if it is desired to mow the clover for. "hay. When this clover is grown for hay the land should be plowed if possible several weeks before the time of planting, and repeatedly harrowed until the seedbed becomes fine and settled If thte seed must be planted soon after the land is plowed, a roller or drag, as well as a harrow, may be needed to compact the soil. The best time to sow the seed is while the soil is moist from a recent rain. The inoculating soil is best sown broadcast, immediately after sowing the seed, using, if practicable, a ton of soil from a spot of red, crimson, white, or annual white clover. Always cover the inoculating soil promptly. In a few tests we have succeeded in making a successful inoculation by scattering the inoculating 'soil over the growing plants during a period of wet weather in the early part of winter. It is essential that the crimson clover seed be well covered with one-half to one and one-half inches of soil. In all of our tests attempts to secure a stand by sowing without covering the seed have failed. Failure has occurred even when a heavy rain fell soon after the sowing. When the seed are sown on a well prepared seedbed, covering is best done with a spike-tooth, two-section harrow. When the seed are sown among the growing cotton plants they may be covered by using any shallow-working one-horse cultivating implement, such as a five-tooth cultivator, a spring-tooth one horse cultivator, a wide heel scrape, etc. 122 It is not easy to get a stand of crimson clover either on prepared or unprepared soil where there is a large amount of vegetation; hence, it is not usually easy to sow crimson clover seed in a corn field laid by early, nor on old pasture land, nor on weed land. A field where drilled or broadcast cowpeas have recently been cut for hay is probably, next to a clean cotton field, the best place for sowing crimson clover. Here it is better to prepare the surface by the use of a disk harrow than by the use of a turn plow. After disking, the seed should be sown, the inoculating soil and fertilizer sown, and all cover ed with a spike-tooth harrow. FERTILIZER. clover, if thoroughly inoculated, adds considerable nitrogen to the soil. But it does not add phosphoric acid nor potash. If the soil be so poor as to require these two forms of plant food for the successful growth of crimson clover; they should be applied at the same time that the seed are sown. A suitable amount of acid phosphate is 200 to 300 pounds per acre. If the clover is to be removed from the land as hay, it may pay, especially on the sandier soils, to employ at the same time either 40 pounds of muriate of potash, or 160 pounds of kainit per acre. In sowing the crimson clover among the standing cotton plants on soils in fair condition we h.ve 'often used no fertilizer and yet obtained a satisfactory growth. In making a starr with crimson clover it is advisable to fertilize it with acid phosphate. When it is especially important on small areas to secure a good growth and thorough inoculation of the soil, it may even be advisable to apply stable manure, since stable manure will probably make a small amount of inoculating soil more effective than if the small amount of inoculating soil wore applied to a soil deficient in vegetable matter Stable manure should not be relied upon as a substitute for inoculation nor as a means of inoculation. .Crimson 123 LIMING. Most clovers prefer a soil rich in lime. If the soil should be so deficient in lime as to be acid it is advisable to use slacked lime for crimson clover. At Auburn on very poor gray sandy soil, not acid, but neutral, slacked lime at the rate of 1200 pounds per acre greatly increased the yield of crimson clover h'ay. On the same character of soil, but in a higher state of fertility, the effect of lime on crimson clover was not-conspicious. There are large areas of acid soil in Alabama, especially in the southern part of the state and in the sandy "mountain" lands of north Alabama. On such acid soils it will probably pay to use, as a preparation for crimson clover, six to eight barrels of builder's lime per acre, first slacking the lime to a powder. The lime is best harrowed into the soil before the seed are sown and should not be brought in immediate contact with the seed and fertilizer. To test a soil for acidity, press the soil in a natural damp condition against both sides of a narrow strip of blue litmus paper, which may be obtained from a druggist. If the blue litmus paper turns to a pinkish or reddish color the soil is acid, and a crop of crimson clover growing on it will probably be helped by lime. VARIETIES OF CRIMSON CLOVER. There is but one kind of crimson clover in general use ini the United States. In a few localities another variety, called the white blooming crimson clover, or more properly white trifolium, is grown to a small extent. The white trifolium bears a long white head similiar in size and shape to the scarlet head of crimson clover. The white trifolium is several weeks later in reaching a suitable stage for cutting. At Auburn this white kind has usually grown a little taller and afforded a considerably larger yield of hay. Auburn three varieties having scarlet We have grown i hooJk~ amt h , .I :l4i I. P l&X Mom ,~Ol .- . lina' crimslon, hfnd late crll k~.u 1 .. i,, o l ii fCi pry,, TlaH- t' T1 tons. of ba. I ~tr i ii;, *OII 1, I it 1x hIi, . - r r~ . a - i'2. 1x 10I (I. i ia,. fil I~ i , I -1, i lt 1, ,,Il al1 1 0 I~u In, t -ir 1 I 'I 4 - l i I r aI-~ l ,1 H , x- ii1' a ha111 Iil i mi uFa? aaoj,.11' .1 i aaaaa 'a c 1"t_ ai n d cr tut t -.- clove. nac at A t u ri[1nI fff 'fl 11(1 r Tli '11i:11cAl111; [)' ,a ,fnrr rr I )) tf I: 1lt11 Ii r Iii.1 I 1'111ii 1uf \111 11f1t ft:1 ll CAI1 41 44.I 142I rii'iifi fl!'1 '4 1' \; i\f I'I 11 1'1Vt 1 tIf iit 1'1'1 1''11 l 11 If . - I I ' I' f 1, I :ii'. 71tf f 11111'1 III ~ I I. '11 III 44ff1) ii t f 1ff f4,t)lI II Ii 111.r I.1111111 11111 f1 11: flfh lif1 ll '11 4 fl fIlt1IfI11 lii 11111 f 4f t171ll lfltlflt If4 IAII .l llfI I 1V011 to II11 1I 1'I I r.t I Iti 41II.111 f Ox wff itftl'I f II Il lI:I- thf fi 1 ti trnll lfffI ~ Rust Proof Oats; co" rV 10 c r zmowlq. 126 ed three tons of hay per acre, and in both cases this was on reddish clay loam where in preceding years some stable manure had been used. PLANTS TO GROW WITH CRIMSON CLOVER. For several years crimson clover has been sown broadcast in connection with either oats, wheat, rye, or beardless barley. The amount of clover seed used was 24 pounds per acre, when sown alone and also this amount in nations in 1909, but only 15 pounds per acre in all combi nations in 1903. Oats were sown at the rate of 1 1-z bushels per acre in 1903.and 2 bushels per acre in 1909. all combi- Blue stem wheat was sown at the rate of one bushel per acre in 1903 and 1 1-2 bushels per acre in 1909. Beardless barley was used at. the rate of 1 1-2 bushels, per acre in 1903 and 2 bushels per acre in 1909. Ryve was sown at the rate of -one bushel per acre. yield of hay : Yield. The following tables give. the hay per acore when oats,, wheat, or beardles barley was sown~ with crimson clover or with whit" trifolium. of ryje, .1906 Lbs. 1909 Lhs. Average Lbs. Crimson clover alone...............2960 Crimson 2713 5175 3918 clover and 2836 4228 3771 Red rust proof oats ....... Crimson clover and Blue. stem wheat........... . 3280 3624 Crimson clover and Southern rye....................2000 Crimson clover and ... Beardless~ barley .............. 3520 3872. 3695 White trifolium.......... White trifolium and -Blue 1200 poor stand 2320 poor stand 2600 poor stand White trifolium and Red rust proof oats:...... stem wheat........ It is. noteworthy that the. yield has' been increased whenbet ever o ' V t0, orbeavdl hartb y i t1 N hash Sow 127 crimson clover. Red Rust Proof oats have given the largest average yield, but this plant is a little too late to permit very early cutting of crimson clover. An acclimatized strain of the Blue Stem wheat is ready for hay at exactly the same time as ordinary crimson clover, and is probably the best combination for soils strong enough to grow wheat. Beardless barley ripens too early, and is too subject to winter killing to be recommended for growing with crimson clover. Rye can be sown with crimson clover for pastrae, but this makes an unsatisfactory combination for hay, the rye maturing too soon and being too coarse. In other tests where the weights of hay could not be taken by reason of continued rain just after harvest, the following facts have been ascertained: Burt oats are in condition for hay at the same time as crimson clover, and in regions where it is considered safe to sow this variety in the fall, Burt oats and crimson clover make a good combination for hay. Cheat was too late in reaching the hay stage to be sown with crimson clover, and because of its weedy nature it should be avoided. For sowing with white trifolium, Red Rust Proof oats are most satisfatory. In growing crimson clover for hay or pasturage it is probably advisable to sow it with one of the grains as, mentioned above. The consequent advantages are th.e fol-. lowing" (1). An increased yield of hay, though this hay is Smewhat lower in feeding value than pure crimson clover hay. (2) The easier curing of the mixed hay. Of course if crimson clover is grown chiefly as a fertilizer, no grain should be mixed with it. If it is intended chiefly for pasturage, It is well to sow it with either rye, Pirt ioats, 1, et iprof. oats, or wheat,-sin the dcin)ry 128 amount of seed grain per acre. This increases the amount and lengthens the period of pasturage, WHERE TO GET SEED. Crimson clover seed can be purchased from any Southern in other parts of the seedsmen and from most have supplied the United States. Among those bama Experiment Station with seed are the following seedsmen who Ala A mzi Godden Seed (Jo., Birmingham, Ala ilarvey Seed Co., Montgomery, Ala, Co., Richmond, Va. T. W. Wood HI. G. iastings & Co., Atlanta, Ga. Alexander Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. Willett Seed Co., Augusta, Ga. & to $4 per bnshel of 60 Usually the price of seed is about pounds. The partial failnre of the last crop discourage the doubled the price. While this ing of large areas in the fall of 1909, it should not keep one- fourth to any one from plantiug a small patch, say for the purpoe of securing inoculating one wcre, largely $3 may has plant- of soil with The m2ore thorough the inoculation on such "starter" patches and the thicker th estani there, the Lmore effective ear later. will that soil be for purpoes of inoculation on Hennce, not less than 20 pounds per acre should be which to inoculate large areas nexrt year14. a sown such -small areas. view of the, high price of .seed, it may be advisable in the fall of 1909~, for those who are prepared to sow large areas, wiUthorough imnocuiiTtion, to reduce the amount o" 12 pounds per acr~e, an amount which i s smaller seed in to than was used in any of our tests, but which has sometime been reported as giving a -satisfactory stand. 1 2'9 WHERE TO GET INOCUL ATING SOIL. Whenever possible Most reader& can get this in your own neighborhood. find it by ,searching for white clover, for the dea~d remains of annual -,wlute clover in and on the richer spots in old pastures. E~ch old or of lawns of the to furnish to of cants, and for $1.00 per 200 Experiment Station each Parties a mentioned browx nutmber of poundl limi ted consents appli sack, a single sack boil from a patch of inoculated has crimson [ or red of (loveVr. The not iind can give no guarantee disease germn's, etc., as to ispl~eiel any these fields the absence from them of nior any other gmuarantee. will the its Under Station 11o (irc umsnsi1ces distribute any soil from to contain the organisms that and J. produece vaious plant Alabama Experiment farm, for this is known diseases root--knot. Name A. G. 0. Burle on... J. J . Edge............. Yancey Sweaiington ....... Diseker........... ..... . County Railway R. D .. L. & Russeliville..Franklin, Southern Decattur, Postoftice F. .. Morgan, W. N7 W. W. D. Shorter. Loachapoka ........ ... Macon, W. i iacon, of Ala. of Ala. Davis..............CGordo ............ Tyrrell............... Citronelle ....... Pickens, M. .. obile M. &Q0 & 0. BULLETIN No. 148OCBE,10 OCTOBER, 1909 ALABAMA AgriculturaI Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN 1. Raising- Lambs in Alabama. Maintenance Rations for Ewes. 2. Feeding Cotton Seed Meal to Pregnant Ewes. B3Y DAN T.' GRAY AND J. W. RIDGWAY Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1909 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES HON. H. L. MARTIN ON EXPERIMENT STATION. Ozark Huntsville ....................................... HON. TRANCRED HON. A. W. BETTS .............................. BELT.......................................Anniston STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH. .................................... President Director and Agriculturist Chemist and State Chemist Physiologist and Pathologist J. F. DUGGAR ........................ B. B. Ross ........................ C. A. CARY ...... Veterinarian and Director Farmer's Institutes F. E. LLOYD..................Plant P. F. WILLIAMS............................Acting Horticulturist Industry Entomologist J. T. ANDERSON............. Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigation D. T. GRAY...................................Animal W. E. HINDS ...................................... C. L. HARE...........................................Chemist C. S. WILLIAMSON. ......................... Associate Chemist ASSISTANTS. T. BRAGG.............................. J. W. RIDGWAY..................... First Assistant Chemist E. F. CAUTHEN............... Farm Superintendent and Recorder Assistant in Animal Industry Second Assistant Chemist Assistant in Entomology Assistant in Agriculture Assistant in Botany Assistant in Horticulture N. E. BELL............................ ~S. MCADORY................... Assistant in Veterinary Science W. F. TURNER .......................... M. J. FUNCHESS......................... C. S. RIDCWAY........ ....................... J. C. 0. H. SELLERS.................. Stenographer and Mailing Clerk PRICE............................ PART 1. RAISING LAMBS IN ALABAMA. By DAN T. GRAY and J. W. RIDGWAY. When one rides through the State of'Alabama and sees the thousands of acres lying idle, growing up in brush and fine grasses, one wonders why there are not more sheep produced in the State than there are. It is usually stated that only 40 per cent of the area of Alabama is being cultivated or used to return wealth to the State. In some counties no more than 15 per cent of the total area is under cultivation. The other 85 per cent is lying idle. Money is tied up in the whole amount, but the farmer, on the, average, is making use of but about 40 per cent of his whole capital invested. If sheep and other kinds of live stock were more generally introduced the usable area could be greatly increased, as these animals would make use o the present waste places and hill sides and help develop the pastture side of our farming operations. Even now thousands of acres under cultivation should be put down to permanent pastures and stock placed upon them. Hill-sides which wash should be put down to grass. This could be done without at all decreasing the cultivated area. The sheep need not occupy one foot of our already cultivateable area; hlie would but be a means of putting more of our land capital to work. The Alabama farmer can surely farm in such, a way as to use more than 40 per cent of his land capital. What would we think of the business ability of a banker who used but one-half of his available capital, or the merchant who sold goods from but one side of his store? Then, in addition to the fact that the sheep is probably the best animal known to put our waste areas to us e , Alabama is just suited to sheep production. In any line of live stock production pastures must be made the base, and 134 Alabama can have permanent pastures for at least months in the year by the use of bermuda and burr clover. The remaining two months can be bridged over with winter pastures. The Northern farmer must be con tented with a grazing period of not more than six months. again our climate is so mild the year through that the lambs can be born in the mid-winter and suffer none from cold. This permits the Alabama farmer to get the lambs upon the early spring market at the time when high prices are realized. In the North when the lambs come in I )cemberror January very expensive care must be given themr to keep them from freezing, as they must be kept a "'hot house." In the South the early lamb is free to at ,will throughout those months, and can even have green pastures to graze upon. porary ten tem- Then ,the run in Still further, when the lamb is ready for the market good prices can be realized upon him. Some there are who (claim there are no markets for lambs. But there is a 'great demand for the early lamb. The farmer should realize that a part of his business consists in finding a market for what he produces. The business man lays in his stock of farmer must goods and then looks for a market for it. same thing. Many Southern cities offer as good a do market for early lambs as does the St. Louis market. A 'following picture shows some spring lambs, that had nothing but their mother's milk. and pastures,, which sold in Birmingham for 10 cents a pound live weight on April I1)08. Birmingham would use* thousands of such lambs. These were good lambs, hut no better than any other farmer could produce. They were raised by J. S. Kernachan, of Florence, Alabama. A. good market can always be fond -the The 15th, for good fat stuff. The local market may not furnish a good sale for this class of -stuff, but the cities are more than The express charges do not glad to -receive it. from home. the lambs being sent a good way\s prohibit The Southern farmer depends too for a living. He is like the man with munch upon one crop all his eggs in one 135 basket-if a mishap befalls the basket all of the eggs are broken and lost. So if the season should happen to be unfavorable for the growing of cotton the man who depends altogether upon cotton for a living finds that, at the end of the season, he has but a limited bank account to carry himself and family through the winter months. If this farmer has some pigs to sell, or a mule colt, or some wool or a few lambs, the short cotton crop will not be of so much importance. The farmer who is interested in more than one farm product suffers very much less in time of unfavorable seasons than the man who growsbut the one crop, cotton. Even though it be too wet for the cotton to do its best, it may be, and probably will be, a very favorable season for the pastures , and the man who has a good flock of sheep out on the pastures raising some good fat lambs will not worry so much about the unfavorable season for cotton, as he feels that, although the cotton may be a partial failure, the sheep will bring him excellent returns. There is yet another advantage in the sheep business. Spring is the time when the average farmer has not a cent coming in. This is the very time when the heavy expenditures must be made for machinery, fertilizers, mules,. harness, etc., and to obtain these things the farmer usually asks some merchant to credit him until, fall. Thec sales from the flock of sheep come in just when the money can be used for the above purchases. Both the wool and the early lambs are ready to sell and the money derived from these sales can be used to fit up the farm for spring work. From 100 ewes there could be sold, by the middle of April, from sixty to eighty dollars worth of wool and as many dollars from the early lamb sales, and probably much more from the lambs, provided they were dropped at a very early date. OBJECTS OF EXPERIMENT. Realizing the importance of the sheep industry to the State this Station began, four years ago, some experimental work with the following objects in view: 136 1. 2. To study early To study feeds pregnant ewe 3. To test cotton nant ewes. lamb production in Alabama. and methods for carrying the through the winter months. seed meal as a feed for preg- By an early lamb the authors mean one that is born in December or early January and ready for the market by the middle of April. Some farmers of the state are so fortunately situated that the second object will have little interest to them, as they already have abundant winter range .supplied. The man who has a good winter range, or cane brake, needs no additional feed for the ewes. All such an ewe requires is care and attention and shelter at lambing time. But when sheep are generally introduced into the state, they will be introduced by the small farmer who is not supplied with an unlimited winter range. The small farmer will therefore be interested in knowing what are the best feeds for the winter months and the expense incurred in carrying the animals over the cold months. It might be -said, in passing, that the sheep is the ideal animal for the man with the small capital. The business can be entered into. with but a small outlay of money and large returns secured upon the outlay within a few months after the investment is made. The poor man cannot wait long for his investment to begin to return dividends. The sheep and the hog are the poor man's animals. Of course large amounts of money can be invested in them if desirable. The work began in the summer of 1906 with the old flock of ewes which had been kept upon the Station farm for several years previous. Tlhis flock consisted of but 16 ewes, of mixed breeding, headed by a l)pure-bred Southdown ram. The pictures will show the general quality of the animals. Later on, in 1907, there was a flock of 30 scrub ewes added to these, headed by a pure-bred Dorset ram, but the Station is not yet ready to report upon the work done with this scrub flock, except with respect to some winter work in cotton seed meal feedlin. 137 HowV THE OLD FLOCK VAS HANDLED. During the summer months, while the pastures were green, no attention was given the sheep at all except to see that they had plenty of water and a mixture of tobacco dust and (salt before them at all times. The object in feeding the tobacco was to keep down stomach worms, as the worms are the bane of the sheep farmer, and it is claimed that tobacco dust will hold the pest in check. This was given them in proportion of one pint of dust to about four pints of salt. The sheep soon acquired a taste for the tobacco. It is well known that sheep should be changed from pasture to pasture as often as possible, unless the range be exceedingly large. The object in changing the pasture is to hold in check the stomach worms. The Station's pastures, or lots, are small, so the sheep were changed from one to the other as often as the grass became short. There was no regularity followed in making the change. The period of gestation in the ewe is about five months, so if the lamb is to be dropped in December or the first of January she must be bred in July or early part of August. To be sure that she breeds in these months she should be turned upon a fresh pasture just before the time for breeding and then given a little cotton seed meal daily. As far as possible this plan has been followed with this flock. Of course there will always be a few late lambs, but if the ewes are in good breeding condition, neither too fat nor too poor, throughout July and August, the great majority of them will breed to drop lambs from Christmas to January the 15th. The Station ram was allowed to run with the ewes at all times. If there had been as many as 50 ewes it would have been wise to have kept him away from the flock during the day time, and turned him in with them at night only. But with the few that we had he could be expected to be a safe breeder when running with the ewes both night and day. Some sheep farmers do not permit the ram to run 138 with the flock at all through the breeding season, but unless the owner has time to examine the ewes closely every day it is better for :the male to be with them at least onehalf of the time or the lamb crop will come on irregularly. WINTER FEEDING OF EWES. In the fall when the pastures became exhausted the ewes had to be managed as the small farmer would have handled them. There was no open range upon the Station farm so they had to be fed throughout the winter months. The man who has a farm with a winter pasture or range could have avoided this extra expense. Some farmers in the state feed nothing but cotton seed meal and hulls to the pregnant ewes during the winter months. Others feed nothing but cotton seed. Still others are afraid to feed either cotton seed meal or cotton seed, thinking that cotton by-products are dangerous feeds for sheep. It is often claimed that cotton seed or cotton seed meal will cause blindness, dizziness, etc., and sometimes death when given to ewes. During the winter of 1906-'07 the old flock was divided into two lots of eight ewes each, and one lot was fed upon soy bean hay alone and the other lot upon cotton seed meal and hulls. The soy bean hay was of excellent quality but had no mature beans upon it, as it was cut before the beans were ripened. The cotton seed meal was fresh and bright. Local conditions determine, to a large extent, the prices feeds. Any prices that the authors might assume would not meet all conditions, so actual Auburn prices were taken as a basis upon which to rest the financial estimates. The local prices were: Cotton seed meal ------------------ $25.00 per ton. $ 6.00 per ton. Cotton seed hulls Soy bean hay -------------------- $12.50 per ton. of Pasture rent per sheep per month - .10 Cotton seed ---------------------- $12.00 per ton. During the winter time the animals were enclosed in a small pen. with a shelter across one end, so they could get * -a-- - I F.T .. .r~ t ~ iY" 4Y. Yi4 i ir )o G r(Iu and4j orig U~u 1 " / l4.r, h lr n b t oto w tr k ,. E (pcsct If c d c'osh cIf (< wldh cctn tsn. ''n I.(nt II n II 'nntnlnn/ nnn (ul , irl .il n In i nI/u hrpillIC ton finn' eac ( tc af/ mo'lii ' :In(( 0 ce nns. 139 no feed but that which was weighed out to them. Salt and water were kept before them constantly. No tobacco was used throughout the winter months, but perhaps it would have been wise to have used it. They were fed twice daily, The ewes were pregnant, and of course did not all lamb upon the same date. When one dropped a lamb she was taken out of her lot and put into a third lot, where the object was to learn how much the feed must be increased to maintain a ewe while milking. The following table tabulates the results of the winter work--1906-'07: Table 1. Cotton seed meal and hulls versus Soy Bean hay for wintering pregnant ewes. Av No. ewes Lot. Ration. for 106 Feed eaten daily per Total gain each ewe for Cost of feed per ewe per days ewe 106 days month Lbs. 1 2 Lbs. 1.8 1.6 Cis. 30 35 5Cotton seed meal Cottonseedhulls Soy bean hay .... 5 5.8 6.4 0.5 1.3 1.9 The ewes were not, of course, given all they could eat. The object was to feed them only enough to maintain them, that is, to keep them from either losing or gaining in weight throughout the winter months. The above ewes gained between one and two pounds each during the entire winter. It would, no doubt, have been better if they had been given enough feed to have made them gain from six to eight pounds each, as each one had to develop a foetus which weighed from five to nine pounds at birth. The farmer could have cheapened the ration of lot 1, the cotton seed meal lot, by not feeding as much cotton seed meal as was fed in the test. It would have been cheaper to have cut down the meal and increased the hulls, but a large amount of meal was used in the test so that it would be possible to collect some data upon the effect of rather large daily feeds of cotton seed meal upon the health of the ewes. In this test the 'otton seed meal ration was fixed at one. 140 half a pound daily per ewe and the hull part of the feed was varied so as to hold her at a uniform weight. The test shows .5 of a pound of cotton seed meal and 1.3 pounds of hulls to be sufficient to maintain these pregnant ewes in the winter time. The ewes averaged about 95 pounds in weight. The animals were given this ration for 106 days and some of them even longer. One and ninetenths pounds of soy bean hay per ewe per day proved to be sufficient to maintain the other lot. Both lots came through to !the lambing period in excellent health and spirits, but the cotton seed meal lot seemed to be more spirited and alert than the soy bean lot. No objection, though, could be brought against either feed as far as their general effects upon the animals were concerned. When the prices are quoted as heretofore given the cotton seed meal ration proved to be the' cheaper of the two. In lot one it cost 30 cents a month to feed each animal, while with lot two the expense was 35 cent's a month per ewe. A little change in the price of feeds would alter the financial statement, however. But, taking the above results and quotations as a basis, the soy bean hay proved to be worth $10.68 a ton for carrying the ewes through the winter when compared to the cotton seed meal and hull ration. In some parts of the state that price would be a good one for the hay, but in other portions of the state conditions are such that a farmer could well afford to sell the hay upon the market, and with the proceeds buy cotton seed meal and hulls to use in feeding the sheep. In many points in the state soy bean hay sells for $15.00 to $20.00 a ton. The farmer cannot afford to feed it to sheep, or, in fact, any other kind of live stock, except probably the work animals, when he can secure $20.00 a ton for it after a short haul. Other feeds are cheaper. FEEDING THE MILKING EWE. As stated.above, when a ewe brought a lamb she was taken out of her lot and placed in a third lot, where she was given more feed than when dry. After the lamb came 141 she was a milking animal and had to be treated as such The cow in milk requires much more feed than does tiie dry cow, and so the milking ewe must be fed more liberally than the dry one. The most economical thing to have done with the ewe when she dropped the lamb would have been to put her and the lamb out upon green pasture. This date would be around January the first. Green pastures can easily be provided at this time of year, as oats, vetch, rye, wheat, burr clover and barley pastures. The pasture method is the way the farmer should handle his flock for the greatest profit, but the Station wished to learn how much the feed should be increased after the ewe came into milk, and also study the effect of prolonged feeding of cotton seed meal upon the health of the animal, so it was not possible to employ the cheapest methods in this particular test. So the mothers were confined in a third lot and fed upon an increased amount of cotton seed meal and hulls. A small passage was made in the fence leading out into the pasture, which was composed of oats and vetch, and the lambs only were given the freedom of this run. But it might be that the farmer would not be supplied with a green field when the lambs begin to come, and he would be interested in knowing just how much the feed should be increased when the ewe changes from a dry to a milking animal. The majority of owners allow their ewes, cows, sows and mares to run down rapidly in flesh when they come into milk. It has been a rule of the writers to increase the feed of a mare or a cow twenty-five per cent. when the young animal was born, thinking that this increase in feed would be sufficient to maintain the mother in as good condition as she was before giving birth to the young animal, but the following data show that an increase of twenty-five per cent. was not sufficient: 142 Table 2. Amnounlt feed required to maintain a ewe'beforc and after lamnbing. Lot Ration feed eaten daily An't Total gain each ewe for whole period Lbs. Cost to carry each ewe for one month Be/ore lambing: Cotton seed meal Cotton seed hulls i After lambing: Cotton seed meal Cotton geed Lbs. 0.5 1.3 .88 2.35 S. hulls At'the beginning of the test the feed of those ewes in milk was made just double the amount given the dry ewes so that the animals would be sure to not lose in but it was soon learned, as the ewes begun to increase in weight, that an hundred per cent. increase was more than necessary, so the, amount was gradually decreased until it They were was brought down to the above average carried along upon.this basis for a period of seventy-three days. The ewes were practically maintained, as far as total weight was concerned, as they gained but one and onetest it required half pounds for the whole time. In weight, figures. the 75 per cent. more cotton 'seed meal and 81 percent. more hulls to maintain- ewe when suckling a lamb than when Of course there are several facshe dry and determining the controlling ones tors that would be animal after lambing, as amount of feed required for an the amount of milk given, but under conditions as they existed in this thest the necessary increase in feed, when the less. than 75 per cent. above animal came into milk, was that which she received -when' dry. was a piegnant. -in not In some experimental work with grade angus cows, Pro- fessor Mumford, of' the Illinois University, in bulletin .III, says,: "In this test it took: approximiately twice as ninth feed cow suckling aI calf as it did during her to maintain pregla n cy." a 143 HANDLING AND FEEDING THE LAMBS. As a rule, the farmr feeds the early lamb nothing in addition to its mother's milk and what little pasture it can secure during the winter months. It will pay to feed the lambs though, and to feed them well. Any animal makes its cheapest gains when young. If it has a good pasture of oats and vetch to run upon it will eat but little grain in addition. But it will eat some corn and should have it, because this early lamb, to derive the greatest profit upon him, and at the same time lessen the risk of summer disease, should be pushed to an early market. The first lambs were dropped January the 8th. This was late, which fact gave greater cause for pushing them to an early market. From the sixteen ewes fourteen lambs were raised to a marketable age. Two of the ewes were too young to breed at this time. As soon as the lamb was born he was placed in a third lot with his mother. In the fence of this lot was a small hole which permitted the lambs to creep through and make use of the pasture of oats and vetch. The pasture, which had been fall planted, was ready for grazing by the time they could use it. As stated above, it would have been better and cheaper if the mothers had been allowed the run of this pasture also, but they were kept off for reasons heretofore mentioned. A small pen was also cut off in the corner of the lot where the mothers were kept and a creep made into this pen large enough for the lambs to go through. In this pen coarsely ground corn was kept all the time in a small trough. The pasture and grain should be given the lambs as soon as they are born and they will begin to eat by the time they are ten days old. The lambs did not eat much corn, but what they did eat helped to put the finish on them at an earlier date. so that they sold well upon the market. The 14 lambs ate but 6.6 bushels of corn during the whole winter and early spring. So the lambs had all of the corn, milk and green pastures that they wanted. With this combination of feed they, of course, did well. 144 They were sold at an average age of 101 days and had attained an average live weight of 51 pounds (Atlanta weights). They made excellent gains to be born of mothers that average only 95 pounds in weight. It might have been more profitable to have carried them to a heavier weight, but that point could not be determined. If they had been born earlier they could have been fed longer and still been placed upon the early market. The object was to sell them as early in the season as possible and yet have a reasonable size. This is the reason why earliness of birth is such an important question. When warm weather comes on the price of mutton declines, as people do not like mutton during the warm months, so it is to the advantage of the owner to let the lambs go at the earliest possible date. And, too, when they are sold in the early spring the danger of losses from summer diseases is also considerably lessened. The earliest bunch was sent to Atlanta, April 23rd, 1907. The Station has succeeded, during the last two years, in getting some lambs ready for the market by the middle of April. Two of the bunch sold for nine cents a pound live weight, while three sold for eight and one-half cents a pound. The remaining ones were sent on later and sold for but eight cents a pound. The late ones were, in fact, better lambs than the first ones, but the weather was becoming warm and there was not as great a demand for them as there was for the early ones. The best prices prevail just before Easter time. The Station has not been able to secure as good prices for lambs as have some farmers of the state. A picture in another part of the bulletin shows some lambs which were sold, in April, 1908, in Birmingham, for ten cents a pound live weight. It must be remembered, too, that these lambs were not fancy bred ones. They were just common lambs. In fact, two of them were out of scrub mothers by a pure bred Southdown ram. The others were out of grade mothers. 145 SALT FED. Salt was placed in small boxes and kept before the animals all.the time, They are very fond of it, as the following table shows. Each ewe ate at the rate of 15 to 19 pounds of salt yearly, or a flock of 100 ewes would have consumed in one year's time from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds of salt. Table 3. Salt eaten per month by each cwe. Lot 1 (1906) 2 1906) Ration Soy bean hay................ Cotton seed meal15 Cotton seed hulls ............. Green sorghum plus mixed1. hay (summer work)1..... Cotton seed meal........ Cotton seed hulls (summer work) ................. WATER DRANK. 1.29 Pounds salt eaten per ewe each month 1.35 1 (107) 2 (1907) It is often thought that sheep will not drink much water, that they will thrive as well without it as with it. Data were collected on the amount of water consumed by some ewes from August 21st to September 9th, 1908, while they were confined in small sheltered lots. The weather was about normal for this time of year. and Table Lot Ration 4. Water drank per ew.e per day. Pounds water used by each ewe per day 1 Green sorghum........................ 2 Cotton seed meal and hulls..... 2.5 (.3 gallons) 6.1 (( 5 gallons) FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR OLD FLOCK. 1906-'07. The statement includes all the income and expenses upon the old flock of 16 ewes and one rami from Uyiober the first, 1906, to October the year's time. While the was not carried through the year with ,a view of rendering a financial statement at the end", still the statement points out what profit can be made upon financial flock first, 1907,-a, 146 a small flock if profits be the only point in view. The authors had other.questions to solve with the flock, so it was not carried through the, year as cheaply as the farmer could have carried it through. If profits had been the only )int in view the animals would have been handled more economically by feeding the ewes very little grain after the lambs were born. To secure the greatest returns the mothers should have'.been turned out into the oat and vetch pasture with the lambs fed little, if any, concentrated feeds. But owing to the fact. that the Station at that.time owned no other flock, this same.flock had to be used inthe spring experiment of 1907, when a study was made of the amount of feed required to maintain a ewe after lambing. This, of course, ran the expense up very materially about 30 per cent. more than it should have been. But in the -following financial statement allof the expenses have been counted against the flock. -and Table 5. Fintancial statemient of old flou1t9OG-1907. Expenses: Rent on pasture, 10 cts. per sheep per month........$12.24 Lot 1. Lo . Lo . 1503 lbs. soy bean hay at $12.50 per ton .... 9.39 .. .. 342 879 530 .1332 Lo atrLot 3. g19&. (afer ambng)1 lbs. lbs. lbs.. lbs. lbs. ton cotton cotton cotton cotton cotton green seed meal at $25.00 per ton seeed hulls at $6.00 per ton seed meal at $25.00 per ton seed hulls at $6.00 per ton seed at $12.00 per ton .. hay at' $2.00 per ton .. ..... .. .. .. 4.27 2.64 6.62 1.19 2.00 4.63 52 3.00 7.00 3.99 Lambs ..... per bushel 371 lbs. corn at' 70 cent's per ton .... .. ...... 35 lbs. bran at.$30..00 ............. Death one ewe ........... Express charges to send lambs to- Atlanta .. ...... Total Express charges to send wool to Atlanta.........60 Receipts: ........ ...... To 14 -lambs.. To 55 1-2 lbs. wool, 26 1-2 cts. per .......... $53.56 14.64 $58.09 lb. . . Total ............ $68.20 wit whc to (Uh t a flnra( o - ~1~iI un, L~in~~rg lwi l, PJ". clog~ In J. . Kc i' l 1, the winter time. 147 The above tabulation shows every item of expense against year except the labor required to look after it. It has been assumed that the value of the manure will offset the labor expenses. After all of these expenses were considered the flock gave a return of $10.11. What do these figures mean? Do they mean that the Station received but $10.11 on the whole flock? No, that is not all they mean. They mean that the Station realized $12.50 per ton for all the soy bean hay eaten throughout the winter, that the pasture rented for ten cents per sheep per month, that 70 cents per bushel were realized upon the corn used and $12.00 a ton on the cotton seed-and finally, in addition to marketing the farm crops at the above prices, $10.11 were realized. The financial returns were satisfaciory, but not as satisfactory as they could have been made if the feed bill had been cut down and pasture made use of after the lambs came. For instance the farmer would haive almost entirely dispensed with the feed item of $13.70 for lot 3. Live stock should be looked upon as a means of marketing the farm crops at good prices while, at the same time, the manure is returned to the soil. 1he nock during the entire EXPERIENCE OF Two ALABAMA SHEEP FARMERS. Many farmers will be interested in the following statemnents from good farmers who have tried the sheep business and are making a success of it Alabama Experimental Station. Dear Sirs:About fifteen years ago I bought six head of ewes and one buck as a start in the sheep business. Up to that time I had never liked sheep, but experience has taught me to be more and more pleased with them as time goes by. They have been great money makers for me . I kept all the ewe lambs for several years and today have one hundred and forty head of breeding ewes. For the last five years have sold both male and female lambs, keeping just enough ewe lambs to keep up the number where I want it. 148 I do not know of any investment that will make money We think an investment is doing wonderfully well if the original capital doubles itself in ten years. But see what the sheep did; if they had increased to twelve only within the ten years they would have doubled the investment. But they did much more than simply "double. Within the ten faster than sheep--with proper care and attention. years the ewe part of the flock-that part retained upon the farm-doubled about five itimes, to say nothing of the number of ewe and male lambs that have been sold from the farm within the ten years. I have realized, in the fifteen years, about one thousand dollars for lambs, while the wool has paid for the keep of the flock every year. I have never been bothered by dogs. I have always kept the sheep upon my own lands, never allowing them to run upon the commons. The animals have been perfectly healthy all the time. I have never lost a sheep except from old age. They run upon pasture about nine months of the year without any other feed in addition. The pasture keeps them in fine condition. Duriffgthe lambing time the ewes need some extra feed, so I then give them some cotton seed-about ithree bushels to each one hundred ewes-and any good hay that I happen to have on hand. The lands upon which the sheep have been running will carry twice as many head of stock now as it would ten years ago. The sheep is called the "golden hoofed" animal and I think they are entitled to the name; they have not only brought in the money, but have improved the land. The manure spreader is said to be a paying investment, but sheep are a decided improvement on any manure spreader, as they manufacture and spread the manure, too. I have never had trouble arise from running other kinds of stock with the sheep. I keep horses, cattle and sheep in the same pasture all through the grazing season, except when the lambs are young, when I keep them away from all other 149 stock. upon The other stock do not object to eating the grass wi-hich the sheep have grazed. Yours truly, J. S. KERNACHAN, Florence, Ala Alabama Station. Dear Sirs: In January, 1904, when we bought our farm, the man of whom we bought it had a small flock of forty-eight head of sheep and was very anxious to leave them with us shares, but we had always heard that sheep would ruin a pasture, and so were unwilling for them to stay. But finally we agreed to keep the sheep for him for eighteen months on shares; we were to receive one-half of the wool and lambs and- bear the expense of pastre and the labor to look after them. The first we raised fifty-four lambs and divided up about July first. As he intended to sell hits part of the lambs- he took the bucks and left us twenty--seven ewe lambs,' as our part of the first crop of lambs. Now, it is strange, but it is a fact, that the next spring every one of these twenty-seven ewes had lambs and some of them had Experiment OR year twins. When we divided up again the next year, about July first, we had about- seventy-five .sheep, and besides had received some money for our part of the wool. In the meantime we had watched pretty closely and found instead wrould of injuring ea'C". our pastures, the sheep had- that- benefited' them by eating weeds and other things which our cattle not So far, we were well pleased with our experiment and tdded thmat, by breeding up our sheep, we could mnake some money, so we ordered two Southdown rams from We decided on 'the Southdown because, after readlinig and making inquiry, we thought they would suit ug tucky de,?.Ken- best as wve prefer a dual purpose animal one that would pnroduce Moth wool and mutton. We have had no cause for. regret in making this selection. 78.8 .88 for for 78 das. 56 das. 134 134 health throughout. health throughout. 61 1907. 5 for 103 das. t 5 .88 for 31 das. .5 .5 120 102 105.0 92.5 210 185 Excellent health throughout. Died Jan. 31-'08. No blindness, dizziness, etc. Cause of death probably worms, as worms were in stomach. Excellent health throughout. Died Jan. 11-'08. She seemed blind, staggered, would not eat well when fed in trough. Died fat. Would eat if feed placed before her. Died Sept. 19-'08. Death caug ed by getting head fastened k fence. Excellent health throughout. Excellent health throughout. Excellent health throughout. Excellent health throughout. Excellent health throughout. 3 120 132 105.0 73.5 .5 .5 210 147 4 96 32 17.5 .5 35 33 29 59 65 65 75 65 105.0 105.0 16.8 34.0 .56 .5 .25 for 28 for . 33 for .25 for .5 for 44 das. 10 das. 9 das. 44 das. 46 das. 44 das. 10 das. 9 das. 44 das. 10 das. 9 das. 44 das. 10 das. 36 das. 44 das. 10 das. 9 das. 210 210 63 90 63 190 191 S.25 192 16.8 for .28 for .33 for 193 83 16.8 .25 for .28 for .33 for .25 for .28 for .5 for .25 for .28 for .33 for 63 Excellent health throughout. 194 85 31.8 90 Excellent health throughout. 195 65 16.8 63 Excellent health throughout. 154 .25 fur .28 for .33 for .25 for .28 for .33 for .32 for .32 for 44 das. 10 das. 9 das. 44 das. 10 das. 9 das. 57 das. 57 das. 196 70 16.8 63 Excellent health throughout 197 170 171 54 74 46 16.8 18.2 18.2 63 57 57 Excellent health throughout Aborted after weigh day. Had been on sorghum; beca very weak before putting cotton seed meal. Had been on sorghum; beca very weak before putting cotton seed meal. Had been on sorghum; beca very weak before putting cotton seed meal. Had been on hay. Gail rapidly when put on coti seed meal. Had been on hay. Gai rapidly when put on coti seed meal. Had been on hay. Gair rapidly when put on cot seed meal. Had been on cotton st before placed on cotton st meal. Had been on cotton before placed on cotton s meal. Had been on cotton s before placed on cotton s: meal. Had been on cotton before placed on cotton meal. 174 47 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 198 35 5.9 .28 for 21 das. 21 177 68 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 181 61 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 140 52 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 185 58 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 188 50 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 89 65 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 199 49 18.2 .32 for 57 das. 57 1908. 185 95 65.1 .23 for .8 for .57 for .23 for .8 for .57 for 94 das. 33 das. 30 das. 94 das. 33 das. 30 das. 157 Excellent health throughout 48 100 '65.1 157 Excellent health throughout 155 .23 for .80 for .57 for .23 for 67 das. 60 das. 30 das. 68 das. 157 Excellent health throughout. 182 110 80.5 177 194 . 96 84 1 109 79 .9 16.6 58.1 5das. .23 for .48 for 72 das. 157 72 207 Excellent health throughout. Aborted.- Taken out of test. Excellent- health throughout. .23 for 165 das. das. 42 43 das. 30 das. .23 for 84 das. 186 10 84 3 for . 57 for .80 185 121 157 86 Excellent health throughout. Died. No report on death. .48 for 193 58 190 178 90 81 68 95 27.8 28 das. .23 for 121 das. 1.23 for 73 das. 77.1' .8 for 54 das. . . 57 for 30 das. 19.8 77.1 .23 .23 for .8 for .57 for 73 das. Excellent health throughout. Aborted. Taken out of test. 54 das. 30 das. 157 Excellent health throughout. 61 99 74.2 5.23 for .80 for .57 78 das. 49 das. 30 das. 157 Excellent for- health~ throughout. 30 33 17 102 93 60 65.5 31.1 16.8 .23 for 106 das. .57 for 30 das. .48 for 50 das. .23 .23 186 135 Excellent health throughout. Aborted. Taken Taken out of test. out of test as 73. 71 das. 56 das. 30 das. 28 das. 73 54 30 50 das. das. das. das. 185 was young weak. and was gettin. sh 70 10 ±~ for ."8 9 91. .57 for .48 for .23 101.1J .80 57 .48 97.4 for for for for r.23 for Excellent health throughout. 71 100 207 Excellent health throughout. 174 75 .5 for .8 .57 for for 71 das. 56 das. 30 das. 157 Excellent health throughout. 156 192 91 114 38.5 .50 for 77 das. (.50 for das. das. das. das. 77 207 Excellent health throughout. Excellent health throughout. 93 8 114.8-1180 for 34 .57 for 30 .49' for .50 98.6 47.0 - 195 47 14 75 85 135 .5 for .8 for (.57 for .5 for 67 das. 60 das. 30 das. 94 das. 157 °94 202 Excellent health throughout. Absorted. Taken out of test. (.5 for 109 das. 106.0o .8 for 13 das. .57 for 30 das. .48 for 50 das. 118.1i Excellent health throughout. 196 70 T(..8 for 5 for .57 for .48 for 82 45 30 50 das. das. das. das. 207 Excellent health throughout. 29 105 97. .5 for 116 das. 8 for 11 das. .57 for 30 das. 1.48, 185 Excellent health throughout. for 28 das. ( .5 59 85 102.1~ .8 for .57 for .48 for for 100 das. 27 das. 30 das. 28 das. 185 Excellent health throughout. ( .5 18 for .57"for .48 for for 74 das. 53 das. 30 das. 28 das. 185 Excellent health throughout. 36 101 .5 for 155 das. 102.6< .57 for .2 das. :48 for 50 das. .5 ' .8 .57 .48 102.6 .5 .48 105 104.8 .5 .8 .57 1. .48 for 124 das. 3 das. for for 30 das. for 50 das. for 162 das. 207 Excellent 'health throughout. 19980 26 69 207 Excellent health throughout. for 45 das. for for for for 91 36 30 28 das. das. das. das. 207 Excellent health throughout. 191 99 185 Excellent health throughout. 157 Sixty-live ewes have been fed upon cotton seed meal for different lengths of time, and in varied amounts and no ill results have occurred with the possible exception of one ewe (Ewe No. 4). After she had been on a cotton seed meal ration for 147 days (in 1907) she staggered and became blind, and finally died. Aside from the blindness and staggering she seemed to be in good health and was very fat when death occurred. There were, during the four years, six cases of abortion among the ewes eating cotton seed meal. Among the check lots (those eating no cotton seed meal) there were as many abortions. The ewes in 1908 were fed upon the same load of cotton seed meal that killed several hogs in the swine experimental work, but not a single ewe suffered any ill results from its use. It is true that the ewes did not receive as much cotton seed meal as did the hogs, per hundred pounds live weight, but still the sheep were kept upon the meal double the length of time the hogs were. The roughage used in all of the above cases was cotton seed hulls. While the results are but negative ones, still they seem to warrant the conclusion that there is very little risk to run, if any, in feeding cotton seed meal to ewes, when fed in amounts just sufficient to carry the animal through the winter in good breeding condition. INDEXN. Objects of Experiments..........................135 Handling the Old Flock...................... ... Winter Feeding of Ewes.........................138 Prices of Feeds.................................138 Cotton Seed Meal vs. Soy Bean hlay for Wintering Pregnant Ewes................................ Feeding the Milking Ewe...... .................. Amount feed required to maintain a Ewe after Lambing Handling and Feeding the Lambs................ .. Salt Fed ....................................... 137 139 140. 14 1.43 145 2 Water Drank ................ ................ . .145 Financial Statement ................ ............. 145 Experience of Two Alabama Sheep Farmiers......... 147 Feeding Cotton Seed Meal to Sheep ................ 152 BULLETINS OF ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station AUBURN INDEX VOL. XVIII BULLETINS AND 149-151 23RD ANNUAL AND REPORT CIRCULARS Nos. 4-7 AND PRESS BULLETINS Nos. 35-40 January to December, 1910 Opelika, Ala. Post Poblishing Company 1912 CON TEN TS : BULLETINS: 149. 150. 151. Tests of Varieties of Cotton in 1909 February, Raising Beef Cattle in Alabama June, Wintering Steers in Alabama, Fattening Cattle on Pastures in Alabama. June, Circular 4. Information to Nurserymen in Regard to Fumigation of Nursery Stock .... . May, 4 5. The Boll WVeevil Advance in Alabama....... 6. Fighting the Boll Weevil... . . . 7. Destroying Boll Weevils by Clean Farming. Press Bulletin No. 35. Tests of Varieties of Corn in 909. 36. Tests of Varieties of Cotton in 1909. 37. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. 38. Boll Weevil Enters Alabama. 39. Falling of Cotton Squares and Small Bolls. 40. Destroying Weevils in Corn. Annual Report, Twenty-Third __ . _ .......... __1910 1910 1910 1910 1910 1910 1910 1910 INDEX. Advance of Boll Weevil in Alabama Anderson, J. T., report of Animal Industry Department, report of. Beef Cattle, Raising of in Alabama Boll Weevil, advance of in Alabama stages and work of how passed the winterfighting of .. . . . ... destroying of by clean farming . enters Alabama .. Cary, C. A., report of -- ------Cattle, fattening of on pastures in Alabama summary of fattening on pastures in Alabama_ fattening of on pasturesdetails of experiment . Chemist of Soil and Crop Investigations, report of Chemist, report of Corn, destroying weevils in test of varieties of in 191'9 Cotton, test of varieties of in 1909 squares and small bolls, falling of test of varieties of 1909_ varieties, relative susceptibility of to boll rot Destroying boll weevil by clean farming . . Destroying weevils in corn _--_ Direction for fumigating the stock __ Directions for making a fumigating house . . . . . . . Director, report of _ . . . . . Duggar, J. F., report ofEntomologist, report of Falling of cotton squares and small bolls . . . . . Fattening cattle on pasture Fattening cattle, details of experiment of Fighting the boll weevil. -Fumigating house, directions for making Fumigating stock, directions for -Gray, D. I'., report of Hare, C. L., report of Hinds, W. E., report of Horticulture, report of .. Lloyd, F. E., report of _ Mexican cotton boll weevil -- . . . . _Circ. 5: 11 R .23: 15 R. 23: 25 B. 153: 3 Circ. 5: 11 _Circ. 5: 12 Circ. 5: 13 _Circ. 6: 15 Circ. 7: 19 38 P. B. R .23. 13 B. 151: 28 R. 151: 28 B. 151: 48 B. 151: 49-63 _.R. 23: 15 R. 23: 11 40 P.B. 35 P. B. 36 _P. B. P.B. 39 B. 149. 3 _B. 149: 6 Circ. 7:19 40 .P. B. Circ. 4: 6 Circ. 4: 4 Report 23: 7 Report 23: 7 Report 23: 18 39 _P. B. __B. 151: 48 B. 151: 49-63 Circ. 6: 15 .Circ. 4: 4 4: 6 Circ. R. 23: 25 _. R. 23: 17 R. 23: 18 R. 23: 27 R. 23: 21 37 P. B. Physiological chemist, report of__. Plant physiologist, report-of ___ Raising beef cattle, details of test objects of work cattle used management of herd how data was collected price of feedsweights and gains cost of gains_ wintering cattle area of pasture required per animal breeding record Ross, B. B., report of________ .... Steers, wintering of in Alabama details of experiments wintering the cattle-_ ._. . . gains during winter months amount of winter feed used winter gain of stee s by month__ financial statement for winter work wintering of in Alabama details of the experiments on wintering of in Alabama, summary of Summary of fattening cattle on pasture in Alabama Summary of wintering steers in Alabama Test of varieties of cotton in 1909 The Mexican cotton boll weevilVarieties of corn in 1909, test of ------Varieties of cotton in 1909, tests of Veterinarian, report of Williams, P. F., report of Wintering steers in Alabama R. 23: 17 R. 23: 21 B. 150: 7 B. 150: 7 B. 150: 7 B. 150: 8 B. 150: 8 B. 150: 10 B. 150: 11 B. 150: 13 B. 150: 15 B. 150: 16 B. 150: 17 R. 23: 11 .. B. 151: 30 B. 151: 31-36 _ B. 151: 37 B. 151: 37 -- B. 151: 40 B. 151: 42 B. 151: 44 - 151: 30 B. B. 151:31-36 _B. 151: 27 .. 151:28 B. .. B. 151:27 B. 149: 3 P.B. 37 P. B. 35 P. B. 36 R. 23: 13 R. 23: 27 .. B. 151:30 BULLETIN No. 149 ALABAMA FEBRUARY, 1910 Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN TESTS OF VARIETIES OF COTTON IN1909 BY. J. F. DUGGAR, Director, AND E. F. CAUTHEN, Farm Supt. and Recorder. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1910 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. HON. H. L. MARTIN.................................Ozark HON. TANCRED BETTS..................... HON. Huntsville A. W. BELL................................Anniston STATION COUNCGIL. C. C. THACH ......... ......................... President Director and Agriculturist J. F. DUGGAR ..................... B. B. Ross.................. C. A. -CARY ...... R. 'Veterinarian ..... Chemist and State Chemist .................... and Director Farmers' Institutes F. E. LLOYD................ -S. Botanist MACKINTOSH (on leave)..................Horticulturist 'Soil and Crop Investigations Industry J. T. ANDERSON........Chemist, D. T. GAY..............................Animal W. E. HINDS...............................Entomologist Acting Horticulturist Associate Chemist C. L. HARE.....................................Chemist P. F. W.ILLIAM ....................... C. S. WILLIAMSON ....................... ASSISTANTS. T. BRAGG ............................. E. F. CAUTHEN.............. First Assistant Chemist Farm Superintendent' and Recorder N. E. BELL I. . . ..................... Second Assistant Chemist Assistant in S. MOADORY ............... Veterinary Science in Botany W. F. TURNER ...................... M. C. Assistant in Entomology Assistant in Agriculture J. FUNCHESS ..................... ...................- IS. RIDGWAY.........................Assistant L. W. SHOOK Assistant in Animal Industry 0. H. SELLERS.......go........ Stenographer and Mailing Clerk J. C. PRICE............................ Assistant in Horticulture TESTS OF VARIETIES OF COTTON IN 1909. BY J. F. DUGGAR AND E. F. CAUTHEN. In 1909 thirty varieties of cotton were tested on plots on the Experiment Station Farm at Auburn. The cotton was left one plant in a hill in checks 3 1-2 by 3 1-2 feet. The fertilizer per acre consisted of 240 pounds acid phosphate, 120 pounds nitrate of soda and forty pounds of muriate of potash, making a total of 400 pounds. The rather large yields (up to about 1 1-2 bales per acre) for this grade of naturally thin, gray, sandy land were attributable chiefly to plowing under with a disc plow early in April, 1909, a crop of crimson clover, which was then ten to eighteen inches high and beginning to bloom. Seed of crimson clover had been sown on this inoculated land September 9, 1908, and merely cultivated in between the rows of corn. After making allowance for vacant hills, the varieties ranking highest in combined value of lint (at 14 cents) and seed (at $25.00 per ton) were the following: Cook, No. 206; Cook, No. 221; Dixie; Hardin; and Poulnot. Cook, No. 206, and Cook, No. 221, are both strains of Cook Improved that have been bred up at the Alabama Experiment Station. In yields of lint per acre, (793 pounds and 736 pounds), and in total value of seed and lint per acre, ($125.58 and $117.36), and in per cent. of lint (40.6 and 39.1 per cent.), they show superiority to the parent variety and to the other varieties tested. These two improved strains of Cook suffered severely from anthracnose, generally called boll rot; so did all strains of Cook, whether improved or not; also Brown, No. 1, Blue Ribbon and Hardin. All varieties were attacked by this disease, but to a smaller extent than those mentioned. Varieties of cotton in 1909, ranked according to total value per acre of seed and lint. Actual Yield per Acre. (Stand variable) Corrected to Uniform Stand. 0 VARIETY Lint aE 0 kaa L0 v* ll: q a a 0 ON Cook, No. 206.............. Cook, No. 221.............. Dixie..................... Hardin.................... Poulnot................... Peterkin.................. Cleveland ................. Layton.................... Cook..................... Texas Bur................ Brown, No. 1.............. Broadwell's Double Jointed.. Georgia Best ............... Cook, Toole ..................... Truitt ..................... Russell................... Cook, No. 239 ............... Blue Ribbon............... Dillon..................... Gold Coin ... ...... Row'den ..... .......... .... Strickland. ... Drake (Defiance) ...... .... . Simpkins ............ ,.. King....... ................. Triumph........ ......... Allen Long Staple ....... Keen an .............. Trice ............. ... . .. . .. No. 232 ............. . Lbs. Perct. Lbs. 746.7 $117 73 40.6 793.5 $125 58 117 36 687.9 109 29 39.1 736.1 113 75 602.5 98 59 31.9 681.3 693.2 110 22 38.8 693.5 110 96 602.6 96 69 37.1 666.6 107 35 654.9 104.68 105 63 37.8 658.1 104 65 634.5 102 77 35.4 643.1 661.2 104 83 39.4 659.1.103 85 101 26 97 43 37.3 629.0 607.9 100 22 602.5 98 41 34.8 610.4 97 72 597.2 95.87 37.4 606.1 97 21 575.9 92 77 36.1 599.6 95 60 586.5 94 37 36.6 591.5 94 06 559.9 88 05 41.2 596.2 93 36 92 03 581.2 39.7 587.3 93 35 575.9 33.1 565.2 94 93 13 522.6 86 31.4 556.5 92 95 527.9 39.9 585.1 83 90 54 85 37 31.6 541.5 521.5 90 .28 77 32 479.9 36.3 557.9 87 78 533.2 85 50 3'7.2 545.4 86 28 525.5 85 15 34.4 526.9 85 20 32.6 514 0 79 22 485.2 83 39 36.2 506.1 474.6 77 97 83 33 511.9 82 79 35.7 512.7 81 69 474.5 76 77 35.6 502.4 81 92 80 88 34.3 499.7 495.9 82 00 469.2 78 62 30.4 485.8 69 87 30.3 414.1 399.8 67 05 64 71 31.2 390.0 400.0 66 58 61 89 50 On account of the amount of anthracuose on the Station farm in, 1909, and because the seed is believed to be one of !conveying this widely spread disease, the the means Station must decline to send out seed of these strains of Cook until further selection has been made for resistance to this disease. Pixie, which ranked third in total value of products and fourth in yield of lint per acre, is a strain of wilt-resistant cotton developed by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. of In our variety tests in 1909, Dixie ranked third in value of products. The plant is compact and well supplied with fruit limbs, ,on which the bolls are borne close together. It!s conspicuous merits are (1), its ability to thrive on land where most other varieties are killed by cotton wilt or black root, and ,(2), its productiveness, the results of scientific selection. The chief faults are lateness, small bolls and a low percentage of lint. Hardin, which ranked fourth in corrected yield, is a small-bolled, semi-cluster variety. In none of the previous tests at Auburn has it shown conspicuous productiveness nor given nearly so high a percentage of lint, (38.8) as in 1909. Poulnot is a semi-cluster variety, with medium to large bolls. It has usually ranked rather high in our variety tests. Its worst fault is its rather late maturity. The other varieties that stood above the middle of the list in 1909 ranked, in value of total products per acre, in the following order: Peterkin (6th), Cleveland, Layton, Cook Improved, Texas Bur, Brown No. 1, Broadwell Double-jointed, Georgia Best, Cook No. 232 and Toole. Fifteen other varieties ranked below all of those mentioned above. The ranking varieties in the last four variety tests at Auburn are as follows: 1905. 1906. Toole Cook Cook Improved; Cleveland Cleveland Layton Bancroft HerlongToole Christopher Poulnot 1908. Dillon Gold Coin Dixie. Cook Improved Hart 1909. Cook, No. 206 Cook, No. 221 Dixie Hardin Poulnot From this it appears that Cook was in the list of "five best" in each of three years; Toole, Cleveland and Poulnot, each occurred twice in the list of most productive varieties. Each of the most productive varieties has some shbrtcoming. Cook is more susceptible than most varieties to boll rot; Toole has small boils; Cleveland readily drops the seed cotton from the burs; Dixie and Poulnot are late. Each grower can decide which of these faults he considers least objectionable, or whether, to avoid all of them, he will choose some good.variety which, at this Station, has proved less productive,-for example, Triumph. The earliest varieties grown in 1909 were Trice, Broadwell Double-jointed, Simpkins and King; the last two appeared to be practically identical. those mentioned in A number of varieties additional the table were grown for observation on areas too small to determine the yields per acre. to NUMBER OF DISEASED BOLLS. Anthracuose of the boils, generally called boll rot, was so prevalent on 'the Station farm in 1909 that an unusual opportunity was offered to test the relative susceptibility of different varieties to this disease. The figures in the following table are based on counts made in winter of the total number of burs and of the number of boils that had been so injured as to cause the loss of one or more locks. Diseased boils as here reported consisted chiefly of those injured by anthracnose, but the figures include also smaller losses due to another disease. They also doubtless include a small number of boils damaged by boll worms. Percentage of of freedom from diseased bolls; varieties arranged in order diseased bolls. Varieties Cleveland ..... ,........... ............. Dixie..... ............................ Simpkins.............................5 Strickland ............................. Trice..................................6 Drake Defiance ........ ................ Truitt................................7 " ....... "" .;.. " King... .. ...... Per cent. 5 5 6 7 "" Bowden...."...."".""...........".......S5 Cook, No. 206 .8............ Broadwell Double-jointed..............8 Blue Ribbon ........... ............... 8 Gold Coin............................8 Texas Burr...........................9 Poulnot..............................9 Pete rkin..................... ........ 9 Triumph . ............. ................ 9 Toole.................................9 Russell............................. .10. to Dillon ............................... 11 Allen Long 'Staple .................... 11 .............................. 11 Layton Keenan .................... 11 Georgia Best............,.............15 Hardin..............................17 Cook Improved.......................23 Cook, No. Cook, No. 239........................33 Brown, No. 1........................33 Cook, No. 232........................35 221........................28 ADDRESSES OF GROWERS. The Experiment Station has no seed for distribution. The seed used in the variety test was secured from the following parties : Cook Improved-J. R. Cook, Ellaville, Cook, Nos. 206, 221, 232, and 239-Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. Brown No. 1 L. Brown, Decatur, Ga. llardin-W. P. Letson, Glen Allen, Ala. Dillon-U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Ga. -M. Dixie-U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, Di. C. Keenan-U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. E. Bradberry, Athens, Ga. Drake's Defiance-J. C. McAuliffe, Harlem, Ca. Broadwell Double-jointed-J. B. Broadwell, Aipharetta, Ga. Blue Ribbon-South Carolina Experiment Station, Clemson College, S. C. Allen Long Staple-Amzi Godden Co., Birmingham, Ala. Layton Improved-R. D. Layton, St. Mathews, S. C. Gold Coin-Excelsior Seed Farm, Bennettsville, S. C. Peterkin-J. A. Peterkin, Port Motte, S. C. Cleveland-Alabama Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala. Rowden-Ben Crawford, Blake, Okla. Texas Bur-R. D. Tatum, Palmetto, Ga. Strickland-J. R. Strickland, Pleasant Grove, Ala. Triumph-Wade Brothers, Alexander City, Ala., and Chas. L.Gay, Montgomery, Ala. Georgia Best-G. W. Stone, Oxford, Ga. Russell,-A. M. Troyer, Calhoun, Ala. Poulnot-J. King- J. W. Truitt- G. Mitchell, Y'oungsville, N. C. Simpkins-W. A. Simpkins, Raleigh, N. C. Trice-W. N. McFadden, Warren, Tenn. Toole-W. F. Covington, Headland, Ala. W. Truitt,' LaGrange, Ga. BULLETIN No. 150 ALABAMA JUNE, 1910 Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN RAISING BEEF CATTLE INALABAMA DAN T. GRAY, Professor of Animal Industry, AND W. F. WARD, Junior Animal Husbandman, Bureau of Animal Industry. Opelika, Ala. Post Fublishing 1910 Company COMMITTEE HON. H. OF TRUSTEES ON'EXPERIMENT STATION. Ozark L. 'MARTIN .................................... Huntsville ........................... HON. TANCRED B rETTS HON. A. W. BELL.................................Anniston STATION STAFF. C. J. B. C. President Director and Agriculturist Chemist and State Chemist A. SCARY .... Veterinarian and Director of Farmers' Institutes C. THACH ................................... F. DUGGAR ...................... B. Ross ........................ Plant Physiologist F. E. LLOYD................. P. F. WILLIAMS......... ... and Pathologist Acting Horticulturist J. T. ANDERSON............ Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigation Animal Industry D. T. GRAY ............................. W. C. E. HINDS......................................Entomologist WILLIAMSON............................Associate C. L. HARE ...................................... First Assistant Chemist T. BRAGG.............................. E. F. CAUTHEN.............. Farm Superintendent and Recorder W. F. WAnD*................... Junior Animal Husbandman Special Agent in Beef J. W. RIDGEWAY*......................... Special Agent. in Beef H. J. CHATTERTON*............... .......... N. E. BELL............................ S. Chemist Chemist Second Assistant Chemist I. S. McADoRY............... Assistant in Veterinary Science Assistant in Entomology W. F. TURNER ..................... M. J. FUNCHESS......................... Assistant in Agriculture C. S. RIDGEWAY :..............Assistant in Botany J. C. PRICE........................... L. W. SHOOK .................... 0. H. SELLERS............ co-operative *In Assistant in Horticulture Assistant in Animal Industry .................. Stenographer beef work with Bureau of Animal Industry. S 1 Som Alabhama grass steers. Ia Experimaeatal work~ ina sumr 19019. RAISING BEEF CATTLE IN ALABAMA 1, I )AN T. (iRAY AND X. 1". XXARD. INTE.OIUCT ION . 'I'lie wi irk of era dicinIig the "T exias-fever" I ick is proSouth;i ever, rear new areas are freed fromi I le t ick, and( withi the pr~ogress of t he work t here coities an addled interest in all kinds of catt le product ion. Whleni t he ticks in a coult N. are extetittinated, renewed interest lbeginis to he iiiirieiiatev nuaiiifested ini n lIhe hetI cattl bun isiness, ns the Souithent farmiers now reailize that the "Texua-fever"' lick has been praclt icallv Ithe oldil dr(hm~hmck to thle rat tle business iln tie past. When lhe tick is tiniiI x(termiia~ted noi setio ottf thie Iuaitled states will be as wxell suited to becef product ion as the Southi because of its mild cliiite, long; grazing seaison, andt gressing; sat isfatcltily ini the of the mieat that hier peopleb couisuiin.. Ili A1,11)1111: teeare hut i-14,0.00 hiead of c ilt le other I han milk anioias; or, ini other words, there arn about 1.2 headt of cat tie inii te State to each famrilx . If no outside meats were portio n shipped into the State, the people would consume all of this beef in less than a year's time. There is a wide field open to the Southern farmer who wishes to produce beef. There are many reasons why the Southern States should :raise more beef cattle than are being raised at the present time. First, the South, under the present system of farming, has thousands of acres and good ones, too-which are not being used at all. Statistics tell us that only about 40 per cent'of the tillable or arable land of the South is being used. Sixty per cent of the land is lying idle and returns to the owner not a cent in wealth. All of the lands cannot be used as cotton lands, because, first, there are not enough people to work the lands in any such way, and second, many of these pauper acres are not suitable for cultivation, In fact, many acres that are now under cotton cultivation should be turned into permanent pastures and grazed with live stock. No state can become wealthy when only 40 per cent of the land capital is being used. The grocer, or the banker, or the hardware merchant, could not possibly make a profit on his business if he used only 40 per cent of his capital. And the farmer cannot hope to be successful in his operations until he begins to make use of at least a reasonable proportion of his capital. No farming business can be made successful when only $4,000 out of a possible $10,000 is being used. Then again beef- cattle should be more generally introduced because of the good they do in building up and maintaining 'soils. Under the present system of cotton farming the soils are becoming poorer and poorer. With the introduction of cattle the soil will begin to be built up. Director Thorne, of the Ohio Station, has been making tests with barnyard manure for several years, applying the manure upon a plat of ground upon which was running a three years' rotation of corn, wheat and clover. Eight tons of manure an acre were applied. The average yearly increase an acre, following the one application, was as follows: 5 Corn, 14.7 bushels at 70-cents a bushel .... .. $10.29' Corn stover, 744 pounds at $6.00 a ton.......... 2.23 Wheat, 8.36 bushels at $1 a bushel...... . ...... 8.36 Wheat straw, 897 pounds at $4 a ton 1.79 Clover hay, 686 pounds at $12, a ton.............4.12 Total value 8 tons of manure ............... Total value 1 ton of manure ............... $26.79 3.35 He further states (Bul. 183, Ohio Experiment Station) that the value of farm manure can be materially increased by balancing the manure with the addition of a carrier of phosphorous. The farm manures are too high in nitrogen as compared with: the 'other elements. By balancing stable manure, the value ,of 8 tons was increased $12.20 after deducting the cost of the material used for the balancing of the manure. This is $1.53 a ton, or when added to the $3.35 above, brings the total possible value of each ton of manure up to $4.88. During a feeding period of 100 days each steer will produce at least 1.5 tons of manure. This profit should be added to the feeding or direct profits. The Arkansas Station (Bul. 68) made a test to determine the value, to each succeeding crop, of growing peas in the corn, gathering the corn and then grazing both the peas and the stalks by the steers. The s teers were being fed some cottonseed in addition to the grazing. As the result of this crop of peas and the grazing, the succeeding cotton crop was increased 626.5 pounds of seed cotton over the area where corn alone bad 'been grown. A third lot was planted to corn, and the increase in corn, due to the pea crop and the grazing, was 14 bushels per acre. A third reason why beef should be more generally produced in the South, is that there is a demand for it, and the demand should be met in order that the money may be kept at home. "During the year of 1907 there were about 15,151 home raised animals slaughtered in the city of Birmingham (this includes cattle, veal, hogs, sheep and kids), while there were 36,097 live Western animals brought into the city and slaughtered. In addition to all this, thousands of pounds of cured meats were also retailed over the city." (Farmers' Bulletin No. . .. ) This money should be kept at home and added to the Southern wealth. Packing houses are now being built throughout the South, and good markets are assured for the beef animals which the farmer produces. The fourth reason offered in favor of beef production is, that as our farmers learn the value of diversification in farming operations, there will be an increased amount of roughage, as corn, fodder, cowpea and clover hays, soy beans, etc., which, many times can be marketed more profitably through the beef animals than in any other way. The beef cattle serve as important machines for converting the surplus fodders into valuable barnyard manure, which gives to the growing crops not only the benefits of its fertilizing elements, but increases the mechanical condition of the soil by the addition of that important compound humus. No animal can take the place of the beef steer in making use of the winter corn and cotton fields. Beef cattle are peculiarly suited to fit into the farming operations of the South. The farms are large, and many acres are not being used because of the lack of sufficient labor. At present there is no better way to put the whole farm to work than by introducing beef cattle into the system of farming. They require but a small amount of labor in addition to that used upon the average cotton farm. The hog, while he deserves a prominent place upon almost every farm, cannot be made to use all of the large uncultivated areas on the farms, for he is not strictly a grazing animal. Many farmers who have the large uncultivated areas are not now sufficiently skilled in the handling of live stock to introduce sheep or dairy cattle, as the sheep and dairy business require more skill than the beef business. Then, too, the dairy business requires an increase in the amount of labor used upon the farm; and the labor item isI one that many farmers are trying to reduce. D)ETAILS OF TU E TENT. oBJE)cT Or THlE WORK. The pimiary object of this work nwas to learn Mx hat it wouIld cost to raise a grade steer to the feed-lot p~eriodl. under average Southern condlitions. After thiis was determiined, it was expected t hat stiggestio (0b1( coui d 1w ide anld plans orfered li v whiich beef aninmals could. ini thle fuitutie. bie piroiducedl more chieapily than \Nele thle ones in this test. lIn order to obtain dlefinite iiiforuniitio re-:1-dinig beef 00- (cucial vCiew of (1fcatle us I ii cxcr )Hed . logically ouli ne woil for I hw fuit ure. t1h1 Alabaniia l~xpeiiuelit Stat ion, and tile IBureu of An im iIni udust rv of the iinitel Tates Ilepartinelit of Algrictiltuul . joifltl\ undertook NvWith ni luige Mtock farmer. inith a co-op(Nwlit ive (X1)Crilliel CATTLE TTS.D. The an imials ttsed1 in the w~ork we re a herd of grade Aberdeen-Dingtis cowiended liv two pr-rd Aede-n1 bulls. Mr. J. S. Kernachan, of Florence, Alabama, the farmer with whom the work was conducted, began in 1900 the work of grading up some Holsteii and scrub cows by the use of pure-bred Aberdeen-Angus bulls. The Holstein cows had been uised for dairy purposes, The scrub cows were bought from some of the neighboring farmers. The scrub and Holstein mothers were not included in the experimental work. Their grade offspring were used. The experimental herd, at the beginning of the test in 1906, consisted of the following animals: Cows (that had dropped calves) .......... 15 Two year old heifers (18 to 30 months) .... 13 12 Yearling heifers (12 to 18 months) ........ Heifer calves (recently born)............14 Three of the above cows were five years old; the others were less than five years of age. All of them were grade Angus. Some of the young ones were three-fourths pure, but the majority were but one-half pure. While Mr. Kernachan had some pure-bred Aberdeen-Angus cows upon his farm, they were not included in the test. No pure-bred animals except the bulls were used. MANAGEMENT OF THE HERD. During the summer months the herd grazed upon a good pasture; no feed was given in addition to the pasture. This pasture was made up principally of white clover, bermuda and lespedeza. This afforded the animals abundant pasture for about seven months of the year. During the winter months all of the cattle, young and old, had the run of the range. This range, which was inclosed, consisted of the old corn and cotton fields, with some cane along the river and creek banks. In addition to the winter range, hay and cottonseed were fed (See statement later for the winter feeds). The cattle were not made to go through the winter on range alone, slo when spring came they were in reasonably good flesh. It might have been profitable to liaive kept all the animauls g;aining fhroughotnt the w-infcr iiioiilis; as to t his the aiithors cannot sa'A since this fest (do(s itt( cie tiat point. Theii y ounl stun (did iiiakce --ains dliii tachl v initer, lint the cows and older animals usually lost ini wi~ liiriiig the aflter hart1 of the witer. Thei .diellcy w as of suchl a natu ic I hat nole of the ai- cold. t1ill severesto ii rmosi d cIir nttle et tpell theopen- sIieds otn each side. 50 x 70 feet. liast iir separiie frimlie cwes iii1,l I lse tims littiight flieie fto lit h1-il. It \\:as litititti. how\ evti. tliat iiiii tif thle tows w tnt tliiitiig th lit i r N htitt li lini wit calves, as thle otiheri far itikl lix en ted thie ownter fittii keeping ili close toiiich w~ithI thle cowxs. I hiring; thle secondi ear's N tirk the bl s wer (iilltxxeth fit iuii N ith the cows; fheei~uii the lie] tint 10 of calves born during the first quarter of the year increased very materially over what it was when the bulls were kept in a pasture to themselves. No effort was made to completely eradicate the ticks. When the cattle became badly infested with ticks they were greased on the parts of the body where the ticks were most numerous. How DATA WAS COLLECTED. The farm was visited at least every three months by a representative from either the Bureau or the Station, and data secured about the births, deaths, weights, feeds used, etc. Each animal was numbered by means of a metal tag in the ear so that individual records could be secured. Soon after 'a calf was born it was tagged and weighed. All feeds were weighed or measured out to the animals. Vast amounts of manure were produced, but no account was kept of it, as most of it was dropped out in the fields and pastures. During the winter months some manure was collected around the barns and lots; this was all hauled onto the cultivated fields. PRICE OF FEEDS. Local conditions determine, to a large extent, the price of feeds. Any prices that the authors might assume would not meet all conditions, but the following prices have been taken as a basis upon which to rest the financial estimates: Mixed hay .............. Cottonseed ............... Green sorghum ............ Pasture ................. $ 6.00 a 14.00 a 1.50 a .2.50 an ton ton ton acre for season The hay, which consisted of a mixture of sorghum, crab grass, Johnson grass and cowpeas, was not of good quality, so a rather low farm price was placed upon it. Six dollars a ton was all it was worth. The green sorghum was used one fall (1906) for several days to supplement a short pas- 11 ture which was rendered short on account an extreme frost. The sorghum was cut and imdrouth, and an early mediately thrown to the cattle. No price was placed upon the winter range. One hundred sheep, and about thirty horses and mules used the winter range in common with the cattle. WEIGHTS AND GAINS. of TABLE 1. Average Weights and Gains of (attle for Two Years Summer and gains * ginsWintergan Summr Summer gainswinter CLASS d ' o Q Cs °' "[* " 0 0 4 01 0 ~224 "a Lbs 112 monrths .. .. 4 a1 Lbs. 224 219 Lbs. 1.24 1.22 Lbs. 52 -16 a26529~ Lbs. .29 -. 089 Lbs. 12-24 " .. ... 44 42 402 645 276 203 Lbs. .77 .564 24-30 24-33 Cows. " " 30 18 773 832 196 170 116 1.09 -'25 -. 14 170 136 12 .472 .40 .034 .... ........ 19 .95 -35 ---. .65 -104-.58 *Number of cows varied from time to time. From the above table (Table 1) we see that at twelve months of age the calves averaged 402 pounds in weight, while the 24 months old steer averaged 645 pounds, the 30 months old steers averaged 773 pounds, and. the animals which were 33 months old weighed 832 pounds. These were light weights, which were due, --in part at least, to the fact that the animals had ticks on. them during tihe summer m'onths. calves, During the summer the gains were heaviest with the each oue making a gain of 224 pounds from April 15th to October 15th, or a daily, gain of 1.24 pounds. Each yearling made a gain of 219 pounds, or a, daily gain of 1.22 summer. During the third pounds during the six months period (24-30 months) a daily, gain of 1.08, pounds. was of made, while in the fourth period- (24-33 months) a daily gain of only .95 pounds per head was. made. The cows -aiiire( G o ,tou per Iitait pcr Jxy or a lotl~ -aii tof I linoi the xx initer motiitis (l)cttder =th-:Aprtil 151h) xx tio.l thI' tttil s~iiI( fo Ii 1lie wil t, te :mii;] si ra nigiig, frottm 21 to :t1) ilassa 12-:: mietis i lost :85 pounds each fttr lthe piodlit. The( cm(x s lost 111-1 hhunids e'act; this Nx is I;II-elN dj int' i oet tie xxc liitlnt eI : 4Itvx ofii the d1tlpes ciifes tii ith. e il iti tie. ah adiygano SU I i ii ftii ((1' t TI iti 41 y41 . h a lllt 41 ,il t t x g. xi glil i - ~ Titil ~ is 4 ~ It in 4 y_..oIIt 4( hl i~~ lx i! i ~iil ~'ai 13 mals whille they were increasing in age from 24 to 3 months. The cows gained only 12 pounds for the year, showing that they were.practically mature when they first dropped calves. In shiort, the above table shows that, under the conch tions of this experiment the dailry gains were smaller s the animals increased in age. This was true in both the summer and winter work. The gains were not as large as they should have been, due partly to the extremely dry weather from June to July 20, 1906, when the grass in the pastures became perfectly dry, and partly to the fact that one of the pastuies used in 1907, was so wet in the early spring, that the grass did not grow satisfactorily during the whole summer. The fact has already been mentioned that the animals were also infested with the Texas tick. COST OF GAINs. The cost of gains during the summer was based upon a rental of $2.50 per acre for all land used for pasture; calves under one year of age were charged one-half price. When the cost of keeping the dam was not charged against the calves, they made 100 pounds at a cost of 63 cents, but when the expense of the dam, as well as the pasture of the calf were charged against the calf, the cost of 100 pounds of gain was raised to $1.88. The cost of keeping the dam is the expense of keeping 1.39 cows, as only one calf was produced to every 1.39 cows. (See table 4). The yearlings made 100 pounds of gain during the summer at a cost of $1.28, the two and a half year old steers (24-30 months) at a cost of $1.43, and the gains of the steers in the fourth class (24-33 months) were made at a cost of $1.65 per 100 pounds. 14 TABLE 2. Average Cost of Summer and Winter Gains. Summer Winter Whole Year CLASS b a1 '0 Y3S S o ~a 0 ao O~ aaV orCI 00 a) 0 st 0 ~)O' U .o t+' O U Calves* months Calves*" 1-12 224 4 20 1 88 52 $4 alvs 112 224 $1 40$0 625 52.............276 $1 40$ 0 51 months Yearlings 12-24 months 2-yr. olds) 24-30 months 2-yr. olds) 24-33 months 90, $9 42 276 9.10 3 30 219 195 170 116 2 80 1 28 2 80 1 43 2 80 1 65 2 80 2 41 -16 -25 -35 -104 4 90.....203 4 90).....170 4 7 70 7 70 7 70 3 79 43 5 66 90.....136 12 Cows 4 90....... all ages 7 70 64 18 *Keep of dam not charged. **Keep of dam charged. Feeds charged as follows.: Cottonseed at $14.00 per ton; green sorghum at $1.50 per ton; mixed hay at $6.00 per ton; pasture charged at $2.50 per acre for season. In the winter all cattle had access to the corn, cotton and pea-stubble fields of tlie plantation, and were fed hay and a small amount of cottonseed to keep them in a reasonable condition of flesh. The average cost of wintering those animals that were more than twelve months of age was $4.90 per head (See table 3). When the cost of wintering the dam was charged against the calf, the cost of 100 pounds of gain was $9.42. As all the other animals lost some in weight during this period, the cost of gain could not be determined. The last column of Table 2 shows that when the cost of. keeping the dam was not charged against the calf, 100 of gain for the whole year cost 51 cents, but when the dam's yearly expense, as well as the pasture of the calf, were charged against the calf, the total cost to make 100 some 'pounds pounds of gainwa. $3.30. The cost of keeping an animal 15 from the time he was 12 months until he was 24 months old was the amount -,of gain was 203 pounds, thus making 100 pounds of gain cost $3.79. The two year old animals (24-30 months) gained 170 pounds at a cost of $7.70, or at a rate of $4.53 per 100 the long two year pounds for the year. The cost of gain old cattle (24-33 months) was $5.66 per 100 pounds. The last column of the table points out the fact that, as the animal advanced from the calf period to maturity, the all other condicost of 100 pounds of gain increased, tions being equal, the younger the animal the cheaper were the gains. $7.70; on and WINTERING 'CATTLE. Table 3, shows the total amount of feed consumed, the total cost to winter the whole herd, and the average cost to winter each animal. for three consecutive winters. TABLE 3. ' Cost 0 9 a of Wintering . 0 Q Cattle* V 0 0 U1 - YEAR YR o '° 6~ 00 a: 0 'U oo C a~ 0. c, -ab u ab P1 U V ,0 ' 0 0 0 0 1905-'6..( 45 19052.. 1906-'7. 65 1907-'8.. 59 45. 27000$189 701190 12000 3132 140441 00............356001106 84 00 22000 $16 50 39600 118 80 219 30 21 92 ....... ...... 86443 259 32 281 24 98 31 73331 5 50 I 80$2958 657 3 37 4 77 90, Average 1.... 538811 161 641 265 45, 4 *Only animals above one year old were counted. The feed that the calves ate was charged against those animals which were. more than one year old. During the winter of 1905-'6 the herd consumed 27,0O0,) pounds cottonseed and 35,600 pounds of 'hay. That is,. each animal that was more than 12 months old, consume4i 600 pounds of cottonseed and 791 pounds of hay for the whole winter. The winter of 1905-'6 was a hard one on the cattle, as it was very wet and rainy. winter range was not as good as usual, hence the large amount of feed consumed. $14.00 a ton, and hay at $(;.00 With cottonseed a ton, each animal that was over twelve months old, e- of The charged at 16 sumed $6.57 worth of feed. The cattle, as a herd, came through the winter in good condition. The winter of 1906-'7 was very mild and the cattle did not eat as much feed per head as they ate the previous winter. There were two very heavy frosts on the nights of October 13th and 14th, htonwever, which killed all the lespedeza, so the cattle had to be fed some green sorghum from the middle of October until the fields became available as winter range. Each animal consumed, during the whole winter, 338 pounds of green sorghum, 185 pounds of cottonseed, and 610 pounds of hay. The cost of wintering each animal above twelve months old was $3.37. From October 15th to December 1st, of the winter 1907'8, the cattle were fed hay and a small amount of cottonseed, :as there was no green sorghum to be used. During this time they consumed 11 pounds of hay and 1.2 pounds of cottonseed per head per day. From December 1st to T a uary 1st they were in the fields and canebrake and did not come up for feed. From January 1st to March 20th, 1.9 S, the cattle came up to the barn each evening and were fed hay, but no grain. For the whole winter each animal consumed 53 pounds of cottonseed and 1,465 pounds of hay. The cost of wintering the cattle was $4.77 per head. The average for the three winters shows that it cost $4.90 to win ter each animal over twelve months of age. AREA OF PASTURE REQUIRED PER ANIMAL. A number of cattle, not in the experiment, were grazed in the pasture with the experimental cattle. Assuming that two calves would eat as much grass as an animal over twelve months old (and this assumption is followed out in rental charges), there would be the equivalent of 92 animals on 103 acres of land during the summher of 1906, or an average of 1.12 acres of pasture to each animal. 17 During the year of 1907 there were 90 animals on the 103 acres, giving an average of 1.14 acres to eacn animal. An average for the two years shows that 1.13 acres of land furnished pasture for one animal. This area, when charged at $2.50 per acre, gives a\ cost of $2.80 per season for the pasture of each animal over twelve months old. This pasture was far better than the average Alabama pasture, as is shown by the fact that 1.13 acres supplied sufficient pasture for one 'animal. On an average, from 3 1-2 to 5 1-2 acres are required for each animal. When this piece of land was first put down to pasture it would does now; in fact, it was not to keep as many animals as i-t no better than the average pasture but by grazing, it has been raised to its present state of fertility. BREEDING RECORD. TABLE 4. The Per Cent of Calves Born. U YEAR o o . Record by quarters; number of calves dropped ",-- . . 1906.......... 1907.......... 1908.......... 24 25 25 17 18 14 70.8 72 56 5 9 14 . 4 1 5 5 .. 3 3 *The experiment closed on April 15th, so no record was obtained later than this date. An animal that had dropped a calf was classified as a cow; the heifers were put in this class as soon as they calved. The number of calves born was very 'small, when compared to the number of cows that should have brought calves, especially during the year 1906. This low number was partly due, no doubt, to the fact that the bulls were kept away from the cows and the owner, owing to the pressure of other business, not being able to breed the cows when they should have been bred. The, owner soon realized 18 the fact that too many of the cows went through the year without bringing calves, so in the spring of 1907 he turned the bulls with the cows and permitted them to run together the year round. A complete record of the number of calves dropped was not secured for the year 1908-the year after the bulls were turned with the cos-as the test closed in April; but during the first quarter of the year 1908, fourteen calves were born, while during the same quarter of the years 1906 and 1907 only 5 and 9 calves, respectively, were born. No record was kept of the number of calves dropped after April, 1908, but when the last notes and weights were made it was seen that practically all of the cows were pregnant. Of course, it is a disputed point whether it is better to allow the bull to be with the cows or to keep him away from them all of the time. The farmer who has large pastures and has other business to look after, in addition to the cattle, cannot possibly obtain a high per cent of calves unless the bull is permitted to be with the cows. The busy farmer will not see the cows at the right time. The breeder of registered animals should not allow the bull to run with the cows, for it is desirable that a record of the date of service be kept. It is important that as many of the cows as possible produce calves each year; the idle cow is not only idle capita] but she is a constant consumer of farm products. The idle cow has a very important part to play in the total expense of raising a calf, as the expense of keeping her must be charged against the calves which other cows produce (See financial statement, table 5-A). When there were 25 cows the owner had $750 invested in cattle (estimating each cow to be worth $30) ; of this amount only $540 was returning a profit when 72 per cent of the cows brought calves. In this case there were $210 invested in idle capital; this amount represents the equivalent 'of seven cows, and those seven cows consumed $51.80 worth of feed in a year. 19 FINANCIAL STATEMENTS. FEED EXPENSE TO RAISE A BEEF ANIMAL TO VARIOUS AGES. As a rule the farmer charges nothing against the cost of raising a calf but the feeds consumed. Looking at it from this standpoint the cost of raising a calf in this experiment, to various ages was as follows: A. To 12 months: To winter feed of 1.39 cows the (first winter.......$ 6.81 3.89 To summer pasture of 1.39 cows 1.40 To summer pasture of 1 calf .................... ................... Total cost.............................$12.10 Cost per hundred weight..................3.01 B. To months: To cost of 12 months old calf...................$12.10 4.90 To winter feed of animal (12-2.4 months) *........ To summer pasture (12-24 months)...............2.80 -24 Total cost.............................$19.80 Cost per hundred weight ................... C. 3.07 To 30 months: To cost of 24 months old steer...................$19.80 4.90 To winter feed of animal (24-30 months) * .......... Total cost Cost per hundred weight .................. ....... ...................... $4.- 3.20 D. To 33 months : $24.70 To cost of 30 months. old steer ................... To sum~mer pasture for one-half summer........... 1.40 Total cost..............................$26.10 Cost per hundred weight .................. 3.14 *Here again it is assumed that all animals over twelve months of age ate the same amount of feed, which assumption is, of course, not absolutely accurate. In rental practice, though, this assumption is carried out. It shld~ he re4'Illlered t1111 thle dif11ereat classes of loll '. were ntot kept separate and fed in d itferen r lots; is on1ly a. s1111enwi4 I all rai li;etill4I. S40 the ahme4 they4' 10 444 )1' raiin, the uiials 4 of41 he co14 close4 a1l44lroialio a II sII iie I liac a ll til 1 s \vlic41 an' imait~l 4l4r o4' 4 r 1'I\Xelve mon1 th,;1 ofI ale aUe I le samne a 1114u111 of feed4 anid latstuire; it Avas twelve' mon4fths of furthe (assumed44 thalth under1( A1 y4ood( co))ic of wX ith aciua hered'l II' herd. Sh')hop a~ (44f (4al 4'y ycor4. f1a1~rmichlarges for past tie. t(o 1t shoul11d b4e rein14lIwXas sec4ured 11ha1 I he cost wXillter] feed an1 anima111 by into4 th total co11 (st of consumedl41 (hturin-i tie winter mont411hs'. WVhien p4 lcing, Ihe voliWe nllon tile feeds. ats shown on lage 2., it (051 $12.10 to4 raise' a 1W v month 1ld( o'1 calf, mon~tths of I :?l!).s0 if lie was kept ulilil lie was W ('Il'four ag.e, $21.-70f to raise himj to4 Iwo a1nd 44111'half year ld,011 and 21 $26.10 to keep him until he was thirty-three months old. Or, it cost about three cents a pound to grow the animal to various ages, when nothing but the feed and pasture was charged against him. This feed bill could be materially reduced by extending the pasture grazing season. The pasture season could be extended three months, almost anywhere in the South, by the use of "spotted" burr clover (Medicago maculata). Burr clover is a winter growing crop and occupies the ground in common with bermuda, which makes its growth during the summer months, FEED EXPENSE, INTEREST, INSURANCE, ETC. TO PRODUCE A BEEF CALF. In estimating the cost of producing a beef animal, it is usual to charge nothing against the animal but the winter feed and the pasture used. But there are other items that should be charged against this animal, as interest on the money invested in the cattle, mortality, depreciation in value of the cows, etc. He should be credited with the manure produced. The following estimates charge the calf not only with the feeds used, but the other items mentioned above, and gives him credit for the approximate amount of manure produced: A. To 12 months old: $ 6.81 To winter feed of 1.39 cows ...................... 3.9 To summer pasture of 1.39 cows .................. 1.40 To summer pasture of calf ..................... 2.92 To 7 per cent interest on 1.39 cows at $30 per head.. .42 To 7 per cent interest on 1-25 of a bull worth $150.. 2.09 To annual depreciation in value of 1.39 cows at $1.50.. .80 To pro rata depreciation of herd bull ............ To taxes, insurance, fencing and To 4 per cent mortality ......................... repairs .......... . 86 1.20 $20.39 22 *By 3,600 pounds of calf manure at $1.25 a ton . .$ 2.25 By 10,800 pounds of mother's manure at $1.25 a ton 6.75 Total expense of calf .................... $11.39 Cost per hundred weight..................2.85 To 24 months old: To cost at 12 months of age (manure not included) $20.39 To winter feed................................4.90 To summer pasture ......... 2.80 To 7 per cent interest on yearling................1.45 To taxes, insurance, repairs, etc. ................ .86 To 4 per cent mortality .......................... .83 $31.23 By 23,400 pounds of manure for 24 mos. at $1.25 a ton, 14.63 Total expense of steer .................... $16.60 Cost per hundred weight .............. 2.57 To 30 months old: To cost at 24 months of age ( manure not included) $31.23 To winter feed ................................ 4.90 To 7 per cent interest on 2 year old animal for 6 mos. 1.10 To taxes, insurance, repairs, etc., for 6 months .... .43 To 4 per cent mortality of 2 yr. old animals for 6 mos. .63 $38..9 By 28,800 pounds of manure for 30 mos. at $1.25 a ton, 18.00 Total expense of steer .................... $20.29 Cost per hundred weight..................2.62 To 33 months old: To cost at 24 months old (manure not included) ... $31.23 To winter feed ................................ 4.90 To 3 months pasture ........................... 1.40 To 7 per cent interest on 2 yr. old animal for 9 mos. 1.65 To taxes, insurance, repairs, etc., for 9 months... .64 To 4 per cent mortality for 9 months............ .. 94 $40.76 By 31,500 pounds of manure for 33 mos. at $1.25 a ton, 19.69 B. C. D. Total cost per steer ...................... $21.07 Cost per hundred weight .................. 2.53 *In estimating the amount of manure produced it was assumed that the animal under one year of age produced 20 pounds per day for 18.0 days; that. the yearling produced 25 pounds per day for a year; and that the two year old steer and the cow each produced 30 pounds per day. The price of manure, $1.25 a ton, is an assumed one, as there was no way to determine its exact value. But, judging from the many tests that have been made at Stations, the above value is a very conservative one. For instance, as quoted in the introduction, the Ohio experiments show raw manure to be worth $3.35 a ton when placed under the crops mentioned; when the manure was treated with a phosphorous carrier, its value was raised to $4.88 a ton. There was a difference, though, between the Ohio manure and the manure secured in the above tests; the Ohio manure was collected in the winter time when grains and hays were fed. It was a richer manure than that made during the summer months in this test, but probably no richer than the Alabama manures made during the winter months. 23 It is seen that when a calf is charged with everything that could be charged against him, and then credited with the manure produced, the cost of making 100 pounds of gain was somewhat smaller than the figures obtained when nothing but the feed and pasture were taken into consideration. The labor employed to feed and look after the animals was not included in the above estimates, as it was a very small item. One winter the labor to feed and care for the cattle was $10.00 for the whole herd. Another winter the total labor item was only $7.50. The method used in the feeding and handling involved the use of but little labor; there was no feeding to be done but once a day, when the cottonseed and the hay were measured out to the cattle in a very few minutes. When all of the expenses were charged against the animals and no credit was made for the manure, the expense of producing a steer varied from $4.84 to $5.07 per hundred pounds. The cost per hundred weight of raising a steer, when the manure produced received no credit, was as follows: To To To To 12 24 30 33 months months months months of of of of age ............. age ............ age ............ age............. $5.07 4.84 4.95 4.90 per per per per hundred hundred hundred hundred weight weigh weight weight These figures mean that if the above animals were sold for the above prices (The above prices can be realize for good cattle, as is shown by the fadt that 60 steers, of :.bout the same quality as those in this test, were fed by the .ilabama Experiment Station and the Bureau of Anima! Industry and sold February 28th, 1910, on the Louisville market for $5.75 per hundred weight) the feeds used were marketed at a good farm price; all deaths were deducted; seven per cent interest was received on the money invested in the animals; $2.50 an acre were secured for the summer pasture; and finally the manure was secured free. Of course, in order that all these profits be realized, good cattle must be raised; it cannot be done with scrubs; the J 24 scrub will not sell to advantage when he is offered to the butcher or packer, as his meat is of a poor quality and he dresses out a low per cent of salable meat. The cattle upon thi:s farm were not produced as cheaply as it is possible to raise them in the South. At least two farm practices can be introduced upon the average farm which will make it possible for steers ti be rais:d much cheaper than were these animals. In thi, test no winter pastures were used, except the winter range. Through the use of a combination of burr clover and bermuda the pasture sealson can be extended at least two months in the year. The farmer who lives as far south as Greenville, Alabama, can have a grazing pasture the year through by the use of bermuda, burr clover and velvet beans. In the second place, the cattle were infested with the Texas tick, which reduced their average size no small amount. It is impossible to state just how much the tick retards the growth of a steer, but there were seve.al severe cases of tick fever reported. Some of these cases died, and some of them lived, but when they. did live they never attaine I anything near their normal size. Through the efforts of both the Southern States and the Federal Governmen.I the tick is now being exterminated; when the tkick is elimina' the farmer can expect to raise larger cattle than formerly, and, too, the death rate will be materially decreased. l1, BULLETIN No. 151 ALABAMA JUNE, 1910 Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN 1. Wintering Steers in Alabama. 2. Fattening Cattle on Pasture in Alabama. BY DAN T. GRAY, Professor of Animal Industry, and W. F. WARD, Junior Animal Husbandman, Bureau of Animal Industry. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Pubishing Company, 1910 COMMITTEE HON. H. L. OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. MARTIN .......................... Ozark Huntsville Anniston HON. TANCRED BETTS ........................... HON. A. W. BELL ...................................... STATION STAFF. C. J. C. F. THACH ......................................... DUGGAR.........................Director President and Agriculturist B. B. Ross....................... Chemist and State C. A. CARY .... Veterinarian and Director of Farmers' Institutes F. E. LLOYD................Plant Physiologist and Pathologist P. F. WILLIAMS .................................. Horticulturist J. T. ANDERSON............. Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigation D. T. GRAY .................................... Animal Industry W., E. HINDS ..................................... Entomologist Chemist C. L. HARE............. ......................... C. S. WILLIAMSON.............................. Associate First Assistant T. BRAGG.............................. E. F. CAUTHEN..............Farm Superintendent and W. F. J. W. RIDGEWAY*........................ .Special Agent in Beef H. J. CHATTERTON*........................ Special Agent in Beef N. E. I. BELL.................. WARD*'.................. Junior ............. .. .. . ... ........... Chemist Chemist Chemist Recorder Animal Husbandman S. McADoRY W. F. TURNER. .. . .... Second Assistant Chemist Assistant in Veterinary Science .. .. .. .. Assistant in Entomology Assistant in Agriculture M. J. FUNCHESS .. .. .. .. .. .............. Assistant in Botany C. S. RIDGIEWAY............................ J. C. PRICE............................ L. W. SHOOK................. 0.. H. ;SELLERS .................................. ..... ,Assistant Assistant in Animal Industry 'in Horticulture Stenographer *111.co-operative beef work with Bureau of. Animal Industry. SUMMARY. PART 1. 1. The cattle used in all of these tests were practically mature ones. 2. Winter rations used: 1907-'08. Lot 1.... Range alone. Lot 2....Range plus half ration cottonseed meal and hulls, Lot 1908-'09. Range alone. Range plus half ration cottonseed meal and hulls. Range plus half ration cot- 3.... Range plus half ration pea- vine hay. Lot 4.... tonseed. Range plus cheap hay. half ration 3. In 1907-'08 each range steer (Lot 1) lost 97 pounds in weight. In 1908-'09 each range steer (Lot 1) lost 106 pounds in weight. 4. In 1907-'08 each steer in Lot 2 received 2.35 pounds of cottonseed meal and 8.5 pounds of hulls each day in addition to the range. During the winter of 1908-'09 each steer in Lot 2 received 2.41 pounds of cottonseed meal and 8.71 pounds of hulls daily. The first year each steer lost 6 plounds in weight; the second year each steer gained 3 pounds in weight. 5. In 1907-'08 each steer in Lot 3 was fed a daily ration of 8.5 pounds of good peavine hay in addition to the range; the loss in weight per steer for the winter was 9 pounds. 6. In 1908-'09 cottonseed was tried as a supplement to the range, 4.71 pounds being fed to each steer daily. The loss in weight per steer for the winter was 40 pounds. 7. In 1908-'09 cheap hay was used in Lot 4 to supplement the range, 11.8 pounds being fed to each steer daily. The winter loss per steer was 40 pounds. 8. The total cost to winter each steer in 1907-'08 was $4.70 and $3.57 in Lots 2 and 3 respectively. The total cost to winter each steer in 1908-'09 was $5.63, $3.23 and $2.06 in Lots 2, 3 and 4 respectively. 9. In 1907-'08 the fall buying price was $2.50 per hun- 28 dred weight. When the expense of wintering the steers was added to the fall price the spring prices were found to be $2.89, $3.17 and $3.03 per hundred weight in Lots 1, 2 and 3 respectively. 10. In 1908-'09 the fall buying price was $2.56 per hundred weight. When the expense of wintering the steers was added to the fall price, the spring prices were found to be $3.01, $3.34, $3.20 and $3.09 per hundred weight in Lots 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. PART II. 1. The steers which were used in the above winter work were re-divided into lots and continued into the summer feeding work. 2. In 1908 the steers were fed for a period of 112 days on pasture. In 1909 they were fed for 154 days. 3. The summer rations were: Lot A... .Pasture 1908. alone. 1909. Pasture alone. Lot B.... Pasture cake. Lot ,D.... Pasture plus plus cottonseed cottonseed Pasture plus cottonseed cake. Lot C....Pasture plus "Caddo" cake. cake. Lot E............................. Pasture plus cottonseed. 4. In 1908 the amount of feed used daily per steer, in addition to the pasture, was 3.31 pounds, 3.31 pounds and 2.76 pounds in Lots B, O and D respectively. In 1909 the daily amount of feed used per steer to supplement the pasture was 3.40 pounds and 4.49 pounds in Lots B and E respectively. 5. In 1908 the average daily gains were 1.51, 2.32, 1.84 and 1.62 pounds in Lots A, B, C and D respectively. In 1909 the average daily gains were 1.74, 1.88 and 2.06 pounds in Lots A, B and E respectively. 6. In 1908 the total cost to make one hundred pounds gain was $1.18, $2.56, $3.03 and $3.24 in Lots A, B, C and D respectively. In 1909 the total cost to make one hundred pounds of gain was $1.03, $3.21 and $2.39 in Lots A, B and E respectively. 29 7. In 1908 the net profits per steer were $2.86, $10.42, $6.62 and $0.43 in Lots A, B, C and D respectively. In 1909 the net profits per steer were $7.06, $6.99 and $8.39 in Lots A, B and E respectively. 8. In 1908 the steers dressed out (farm weights) 49.5 per cent, 53.8 per cent, 53.6 per cent and 52.7 per cent in Lots A, B, C and D respectively. In 1909 they dressed out (farm weights) 51.8 per cent, 54.2 per cent and 53.9 per cent in Lots A, B and E respectively. 9. These experiments are being continued at the present writing. a ('c .1/na aia grass st eers. I a Experiwmetal wor in summer 1909. 1. 2. Wintering Steers in Alabama. Fattening Cattle on Pasture in Alabama. BV DAN T. GRALY AND~ W. F. W\ARD. lNTI{l UCCIlUN. In Bulletin N\o. I 50* are published thle results, of the inelixxas (01llec ted bx- the Alabamia Experiment formialion wich Sat ion ain(d hle Bnoea i of Alii t Induihlstry ait WashingtOn test io det erinte thle cost of raising a in a thiree x ('i I iout clearly- in that work, beef caulf. (One poinit is letnt nantelythat itf m~onie is to be wiade uphon beef operation,. the steer must he properly finished for the mnarket before lie is otletred for ,=a le. It' tle stnrr is sold unfiniislhed, the inati wh-o raised him is almitost sure to lose tiionev on the operttion. The q ttestiotiarises, thlen, How shall the steer, after lie lias lwett raised, or has reached thle feed-lot period1, he finishied for thle inirket to get the greatest possible ptrofit out of hiti" The -t eer cani IN finished ini one of t~x o wtays: lie cain be fattened daring the Wxinter mionths, or he catn b*Those interested in the subject of beef production can get the bulletin by writing to the Alabama Experiment Statian at Auburn, or the Bureau of Animal Industry at Washington. 31 fattened during the summer months while the pastures are available. Since the co-operative beef work between the Alabama Experiment Station and the Bureau of Animal Industry began, some results have been published relative to winter fattening.** The present bulletin presents the results of two years' work in fattening cattle upon pasture during the summer months and selling the cattle at the end of the summer. It should be understood that this bulletin is only a report of the progress of the work, as the experiments are being continued. DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. PLAN OF THE WORK. The cattle were bought in the fall, on account of the fact that they could be bought much cheaper in the fall than in the spring. In fact, they could hardly be bought at all in the spring. But they were not to be fattened until the following summer, so it became necessary to make a study of the cheapest and best methods of getting these mature steers through the winter months. So the work was divided into: 1. A study of methods of wintering mature steers, 2. Fattening these steers on pasture the following summer. The cattle used in the winter's work were continued into the following summer's work. CATTLE USED. The various pictures will show the kind of cattle which were used in these tests. Grade Aberdeen-Angus, Shorthorn, Hereford, and Red Polled were used. Many of them had a predominance of Jersey and scrub breeding. They were all bought of farmers in Sumter, Wilcox, Marengo, and neighboring counties, so they represented the average cattle of the western part of Alabama. They varied from two to four years in age. As will be seen later, the average weight at the beginning of the fall work was about 750 pounds each. **See Bureau of Anihmal Industry Bulletin No. 103. \5 HOW 'inE WoRK xxS AllRED ON. Oig to t he fact that pastutre was not available upon at _Auhurn. Alabama, tihe work was tie E~xpr'imen't Sttion car'ried on upon thle fariiis of Cobb anid McMillirin of Sum-i NN it the Hiireau of Annmal Inrdusarid miii ier pastures wvere dividled 41ev. The xxinter rai' ork. ()lii of the authors ol' this int o lots suit aile 'or th Nv' btrllet in. Mr. XX. I. rV'ari. wxas stationed unpou the faril ,al hadir prsotrail superiion~~ oif all thie experiuenitl Nxor'k. the tattle werQie all 'shippedi'I \1t the end of eachtl r'l:1'iii('It whelre coulert(' saile :indi shll°-rt-~h miirke~t, to1 thie Newx ( tiler'ri \Xxiii securred. te ecris! i ervi lle, .A labaiia Explerimen't St ationi ando Alabamaia xxh kiilindl v agreed to to-operate p X97 . A gait of each s~teer,- P poawlrrs. Total co~to witer each s~trer, (?). 'I'll NTER RAyGE. WnXI The wilder ranige consisted oif the winter c'onn milil cot ton fields. Tiie leaves hiad not been st rippi ed firomi the corn stalks. Crab grass had groxxni up su fficienitly Itxeen the roxxs o(f corn11 after ti e last ctivxat ion, to be of some8 value to thic (at tle during thre earlx' w'eels oif the xwinter. No cane brakes wxere used. The cattle, excelt tho~se in tie ranee lots, were not given un]imrited range; each lot xw'as confinod to a certain area. Wf course, the mian who has cane brakes 33 has an advantage in handling and feeding cattle in the winter time. Those animals which were confined in limited areas had about ten acres each upon which to graze. The outside cattle, or range lot, h,' an unlimited grazing area. The winter range was available for use immediately after the cotton had all been picked. SUMMER PASTURE. The summer pasture used in these experiments consisted of a mixture of sweet clover (Melilotus), Japan clover (Lespedeza), Johnson grass, crab grass, and some bermuda. The sweet clover became available for grazing about April 1, while the Japan clover was not ready until about June 15. In some sections of the country sweet clover is considered a pest, as stock will not eat it, but in the South, or at least in Alabama, all kinds of stock eat it with great relish: here they take to the sweet clover as readily as to alfalfa. The pasture was divided into lots; the size of each lot depending uron the number of cattle grazed upon it, and as to whether the steers were to be fed a concentrated supplement or not. The object was to have an abundance of pasture for each bunch of cattle. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING THE CATTLE. In both the winter and summer work the steers were fed but once a day. In the winter time movable feed troughs were placed out in the fields in which to feed the hulls, cottonseed meal and cottonseed, and movable hay racks were made in which to feed the hay. The racks and troughs were all made movable so that the manure would be distributed over the corn and cotton fields. Movable feed troughs were also used during the summer feeding on pasture. No feeds were thrown upon the ground. No shelter, except trees, was provided for the cattle in either the winter or summer time. They had no access to sheds. They did not suffer to any appreciable extent from the cold in the winter time or from the heat in the summer time. The summer pastures were well provided with good shade trees. When a summer shade is provided, cattle will suffer as maitch fromj Beat in Alabamria as they will in orii Iowva. 4 wVliile thiere mere ticks in thle pastuL-~s, the cattle were it not permiltted tic becomre badly infested xN h them-; a dipIn the ping; at w as used to keep down heia vy in festat ionr. ov er 3011 lead of cat tie two years' work, during w~hiicli timre were fattened, there were only four cases of Texas fever, and none of thes~e cases wxas lost. In future wxork it is ex1101 Iliis pecledl that thre tick will he ent irely- elimlinated. weigrht of eat-l s teer wxas scuredI at thIe heginiining 'ie ali( end of each test. Tht total wxeiglit of ea(-h lot ryas se1'r retl ev er' I xxcnii ttlkt VS WNvere dlax . \\henq the ste sold they had to he divxen nine mie.t nd hippingI !r pi. no .ech.t etr a -G pounds. Total cost of wintering cach stcer, $4.70. PeIcE or' Fi,:,:s IsED. lhen the fee-ds wxer-c purcliased u ponl the market, thli 1 mia rket price pl us the expense of haul ing to the farmi, was used in miaking up lie financial statenment. When t he feed assirited mtarket po-itce was Ire far nn r-owni 1up41 ursel x, a platted upont it. lottal ctond~itions determine to a larg ecxtent, I he far-n pr-it-es of feetds. Any pr-ices that thle aurliors mnigh t a ssumte wo0ul1( not meet all cond it ions, bunt thle foll owlleli1 rest ig pr1ices have beeni Iakeni as a hasis upo whic tie financilal estimates: Cot toiiseed meal .... $°.00 Tier ton Cot toniseed ....... 14.00 per ton "( 'aildo' cakve ..... 23. 00 pier ton Cottonsee(d cake.........25.00 per ton Cott onseed Miills ... 6.00 per ton D amiaged had. ........... 5(00 per ton Co",pea hay.............10.0(0 per ton P asture..................50 per coon th per steer Thle ablov e repriesents th prices of the purchased feeds le laid dlown on the farm; the farm was fourteen mtiles from thle railroiad] st atIion. The coi)I ~~i, c alke, N Iic ha been ee md broken into nut size and sacked, was purchased from the Epes C'ott on ( )il C o. oif Ep es, Alahamna. This camne can be wW'ttr gain of each ,steer, -9 wic' nrg each steer, $3.57. presIs, fori abouiii pounds. Total cost of two dollars a ton chieaper than in the nut size. Somei feielers find diat it pay s to brea:k the cake on their own far~ims. Th'Ie cailve is th ;,iislie thing as the cotton54-il wea'~l, except Ihai it is nti --rouinid inito a mueal. There ini feel ingi cake in place of cottonare severatl aul~ ii iis feeding. A rain does not seed meal--eslieciall.\ ini sniir rendier thle calvi' uiripilat:ihle: lit it wxill (ofteni put the meal ini siiii a iiiih ion t hat thue cattle will not eat it . Again, no lIisa is !incurred~i w ith the cakve dIuriruo wind}- datys; cottonseednmeal, when fed in th op en lastutre, is -wastedl on account of il thle windsI'. Fu0 luermore thle cake reqiires chewing before i 36 being swallowed and therefore must be eaten very much slower than the meal, so when a number of steers are being fed together the greedy one has little chance to get enough cake to produce scours. In feeding cottonseed meal the greedy steer often scours on account of the fact that he can bolt the meal and get more than his share; this not only injures the steer but makes the bunch "feed out" unevenly. The "Caddo" cake was purchased from the Caddo Cotton Oil Company of Shreveport, Louisiana. "Caddo" cake is the cake left after extracting the oil from the cottonseed by the cold process. That is, it is made up of both the cake and the hulls; or it consists of everything in the seed except the oil. These tests do not show it to be as valuable for feeding purposes as the ordinary cottonseed cake. The chemical, analysis of the "Caddo" cake fed, as reported by the State Chemist, Dr. B. B. Ross, of Auburn, was as follows: Moisture .................. Ash ....................... Fibre ..................... Protein .................... Ether Extract (oil) ......... Carbohydrates ............. 9.75 4.70 21.18 27.62 8.78 27.97 per per per per per per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. The mixed hay was a second or third class hay that could not be sold upon the market at all. It consisted of a mixture of Johnson grass, crab grass, and some alfalfa. The price placed upon it was all it was worth. The cow pea hay was bright and of good quality. PART I. WINTERING THE CATTLE. As previously stated, the steers were bought in the fall of the year as they could then be secured cheaper than at any other date. In fact, in western Alabama where the work was done, the cattle could not be purchased in the spring at all. The object was to get these steers through the winter months as economically as possible and fatten them on pasture the following summer. Farmers are not agreed as to what is the best way to handle and feed mature steers during the winter months. Some farmers claim that the animals should be "roughed" through the-winter upon a very small amount of feed in addition to the winter range; some hold that the range needs no supplementary feed at all; still others believe that the steer should be fed liberally so that he will be kept gaining all through the wintes months. The cattle used in the winter work were dehorned, tagged, and divided into lots (Three lots in the winter of 1907-'08, and four lots in the winter of 1908-'09) so that a study could be made of the amount of feed that should be fed during the winter time, and also to learn the value of some of the Southern feeds for carrying cattle through the cold months. GAINS DURING THE WINTER MONTHS. The winters of 1907-'08 and 1908-'09 were both mild ones. There was no weather cold enough to make the steers suffer, although, as before mentioned, there was no shelter at all, except a few trees. The following table shows the ration fed, total weights, and gains of each lot for the two winters: 38 TAnLE 1. Gains During Winter 1907-'0-(84 days.) s? bAjLa .5 o RATION Lbs. 1 Lbs. 625. Lbs. Lbs. 26 29 24 Range alone..................722. Range plushalf.ration cottonseed meal and hulls........ Rangeplus half ration peavine 97.-1 15 - 2 3 726. 724. 720. 6. - -07 715. 9. .11 Gains. During Winter 1908-'09-(98 days). Dec.4 Mch.12 1 25 25 Range alone.....................705. Range meal. and hulls........ seed plus half ration cotton705. 599 0 106.-1.08 3. 2 708. .03 3 25 3 i 5 seed ......................... 76 Range plus half ration cotton25 Range plus half ra ion cheap ._... hy .. 64 _. 6.-0 4 *This lot started in. test January 1st, so fed only 70 days. It was intended that the steers which in addition to the range should suffer during, the winter. months, but in some considerable during the latter part of the the range afforded very little grazing. give just received some feed weight no loss cases the loss was winter period when The object was. to in enough feed, in addition to the range, to enable the cattle to hold their fall weight. No gains in live weight were desired. It should be remembered that these were all practically mature cattle, varying from two to four years in age. During the first December 9 to winter the experiment March 3, a period of 85 continued from days. During this. time the range cattle (Lot 1) lost 97 ponds each in live weight while the steers in Lots 2 and 3 practically neld their rali weights. All of the cattle came through the winter in excellent health. While the cattle in the range lot were thin ii a thIe eud of [lie w initer season,,st ill they NN cce in good conitioll for grazini; thiey evidlenilIN had ntb:i wxeakenied in any xx ay. At the opening of the spring the steers ini thle pciaxinc ha1N lot (Lot 1i Seenleid to tbe ill bettecr thift ha ii those in Lot'' (tilie cottonseed imeal and hulls lot), but they miadle ptact icalix the same gainls in wxeighlt during 1!c follow ing sunlilier. The hait- used ii 19 0-4-'(I wats of goo.] ijijal it x IDurinig thle %Ninler of 1908_'09, thle test conit inuied froiii It ecemiber It I to Mach~ 121 h-a pieriodl ofi 9s ilas. 'There were biact iCahly the slilliC loses in live wei il t as (lie previous 1(o (.lti steer lost 106 wxinter ill IAsts I and 2'. In the 1al:1 ' *4 jioiiiis. 'I'lie steers ill Lots 3 ala]d I lost rallidlx in wei-' it liiiiitl the laist noi t niot onl thle ranvoxxas Ii rr2Z h of the test, duie to) the faot 11i1it thii inot goodi at th len oil il e se:iS ii: it wx f is Nii ei-Ii ;.I~ ut 1 soi the cattle in this lot wetie fet'. imil x 'exentx dax1S. TIlax ho 1o hr Lot .1 was a verY ilie:t p ha} it xxas madoe 11 of :a iiiixilire oif .lohinsili Lrisi crli &erns-, and siimii alfalfa. lilt hall lien dliamid bi- rini to Suh an extent tilit it cil](' nut lie sold ait nll. Iin i infened ihal t thex Shld shink Jawmi1ltl stalled ini the lest liltil m 1,it 40 i" 3 AMOUNT OF WINTER FEEDS USED. During the winter of 1907-'08 a comparson was made ~between feeding on the range alone and the same range when :supplemented in one lot with a part ration of cottonseed meal and hulls, and in a. third lot with a good quality of eow pea hay. The following winter (1908-'09) the same comparison was again made. as regards Lots 1 and 2, while in a third lot cottonseed was used and in fourth lot some damaged mixed. hay was used to supplement the range. a TABLE 2. Feeds used Winter 1907-08-(84 days). Total amount consumed per steer Daily amount feed consumed per .steer RATION Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1 2 26 29 Range alone.....................None Range plus half ration cottonseed meal and hull....,..... None None No e 714 714 2.35 None 8.5 8.5 197 None 24 Range ius ea p us. half .ration ow.. hay .hac.. .. . used Winter 1908-'09-(98 days). ueeds 125 2 Range alone ........... 2 5 seed meal and hulls ......... None None None None 23 5 Range plus half ration cotton- 236.54....8.7 .. .1.ed........4.71....... 85 2.1 .7 325 Range plus half ration coto- 462 4* 2h is loa .g a s l f s d m x ly h 0y t w e o n d 7 . a.ys.- .Ja.n.u. r . . 1st d a y t2 M a r.ch o . 11*T. 2th There was no way to determine how much feed was secured from the range as far as pounds were concerned. Each steer had ten. acres as winter range. The steers in Lot 1, the range lot, had to be turned out upon the general range. each winter about a month before the end of the test, as their range of ten acres each had become exhausted about tlhi t d~iay s earliier than wxas the case with those lots which were receivinog supplenwntary feeds. Duing the first wxinter each steer in Lot 2consumIied, inl r ddlition t he ~antge, 197 jFounds of cottonseed mueal andi 714 iounds of hulls, while each steer the second xx iter ate 2836 1 In poumds of cot tomseed meal and 854 pounds oif hulls. S91iS-'09 the aiuijls wx re fed fourteen da s longer than they xwere in thle winter of 1907-'08. Each steer's daily ration wxas ke'l t a little below 2.5 poundi(s of cottonlseedI meal and S.:, to .S.71 pundl~s of halls. Iouil in.- the eeomiu x inter the steer: in Ijrt 2 werle cammie I P N LoT 2. Elid of 18ud cot tonI eed, (Utt16ccd~t hlls JUOa. wcntcr seed mneal plus range. Total winter gain of each steer, 3 pounds. Total cost of wintering each steer, $5.63. t hrough thle wvinter on cottonseed as a supplemenit to time lange. It xxas learned that 4.71 pomimds oif cottonseed per hs steer per Ihi. wa not quite sufficient to keep the aululals fromi losi Iig weight. Each steer lost 40 p)ounds in weight (1urin,; thle wvinmter pieriod1 of 98 dam xs. In t he firist winter's wxork it is seen that R.5 pounds of good pe::xine hax . a bug wxithI the range. "Ifford'- thle steers sufficienit daiilx feed to alloxw them to umintain a practically unii form wxeighlt. Or. whiien 1 o s 2anmd 3 (1 907-'08) are (0omp ared, it is spien Iha t 714 potimds of cowpea hay were praci ically equal in feeding valume to 197 pounds of ootton- 42 seed meal plus 714 pounds of cottonseed hulls. In other words, the cowpea hay was worth $13.02 per ton for wintering mature cattle compared with cottonseed meal and hulls, when the meal is valued at $26.00 a ton and the hulls at $6.00 a ton. During the second winter (1908-'09) each steer in the cottonseed lot (Lot 3) lost about 42 pounds more in live weight than did the animals in the cottonseed meal and hulls lot (Lot 2) ; but still, when cottonseed is valued at $14.00 a ton it is probably cheaper than cottonseed meal and hulls for wintering steers. The daily expense of feeding each steer on cottonseed meal and hulls was 5.7 cents, while the daily cost of the cottonseed per steer was only 3.3 cents. While not enough cottonseed was used to prevent loss in weight, still the amount fed daily to each steer (4.71 pounds) would probably not have to be:increased very much to make the steers hold their fall weights. It would require 8.2 pounds of cottonseed, at $14.00 a ton, to cost as much as the 2.41 pounds of cottonseed meal plus the 8.71 pounds of hulls which were fed to each steer daily in Lot 2. When this test was made cottonseed cost but $14.00 a ton. Since that time they have advanced about one hundred per cent in value, so that it would now be unwise to use cottonseed as a winter feed for steers. It should be remembered that these were mature steers, and that such steers are capable of making use of the rough waste feeds during the winter months. Cattle of this age can use feeds that would be entirely unsuited to young growing animals. In handling and feeding mature steers during the winter months the object should be to make use of all the rough feeds and unsalable hays before any high priced feeds, as cottonseed meal, are used. WINTER GAINS OF STEERS BY MONTHS. Every farmer has old corn and cotton fields which afford some winter feeds for the cattle. As the winter advances the range usually affords a smaller and smaller amount of feed. The following table shows the gain of the various lots from month to month. From this the reader can gather 43 some idea of when the heavy losses usually occur, and regulate the amount of supplementary feels accordingly. TABLE 3. Gains of Steers by Months 1907-'08-(84 days). o o·.Wo ao . RATION Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1 2 3 Range alone.......................-4. Range plus hulls ration cottonseed S meal and half .. . .... Range plus half hay . ........ -38. 16. 16. 15. -10. -10. -16. -55. -12 . 8 ration peavine .. ' 1908-'09-(98 days.) Dec. 4 Jan. 1 Jan.29 Feb. 26 to to Jan. 1st Jan. 29 to to Feb. 26 Mch. 12 1 2 Range alone........................ Range plus half ration cottonseed 40. 18. 43. -12. -5. -46. 7. -16. 2. 22. - meal and hulls..... .. 3 Range plus half ration cottonseed 0. -16. 4 Range plus half ration mixed hay. ..-13. -23. 4. During each year's work those steers which received feed in addition to the range were started on a very small daily allowance., This amount was increased every few days for 28 days, when it was held uniform for the remainder of the winter. During the first winter's work the range cattle (Lot 1) practically held their initial weight during the first 28 days. As time went on and the range became shorter they lost more and more in weight. This is what should be expected. But the heaviest losses in 1908-'09 were experienced at the early part of the winter. However this winter was an unusual one. It was very rainy and muddy during the early months, so that the cattle were very uncomfortable and could not graze well. During the last of the winter very little rain fell, spring set in early so as a mttrer of fact, the grasses put up early and the range cattle had( sonie green teed (dulring the last nlionlthi in addition to the range. As stated el sewhiere, all of thlese (attic came thIi ough to spring in goodl grazinug conditi on; they were strong a ml act ive, althlouigh thle steers in lhe ranuge lots I(o Iu 1 Iead oll pouniids cpi Ii. I) \ejiht alnu fallen off il ii c w 1. itt ; r'ii',,., /, r,1 if tiilp r ]Bud. irrv, wite r game of LOach steer, -40 icinteriiq each steer, $3.23. r / /a. l~ r 7 I pounds. Total cost of l*i N \N(IAI,.vrl ; tr ENT FOR WIN'TER WORK. In the fall of 1 907 thle steers cost $2.50 per hiunudred weight, but thle next fall, 190,x, feeders had advantcedl somie in price, inakiii'- the fall price average .$2.5t; pet hitidred weight. The followinug spring c(ost was oif courise conisiider- first, the cattle wxere not as heavy as they were thle prev ious fall, ahle added to and second. thle cost of thle wxinter feed hail to the fall jirice. The fall cost. plus the uleprcciai ion in live weight, plus thle c'ost of w initer feed iiiide thle steers cost around $3.00 per linndredweigli in the spring. The following table. Ao. 4. show s the sprinig (list by lots. The average oif these spring cos515 was talken as the initial cost of the steers in thle summuer feeding work w hiich followed. The average cost of w-intering each steer in the various lots, ably gii'ater Thlain thle fall price for two reaisons. 45 together with the difference in value between fall ani spring, are as follows: TABLE 4. Financial Statement. Lot 1. 1907-'08. Range alone: To 722 lbs. steer at $2.50 per hundred wt. $18.05 By value of same steer in spring, 625 lbs. at $2.89 per hundredweight ......... $18.05 $18.05-$18.05 Lot 2. Range plus cottonseed meal and hulls: To 726 lbs. steer at $2.50 per hundred wt. .$18.15 To 714 lbs. cottonseed hulls at $6.00 per ton 2.14 To 194 lbs. cottonseed meal at $26.00 per ton 2.56 By value steer in spring 720.5 lbs. at $2.89 per hundred weight ................... By required increase in value over range steer to break even, 28c per hundredw eight ............................... $20.82 2.03 Lot 3. $22.85-$22.85 Range plus peavine hay: To 724 lbs. steer at $2.50 per hundred wt.$18.10 To 714 lbs. peavine hay at $10.00 per ton 3.57 By value steer in spring, 715 lbs. at $2.89 per hundred weight .................... $20.65 By required increase in value over range steer to break even, 14c per hundredw eight .............................. 1.02 $21. 67-$21. 67 1908-'09 Lot 1. Range alone: To 705 lbs. steer at $2.56 per hundred wt. $18.05 By value same steer in spring, 599 lbs. at $3.01 per hundredweight ................ $18.05 $18. 05-$18.05 Lot 2. Range plus cottonseed meal and hulls: To 705 lbs. steer at $2.56 per hundred wt. $18.05 To 854 lbs. cottonseed hulls at $6.00 per ton 2.56 To 236 lbs. cottonseed meal at $26.00 per ton 3.07 By value steer in spring, 708 lbs. at $3.01 per hundredweight ...................... By required increase in value over range steer to break even, 33c per hundredweight $21.31 2.37 $23. 68-$23.68 Lot 3. Range plus cottonseed: To 706 lbs. steer at $2 .56 per hundred wt. $18.08 To 462 lbs. cottonseed at $14.00 per ton . 3.23 By value steer in spring, 666 lbs. at $3.01 per hundredweight..................... By required increase in value over range steer to breaK even, 19c per hundredweight................................. $20.05 1.26 Lot 4. $21.31-$21.31 Range plus cheap hay: To 703 lbs. steer at $2.56 per hundred wt. $18.00 To 826 lbs. waste hay at $5.00 per ton . . 2.06 By value steer in spring, 649 lbs. at $3.01 $19.53 per hundredweight..................... By required increase in value over range steer to break even, 8c per hundred.53 weight................................. $20.06- $20.06 LOT -4.-o 1. f wi nter 1909). heed, cou ise hay plus routyc. I tail wint'r gain of each steer, -40 pounds. Totual cost of witering each steer, $2.06. The total cost to winter each st eer in 1907-'OS was $4.70 and $3.57 in Lots 2 and 3 respectiveclv. rhle range has no price pilacedl upona it. althiough lie results show that it has a very great value. The totl coi'st to winter each steer in 190S'09 was $:5.63, $3.28 and $2.06i in Lots 2. 3 and 4 respectively. After the cost of wintering the cattle and the winter shrinkage were added to the fall buy~ing price the spring cost was obtained. The spiring costs in T)ts 1, 2, and 3 in 47 1907-'08 were $2.89, $3.17 and $3.03 per hundred weight respectively. In 1908-'09 the spring costs were $3.01,. 3.34, .$3.20, and $3.09 er hundred weight in Lots 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. It is seen that the cheap coarse feeds produced about as good results as the high priced feeds, and at the same time the steers were carried through the-winter much more.ecowith the expensive feeds. It .nomically with the cheap use of the coarse or cheap winter will always pay to make feeds for the mature steers and save the high-priced feeds for the young animalA of the farm. It is well known that the effects of-feeding mature cattle through the winter months continue throughout the following grazing season. Those mature cattle which make the most gain through the winter may be expected to make smallest gains the following summer. This has been found to be true in this work, but a detailed presentation of this point will be found in later publications. Total Suunmary of Winter Work., TABLE 5. 'than the 1907-08-84 days 0 a a Ca 1908-'09-98 days % ao ats aW0 A a a 5 0 004 Average weight of steers at beginning of test..... 0c4 u 722lbs. 7261bs. 7241bs. - 7051bs. 7051bs. 7061bs -40. lbs. 689lbs. -40. lbs. Total gain per steer winter for whole an al Avrg Aeaealgan per steer ...... Concentrates per 97. lb -6. lbs. -9. lbs. -106 lbs. 3l. ls lbs. .03 lbs. -1.15 lbs. .07 lbs. -. 11 lbs. _1.08 lbs. -. 4 lbs. -. 57 con-) 2.351bs......... ........ 2.41 lbs. 4.71 lbs.... sumed' per steer........ day...:... Roughage sumed per day..... .. . Average. expense to winter each......$4.70 steer .......... initial, or fall cost of steers per cwt. Total percwtin per con-) steer.......... 8.5lbs 8.5 lbs........ 8.7llbs........ 11.8lbs. $3.57......... $5.63 $25 X25 $3.23 $.6 $2.06 $.6 $25 $25 $25 $25 $26 $25 $.6 $.6 $.6 $.6 $3.20 $3.09 -1'1Lr$2.89 ' in lt7I prig cost steers $28 $3.17 $3.03-. $3.01 11 1 I $3.34 48 PART II. Fattening Cattle on Pasture. INTRODUCTION. As a rule the ordinary permanent pasture in Alabama can be depended upon to furnish grazing from about April 1 to some time in October. The frosts usually kill the pastures in October. By making use of winter growing plants, such as burr clover, the grazing season can be opened about February 1 and sometimes even earlier. A common mistake is to overstock the pastures. When this is done the grass often becomes short in August and September, and the cattle actually lose in weight instead of making a gain. The South often experiences a drought in August and September, therefore the farmer should have no more cattle on hand than can be well cared for during the grazing period. The pastures used in this test, as stated before, were made up of several" kinds of grasses. No one kind of plant was depended upon entirely. Johnson grass, Japan clover, and Melilotus were the most important grazing plants used. In addition to these some bermuda and crab grass were also found. If the pastures are to be improved each year, and the grazing season extended over as many months as possible, several plants must be made use of. The cattle used in the summer feeding work were the same ones as had been used in the preceding winter's experimental work. When grass appeared in the spring the winter work was discontinued, the cattle redivided into lots, and the summer feeding work was begun immediately. Some steers, which had not been in the winter experiment, were added to the summer work. These extra steers had been fed nothing through the winter months except what they obtained on the open range. They were of the same quality as the steers which had been used in the winter tests. All of these cattle had been dehorned the previous fall. 49 DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENT. GAINS DURING THE SUMMER FEEDING. The gains as recorded in the following table will show that the pastures used were good ones. It should be remembered, too, that as a result of feeding upon these pastures they are getting better and better as time goes on. The following table sets forth, in a tabulated form, the total and daily gains of the steers for the summers of 1908 and 1909: TABLE 6. Total and Daily Gains During the Pasture Feeding Test. 1908--(112 days). RATION ' + - Lbs. Lbs. lbs. Lbs. A 26 B Pasture alone .................... Pasture plus cottonseed cake..... 732 739 902 999 170 260 1.52 2.32 26 C D 26 54 Pasture plus "Ca'ddo" cake.. .. 738 532 944 713 206 181 1.84 1.62 Pasture plus cottonseed cake..... 1909-(154 days). A 40 B E 75 25 Pasture alone .................... Pasture plus cottonseed cake..... Pasture plus cottonseed .... 647 639 653 915 929 970 268 290 317 1.74 1 88 2.06 *The cattle in Lot D were not of the same grade as those in Lots A, B, and C, so really Lot D can not be compared with the other lots. Lot D was made up of a bunch of mixed cattle with no special breeding, and ranging from two to five years in age. The object in handling this bunch was to see if money could be made on such cattle. They had not been dehorned. It is seen that, in every case, those cattle that received some supplementary feed gained more rapidly than those which received no feed but pasture. Of couroe, the more rapid a steer gains the quicker he can be gotten in shape for the market, and this is a very important point, as the fal11sleet doets 1144 c4o114 i1n10 c(4lltl4 iin Nith the fall stuf hat is bieinig birotghit illlo thle mar ket oiff lit grass. As far* as gaili s NX t(114ding value wh len used as at feed to suppilemcuti th pasturies. le The steers in Lot 1) were a bunch of miixed scrubs varying fronm one to five y ears ini age. Thiere was very little implroved blood amionig thlese cattle. The ieve rc not dehorned so thIiey were atlwxaxs restless at thle feed trough, as thle Itiid oiies xwere aitraid of the steers wxith long sharp horns. This lot wxas fe d as a side issue to thle main experiment to dii eirmine xx her a proifit couild he miadle let upon tihis Ilass of caft Ie. LOT C.-Middle of summer 1908. Fesd, "Caddo" cake aid pasture. Average daily gain of each steer 1 .84 pounds. Cost of 100 pounds of gain . ... $3.03 Total profit per steer ............ 6.62 There wxas no wvay, of course, to determiine just howx tmuch pasture grass wvas consumted, except as to 1tle area meiasuired off for eaich lot. But it is interesting to note that the atoun t of concen trated feeds reqtired t o miake 100 pounds increase in live wveight xvas exceedingly smiall. This wa~s duie to at least xvo factors. F irst, thle steers had a green feed to go along with the concentrated feeds. Second, the amount of concentrated feeds fed dauii x was held down to only a fewv potunds, thtus requiring the steers to olbtain the major part of their feet] from the pasture. Where lands are chieap pastutre is cheaper than the too liberal use of concentrated feeds. It is imnpossible, at the present time, to say whether the amounts fed in these tests were the correct 54 ones or not. It is hoped that some light be thrown, uponthis point during the progress of the work. COST OF SUMMER GAINS. may It is always unsatisfactory to discuss the cost of gains as it depends largely upon the cost of the feeds, the cost of which varies greatly under different conditions. In this discussion the price placed upon the feeds is the actual market quotations plus the expense of them from the depot to the farm. The hauling distance was fourteen miles. Pasture is charged at fifty cents per month per steer; the prevailing price placed upon pasture throughout the western part of Alabama. hauling is this TABLE 8. Cost to Make 100 Pounds 1908-(12 days). of Gain. RATION A Pasture alone................................ 143 180 171 $1.79 2.07 2.14 $1.18 B C D Pasture plus cottonseed cake......... Pasture plus "Caddo" cake.......... Pasture plus cottonseed cake.......... 2.56 3.03 3.24 1909-_(154 days) . A Pasture alone . $1.03 ............. cake... ............. 13Pasture plus cottonseed El Pasture plus 181 218 $2.26 1.53 3.21 2.39 'cottonseed............. Cottonseed Pasture.......... *Price of feeds : cake ............. $25.00 . per ton 23.00 per ton "Caddo" cake ........... Cottonseed.................. 14.00 per ton . ... 50 per month,.641 In eve 'Nxcase abov~e, the cost to make one hundriledl bounds increase in liv e weight -wxas very low. Wh~eni si eers are fattenedl duing thle \xitfer lime each~ pondi of gainis put onl at a loss, as ouchl poundlli put ont max lie exptrcted to cost from 8 to 12 tentI s; and te profit is depenent upon the enhianceent of thle Value of thle slier oxver andi above the selling xaltic of pounds of gain mtade. In thtese tests each pounrd putt ottilturing lie fartfeinlg period Nwas putt on at n lrofit, a x erx unusual occurrettte in t'at tinug 1eef cattig. '[lhese cliap fi inishtiig' gains itnail lhe feedilig oijerations tiititlrutivolx' sa fi srialed ll ir I ic ire. thlesi :ill os far is prils cliap Irinis taed a cheap x eli coniernueid. As x irc dute toi twoi facto r.: iiid suneite'i rmugi ace: las 1 0 ( P// 1il0/ !J(' iof each steer 1.62 J)otid.. Cost of pfil 1001 poimis of goi~ .. f/ sld //(*...............4:3 $3.24 lU/eol titire. 3.. 'ecod ithe iationt o f concetirted fiiids uiseid xxas kept idixwn to a 'otiliuttixelx smtal igurw : frioii 2.76 to1 pounds of i I it-iotte edweirt feid III each slt 76ti I grain oif weIv take andi 1.-1,S pounijds of cotton(:0 vltl \t th Mlissoutri Stat ion . le x~teraisef the summeirtt trials shtitxthat R14 il~lltin poundts relitn ired to proidut tote hundred pounds if gain. wh Iile in the Alabamao test onlix 143 to 21R jiouitd iif itonientrate were required toi make the same~ ra inis. At Missouri thle steers w-ept given ar apjproximate chitfed o 20 piounds oft grain iln additilt to the piasture. Whl ie the Mli ssourFi catile wvere fed a miiuch heav ier grain ration I hant 11lie Alh h na cattle, still tie records of thiis test slow thle A labamia ca tile to have mtade almost as large ins as did( thle Mlissouri steers. (Jails W\hen LotIs L' and C it 19,) are comiipared it is seen that cake, as one lhe coittonseedI cake is suplerior to the -addo" made at a (cost hundred pbot]Ids of inrease in ' eight wi of $2at whlen thle cottonseed cake w as used, whereas when chakhe \Nas fd the sa nie ga in eost X1.03. When th e 1ail the colloniseed cake sells at $25.00t a oun the ''Caddlo" cake is not1 Nvorit I.$23.00t a ton ; vhien cottIonsced cake sells at $2~5.00 "Caddo" cake to lie wvorth ouly a i on ihi test shiow, thIie'( ga '5:r 2 i.I Inn. A veragc doily gao of eachi steer 1.74 pounds. Costs of 100 pounds of gaia . ... $1 .03 7.06 Total profit per steer ............ The conitiiii oir minxed hunchi of cat tle(Lltl)) make a very poor shiove iii~ NN lien comipared wvith Lots B and C, although, een late r, thle steers in Lot 1) returned a small as wvil he sa 1 pro ft t. In compilarinig Ltis 11 and 1; (1909) it is seen that the cottonseed produced gains more cheaply than did the cottonseed cake that is, when the cottonseed1 is valued at 57 $14.00 a ton and the cake at $25.00 a ton. When cottonseed cake is valued at $25.00 a ton this test shows the cot. tonseed to be worth 20.73 a ton for fattening ca tle on pasture. Cottonseed had this disadvantage however: during the latter part of the feeding period they were not relished as much as the cottonseed cake, and some trouble was experienced in keeping the steers "on feed." There was no trouble from scours when the seed were fed in the above amounts. FINANCIAL RlESULTS OF SUMMER FEEDING. Although those cattle which received pasture alone made cheaper gains than the ones which received some feeds in addition to the pasture, it must not be inferred that the grass cattle were the most profitable ones; the cost of the gains alone does n'ot determine the final profits. While it is desirable to make the gains as cheaply as possible, still the selling price of the cattle at the end of the feeding period must also be taken into consideration before the final profit can be determind. TABLE 9. Financial Statment. 1908. Lot A. Pasture alone: To 26 steers, 19031 lbs. at $2.92 per cwt. $555.71 To pasture at 50c a month per steer . To freight, commission, feed and yardage ........... ................... Total expenditures .............. By sale of 26 steers at $3.66 per cwt. Total profit on lot ............ steer Profit per stee ............... Lot B. 52.00 94.12 $701.83 $776.29 $74.46 2.86 Pasture plus cottonseed cake: To 26 steers, 19199 lbs. at $2.92 per cwt. $560.61 52.00 To pasture at 50c a month per steer To 9646 lbs. of cottonseed cake at $25.00 120.57 ......... .... per ton .............. 94.12 To freight, commission,:feed and yardage $827.30 fotal expenditures........ ..... By sale of 26 steers, 24245 lbs at $4.53 per cwt . ...... ..... .............. Total profits on lot ............ Profit per steer ................ $271.00 10.42 $1098.30 58 Lot Co. Pasture plus "GCaddo" lake: To 26 steers, 19176 lbs. at $2.92 per cwt. $559.94 To pasture at 50c a montfn per steer 52.00 To 9646 lbs. of "'Caddo" cake at $23.00 per 110.93 To freight, commission, feed and yardage 94.12 .tonf....................... lbs. Total expenditures. By sale of 26 steers, -22740 per cwt..$989.19 ... $816.99 at $4.35 Total profit on lot ..... ".......$172.20 Profit per steer................6.62 Lot D. Pasture plus cottonseed cake: To F4 steers, 28754 lbs. at $2.50 per cwt. $718.85 To pasture at 50c amonth per steer. 108.00 To 16686 lbs. of cottonseed cake at $25.00 per ton...208.57 To freight, commission, feed and yardage 195.48 Total expenditures...........$1230.90 By sale of 54 steers, 36450 lbs. at $3.44 per cwt..$1253.89 Total profit on lot........... $22.98 Profit per steer .................. 43 1909. Lot A. Pasture alone: To 40 steers, 25879 lbs. at $2.95 per cwt. $763.43 To pasture at 50c a month per steer.110.00 To freight, commission,feed and'yardage 144.80 Total expenditures. .. . .. ...... $1018.23 $1300.50 By sale of 40 steers, 34314 lbs. at. $3.79 per cwt,........ ................. Total profit on lot ............ $282.o27 206.25 Profit per steer .. .......... 7.06 Lot B. Pasture plus cottonseed cake :, To 75 steers, -47916 lbs. at-$2.95 per cwt.$1413.52 To pasture at To 39'25 lbs. of cottonseed cake at $25.00 .per ton.......:......:.....491.56 To freight, commission, feed and yardage 50c .a month per steer., 271.50: Total expenditures ............ $2382.83 By sale of 75 steers, 66514 lbs. at $4.37 per cwt............. ' ............... ... $2906.6fi Total. profit on lot............ Profit per steer................. $523.83 6.99 59 Lot E. Pasture plus cottonseed: To 25 steers, 16328 lbs. at $2.95 per cwt. $481.68 To pasture at 50c a month per steer 68.75 To 17265 lbs. of cottonseed at $14.00 per ton .......................... 120.85 To freight, commission, feed and yardage 90.50 Total expenditures ............ $761.78 $971.46 By 25 steers, 22858 lbs. at$4.25 per cwt. 'Total profit on lot. ....... Profit per steer ................ . $209.68 8.39 It should be noted that the total profits shown above are based on estimates after pasture rent, freight, commissions, feed and yardage are taken from the total sales. In 1908 it cost $3.85 per head to get the steers to the New Orleans market and in 1909 the expense was $3.62 per head. These cattle were shipped from western Alabama to New Orleans, a distance of about 500 miles; many farmers in the South are not required to ship their cattle this distance. In 1908 the greatest profits were realized upon Lot B, the lot which received cottonseed cake in addition to the pasture; in this lot a net profit of $10.42 per steer was made. Lot C, the "Caddo" fed lot, returned a net profit of $6.62 per steer. The pasture lot, Lot A, made a profit of only $2.86 per steer. It paid to feed the cattle some feed in addition to the pasture, because when they were offered for sale those steers which had been fed the concentrated feeds were in much better condition than those that received pasture only, and consequently sold for more money per hundred weight. The grass cattle sold for $3.66 per hundred weight, the cottonseed cake cattle for $4.53 per hundred weight, and the "Caddo" cattle for $4.35 per hundred weight: The above represent the New Orleans prices. It cost about 60 cents per hundred weight, including shrinkage, to ship the steers to New Orleans. In 1 909 there was not such a mairked diffierence in fav or the pas ii i. In fact, lie p~astur~e lot, Lot A, and the cottonseed cake lot, Lot l;, made practicolIN the saucje ]Profit, thle f'ormer iiiakiug a nct prot'it of $7.06 per steer and the latter a net profit But the cot toniseed fed lot, Lot E:, was of $69 pe ser de~cidtedl miiore profitable than eithter of the other lots, it maukinhg a net profit of $S. 13 per stee r. The proti ts in every case wvere exceedhingly sat isfactory. of f ie lots wh ich received feed ini a ddlition to In 1908 it proxved to b)e exceediinglxh profitable to suppleIn 1909 no thle pnst iewithI a co ncenit ratedi feed. vi extria pridi t Nxas miade ;is a iesulIt of* thle use of thle cOt t imienit L~OT and p)astre. r / ci l!)d!. I, < s SELF BOILED LIME SULFUR WASH AND ITS USE With the exception of the late spring frosts the brown rot of the peach causes a higher percentage of loss to the growers than does any other agency. It is practically impossible to work out consistent percentages with sprayed and unsprayed trees year after year, but the growers will testify that unsprayed trees Euffer losses f of from 25 per cent. to 100 per cent. each season, depending o course, very much upon the season. During the season of extreme humidity, or when we have excessive rains just prior to the picking season, the greatest losses are incurred. The disease works such havoc with the peach crop that in some sections the growers have applied the axe to the orchard, having found no method of successfully controlling the trouble. This rot continues to develop in the fruit while in transit from the orchard to the market. If the disease is present in the orchard, the healthy fruit becomes affected by handling. The portions of the fruits coming in contact in the crates, produces a so called "sweating," which creates moisture enough to germinate the spores. It frequently happens that the fruit reaches the market in a "spotted" condition. At the suggestion of Prof. M. B. Waite, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, experiments were carried on by Prof. W. M. Scott, of the same Bureau, commencing in 1901, to determine, if possible, if a substitute for Bordeaux Mixture could be found. Although Bordeaux Mixture had been used successfully in combatting the apple diseases, it could not be used on peach trees. Even with apples there are still many objections to the Bordeaux treatment, as it injures the foliage of some varieties and also causes a "russetting" of the fruit. In 1907, Prof. Scott experimented with the various self boiled lime-sulfur mixtures on the apple and peach. Before discussing the results obtained with this mixture, which has now been tested in practically all the large peach growing sections, let us consider the nature of Brown Rot itself, together with the chief means by which it is spread. Brown Rot (Sclerotinia frucligena) is a fungus disease attacking the fruit either on the tree or in transit to market. Great losses are also caused at blooming time, and the disease penetrates the bark and causes a canker to appear which often girdles the twig. The diseased blossoms turn brown and become dried and adhere to the twigs for several weeks. Many blooms and twigs are destroyed on trees in low, poorly drained lands even in dry seasons, but of course, the damage is much greater during wet seasons. Some of the diseased peaches may hang on the tree through the winter, and endanger the life of the twigs as well. Although the fruits may rot when less than a half an inch in diameter, the trouble usually appears nearer the maturing period of the fruit. From the first appearance of the small brown circular spot on the fruit until it is entirely decayed, often consumes less than two days. For this reason many unnecessary losses are met as the grower starts his spraying too late. There are but few people who are not familiar with the latter stages of the disease when it has enveloped the fruit in a grayish brown moldy coat. Many of the rotted fruits shrivel up on the trees and pass the winter as "mummied fruits." In this form the disease is carried over winter. Many of the mummied fruits fall to the ground and lie exposed or are partially covered with soil through the winter. During the spring and summer, especially in wet seasons, spores developed from these mummied fruits are blown about and infect the crop. Again, during wet seasons the fruit becomes tender and watery, making it easier for the spores to attack it. Where the twigs become infected from the attached rotten fruits the fruit buds are of course destroyed, thus materially diminishing the crop for the next season. These diseased twigs appear very much the same as twigs on the pear or apple affected with "fire blight," and during the pruning these should be cut out and destroyed. The mummied fruits which lie on the ground partially covered with soil develop another stage of the disease and form brown, cup shaped bodies, which produce millions of ascospores. These rise and float about in the air infecting the blossoms, where in turn there develops a summer crop of spores which later infect the young peaches. From this we clearly see the necessity of early spraying, and as the mummied fruits play such an important roll these should be carefully removed and destroyed. However, this alone cannot suffice, as one or two unnoticed mummied fruits will be enough to affect the next crop. Pl1ate 2. Shoink~n "nutini~c(I fi ii" ad blackened txNig' .mttucked he Ft oN' n Rot. 1 PLUM CURCULIO. Another enemy must be spoken of in this connection. What often appears to be a perfect peach when broken open displays the yellowish white grub of the Plum Curculio. Wormy fruit is worthless, however little the fruit may have been injured. It is usually considered that brown rot holds second place in the percentage of loss to the peach growers of Alabama, but from the fact that 93 per cent. of the fruit attacked by brown rot becomes infected through the punctures of the curculio, we might more properly assign this troublesome insect to second place.* Since the curculio and brown rot are so closely associated in peach injury, we may fight them both at the same time. To do this requires the application.of an- insecticide, and also a fungicide. For the insecticide the following material is used: 2 lbs. Arsenate of Lead. 3 lbs. Pure Rock Lime. 50 gals. Water. The arsenate of lead should be mixed into a paste in a bucket before .adding it to the solution. Slowly slake 3 lbs. of rock lime in water. If the lime were not added there might occasionally be enough free arsenic in the solution, even with this insecticide to cause serious injury to the foliage. Some lots of commercial arsenate of lead may contain enough water soluble arsenic to burn the very sensitive foliage of the peach, so lime is added to combine with and neutralize it. This insecticide is applied just as the petals or so called "shucks" are falling. For the second spraying we will simply add the 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to a self boiled lime sulfur spray solution. The fight against the rot must commence early or the work will be worthless. Many are familiar with the preparation of the concentrated lime sulfur wash for the winter treatment of fruit trees in controlling the San Jose scale. The same ingredients are used for the self boiled wash,.but-the method of preparing it is radically different. It is very easy to confuse the two methods. The object in using the self boiled mixture is to obtain a solution which can be applied in summer without injuring the foliage. The ..winter to50---and 1-to-100 cauised injury wash used even at the rates-of -to the fruit and foliage. *See Georgia State Board Entomology Bult. 32, p. 38, 1910. A\ Funne, 8- Siro~ne~j C r, ?runn~el C'oss seC7,cof epnd ro In S;rrone'. 0'/,'-nei a Fig. 1-Showing diagram for making a home-made strainer. In the formula for the summer wash the amount of lime and sulfur is considerably reduced and consists of the following formula: 8 lbs. of pure unslaked lime. 8 lbs. of flour or flowers of sulfur. 50 gals. water. In the preparation of the above no fire is used under the vessel in which the material is placed. PREPARING THE SELF BOILED MIXTURE. Into a strong barrel or an iron kettle place the 8 pounds of lime in 4 to 6 gallons of water which has previously been brought up to a temperature of 190 to 200 degrees. (In using warm water the lime begins to slake much quicker than in cold water.) As soon as the lime begins to slake pour in the sulfur, which has been freed from lumps by being passed through a screen, and stir vigorously for about 30 seconds. Cover the barrel with a heavy piece of bagging. Occasionally examine the mixture to see that it does not become too dry. If this happens add a little more water. Allow the boiling caused by the slaking lime to continue for about 10 minutes. At this point add sufficient cold water to stop the boiling. If boiling is allowed to continue too long an excess of sulfur will be dissolved, causing injury to the foliage. The mixture is now strained through (See Fig. 1). a wire gauze having 20 meshes to the inch. Wash and rub all the particles of sulfur through into the barrel during the straining. With the best equipment and the best prepared mixture the results of the application will vary with different operators. In the case of the winter wash every portion of the tree Fig. 2.--Showing should be covered with the spray. In applying the summer wash as just described, the good type of nozzle. a drenching of the tree is not to be recommended. The object is to cover the peaches and twigs as expeditiously as possible. Fifty gallons of summer wash will cover about 35 to 40 six year old trees. About 30 of the same aged trees can be covered with the winter wash if the trees have been previously well pruned. Pruning and spraying are both essentials in successful fruit growing. The first application of this self, boiled preparationshould contain 2 pounds of arsenate of, lead, as the latter will still be effective against the Curculio. This mixture is known as the "self boiled lime sulfur arsenate of lead"'.solution. The time for applying it should be between two and three weeks later than the application containing the arsenate of lead and lime, which, as stated above, goes on just as the"'shucks" are falling; or about 5 or 6 weeks from the time the trees bloomed. The third application should be made about four weeks later than the second, and this time consists of simply the self boiled wash. Some varieties, such as Greensboro, Carman, Waddell, McKinnel and Hiley, which are all early or medium early ripeners, will mature on two sprayings in favorable seasons. According to Scott the figures given on cost of spraying in using four men, one to prepare the mixture and three to spray, 500 to 800 trees can be covered in -a day with a 200 gallon tank. With hand power the above cost per tree would vary from 1 1-2 to 2 cents, or 6 cents per tree for the three sprayings. Prof. Scott states that with a power sprayer four applications can be put on for about 5 3-4 cents per tree. Here at Auburn we have been using a 50 gallon barrel- outfit. With two competent men 3 applications cost approximately 10 cents per tree. In a ten hour day with these two men the material has been prepared and applied to 300 trees averaging 7 years in age; this, of course, with every condition favorable. Peach Scab (Cladosporium carpophilum), commonly known as "black spot" or "freckles," is another fungus disease attacking the peach. The spots are about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and are dark brown or blackish in color. This often causes the fruit to split or shrivel along the suture and gives it a very unattractive appearance. The brown rot readily finds entrance through these spots and cracks. This fact should be considered in fighting the brown rot. Self boiled lime sulfur is a positive remedy for controlling scab. Prof. Scott and co-workers do not recommend the self boiled lime sulfur wash as a positive remedy for apple "scab," and particularly the bitter rot of the apple. Where these troubles prevail, Bordeaux should be used in the spraying operations following the self boiled lime sulfur treatment. The mild cases of scab and the severe cases of leaf spot, fruit spot, and the sooty fungus. Plate 3 Appiles Spraye d. V Good fruit. (B) Rotten fruit. (,RtQlfut 'late , A.fpples unsprayed. ,A) Rotten fruit. (B) Good fruit. were controlled and prevented in the respective cases in the experiments conducted in 1909 at the Virginia Station. In these experiments the standard commercial concentrated lime sulfur solution was used at the rate of 1 1-2 gallons to 50 gallons of water, or by using the home prepared mixture at the rate of 4 pounds of sulfur and 2 pounds of lime to 50 gallons of water, with apparently no damage to the foliage. The self boiled mixture was also used, and no damage whatever was done to the foliage; in fact, the report states that the leaves put on a healthier appearance. In combining an insecticide with the self boiled lime sulfur, Paris Green was found to be injurious, burning the foliage badly. With the addition of 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to either the 1 1-2 to 50 commercial Lime Sulfur or the Self Boiled solution, there was no apparent injury to the folage. The results obtained at Auburn with lime sulfur on apples showed that where the trees were sprayed 98 per cent. of the fruit The applications were (See Plates 3 and 4). was perfect. made as follows: FOR CODLING MOTH. Arsenate of Lead, consisting of2 lbs. arsenate of lead. 3 lbs. pure rock lime. 50 gals. water. This should be applied just after the petals drop. FOR BLACK AND BITTER ROTS. Self Boiled Lime Sulfur 8 lbs. pure rock lime. 8 lbs. flowers or flour of sulfur. 50 gals. water. This should be applied six weeks after the petals drop and at twenty day intervals. AlThe apple trees were treated with three sprayings. though many varieties of apples can be successfully grown even in Central Alabama, it is certain that this cannot be done without proper attention being paid to spraying. 10 Prof. Scott's experiments showed that with the lime sulfur arsenate of lead mixture applied three times to peaches the percentage of perfect fruits was 81 per cent. The first spraying of arsenate of lead and lime and ,with the two following, the self boiled lime sulfur, with two pounds of arsenate of lead, 85 per cent. of the fruits were perfect. These tests were conducted with the Elberta and Belle of Georgia varieties. The results at Auburn showed even higher percentages of perfect fruit. The notes were taken on Carman, Elberta and McKinnel varieties, and were as follows: Sprayed Unsprayed 14 Carman 3 Carman -- perfect 97.6 per cent. Average _Average perfect 48.6 per cent. Average perfect 92 per cent. Average perfect 75 per cent. Average perfect 89 per cent. Average perfect 00 per cent. Sprayed_.. 6 Elbertas Unsprayed _ 2 Elbertas Sprayed-2 McKinnel Unsprayed _ 2 McKinnel With the last named variety the records show that in the past four years no fruit matured owing to the attacks of the rot. There were many other trees treated as above, but no actual count could be made in all cases. However, the high percentages of perfect fruit prevailed on all treated trees. In an experiment with 1500 peach seedlings, the entire orchard was left unsprayed the past season. As a result only 2 per cent. showed resistance to brown rot, the remainder showing about 95 per cent rotten fruit. With the work with peaches and apples alike much of the success with the summer treatment depends upon previous pruning and thorough wa inter spraying with the concentrated lime sulfur. The results would indicate this from the work done with both peaches and apples here at Auburn. Dr. Powell, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, states that the .advent of the self boiled lime sulfur wash has placed the peach industry of the East once more on its fet t. Some contend that there will now be an over supply of peaches. This may be true, but those who study market conditions carefully and endeavor to put out first class fruit year after year, will always be able to dispose of their fruit at good prices. 11 There were differences of from 20 to 36 cents in the prices: offered on crates in the New York market in favor of the sprayed, fruits. This alone pays for the spraying, but in addition it must be remembered that there are many more crates gathered from. the sprayed than the unsprayed trees. This should persuade. more Alabama growers to spray faithfully each year. A barrel outfit similar to the one in use at the tExperiment Station costs approximately $22.00 with the necessary accessories. Fig. 3-Showing a good type of barrel outfit. 12 Dealers in Lime are as follows: Newala Lime Works, Calera, Ala. Calera Lime Works, Calera, Ala. Keystone Lime Works, Calera, Ala. Longview Lime Works, Calera, Ala. Wholesale Sulfur Dealers: Durr Drug Co., Montgomery, Ala. Griel Bros., Montgomery, Ala. Jacobs Pharmacy, Wholesale Dept., Atlanta, Ga. Mobile Drug Co., Mobile, Ala. Manufacturers of Spraying Machinery: Morrill and Morley, Benton Harbor, Mich. (G. W. Barnett Hardware Co., Agent, Montgomery, Ala.) Goulds Mfg. Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y. (Beck and Gregg Hardware Co.,.Atlanta, and Ala. Machinery and Supply Co., Montgomery, Agents). The Deming Co., Salem, Ohio. Frost Insecticide Co., Arlington, Mass. (W. B. Douglass Co., Mr. Turner, Birmingham;, Agent). Dayton Supply Co., Dayton, Ohio F. E. Meyers & Bro., Ashland, Ohio. Agencies Barney-Cavenaugh Hardware .Co., Mobile, Ala. Selma Hardware Co., Selma, Ala. Ala. Machinery and Supply Co., Montgomery,Ala. Cushman Power Sprayer Company, Lincoln, Nebraska. Peerless Power Sprayer, American Sprayer Company of Minneapolis, Minn. Beck Power Sprayer Co., Lansing, Mich. H. L. Hurst Mfg. Co., Canton, Ohio. E. H. Childs & Co., Ithaca, N. Y. Hardie Mfg. Co., of Hudson, Mich. Champion Mfg. Co., Pontiac, Mich. BULLETIN No. 153 FEBRUARY, FBUR,11 1911 ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON VARIETIES BOLL ROT WILT PHOSPHATES By J. F. DUGGAR, Director, and E. F. CAUTHEN, Farm Supt. and Recorder. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company 1911 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. HON. H. L. MARTIN HON. A. W. BELL _ -- Ozark -Anniston STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH - -P --------- -------- -- resid en t -- --- __ -_ __ -_ ___ _ -Director and Agriculturist _Chemist and State Chemist --Veterinarian and Director Farmers' Institutes Bo tanist -- ---- ------- -- ----Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations J. F. DUGGAR B. B. Ross C. A. CART F. E. LLOYD J. T. ANDERSON GRAY D. T. ------- ----- -----A nim al ---- Industry V. E. HINDS C. I. HARE_ P. F. WAILLIAMS_ --------- _-- --------- E ntom ologist - - - .--- - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- h e m ist ____ ____ ___ ____ __.__-- ___ H orticulturist ASSISTANTS. T1. BRAGG__ ___ ___ ___ ___ E. F. CAUTHEN _ I. S. MCADORY_ W. F. TURNERM. J. FUNCHESS C. S. RIDOWAY_ ------------ -----___ ___ ___ ___ --- --- ----- __ __First Assistant Chemist Farm Superintendent and Recorder Assistant in Veterinary Science ._----_____-Assistant in Entomology ___Assistant in.Agriculture --- --- A ssistant in Botany in Horticulture Industry ssistant in Animal J. 0. C. C. PRICE H. E. R. EUDALY_ SELLERS- ----- ------- ---- --- Assistant ----- --- _ __ _ -_ .Stenographer and Mailing Clerk -- EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON BY J. F. DUGGAR, Director, AND E. F. CAUTHEN, Farm Superintendent and Recorder. SUMMARY. Of the many varieties of cotton tested in plots in 1910, Cook, Dillon, Hardin and Triumph made the largest yields; of those tested in observation rows, Bate Early Victor, New Triumph, Excelsior Wilt-Resistant, Triumph from Alabama, and Franklin, all yielded well. The earliest varieties of cotton were Early Mammoth, Broadwell, Bank Account, Trice, Sugar Loaf King and Shelley; medium early were the Cooks, Triumph, Covington-Toole, Cleveland, Hite, Money Maker, Berry and Franklin; and among the latest varieties were Hardin, Dillon, Poulnot, Russell, etc. Acid phosphate afforded larger yields than either ground rock phosphate or basic slag. Anthracnose damaged all the varieties of cotton to some extent, but more especially the Cooks, Brown No. 1, Hardin, Trice, Gold Coin, and Early Mammoth. Some of those only slightly damaged were Rowden, Cleveland, Dixie, Simpkins, Dillon, and Poulnot. Varieties differed greatly in the amount of boll-rot. The amount of boll-rot or anthracnose was perceptibly reduced by treating the-seed before planting them. Seed immersed in water at 170 degrees Fahrenheit for ten minutes produced a crop having only 4.9 per cent. of diseased bolls, while untreated seed had 11.3 per cent.; seed treated for twenty-two minutes in water at a temperature of 150 degrees Fahrenheit had 2.4 per .cent. of boll-rot, while the adjacent plot of untreated seed had 9.9 per cent. of affected bolls. Charring the seed coat with concentrated sulphuric acid reduced the percentage of diseased bolls from 11.3 to 5.9. Varieties of cotton were tested on soil at Loachapoka, Alabama, badly infected by wilt, or black root, and some of them showed 16 remarkable resistance to the disease. Cook, INo. 307-6, yielded 269 per cent. more lint per acre than the nearest plot of common cotton; Covington-Toole yielded 227 per cent. more lint than the check; Cook from Hall afforded 185 per cent. more lint; Excelsior Wilt-Resistant 164 per cent. more, and a hybrid cotton 115 per cent. more lint than the check plot. For wilt-infected lands it is recommended that the crop be changed from cotton to some other crop, as corn, grain, etc.; but in case it is found necessary to grow cotton, that some wilt-resisting variety be planted. WEATHER CONDITIONS. The growing season of both 1909 and 1910 was marked by extremes. In 1909 there was an excess of rain throughout May and June and an abundance during July and August. In 1910 a rainy season began in June and continued through most of the month of August. The effect of the wet weather prevailing during the greater part of each summer was to cause the development, on the Station Farm and in many other localities throughout Alabama, of an abnormally large amount of boll rot, in such fields as had become contaminated with the germs of this disease. The latter part of the summer of 1909 was also distinctly unfavorable to the cotton crop, through the occurrence of a period of extreme heat, causing the shedding of a large proportion of the squares and young bolls. In 1910 a killing frost occurred at Auburn and throughout most of the State on October 29, an unusually early date. However, on the fields where the tests here recorded were made, no variety was materially reduced in yield by frost. The harvesting season in both years was highly favorable, as indicated by the slight rainfall in September and October. On the whole, both 1909 and 1910 must be regarded as years highly unfavorable to cotton in this part of Alabama, and indeed throughout a large proportion of the Cotton Belt. The table below gives the rainfall at Auburn for the growing season of each of the past three years. 17 Rainfall at Auburn in the growing season in 1908, 1909, and 1910. RAINFALL IN INCHES MONTH 1908 1909 1910 May ................... June ..... ........... .. July......... ...... August September ........ .... .... October... ...... In. 2.74 2.48 4.65 3.71 1.50 1.61 In. 7 40 8 64 5.01 407 .86 1.42 In. 3.04 5 63 441 61 7 2 97 1.97 VARIETIES OF COTTON. Soils and fertilization for the variety test.-The number of varieties and strains of cotton compared in 1910 on the farm of the Alabama Experiment Station at Auburn was fifty. There was available only enough suitable land to accommodate twenty-two varieties on plots of sufficient size to determine accurately the yield per acre. The other twenty-eight varieties were necessarily confined each to a single row, not to determine their yields, but to make observations on their peculiarities and apparent good qualities, so that the most promising of them might be tested on a larger scale the following year. The land used for the twenty-two varieties of cotton, grown on plots in 1910, is a poor, dry, upland, sandy loam, but fairly uniform in fertility. The preceding crop was drilled soy beans, the mature soy bean plants having been cut and removed from the land for threshing. About the middle of March, the land was plowed eight to ten inches deep, turning under the soy bean stubble and fallen leaves. The rows for cotton were marked off three and one-half feet wide, the fertilizer drilled in. and low beds formed. The cotton seed were dropped in checks, so that each row would have the same number of hills, and each plant the same space, namely, twenty-one inches by three and one-half feet. The stand of single plants spaced twenty-one inches apart was very uniform. The first planting was made April 15. Owing to cold weather and heavy rains, germination was so imperfect that a second planting became necessary. On May 2 the cotton 18 beds were freshened with a spring tooth harrow and a second planting made. A complete fertilizer was applied before planting. It was a home-mixture, consisting of 240 pounds acid phosphate, forty pounds muriate of potash, and 120 pounds nitrate of so la per acre. The fertilizer was mixed with the soil by means of a small shovel-plow before the beds or ridges were forme1. Frequent rains in June and July caused a postponement of an intended application of nitrate of soda until July 22. At this date, which was doubtless too late, the nitrate of soda was so damp that it became necessary, in order to absorb its moisture and permit its easy distribution, to mix thirteen and one-third pounds of cotton seed meal with the sixty-six and two-thirds pounds of nitrate of soda. These amounts per acre were drilled on one side of each row, July 22. Clean, shallow cultivation was given the cotton at such frequent intervals as to prevent injury from grass or from the crusting of the soil. Cultivation was continued until August 1. The most common form of boll rot, anthracnose, reduced the yield of all varieties of cotton grown on the Station farm in 1910. Some of the varieties were severely injured by this disease, while others were only slightly hurt. None was entirely free from it. Some strains, grown from seed picked in fields where this disease was very destructive the previous year, were injured more severely than plants of the same variety grown from seed from healthier fields. It is believed that cotton seed from fields where boll rot prevails is one means of scattering this disease; therefore, the Station prefers not to send out seed grown on the Station farm until further selection has been made with the special aim of decreasing the amount of boll rot. However, the disease is quite widely prevalent over the Cotton Belt, but, as a rule, its effects are conspicuous only in wet seasons. 19 Varieties of cotton in of seed. and lint per acre. Actualyield per acre kstand variable) 19 10, ranked according to total value Corrected to uniform stand per a° W VARIETIES LtLint Lbs. Lbs. Cook (from J. E. Stone). Dillon .................... Hardin ...... . . Cook (frormM. R. Triumph ........... Russell.................... Dixie...................... Cleveland................. Hall) 496 A43 438 A'))7 40.3 39.5 39.2 20Q P 497 463 446 4OI A )12 $7:9 05 73 95 71 33 68 67 67 67 65 64 64 58 58 57 56 55 52 51 5() 50 48 39 62 49 32 14 99 74 21 84 68 C6 97 77 62 88 73 55 95 25 CIO37 Pou ln ot..............rls . ...... Covington-Toole ........... Cook No. 304 ............... Cook No. 313.......... Broa dwel l.......... ...... Early Mammoth........... Bank Account............. King Big Boll............. Sugar Loaf Ki'g .... .... Cook No. 354 Cook No. 307 ... Cook- No. 333 ...... Trice ...... ......... ............. . .. ........ ...... 412 384 395 406 401 374 396 360 360 343 349 338 322 323 301 308 308 228. 38 0 33 4 34 5 36.4 36 5 40.6 38.3 42.7 35.9 36.7 36.7 37.0 38.539.2 40 4 .42.030-7 426 407 409 413 406 384 404 366 373 350 351 344 325 323 318 318 310 232 From this table it may be seen that Cook, grown from seed obtained from J. E. Stone, Sylacauga, Alabama, afforded the largest yield of lint, 497 pounds, and the highest value of total product, $79.05 per acre. Dillon was second'; Hardin, third ; Cook from M. R. Hall, James, Alabama, fourth.; ad Triumph, fifth in total value per acre and in yield of lint per acre. The varieties of cotton which ranked among the five most productive in each of the tests of. the last five years are mentioned below in order of productiveness each year. Most. productive varieties of cotton in last 5 variety tests. product1 Rank in 2 3 4 iveness 1910 1909 Cook (206) Cook (221) Dixie Hardin Poulnot Cook 5 Triumph 'Cook Dillon Hardin (S.) (H.) 1908 Dillon Gold Coin Dixie Cook Hart 1906 C ok C level and Layton. T'oole Pout1 not 1905 Toole Cook Cleveland Bancroft Christop her 20 Rank in productiveness of five most productive varieties of each year. 1910 Rank 1909 Rank 1908 Rank 1906 Rank 1905 Rank ,a Cook .......... 1,4 2 .. 1,2 .. .. .. . 4 2 abs. .. 1 .. 4 2 1 abs. 1 3 5+ 4 4 5 2 2 2 Dillon Toole............. Cleveland ............ . 3 .. .... Dixie ........ Hardin ... ........ Poulnot............. 3 .. 3 abs. 4 .. .5 abs. 5 abs. ab .. 5 4 2 5 2 2 2 From the last two tables it may be seen that the list of varieties standing first to fifth in productiveness in some one or more of the last five tests at Auburn contains thirteen different names. Of these, Cook occurs five times among the winners; while Dillon, Toole, Cleveland, Dixie, Hardin, and Poulnot each occurs twice among the five most productive varieties. Brief descriptions of varieties tested in 910o.-Cook Improved, whether from the originator, J. R. Cook, Ellaville, Ga., from J. E. Stone, Sylacauga, Ala., from M. R. Hall, James, Ala., or from the Alabama Experiment Station, is a productive, well-limbed variety of medium earliness. Its chief faults are special liability to boll-rot (anthracnose) and a tendency for the seed cotton to fall from the burs. The bolls are of medium to large size and the percentage of lint is very high. Cleveland is somewhat similar to Cook in form of plant, large size of bolls, and in being early for a big boll variety. It has proved here to be less liable to boll-rot than has Cook. Its chief fault lies in the falling of the seed cotton from the burs; hence, picking should be done promptly. Toole is well supplied with limbs and bolls. The per cent of lint is high. Its chief fault is the small size of bolls. Hardin is a variety with medium-sized bolls and a rather high per cent of lint. Poulnot is a semi-cluster variety with rather large bolls. King (here received as Sugar Loaf King) is a variety with small plants and small bolls. King and its equivalents, or 21 varieties apparently selected from it, Simpkins and Broadwell, are the earliest varieties tested at Auburn. Reference to the long table below shows that King and similar early varieties have usually been somewhat less productive than the varieties described in the paragraphs above. However, the results may be reversed in regions where the boll weevil is present. The seed cotton of the King group of varieties easily drops from the burs. Dixie is a variety well supplied with fruiting limbs and with balls of small size. Its special value lies in having been selected by the United States Department of Agriculture as being largely resistant to cotton wilt. Its failure to show decided resistance in our tests in 1910 is not understood. Dillon is a tall cluster variety, similar to the Jackson, from which it is a selection. It is strongly wilt-resistant. Where to obtain seed.-The Alabama Experiment Station can not supply seed of any variety; it is believed that seed from a crop. as badly damaged by anthracnose, or boll rot, as was all the cotton on the Station farm in 1910 may serve to increase this disease, although it is already present in most or all parts of the State. The Station obtained its seed from the following: Cook (Stone), J. E. Stone, Sylacauga, Alabama. Dillon, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Hardin, W. P. Letson, Glen Allen, Alabama. Cook (Hall), M. R. Hall, James, Alabama. Triumph, Wade Brothers, Alexander City, Alabama. Russell, J. M. Chappell, Jr., Route 6, Louisville, Miss. Dixie, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Cleveland, Alabama Experiment Station. Poulnot, J. E. Bradberry, Athens, Georgia. Ruralist, F. J. Merriam, Atlanta, Georgia. Covington-Toole, W..F. Covington, Headland, Alabama. Cook No. 304, Alabama Experiment Station. Cook No. 313, Alabama Experiment Station. Broadwell, J. B. Broadwell, Alpharetta, Georgia. Early Mammoth, I. W. Mitchell, Youngsville, N. C. Bank Account, H. G. Hastings & Co., Atlanta, Georgia. King Big Boll, J. E. Butts, Ethelville, Alabama. Sugar Loaf King, I. W. Mitchell, Youngsville, N. C. Cook No: 354, Alabama Experiment Station. Cook No. 307, Alabama Experiment Station. Cook No. 303, Alabama Experiment Station. Trice, M. N. McFadden, Warren, Tennessee. 22 SUMMARY OF ALL VARIETY TESTS OF COTTON ON THE FARM OF THE ALABAMA EXPERIMENT STATION. In the following summary, showing the rank in productiveness Auburn. This in lint, are listed all the varieties grown on plots does not include a large number of other varieties grown on single at rows merely for observation and not to determine their yields. This table is intended for reference rather than for reading. The figure 1 after a variety indicates that in a given year it stood first among the varieties tested that year. Rank in productiveness of varieties of cotton tested by Alabama Experiment Station r.c r(OcO in a en I 20 N O I ON ON1 Alex. Allen............ Allen Hybrid........... Allen Long Stap e. Bailey................. :Bancroft ............... Bank Account.......... .Barnett................ _ 16 14 4 3u 18, -- 4110 8 16 - - - 14 _ _31,28 41726 _ .Berry................... Blue Rilbon Long Stop.e. Broadwell .............. Brown No. 1............ .Cameron............... Cherry Cluster.......... ,Christopher............. Cleveland ................ .... Colthorp Eureka ..... Colthorp Pride.......... (Columbia (L. S.)......... Common ................ Cook (from Stone) ....... Cook Improved ........... 4' 17 ' _ 25 19 3416 - - -- - - -- 12 6 11 - -, -j 7114 -- -I I 133 7 8 3 12 1144 11 71 II 9 24 1 12 1l Co3l-, W. A. (L. S.)..... Cook, Cook Cook Cook Cook .r... ... J. C No. 206 ............. No. 221 ............. ...... No. 232.... . No. 239....... ..... 21 141 18 12 13 19, 20 21 H7 910 1 Cook No. 304 ... .. Cook No. 313............. Cook No. 354 ............. . No. 307 ............ Cook Cook No. 333 Corley............. ...... Crossland ............ ......... Culpepper ...... ............. .. Dalkeith Eureka . Dearing........... ...... VI1 _____ 23 Rank in productiveness of varieties of cotton tested by Altabama Experiment Station-Continued !I 222 Dei.ance (Drake's)... .. Dickson ... ..... Dillon Dixie (Wilt-Resistant) Doug hty............... Drake (C uster) - 2 __2) - 312 - - -- .. -- - - ---- Duncan......... Double .......... .. . L 120 124 - 18 3 20 2 3 7 24 15 - --- Header ........... -2 20 9 6!--13 - Early Marmoth.. '' Excelsior"? (:ding).. Edgeworth.............. Ellsworth ............... Florodora ............... 12a. 7 -22 I 2 Garrard................. Georgi-t Best ...... Gold Coin ............... Gold Dust.... ..... ..... Grier's King ...... ...... Griffin's Drought Proof Hagarnan...... ... H art . . . . . . . . . Hardin ................. . Hawkins... ... Herlong ............ ..... Huey's (Big Boll) ........ Hunnicutt, J. B...... .... Hutchinson ............. Jackson ...... ....... ... Johnsoi Excelsior.. Jones Improved.. Jones No. -9. 91 16 _23 6 13_14 12:131 _ 1 7 71 I '10 5 8, 51114 _ ; I Jones' Long Staple .... Keenan ... ........ .. .. Keith ................... King-................... King Big 1......... .. . 17 11 _19 11l 10' i-6 _ i _ Lang-ford .... Lowry Boll ........... ............ 17 I . Layton.............. Lealand .... .. ... Lewis Pr-ize-.......... ........... -- 11 ,_-; Mascot .................. Mathews (Long S'aple) Merc dith .............. .. Mortgage Lifter ......... Nancy Hanks..... Neeley Early........... Okra.................. Parker.................. 91_ __1313 -I - Peeler .................. Peerless ............... Peterkin ............... Poulnot ........... 33 'I - . ...... 71 21- 46 4-11 5 1 71 8 3' 4 -- 1112 411 815 - 6 24 Rank in productiveness of varieties of cotton tested by Alabama Experiment Station- Continued aoN 0 _I_ ,-, - r .~ o t-. ' CON d- 00 I rO oN __ ____________l____ __________ 3I 3 Petit Gulf........... .... Pride of Georgia . . . . ___1____ Red Ieaf .. . . . .I Ramese...............8 -- I 17 _1__ - - _29 __10 112 911'- --1__9 --- I_ - R uralist . . . -- 9-I -I -- -- -- - -- -- -24 _ 10 ''Tricee Tool hte 'Welborn Pet.. mrvd. Russell...................._i_--I -- _ -1 820 6 15 28 17 6 Rogers.. ........... ---..---. 23'--Rowden ...I- I- 5 22 Schley.. . . . . ..... . _... I- -- I -I _ 255 -- 23 -- Shine ......................... I-I- I -_ 22 20 Simms Long St. p-le - I =-I----I - 91- --Simpkins..................I I-..-I -- I---25 Sistrunk........... ....... I -II-9 Smith Improv d... ...... j----'-- I---- 41-----I Southern Hope...........I -5 8 5!-- -I---'--) -- -- - -- I_ - -15'Southern W onder ... .... --7; 13 23__ 11i_ Strickland...............I __ __ _I __ __ - 4 15 2;_ Storm Proof............. ........ I 18 Sugar Loaf ., Sunflower ............. --I - 34 -15 Texas . I 13 13'- 10110 Texas Oak........... 11 6 E61 11 1l3 ................ _. I Il 22 ............ .. 27 Triumph............. Truitt...... ............. 1J3 9 5 2124 1614 Tyler......... 1519 King Bur...'......... ........... .. 221- 101lI 1- vWise.................... I 5 _Wonderful ............ -Woodfin Prolific ......... Woods.................. Wyche.................._ Zellner =.No. -I - -- 23 19i- Ili ................... 1 varieties in each test. . 1 31 5 161 814'40 30120 22 25 RELATIVE EARLINESS OF VARIETIES. The matter of earliness is now becoming a desirable quality of any variety of cotton. The first picking of all .varieties in 1910 was made September 19. On that date more than 80 per cent. of the total seed cotton of Sugar Loaf King, Trice, Broadwell, and Bank Account was open, and more than 70 per cent. of Triumph, Early Mammoth, and Cook (No. 354). On the other hand, Dillon, Hardin, and Cleveland were among the productive varieties on which less than 60 per cent. of the total crop had opened at the time of the first picking, September 19. Relative earliness of varieties of cotton as shown by percentages of total yield that opened by October 4, 1909, and by September 19, 1910. [An x indicates that the corresponding variety was grown only in a row test, and on a part of the field slightly removed from the regular variety tests.] 1909 Per cent. open Oct. 4-5 1910 Per cent. open Sept. 19-20 King (Sugar Loaf) Trice 69. 69. 92.x 86. Broadwell ....Bank Account Shelley ____84.x King (from Sims) ___83. Triumph Blue Ribbon Bohlus 71. 59, 86. 84. 65. 55. 78. 78.x 77.x Rosser NIo. 1 Toole Uncle Sam Mortgage Lifter Early Mammoth Franklin Berry 76.x _76.x 76.x 76.x 60. _74.x 75. 75.x Brown No. 1 Cook No. 354 Pride of Georgia Sistrunk Triumph (from S. C.) 74. 74. 74.x _-72,x _73.x Money Maker Cleveland (Stone) -72.x Cleveland (from Georgia) Gold Con _Willet Red Leaf 72.x ---53. 38, 71. x 71. 70,x 26 Peterkin ---------------'Simpkins B a ile y ----------------------70 Russell Cook No. 304 ---- -69, Covingtun-Tule Cook Wilt Resistant-68. H aw kins --------- ---- ---- ---Excelsior--- --- -- Edgew orth -----------------------Hite ---------- - - -- - - -- - - -68. Edgew orth -------------------67, Cook No. 307 --------------- --66. New Triumph___________________ T ru itt - - - - - - -- - - - - - R uralist----------- ------- ---65. Drake's Defiance---Ccok (from Stont) -----------64. 44. 69. 50. 7 .x 70,x .x 69. 69._______ 68. 68. 68,x 68.x -x 65, 64, 66 x - - -- - --- Huey, B, B-- -- - -- - KE. en an ------------- -------P oulnot --------------------Dix ie -------------------Cook (Improved)-------Cock No. 313 --- ---------Mexican B. B,-57,x Dillon ------ -- -- -- -- -- -- .. Cleveland (from Ala. Sta. ) Colum b ia ---------- --- ---- -- Texas Bur-- - - - - - - - -- Georgia Best-58, B ates -- - - - - - - -- - - - - Row den - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- 60.x61.47. 42, 57. -57. 59. 59, - 38. 57, 59, 58,58, 55. -55, 53, 52. x 50. Allen.Long Staple -------- L ayton - - - - - - -- - - - - - H ar'din -- - - - - - - - - - - Strickland - - - - - -- - - - - - 52. 55, 44,- VARIETIES ADAPTED TO BOLL WEEVIL CONDITIONS. As the boll weevil spreads, the demand for earlier cottons increases. The varieties that set the largest number of bolls early in the season give-the largest yield because the weevils become more numerous as the season advances and destroy all the late maturing portion of the crop. If earliness can be coupled with largeness of boll and fairly high per cent. of lint in any variety, that variety becomes more 27 desirable. The station is endeavoring to breed that type ton and has some promise of success; but seed are not yet available. In the boll weevil sections, Triumph has generally given satisfaction. It has large bolls, is fairly early, yields a good per cent. of lint, and is storm-resistant. The plant is vigorous and grows.to a medium size. Its foliage is heavy. Cleveland and other big boll varieties have also proved satisfactory on many farms in the boll weevil region. Some strains of Cook will probably suit boll weevil conditions fairly well. It is an early variety, has medium sized bolls, and picks easily. The per cent. of lint is high. The plant grows fairly large, puts on long fruit limbs and makes an open top, which admits sunlight among the branches and fruit. King, Simpkins, and Broadwell all belong to one group and are the earliest kinds tested by this Station. The plants are not large; the bolls are small; the locks drop badly from the burs; the per cent. of lint is medium. Toole is a productive variety having sufficient earliness for bol. weevil conditions, though not so early as the King group. It should be tried where its small size of boll is not objectionable. Some of the large-yielding varieties, like Dillon and Hardin are late in putting on a crop of fruit, and in consequence of the lateness may fail to produce a large crop under boll weevil conditions. Another popular variety is Russell, which, however, is too late for best results in the presence of the boll weevil. FIELD NOTES ON ANTHRACNOSE, THE FORM OF BOLL-ROT. MOST COMMON Description. This disease appears in tiny spots on the bolls. At first the spots look dark-green or brownish and make slight depressions on the surface of the boll; later they take on a darker tinge and make a black spot. The center of this spot may become grayish and finally pinkish. The pink color is caused by the numerous spores, or tiny bodies that serve the purpose of seed, and these may spread this disease to other bolls. When the boll is cut through the diseased portion, the lint and seed are often found to be dark and decayed. If there is much damp weather, the boll may be soft; if there is not 28 much dampness, the lint and seed are likely to be dry and hard. When the disease attacks veryyoung bolls, it often kills them. It may damage only one or two locks in a boll and make the picking of the remaining locks difficult. The stained lint cotton from the diseased locks lowers the market value of the entire sample of cotton. Boll rot is widespread and in wet years causes a great loss in yield in most of the cotton-growing states, especially east of the Mississippi River. Conditions favoring anthracnose.The amount of boll roton the Station Farm was excessive in 1909 and again in 1910. Some varieties lost heavily from its ravages. No variety has yet been found to be entirely and continuously free from anthracnose. Wet weather during June, July and August favors the development of boll-rot, while dry weather checks its spread. The dampness makes anthracnose more severe by affording favorable conditions for the development of the fungus that produces this disease. Moreover, wet weather increases the size of cotton plants and thus keeps the bolls largely shaded and damp, and may possibly make the bur more tender, and hence more easily entered by the anthracnose fungus. For the same reason, cotton planted on low land, where it grows rank, suffers more from anthracnose than that grown on uplands. Likewise, cotton heavily fertilized with nitgrogenous fertilizer, as excessive amounts of nitrate of soda and cotton seed meal, is apt to suffer severely from anthracnose, if the seed be from a diseased crop and if the summer be wet. Where boll rot is expected, the proportion of nitrogen in the fertilizer should not be very high and the rows should be wide, so as to permit an 2h indance of sunlight. A. C. Lewis (Georgia Board of Entomology, Bul. No. 24, p. 58) has shown that merely rubbing a diseased boll against an uninjured one results in communicating anthracnose to the latter. However, it is highly probable that insects may yet be found to play a part in conveying the disease, either by merely spreading the spores or by introducing them into wounds made by the insects. 29 Susceptibility to anthracnose.-Varieties differ greatly in the extent to which they are damaged by boll Whether these differences in susceptibility are due rot. to some inherent weakness of certain varieties, for example, to the possession of a softer or thinner bur, is not fully known. However, our observations through a number of years seem to indicate that the wide variation in the damage wrought on different varieties grown side by side is at least partly due to the fact that some seed planted were from fields free from anthracnose, while the seed of other varieties or strains were badly infected with.anthracnose, having been picked from fields where this disease was severe.- At least one of the most important means of spreading boll-rot is by means of seed from a diseased crop. Among the fifteen strains of Cook cotton that have been separated in the cotton breeding work on the Experiment Station Farm (all from a single lot of seed obtained from the originator of this variety), there is one strain that has a much larger percentage of boll-rot than any of the other strains. This fact and other data seem. to indicate that it may be possible to decrease the amount of boll-rot by selection of the most resistant plants. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES TO ANTHRACNOSE. Counts of bolls attacked by boll-rot, whether severely, or slightly, were made after opening began. The results are recorded in the following table: Percentage of diseased bolls (almost all attacked by anthacnose, slightly or severely), in varieties of cotton tested at Auburn in 1909 and 1910. 1909 diseased bolls Per cent. of 1910 Per centof disease. bolls :. .; Allen Long Staple .................... Blue Ribbon ................ .x............ Bailey......... ... 1. .3. ....... Broadwell...................... Berry Big Boll....... ......... ... ... 8.4. .. 23 Brown No. 1....... ............ 33.2.... 30 Bates.................... ........ Bank Account....... ............. Bohlus Triple Joint x....x ...... . Cook .... ... .... .... .9 3.3 .7 5 8 (Stone)............... ... .... Cleveland......................... Cleveland (Stone). x..... . ....... 4.6 .... 3.4 1.5 Cook Improved.................. Cook No. 206 .. Cook No. 221............ Cook No. 239 ........... ........... ... ......... 23.1. 8. 28. 33. .. .. .. Cook No. 232....................... Cook (Hall)....... ................ Cook No. 304...................... 35.3 .... .. .... 94 17.7 Cook No. 313...................... Conk No. 354...................... Cook No. 307........ ............ Cook No. 333...................... Covington 'Poole................... .... Dillon....................... Drake's Defiance......... ........ Dixie................ Edgeworth .... .... .... .... .. :........ X...... ... x ...... 9.4 11.5 .. 7. 5. .... 23.2 28.3 28.6 25 2 1.7 3.3 .. 3.2 9.3 .7 2.2 .7 .5 Early Mammoth............ x Excelsior, Irom Georgia .. Excelsior, from South .... .... .... Carolina. x ............ Franklin .......... Gold Coin........ ................ Georgia's Best .................... ....... ............... Hite....... Hat din .... .7.7 15.4.. .... 16.9 .... .. .4 3.7 . . . ............ ........ King Big Boll.................... ..................... Keenan Layton Improved....... .......... Poulnot......................... Peterkin ....................... Pride of Georgia 43 .. ......... 10.7 .11.2 9.7 8. .... ,. 2.8 1.2 x ... Rowden .................. Russell ...................... Ruralist.......................... Rosser No. 1 ........ ... 4. 3.4 3.9 ............. x... .... .6 .. ,. Strickland........................ Sugar Loaf King............... Simpkins......................... Shelley.................. Texas Bur x. .... 6.3 7.5. 5.2 7.8 1.1 1.6 .. ........................ .. x... Trice............................. Toole (Ga.) ............ 3.9 .... 15.4 1. 31 Truitt.... Ttiumph ......................... Triumph (S. C.)......... x... 7.2 8.7 .. Triumph (Ga.)...........x . .. x. Trook .................. x... Uncle Sam .............. ... .. .. .. 3.3 2.3 .8 14 2.3 x Varieties marked (x) were grown in roxes in a different part of the same field where boll-rot was less prevalent than on the plots on which the usual variety test teas made. From the above table, giving the percentages of diseased boils for fifty-nine varieties and strains, it may be seen that in the last two years, when anthracnose. was especially prevalent baying the largest percenton the Station Farm, the ages of diseased bolls were the following : varieties 1909. Brown No. 1. Various strains of Cook. Hardin. 1910 (PLoTS). Valrious strains of Cook. Trice. (All having 17 per cent. or more of diseased bolls.) 1910 (OBSERVATION Rows ) Gold Coin. Triumph (from South Carolina) Excelsior (from South Early Mammoth. Georgia Best. Carolina) Uncle Sam. Berry Big Boll. Blue Ribbon. In the same tests, the varieties having the least boll-rot were the following: 1909. Rowden. Cleveland. 1910 (PLoTS). C ovington-Toole. Broadwell. Poulnot. Bank Account. Dixie. Dixie. Simpkins. 1910 (OBSERVATION Rows) Hite. Franklin. King. Rosser No. 1. Dillon. Triumph. Russell. Edgeworth. Excelsior from Georgia. Bohius. 32 Methods of picking cotton for seed, to reduce boll rot. When practicable, avoid planting cotton in fields where there is much anthracnose. However, if seed must be saved from such fields, it is.believed that the following method of picking, adopted by the Alabama Experiment Station in 1910, will greatly lessen the disease in the next year's crop. In making that picking from which seed is to be saved, only healthy bolls are picked; no boll with a single diseased lock and no boll with a single lock that has failed to expand is picked. Future experience may show that it may be necessary to supplement this with disinfection of the seed to destroy spores of anthracnose that may be lodged on the outside of the seed while being ginned. Treatment of cotton seed for boll-rot.-In 1910 an experiment was made at Auburn in treating cotton seed to ascertain whether any treatment would reduce the amount of anthracnose in the resulting crop. On account of the nature of the infection of the seed, it was not expected that a treatment of the seed by disinfectants would entirely destroy the fungus, but that the amount of boll-rot might be reduced by destrcying the spores that might be on the outside of the seed. The seed used were chosen as representing a strain of Cook cotton that had been one of the most severely damaged by bollrot in 1909. There were only two rows per plot, each row three and onehalf feet wide, and all plots were adjacent. The plants made rather luxuriant growth, the limbs lapping slightly across the middles. The treatments compared were scalding at two temperatures, the use of commercial sulphuric acid, copper sulphate solution, and two strengths of formalin solution. 33 Treatment of cotton seed for boll-rot (anthracnose). TREATMENT OF SEED Wc Per cent. 1 Hot water, 170 degrees Fah.; 10 min........ 4.9 2 2 3 4 Formalin, 4 per cent solution; 30 min....... Untreated ................ .. ............. 7.2 11.3 5.9 7.3 5 9 3 6 7 4 8 1 Charred seed coat with pure sulphuric acid 5 Copper sulphate, 10 per cent solution; 1 hour 6 Fumigated with carbon bisulphide...........7.4 7 Formalin solution; 5 per cent; 30 min ....... 8 Untreated ............. ............ 6.4 9.9 2.4 9 Hot water, 150 degrees Fah.; 22 min........ All treatments seem to have had at least some slight value. The results show that when the seed were scalded twenty-two minutes with water at 150 degrees Fahrenheit, the percentage of bolls attacked by anthracnose was reduced from 9.9 to 2.4; and when scalded for ten minutes at 170 degrees Fahrenheit, the reduction of diseased bolls was from 11.3 down to 4.9 per cent. The hope in scalding the seed was that some temperature and length of treatment might be found which would destroy that part of the fungus which had penetrated the seed coat. The results justify the hope that such a result may here have been attained, and that laboratory experiments may determine definitely the temperature and time of scalding necessary to effect the destruction of that part of the fungus, without impairing the germination of the seed. No definite recommendations for farm practice can be based on the result of one year's test. The field experiments here described will be continued and amplified in 1911. 34 FIELD NOTES ON COTTON WILT, OR BLACK-ROOT. Description.-When a plant is attacked by cotton wilt, or black-root, all the leaves may suddenly wilt, beginning with the tender leaves at the tip of the main stem or branches. Or the disease may come on more slowly, revealing itself by causing that part of the cotton leaf between the large veins to turn yellowish and the edges of the leaf to shrivel. The plant usually dies, or a part of it may die and the remaining part take on a new growth, giving the plant a dwarfed, or one-sided appearance. The disease develops in spots in the field and re-appears in the same spots from year to year. The infected area is irregular in shape and grows larger each year. All the plants in an infected area may not die; sometime in the same hill, one plant dies and another remains healthy. Wilt may appear about the time that cotton plants reach the squaring stage and it may continue to kill them throughout the growing season. In 1910, wilt was more injurious during June and July, which were wet months. Cause. -The cause of wilt is a fungus, which enters the cotton plant through the root, and blocks up the channels that convey food and water from the soil to the leaves. The plant then wilts and may die. If a cross section through a dying stem is made near the ground, the woody portion shows dark specks or becomes brown or black. This dark color is due to the wilt fungus, which has blocked up the water-carrying vessels. (Fig. 3). Cotton wilt appears most frequently in sandy soil. Cotton on clay soil is less apt to be attacked. In Alabama black root is most- prevalent in the southeastern part of the state. Means of spreading.-The germs of wilt are in the soil of infected fields. Anything that carries even a little of the soil from one part of the diseased field to another, or from one diseased field to another, scatters the disease; for example, plows or the feet of Regions in which some field contains the germs livestock. of wilt may expect in time to have black-root spread to almost every cotton field, if livestock are permitted to range over the fields in winter. During the time of heavy rains, the overflow s -A c t u 1. 1 1, .i Lr , b hI i bo l - I n n li oj -4h I I-lG o nl Ihd i e drin d 11e 1 arctul amc itn -i S -n ~~ ~nilg ~. Nh l o;onrkLQiil mo ntofbol ot i j} I il; 1 -1 nII,.,, i. , , i inlutoJ In nmt -Lnut , u tn nt.ii , i i!v, . ,l .. S. Ihp( . Agr.) -44 - ~t>~Z2s. (4' .4. t~4- -~ WI--' -~ *4' A -S '4; it' - -'If-' P# -. 'V.- '4-~1-' ~ I 'C 2 -'s-NI "~n p N -'I" 't%~'-~ 'Jt 4-'liam n .h Lid , md " -I l eith r Inyz IF ie k rn n lno e~c ~u lle n r.O he.ilt t it.Nhic noto 9ftQ fCo ki 1 - n gl o I, , 6. A i nr,'.I Wi l :44411n .444 Il nn i, n, 11I n i Ii: 14444441 (4olton4 441 l,lit 35 water may carry the disease to lower parts of the field. The disease may spread from small spots to entire fields, if cotton continues to be grown on the diseased areas. Once in the soil, the germs of wilt may remain for many years, even though no cotton be grown. Treatment for wilt.-The continuation of cotton on wiltinfected soil means the continuation of the disease. When wilt appears in a field, that part of the field having wilt should be devoted to some other crop, or abandoned. In 1906, the Station found two places in the fields used for variety tests where a few plants died. The wilted plants were carefully dug and every particle of each burned; the soil for several feet around was thoroughly saturated with a solution of four ounces of formalin to one gallon of water. This disease was not again noted in this part of the field. It is not certain that such treatment of the soil is thoroughly effective, though it is considered advisable-when only a few plants are affected. The germs of the cotton wilt fungus more readily enter wounded cotton roots than those that are sound. The wounds made in cotton roots by the minute nematode worms, (which cause knots or enlargements (Fig. 4) on the roots of cotton, tomatoes, cabbages,etc.), permit the ready entrance of the wilt fungus and the consequent loss through black-root. Fortunately those tiny but very injurious nematode worms can be starved. 'When these nematode worms are once introduced (and they are present in most old garden spots in sandy soils), they increase in the soil from year to year. Fortunately, these worms can not live on the fibrous roots of corn, oats, grasses, etc., nor do they generally multiply on peanuts nor on the Iron variety of cowpeas. They can be starved by keeping from growing on the field any plant with tender or fleshy roots, such as cotton and many varieties of cowpeas, most vegetables, morning-glories, and certain other weeds. The warfare against cotton black-root is best conducted by getting rid of the rootknot disease, caused by the nematode worms. Where wilt has become common on a farm, rotation of crops 36 becomes doubly important. If practicable, keep cotton out of that field for a number of years. In case it is considered necessary to grow an occasional crop of cotton, let cotton occupy the diseased field not oftener. than once in three years, and then, if possible, plant wilt-resistant varieties. The following is one of several rotations suitable for fields infected with wilt. First year, oats, followed by the Iron variety of cowpeas; second year, corn with either Iron cowpeas or peanuts between the rows; third year, a wilt-resistant variety of cotton. Every third year the field may be planted in some one of the wilt-resistant varieties of cotton, which should then be but slightly attacked by black-root. Wilt-resistant varieties.-Varieties of cotton differ in their There is a difference even susceptibility to the cotton in different strains of the same variety. For example, Cook, as a variety, is not at all immune, yet at least two strains of Cook have shown up to this time considerable resistance to black-root. It should be stated, however, that there is no variety that has yet been made entirely proof against wilt, as may be seen from the figures in the next table. -wilt. In order to test the resistance of a number of varieties and strains which had previously showed more or less promise in this line, these varieties were tested on a field known to be severely infected by cotton wilt. The field selected was one owned by Mr. Wright, Loachapoka, Ala. The counting of diseased plants, the ginning, etc., were all done by a representative of the Experiment Station. The table shows the results. 37 Tests of wilt-resistant varieties of cotton on infected soil at Loachapoka, Alabama. Per cent. of plants wilted Yield per acre 0 .o, VARIETY Per ct. Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Dixie .............. 39.2 15.9 372 126.0 34 2 $20 89 15.2 Dillon .............. 36 1 Common ............. Cook (Hall)......... 21.8 ....... Cook 307-6 ......... . .. .. 314 Common ... . Covington-Toole W.R 20.7 9.5 Excelsior W. R.. 7.9 Hybrid ............. 2.3 46.4 12.1 17.9 37.3 10.5 4:2 3.6 885 362 965 928 303 864 736 618 327.0 185.0 354. 380. 1103.0 337 0 272. 222.0 37 34 36 7 41 34 39 37 36 163 166 269 .. 227 164 115 53 20 57 61 17 57 44 36 08 33 52 37 01 02 14 58 Dillon, Excelsior Wilt-Resistant, and the hybrid lost very few plants from wilt. Two strains of Cook and Covington-Toole Wilt-Resistant lost more plants than Dillon, but far fewer than did the common cotton. The increased yield of lint of the wilt-resistant strains, Dillon, Covington-Toole, Excelsior, and two strains of Cook, ranged between 163 and 269 per cent. more than that afforded by common cotton. The value of lint and seed per acre was, for Cook 307-6, $61.37; for Cook (from Hall), $57.52; for Toole, $57.02; Dillon, $53.08; the average for common or mixed cotton was Here is an extreme difference of $42.70 per acre only $18.67. merely as the result of planting wilt-resistant, highly bred seed instead of common seed. Dillon is the oldest wilt-resistant variety and has been improved by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture. Its parent variety was Jackson Limbless and it closely resembles its parent. Dixie is a variety bred for wilt-resistance by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture. In the tests made at Loachapoka by the Alabama Experiment Station, Dixie, from seed obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture, showed no notable resistance to 38 wilt. The plant is well supplied with fruit limbs and with bolls of medium size. The percentage of lint is low to medium. The strains of Cook, Toole, and Excelsior that here proved largely resistant to wilt, closely resemble their respective parent varieties. The station has no seed of these wilt-resistant varieties for sale or distribution this year. The Dillon and Dixie varieties have been described before. Cook, selected for wilt-resistance by M. R. Hall, James Bullock County, Alabama, is similar in appearance to other strains of Cook. Cook 307-6, a strain bred by the Alabama Experiment Station, has been selected only one year for wiltresistance and can not yet be regarded as having fully established its claim to resistance. Every seed of any kind of this wilt-resistant cotton grown will be needed in the Station's experiments in 1911. This Experiment Station can not supply seed of any of the ,above varieties. Limited amounts of seed of Dillon and. Dixie may be purchased at the time this is written through W. W. Gilbert, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Readers are requested not to apply to this station for either free or purchased cotton seed this year; but on application, the Station will gladly furnish to inquirers the addresses of growers or dealers of standard varieties, if such addresses are not given among those on page 21 of this bulletin. Excelsior and Hybrid, were obtained from the Georgia State Board of Entomology, Atlanta, Ga. GROUND ROCK PHOSPHATE COMPARED VvITH ACID PHOSPHATE AND BASIC SLAG PHOSPHATE. Three experiments were made on the Station farm and a fourth in Bullock County to compare these three different phosphates. On rocky, red, clay-loam soil' at Auburn, all three phosphates were used in 1909 in combination with stable manure, supplemented by a complete commercial fertilizer mixture. None of the phosphates notably increased the yield, probably because the large amount of nitrogen and the abundant rainfall in the early summer caused the plants to run too largely to stalk or "weed." 39 On gray, sandy upland at Auburn (Norfolk sandy loam) the same three phosphates were compared in both 1909 and 1910, the same fertilizer on each plot in 1910 as on that plot in the preceding year. The tests of ground rock, or raw phosphate, versus acid phos- phate and basic slag showed that these different phosphates increased the yields to a profitable extent; yet, owing to the inequality in fertility of the land on which these phosphate experiments at Auburn were conducted, no definite conclusion can be drawn. However, this experiment was also made for this Station on more uniform land in Bullock county, Alabama; the results follow: Raw or ground rock phosphate versus acid phosphate and versus basic slag as fertilizer for cotton at James, Bullock County, Ala., in 1909 Fertilizer per acre Seed cotton per acre o Amount WKidphosphate'" AY Kind Yield Increase from Lbs. 240 Lbs. Slag ph osphate Lbs. 24 240 Lbs. 24 240 Lbs. 24 200 Lbs. 100 . ..... Bu. stablle manure Acid ph osphate Bu. sltab le manure Raw ph osphate Bu. stab le manure Cotton s eed meal Kainit ......... p,,ck .. lo~k 1 .. .... , . . 408 544 64 200 24 S.. tilizer 2 368 °........ 344 256 424 504 392 88 80 160 48 240 Lbs. Rock ph osphate 200 ' Cotton s eed meal 100 " Kainit 240 " Acid phcosphate 200 " Cotton s( eed meal 100 " Kainit 240 " Slag S........ 200 100 " ', Cotton s eed meal. Kainit Average from Acid Phosphate ............ ... 180 Average from Slag Phosphate ........... ... 56 Average from Raw Phosphate ........... .. 52 40 In this experiment, carefully conducted by W. R. Hall, on gray sandy land, near James, Bullock County, acid phosphate afforded a much larger increase in yield than did either raw phosphate or basic slag phosphate. The stable manure was drilled in the same furrow with the phosphates, in the hope that the decay of the latter might serve to make the raw phosphate more soluble. Probably this result would have been more completely attained if the raw phosphate had been composted with the stable manure. BULLETIN No. 154 FEBRUARY, 1911 ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN Corn, Soy Bean Pastures, Tankage, Cotton Seed Meal For Fattening Hlogs. By DAN T. GRAY, E. R. J. W. RIDGWAY, EUDALY. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company 1911 COMMITTEE HON. H. L. OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT ............................ STATION. .Ozark Huntsville MARTIN. HON. TANcRED BETTs HON. A. W. BELL .................................. ...................................... STATION STAFF. Anniston C. C. THACH ......................................... President and Agriculturist Chemist and State Chemist J. F. DUGGAR...........................Director B. B. Ross ............................. C. A. CARY.........Veterinarian and Director of Farmers' Institutes F. E. LLOYD...................... Plant Physiologist and Pathologist P. F. WILLIAMS. ................................... Horticulturalist J. T. .V ANDERSON .................. Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigation Industry DAN T. GRAY..................................Animal E. HINDS......................................Entomologist ............................................ Chemist Chemist C. L. HARE C. S. WILLIAMsON.............................Associate T. BRAGG ................................ First Assistant Chemist E. F. CAUTHEN.................Farm Superintendent and Recorder W. F. WARD* ......................... Junior Animal Husbandman Assistant in Animal Industry ........ Special Agent in Beef J. W. RIDGWAY ....................... H. J. CHATTERTON*...... ............ L. W. SHOOKc*........... ......... Special Agent in, Beef and Hogs Assistant in Veterinary Science :.. Assistant in Entomology Assistant in Agriculture I. S. McADORY.... M. J. ................. W. F. TURNER .......................... C. S. RIDGWAY ................................ J. C. PRICE............................... FUNcHESS........................... Assistant in Botany Assistant in Horticulture Assistant in Animal Industry H. 0. R. EUDALY......................... H. SELLERS............................................ Stenographer *In co-operative heef work with Bureau of Animal Industry. SUMMARY OF BULLETIN. 1. This bulletin records a summary of three years' work in swine production. 2. When corn was fed alone, unsatisfactory results were always secured; when corn was supplemented with a soy bean pasture, satisfactory results were secured. 3. When corn was used alone the average daily gain for each hog was only .375 of a pound. When a soy bean pasture was grazed along with a fourth, a half and a three-fourths ration of corn, the average daily gains were raised to 1.102, 1.006 and 1.329 pounds, respectively. 4. 609 pounds of corn were required to make 100 pounds of pork, when the grain was fed alone. When a soy bean pasture was grazed along with a fourth, a half, and a threefourths ration of corn, only 68, 138, and 175 pounds of corn, respectively, were required to make the same amount of pork. 5. When nothing was fed except corn, each 100 pounds of pork cost $7.61. When a fourth, a half, and a three-fourths ration of corn was fed along with a soy bean pasture, the same gains were made for $0.85, $1.73 and $2.19, respectively (corn valued at 70 cents); when the cost of the pasture ($8.00 an acre) was also charged, against the gains each 100 pounds of pork was made at an expense of $2.59, $3.36, and $3.17, respectively. 6. The amount of corn that should be fed along with a soy bean pasture depends upon several factors. (See Table 2.) 7. One acre of soy bean pasture afforded grazing for 10 hogs (averaged 45 pounds in weight at beginning of test) for the following number of days: When a fourth ration of corn was used........ 43 days When a half ration of corn was used...........48 days When a three-fourths ration of corn was used... 62 days 8. The total value of pork made on each acre of soy bean pasture varied from $25.84 to $39.13. 9. These experiments show that it pays to inclose the hogs in a dry lot, after the pasture crops are exhausted, and feed them for a short period of time on grain feeds. A ration of 44 corn and cotton seed meal seems to be the most satisfactory feed for this short dry-lot finishing period. 10. Tankage, a packing house by-product, saved a great amount of corn. Forty-two pounds of tankage took the place of 353 pounds of corn. The 42 pounds of tankage cost only 84 cents; the 353 pounds of corn were valued at $4.41. So an investment of 84 cents saved $4.41. These results were secured with hogs that averaged about 50 pounds, live weight, when the tests began. 11. When a corn ration was supplemented with a fifth part of tankage the results were more satisfactory than when a tenth part was used. 12. If it were not for the fact that cotton seed meal is a dangerous feed for swine, when fed for more than 30 days at a time, it would be a very valuable feed to go along with corn. However, it is an exceedingly valuable feed when used for short periods of time. In these tests 44 pounds of cotton seed meal took the place of 335 pounds of corn. The 44 pounds of cotton seed meal cost 66 cents; the 335 pounds of corn were valued at $4.19, or an investment of 66 cents in cotton seed meal saved $4.19 in terms of corn. 13. Tankage and cotton seed meal, pound for pound, proved to have practically the same feeding value. Cotton seed meal is the cheaper of the two, but tankage has the advantage in that there is no danger of ill results when it is used. 14. Excellent prices were realized on each bushel of corn when the corn was fed along with soy bean pastures. When corn was fed alone the usual market prices were not secured. When hogs sell for 7 cents a pound each bushel of corn was sold, by means of the hogs, for $1.93 to $4.33; when nothing but corn was fed, only 64 cents were realized on each bushel. CORN, SOY BEAN PASTURES, TANKAGE AND COTTON SEED MEAL FOR FATTENING HOGS. BY DAN T. GRAY, J. W. RIDGWAY, E. R. EUDALY. The people of Alabama are large meat consumers, but small meat producers. It is well known that a large proportion of the meat used in this state is shipped in from other states. It should be known, also, that this imported meat comes from states which do not have as many natural advantages for pork production as has our own state. So far, the farmers of the state have failed to take advantage of their own favorable circumstances. The most of the imported meat comes to us from northern states states that do not have the advantage of long grazing seasons, mild climate, and cheap shelter, On account of the long grazing season, the mild climate, and the cheap shelter, this state can make pork as cheaply, and no doubt more cheaply, than it can be made in the North. However, the farmers of our state are rapidly introducing hogs into their system of farming. Several factors are bringing this change about. First, hogs have been selling at a high price for several years; this has raised the price of purchased meats so high that the farmers can hardly afford to buy even the cheap cuts. Second, the boll weevil is advancing and many farmers are preparing for its coming by introducing hogs. Third, the hog is an animal that can be introduced upon almost every farm in the state; he fits into practically any system of farming that can be introduced into the state. He is well adapted to the large planter; but he is especially well suited to the farmer with small capital, as but a small amount of money is required with which to begin the business, and returns begin to come in within a few months after it is started. The sow is a rapid producer. Money is turned rapidly. With $25.00 invested in one sow it is easily possible to make 2,000 pounds of pork (live weight) in a year. In other words,, 46 the yearly sales should be about four to five times the amount of investment, when hogs sell at seven cents a pound. Some sections of the state are now raising sufficient hogs to meet home demands, and other sections have a surplus to ship to the Mobile, New Orleans, and Atlanta markets. But, as a .whole, the state is yet a heavy importer of meats. OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS. This bulletin covers three years' experimental work, during which time 105 hogs were used. The work, in the main, was duplicated year after year, so the conclusions drawn can be relied upon. The lots, during the falls and winters of 1908-'09, 1909-'10, and 1910-'11, received the following feeds throughout the main part of the test: TABLE 1. No. Outline of the Work. Period II. Lot 1 2 3 4 5 Period I. Corn, 1-4 ration Soy bean pasture Corn, 1-2 ration Soy bean pasture Corn, 3-4 ration Soy bean pasture Corn meal, 9-10 Cotton seed meal, 1-10 Corn meal, 9-10 Tankage, 1-10 Corn meal, 8-10 Tankage, 2-10 Corn meal, 2-3 Cotton seed meal, 1-3 Corn meal alone Corn meal alone Corn meal, 2-3 Cotton seed meal, 1-3 Corn meal, 2-3 Tankage, 1-3 Corn meal, 9-10 Cotton seed meal, 1-10 Corn meal, 9-10 Tankage, 1-10 Corn meal, 8-10 Tankage, 2-10 Corn meal, 2-3 Cotton seed meal, 1-3 Corn meal alone 6 7 8 It is noted that the first three lots were pasture or grazing lots, soy bean pasture being used in all cases. The hogs in Lots 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 were confined in dry lots; they had no green or pasture feed at any time throughout these tests. Ge~neral N iew~ of soy hearii pasture used for graing the h~ogs in NOS. picture ws'.t tale, n. !t issee n that the b~eans are bieginningt to form. The hiog, hId ben g vin z 11--. be~m es etil day s wh len the 48 The soy bean pastures afforded grazing 42 days in the fall of 1908, 81 days in 1909, and 80 days in 1910. When these pastures were exhausted one pig from each lot was slaughtered, samples of the fat secured, and taken to the chemist, Prof. C. L. Hare, to have melting point determinations made, and the remaining pigs were placed in dry lots, next to Lots 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, and fed for three or four weeks upon the feeds outlined in the above table. One lot of hogs was finished on a ration of corn alone, a second lot on corn and cotton seed meal, and a third lot on corn and tankage. The object of this second period of feeding was to study the effect of the above feeds on hardening the meat and fat after they had been rendered soft as a result of the animals grazing the soy bean pasture. The hogs which were fed in the dry lots (Lots 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8), were continued to the end of the test on their initial feeds. At the end of Period 1 a hog was taken from each of these lots and slaughter data collected. OBJECTS OF THE WORK. These experiments were planned with the following objects in view: 1. To learn the value of soy bean pastures for fattening hogs. 2. To determine the most profitable amount of corn to use along with these soy bean pastures. 3. To study the question of hardening the lard and meat after they had been rendered soft as a result of the bean pastures being grazed by the hogs. Other problems were involved in the work, but are not presented in this report. THE HOGS USED. The pigs were all purchased from farmers who live within a few miles of the Experiment Station. The animals were no better in quality than the average hogs of the state, but practically all of them carried some improved blood, consisting of Poland China, Berkshire, and Duroc-Jersey crosses. At the beginning of the test the pigs averaged about 45 pounds in ti 4.4 ;. I it ning t field lle turned in (f in indlO iditit soy~ I ciii plantt. T he hotgs wie ceks before the pic Otur ws taken. Tl-e pictui e Itow thant the teed are leginApictilre 01ome site. to assumet 50 live weight. They were not fat when the tests began, a3 they came directly off pastures; the pastures had been suppl: ented with a little corn, as a rule. However, the animal3 71re all in good growing condition. The pictures show their g:neral appearance and quality. If larger hogs had been used tie daily gains would have been greater than the ones here reported. As a rule the gains were satisfactory. SHEDS, LOTS, AND FENCES. The pasture lots, (Lots 1, 2, and 3), were given no artificial shelter at all until the soy beans were eaten down. The soy bean plants afforded ample protection from the sun for the first 40 days, after which time temporary wooden shelters were erected. The pigs which received no pasture were confined in small lots: each lot was 20 x 60 feet. Across the east side of these lots was a good shed which afforted amule d11of the hogs protection from the rains and the hot sun. were made comfortable. The different areas of pasture were imeasured and hurdled off by temporary fences, so that an exact account could be kept of the area of soy bean pasture grazed by each lot of hogs: this was done so that the cost of the area grazed could be charged against the gains of the hogs. The hogs were not given the run of the whole field at one time; small areas (about 1 acre to 10 hogs) were fenced off and when the inclosed patches were consumed the fences were moved forward onto new plots. METHOD OF FEEDING. Each lot of hogs was fed twice a day. The corn was ground into a coarse meal: this meal was mixed with sufficient water to make a thin slop and poured into deep troughs. When cotton seed meal and tankage were fed with the corn meal they were mixed with the corn meal and the water. If ear corn is used the cotton seed meal and the tankage should be made into a thin slop and poured into a separate trough before the corn is thrown out. All of the grains and concentrated feeds were fed fresh: that is, none of the feed was fermented, soaked, or cooked. The soy bean pastures were gathered by the hogs them- 11)I I threei-fourthils c011n ration ailiiii EdlSso ha pRn period R c ive a ( itOi of 1.67 pcounds. liasimc. )imie iin i, voril eails it ii 1001 poilunds of pior c ost S3.08 wh ein botlh fistuie mnd corn wircrclirgml agits grints. hcn , oin mnl alone }\ is fed ISit L ot 7. page 50r echi 1001 pouinds of pork cosi 5 .64. ii id wsith 1)411' Shoiimm 111(2 l.i 11 lm 1,11' x crc liii xxcr ,n 19 tllrlctl inlti tile pastill 111an;1 tile 1 three one1 1r fotur wxecks beful1 i)Qlls turned jus ill ticls1Ive e xcre rcamix into111 tile 11 iii to lie eatce:lill fact, Nxeclk hca a1ft1r t11(1har tilex 1)1 iLii alwilt firs ltt tlt' tinli' 1)l (Ix- hcan< xIC11s91 11119'19 11 lii r f1.9 l nulluc. inll~i )11 alild it i-. iprob1ail tI 111 thalt atlsfac1ti rx 111Icil reslts xx191 (1111eto the fact that t1119 it) iii ntlitli xx191 wcre inito tile tl1i i s at tilo late a stai-e Th 119 lilcrl1 mi\ 9111 195c sht 11111 11 it that tieleaxvcs of the 50 lie xwastel. behct Ii.itim 11111 coxxpea b( e Ie- plant-; liir poundlli. Th11 mnl-x xxay to9 11a1ke 11s 19 i 11111 1 f tile tile i19axe iciiel that he l ri lcu 11811 11119 tail carl1 )insito toi tutrn thit how. to) ripels. Care91 1 ]c axges first i9inl to ovix191.11191 tile 11 ta1ken, thoulil. arc1 turned19 n it into torn pasture:1 imma11ture91 fexx if tioo man lto 1(g; the t119 )i 1 it thlis a aulto (loxxn itxxitiil days\. sta-e tile xxiii 1 (llo9 t xii be1 In til1 t19 ts repori1tedi inl tis xx re turne(I '1111 19(111 Som each acre. uxis d to -9 i) tthpii191 19t tile ~Ii tti1s. As on11 of to tile u11 )j1ets xx1s to 119ar1n t11e 11111t 1irlfitmiil1 a9liiml a11nlrnlt oif cor11 xxitit a -rccn91 pas1tutle, x ar1)ills 11111illnts ml corln Nxvcre 52 used. In Lot 1, one-fourth of a full ration of corn was used; that is, an amount of corn equal to 1 per cent of the total live weight of the lot was fed each day; or, one pound of corn to each 100 pounds of live weight was given daily. In Lot 2, two pounds of corn to each 100 pounds of live weight were fed each day. (This is a one-half ration of corn.) And in Lot 3, three pounds of corn to each 100 pounds of live weight were given daily. (This is a three-fourths ration of corn). The amount of feed given the pigs confined in the dry lots was determined by their appetites. No feed was left in the troughs from one feeding time to the next. The aim was to give just enough feed so that the troughs would be clean within 30 minutes after feeding. If the ration is a palatable one, dry-lot-fed hogs will eat daily, an amount of grain equal to about four per cent of their total live weight. PRICE OF FEEDS. It is, of course, realized that the prices placed upon the feeds below do not meet all conditions of the state, but it is believed that the following prices closely represent the average conditions of the state: Corn ......................... $ .70 a bushel. $40.00 a ton. ...................... Tankage Cotton seed meal ................ $30.00 a ton. $ 8.00 an acre. Soy bean pasture ................ All financial statements are based on the above quotations. SLAUGHTER DATA, At the end of each period one animal from each lot was slaughtered and careful notes taken upon the dressed weights, appearance of the carcasses, rapidity and extent of "setting" of the carcasses, appearance and weights of the internal organs, etc. Samples of fat were taken from each carcass and delivered to the chemist, Professor C. L. Hare, who made melting point determinations to ascertain the effect of each feed upon the fat or lard. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs were also taken from each animal with a view to making a study of the effects of the various feeds upon the framework of the animals. h 11 11 nd d.l i f e permnlt .i ad an:ns r cr11 l grt in of:11 l .l718 plound~s. as taken t'nd o I poundst of pork o-bratn-fed hogs. Copt St.17 tonmke 14111) ouojvired to, 1.67 pound1 s fIIr thl' O .15 comparedtt to $5.61IN hen(1 l sn ti was 101d :Juo 11u11 DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. ia-.t xx cis of \nAn ti or tile fIr t xxeei in Septemlber. io have the banpa ,v tn rc readv for) gazing by September 1 ,the beans~ maxi be plaited loonl nmt te itoiantetl bv Iun I .'I11w a8 ca1ra-. 1prilxI hent g razing xwmild b~e aifor nll 1)v \ngutl 1. \ al ntl lolto t io ig> Milci wcrec being fed inl drx it-, wxere carittI ailoe- in the xx"rk * 11< that dlirect coin1)81 -. 1) coldil lbeIltafli hetxx eel tihe (r heait pate an11i the x;I itl Ir il t<. SOY BEAN PASTURE. (""1{)/ 1(1 Illt)) Abu /l J1~th tii orha CropI. for Te n. a 1. (I\ bleanI patre 11 i- a xverx valuabiile erop bolthi fo~rItg cotr I nillt t711e tis 1bttietitn tile cxxi lea htay tile foloIii(x lxitl eati~tnet o c avtn oIx tt et '. lite get thiat of the Ixhatn in1g. Ilitlatitn o1If tilecowpx'iea - eti i, llt'ret titan sell. xxM ii is,8 titerefore, lial( to lbe Spoiled bx iteatfor The cm lxx better' titan tite Sxv bean 54 broadcasting, especially on land that is heavy and liable to "bake." (3.) The cowpea is much better suited than the soy bean for planting with either corn or sorghum. (4). Cowpea hay is more easily cured by the methods in common use, without the increased loss of either leaves or fruit, than soy bean hay. The soy bean, on the other hand, appears more valuable than the. cowpea, (1) as a grain producer; (2) as an intensive farm crop; (3) as an early hay or grazing crop (for which purpose the early and medium varieties will produce either hay or seed several weeks ahead of any variety of cowpeas which had been tested at the Station; (4) the seed decay more slowly than those of the cowpea when left on the ground, so are better adapted to being pastured off by hogs. Rabbits feast upon the soy bean while they will not bother the cowpea at all. Therefore, the farmer who plants soy beans should plant enough for both himself and the rabbits. In 1910 the soy bean crop used in these tests was better than the average crop of the state: both the stand and the yield were excellent. But in 1908 and in 1909 the crops were just about what the farmer could expect to grow upon soils of average fertility. The beans were planted in the drill and Two hundred pounds of commercial fertilizer, cultivated. consisting of potash and 16 per cent acid phosphate, were used on each acre. Approximately, one-half bushel of seed was used to each acre: if the planting had been made for a hay crop more seed would have been used. When all of the expenses of making the crop were taken into consideration it was learned that each acre cost $8.00. The crop can be produced for less than $8.00 an acre upon the average farm of the state. The Southern, or Mammoth Yellow variety, was used in all of the tests. Some varieties, as the Hollybrook, will mature earlier than the Mammoth Yellow, but will not make as large yields as the Southern variety. Soy Bean Pasture Against Corn Alone.-It is generally considered that there is no other feed equal to corn for pork production. That is true, provided the corn is used judiciously. -Wi L0 Hojgs Itri corn) 9-11 ijd itiikaige I-111. Pictuire taken Sio ig sonn, ohus idul.il of IN of ixilt rireir .rr id a aerige dfails gain of .8111 it ptound is compared :ilng tio .527 of .i poun110 hleu ttu 5 ias iisedf ailiii. oii 1.i7 poiuds S5lien ((irO Ns ise ( ost 51.18 to omike 1111poiiuds o~f poik, as compiared to 51.39 sshen N1 ih a soi5 hieuir patuire. ssheir cor atloanie Sits used, andi 53.l8 N5hen sop heirn cottoniseedf meii ssis used. 53.1 5) 1'1! i . v of tflail paistuare .is uisedf. fo i al IX-k llitI of time there are ICXX rc-lI. fuy11 rl i-. XlCII %1 1 .. iC 110dm I t1f- l~tlX act If. -reat llm)XXCXCI fur ot) inl 0t111a-1 It Call hC lli Cd to Cm t1111110 a aolX Ifltli m. CXCII tir Itil i it sells tiIJpI'llC 1111 t sotl hii"l a, foum-li (1/) >1.0 pCI Ba-J. T he tn~yvXX I Cujilil C it alit Ci It I) hijnl withl wX C d 111111 t1, I Iich i5 11i a think wh a If \xtXnf (if iscltl Ill, nafturC. .AIain like, f CetV 1)1- Ihn- s iiX0 1 1tl the 1mc ui aninlaI. lr'i Lout No. IION RAT ANs erage (fills gauiirs F eedf to nike 1111 piiiinis uf piirk Vralue plus Cost of icr e lire pastiuie grain to imake ff111 co1st toi ini terms iof earni tmake 11111 Pounds oif pork poundos of pork I .bs. I CIntl, 1-4 tlon Six bean pastule 1-2 ratiuon SioN bean pasimue Coitn, (irn. 3-4 radtio Six bieain pa~sltue 1. 102 I hs. 08 0.218 acll 138 11. 21)4 acre 175 0.123 acre $0.85 $2.59 Btushuels 44 2 1.11(06 1.329l 1.73 2.193 3.36 3.17 41 63 4 Cuiii alone .375 fil09 7.61 7.61 56 Price feeds: Pasture........................$8.00 an acre. Corn..........................$ .70 a bushel. That soy bean pasture is an exceedingly cheap feed for hogs is the most striking point in the above table. That corn alone is an exceedingly poor feed for hogs is another impressive fact brought out. When the tests began the pigs averaged about 45 pounds in weight. Of course, if they had been more mature the corn would have shown up in a better light than it did, as corn is more suited to old than to young animals. When corn alone was used the average daily gain for the three years was only .375 of a pound, while the hogs that grazed the soy bean pasture averaged more than a pound per day; in one lot, Lot 3, the average daily gain per pig was 1.329 pounds. Or, the hogs which received the small amount of corn made greater gains (in one case 5 times as great) as did the hogs which were fed nothing but corn. The soy bean pasture was responsible for the large gains; it afforded the hogs a green feed and at the same time balanced the corn ration so that the corn which was eaten along with the pasture did the hogs more good than did the corn which was eaten alone. Corn is low in both protein and ash: soy bean pasture is high in both ash and protein. When corn was valued at 70 cents a bushel and the pasture at $8.00 an acre, the cost of 100 pounds of gain varied from $2.59 to $7.61. When corn was used alone it cost $7.61 to make 100 pounds of increase in live weight; when a one-fourth ration of corn was used along with the pasture the same gains cost $2.59. When a one-half ration of corn was fed with the soy bean pasture it cost $3.36 to make 100 pounds of pork, and $3.17 to make the same amount of pork when a three-fourths ration of corn was used. Or, in every case where the soy bean pasture was used pork was made for less than one-half (and in one case almost onethird) of what it cost when corn was used alone. The last column in the above table shows the value of each acre of soy bean pasture in terms of corn. The figures represent an average of three years' experimentation. In many sections of the state where the soil is good, much greater soy bean yields, than were obtained on the Station farm at Au- L I i. I9 N) ol 121111 (,,s of som ii ' t idu111all liSt anilil it, c,,ll fed1 tcorn d12 l 2i-l) il coto 111111,Sas see 4 I I-.i.lPit IS Irt, iitaen ) I2n Ill,. ofti e IIUI'iil fno.1S S , titl s ton tAll) liSrd to .527 f2 poun 1i . w h acr ,1its ued ahl1 done an1 . 67 pound. 1111 IX n d be1a11 tur pih N E;aed. Carjt tXoI "OX mae2 1)1th or 01uns1f , t-on 2I1Ii11 83.11) to hen 44n%%t ue burn, ca a)12 be hlllu/ iI II (me 0 th (1/ oi ,112 oinl the Saionl fI ~isJ1 naurlly l 1 It 11111 I','8 1)11 the 11112 111 1212h )()n ch XXan the 11) h'l) li's12 N1212 l 11111,,1 s12 of' thei s 111 the1 o1n, 111: 1 - i I liii Ih II, I:. outs. (Pluto by the authoir.) 55 than that of the Schley variety that little difficulty is experienced row. 'DESCRIPTION. in separating them even in the nursery Size large to very large, averaging 40 to 50 nuts per pound; form oblong ovate, rather pointed at base and rather bluntly quadrangular at apex; and distinctly marked by four conspicuous ridges extending from the apex nearly to the base of the nut; color grayish brownish, sparingly marked with black; shell rather thick, with partitions soft but corky; cracking quality good; kernel plump and well filled, grooves rather narrow, but shallow, and surface undulating; kernel bright straw color, very attractive; texture rather :soft and open; flavor sweet, pleasant; quality good. The tree is a strong grower, of erect and roundish head, very distinct from the Schley, with which it has been somewhat mixed in nurseries and orchards. It is productive and promising from the lower pecan dis- tricts, such as the Gulf Coast region, where it originated. Tendency to scab in some localities. It is recommended for commercial orchards owing to its cracking quality and size. It is rather difficult to propagate. It is a good bearer-early and is showing up well in Baldwin county. DEWEY. Medium to large, ovate pointed; color dull gray and marked with slashes of purplish brown; base rounded; apex sharp; shell brittle and thin; cracking quality very good; partitions thin; kernel full, plump, smooth, light straw colored with narrow sutures of medium depth; texture firm and solid; flavor sweet, rich, good; quality very good.* This nut originated a few miles south of Monticello, Fla. It is a very promising variety. The growth of the tree in the nursery and orchard is not entirely satisfactory. *Described by H. H. Hume. 56 FROTSCHER. (Synonyms: Eggshell, Frotscher's Majestic. ) Eggshell, Oliver, This variety was originated by the late Oscar Oliver in his garden beside the Bayou Teche at Olivier, Iberia Parish, La. The original tree, now owned by H. J. Pharr, is still healthy, vigorous, and productive. Its exact age is not known, but the indications are that it was planted subsequent to 1860. It appears to have been first propagated about 1882 by William Nelson, and first catalogued by the late Richard Frotscher as "Frotscher's Eggshell," in 1885. Locally it is still known as the "Olivier" pecan, in honor of its originator. DESCRIPTION. Size large, averaging about 45 to 50 nuts per pound; form cylindrical oval with broad, rounded base and blunt quadrangular apex; suture rather indistinct; color bright yellowish brown, with scattered purplish black splashes toward apex; shell thin to very thin, with thin partitions; cracking quality excellent; kernel brownish yellow, often shrunken, showing dark veins even in the fresh nuts; texture rather dry and coarse; flavor pleasant; quality medium. The tree of Frotscher is a strong grower, of broadly spreading and sprawling habit, the young wood bright brownish green in color and conspicuously dotted. The variety is precocious and productive, but the faulty character of many of its kernels and their stale appearance, even when perfectly fresh from the tree, materially lesson its value as a commercial variety. The tree characters of Frotscher are quite clearly reproduced in its seedlings, and, as many of these have *Described by H. H. Hume. 57 been planted throughout the South, there is much confusion regarding the variety. It has been successfully planted in many different localities. MOBILE. This variety undoubtedly originated at Bayou Laba- tre, Ala., about 1887, and was first propagated in 1900. he tree is a very heavy bearer and clusters of eight nuts are often found. It develops faulty kernels in the vicinity of the parent tree and should not be planted too heavily without further trial. The nuts weigh in some cases as high as 24 to the pound. Large, long, slender, slightly constricted, near the middle, pointed sharply at both base and apex, the latter rather long; color bright light brown, with dark purplish black markings; shell thin, easily cracked; partitions thin; kernel slender, under some conditions not well filled, sutures deep; color light uniform yellow; texture fine grained, crisp, flavor sweet and nutty, quality good.* MONEY-MAKER.* Size medium, ovate oblong; light yellowish brown with a few purplish brown marks about the apex; base rounded; apex abruptly rounded, slightly wedged; shell of medium thickness; partitions medium thick, corky; cracking quality good; kernel full, plump, broadly oval; sutures straight, broad, shallow, texture firm, solid; sweet, good; quality very good. The principal objection to this variety is its hard shell. The size of the nut varies considerably in different localities. It is considered a good bearer. PABST. The Pabst is a splendid bearer and was first propagated by Mr. Charles E. Pabst, of Ocean Springs, Miss., in 1,890. 58 The nut is of large size, averaging about 45 to 55 nuts per pound; form short, cylindrical, with a very blunt, broadly grooved apex; color dull gray, heavily splashed with purplish black; shell thick, hard; partitions rather thick, cracking quality medium; kernel plump, smooth with broad grooved, bright straw color; texture fine; flavor delicate; quality very good. This variety is recommended not only for the pecan belt but for the more northern plantings. The tree is very sturdy, upright, with stocky gray green young wood, sparsely sprinkled with large dots. The Pabst has been quite generally planted in Alabama and adapts itself to a wide range of territory. Its rather thick shell is its only fault. Recommended by the author. RUSSELL. The Russell pecan tree, like all others at Ocean Springs, Miss., was grown from planted nuts, that locality being below the native range of the species in that section. This tree was one of a lot of seedlings grown by the late Col. WN.R. Stuart, of Ocean Springs, Miss. Mr. Charles E. Pabst first propagated it in 1894. The tree is a fairly regular bearer, averaging about 150 pounds of nuts per annum, and, though receiving little care or attention, is a healthy, vigorous tree at present writing. It has attained a high local reputation on account of its exceptionally thin shell and regularity of bearing. Rather late in maturing its crop in many places. DESCRIPTION. Size medium to large, 55 to 60 nuts per pound; form compressed, oval, tapering to a long, sharp apex and a rather pointed base; color grayish brown, with narrow splashes and spatters of purplish black; shell very thin, partitions very thin and fragile, cracking quality excellent; kernel broadly grooved, rather dark straw color, often 59 lacking in plumpness and defective at tip, texture rather dry, flavor pleasant, quality good. The tree is rather pendulous in habit, with slender, dark, conspicuously dotted young wood, bearing regularly and well, so far as tested. SCHLEY. This variety is a seedling of the Stuart. It was grown by Mr. A. G. Delmas of Scranton, Miss. The seed was planted in 1881 and the original Schley tree still stands on his grounds. Sometimes this nut is called the "Admiral Schley." It is medium sized to large, quite variable, ranging from 45 to 69 nuts per pound; oblong conic to long obvate, with conical apex; color golden brown with a few purple splashes toward apex; shell very thin, partitions thin and brittle, cracking very easily; kernel long, slender, bright, rather deeply and narrowly grooved, but releasing so easily that the entire kernel can readily be removed without mutilation; texture fine grained; flavor delicate, sweet rich; quality very good. The slenderness of the kernel is objectionable from the confectioner's standpoint. The crop is quite variable as to quantity and the nuts vary considerably in size and form. The original tree which is twenty-five years old bore 125 pounds of nuts in 1905. It shows great promise and should be thoroughly tested in districts bordering the Gulf of Mexico. There is an occasional tendency for the nuts to get out of shape and in extremely dry seasons the nuts often curl. However, faulty nuts are never found. Recommended for Alabama. 60 STUART. (Synonym: Castanera.) The original tree of this which is generally considered the most widely successful pecan variety yet introduced and tested, stood in a garden at Pascagoula, Miss., now owned by Captain E. Castanera. It is supposed to have, been brought from Mobile, Ala., and planted in 1874. It was first propagated by Mr. A. G. Delmas, of Scranton, Mss., who cut cions in 1886. Out of sixty grafts inserted he secured one tree which still survives in his garden. Mr. Kellar then associated with Col. W. IR. Stuart of Ocean Springs, Miss., secured cions from the tree about 1890 from which trees were propagated by them in their nursery. About 1892 Colonel Stuart offered these for sale under the name Stuart. It is undoubtedly one of the most widely disseminated varieties throughout the South. Size large to very large, averaging about 40 to 50 nuts per pound; form cylindrical, slightly compressed, rather blunt apex and rounded base; color brownish gray, splashed and dotted with purplish black; shell moderately thin; partitions thin and fragile; cracking quality very good; kernel bright, moderately smooth, plump, rather narrowly grooved; texture firm, fine grained, solid; flavor delicate, rich; quality very good. The Stuart is generally uniform in size and quite plump but the shell is rather thick and it is difficult to remove the kernels without mutilating them.' This fact has caused some of the nurserymen to restrict their stock of this variety. * The Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington treats such nuts as Stuart as follows where a number are to be cracked. Allow them to soak in water 10 to 12 hours. Dry them under an electric fan for about 15 minutes. This toughens up the kernels and about 90% of them can be removed whole. Il"liu li'fl to ri lit '1'le cnri tii. Illm ll :1k ,\o rin liu I'Ialc I\ . :11-o :i., fulli c : Top rms. 11:111wrl, Tied e, l'tlrtis. M iilille rm\', Nel.'ui. Deluuis. All(.F. It(Ot''nl r(m. Alou }u ak r, All)hily and (,I'lloto I)y _ lilLor.) Capitol. 61 A strong point in favor of the Stuart is the fact that it puts out its foliage late in the spring. The tree of Stuart is a strong, upright, spreading grower, with moderately stout young wood, grayish green in color, rather sparsely dotted with oval dots. It is proving regularly and abundantly productive in most localities where it has been fruited and is apparently succeeding over a wider climatic range than any other sort thus far tested. Recommended for planting in Alabama. SUCCESS. The original tree of this variety is standing at Ocean Springs, Mississippi. Mr. Theo. Bechtel was the propagator of the variety which was introduced by him in 1903. DESCRIPTION. Size large, running 45 to 50 nuts per pound; form oblong, with rather sharply conical base and blunt apex; color grayish brown, with rather heavy purplish stripes, especially toward the apex; shell fair of medium thickness, with moderately thick partitions cracking quality; kernel roundish oval, plump, bright, somewhat flaky in texture, but of pleasant flavor and very good quality. act It resembles Pabst especially in habit of growth and at the apex of nuts. Recommended for planting in the lower portion of the State. It bears at an early age and is a vigorous strong grower. Its tendency to put out its foliage a little late in the spring is a strong point in its favor. TAYLOR. The original tree of this variety is supposed to have grown from a nut planted by the brother of the ,been 62 presen owner, Miss Lula Taylor, of Handsboro, Miss., about 1885. The variety was first propagated by W. F. Heikes, of Huntsville, Ala., at his Biloxi, Miss., nursery, about 1901, and, having been named in honor of its owner, was introduced by him in 1902. Nuts of it were examined and passed upon by the committee of nomenclature and standards of the National Nut Growers' Association at Scranton, Miss., in November, 1906, at which time it received a grade of 86.06 out of a possible 100. The original tree of the Taylor is now about 60 feet tall, with a spread of 45 to 50 feet, and a trunk diameter of about 18 inches. DESCRIPTION. Form long, rather slender, constricted near middle, slightly curved, with pointed base and long, sharp apex; color bright yellowish brown, with few and narrow black markings irregularly placed; size rather large, 60 to 65 per pound; shell thin, with thin and soft partitions, cracking very easily; kernel long, slender, rather deeply grooved, but plump, smooth, and releasing the shell easily; color bright yellowish; texture very fine grained and crisp; flavor sweet, nutty, free from astringence; quality very good. Though not yet fruited, so far as known, outside of the locality of its origin in southern Mississippi, its numerous desirable qualities indicate that it is worthy of testing where other Gulf coast varieties succeed. TECIE. (Synonyms: "Frotscher No. 2;" "Duplicate Frotscher;" "Fake Frotscher;" "Spurious Frotscher.") Among the budded trees of the Frotscher pecan, it has recently been discovered that there were trees of at least one other variety quite closely resembling it in 63 wood and habit growth, but yielding a smaller and more conical nut. This sort, which reached a number of growers, including Mr. J. B. Wight, of Cairo, Ga., and Dr. J. B. Curtis, of Orange Heights, Fla., in this way has proved to be of sufficient merit to entitle it to a distinctive name. The place of its origin is not known. Acting on this supposition, the committee on nomenclature and standards of the National Nut Growers' Association, at. its annual meeting at Scranton, Miss., in November, 1906, named the variety "Teche" to distinAs there appears to guish it from the Frotscher. be good reason to suppose that several other varieties closely resembling Frotscher have been and still are mixed with that variety in many orchards and nurseries, the name Teche should not be indiscriminately applied to all the "spurious" Frotschers, but should be restricted in its application to the one which is here described from specimens grown by Mr. Wight on tree obtained from the Nelson nursery in 1895. DESCRIPTION. Size medium to large, averaging 55 to 65 nuts per pound; form long oval, compressed, tapering gradually, with the smaller specimens slightly curved near apex; color bright, light, with few broken black stripes; shell comparatively thin, but thicker than Frotscher, with which it was disseminated through error; partitions thin and soft; cracking quality excellent; kernel bright and free from the objectionable brownish veining of the Frotscher, plump and uniformly well filled, with shallow grooves; texture of meat firm, fine grained, solid, creamy in color; flavor delicate, rich; quality, very good. The tree is of more slender and upright habit of growth than Frotscher, and is reported to be fully as productive as that variety in Georgia and Florida. It is worthy of trial wherever that variety succeeds. This variety should be given a fair trial in Alabama. It is prolific and conies into bearing early. 64 VAN DEMAN. (Synonyms: Bourgeois, Dulnminie Mire, Mire; Mere and Meyer erroneously; Paragon in part, Southern Beauty.) The original tree of this variety was grown from a nut planted by the late Dumnminie Mire, of Union, St. James Parish, La., in 1836. About 1877 Emil Bourgeois cut cions from it for propagation. Eleven out of twenty-two he set as top grafts succeeded. When these grafts began bearing he commenced propagating young trees for planting in orchard form and for sale to nearby planters, among whom it is known as the "Dumminie Mire" pecan to this date. A number of nuts and some cions from these grafted trees having passed into the hands of Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean Springs, Miss., about 1890 he renamed the variety VanDeman in honor of Prof. H. E. Van Deman, then Pomologist of the Department of Agriculture. Since 1892 it has been widely advertised and distributed under this name. Mr. W. A. Taylor, now of the Department of Agriculture, personally inspected the original trees at Union Post Office, La., in 1902 and states that it was a beautiful, thrifty tree, measuring seven feet six inches in circumference and bearing from 2(00 to 390 pounds of nuts per annum. Size large to very large, averaging from 45 to 55 nuts per pound; form long, compressed, with a rather sharp base and a long, sharp apex, often slightly curved; color rather dark, reddish brown; slightly splashed with purplish black, especially toward apex; shell moderately thin, partitions thick but brittle; cracking quality fair; kernel long, narrowly grooved, generally plump, except at tip; color bright, clean, attractive, rich; quality very good. 65 The tree is of a strong moderately erect habit, with grayish-green young wood showing in conspicuous dots, and is a regular and abundant bearer in the locality of its origin. It does not thus far appear to be as productive elsewhere nor to fill out its kernels as well. The above descriptions cover most of the nuts known to be growing in Alabama. With further tests perhaps some will be thrown out but for a number of years the grower must determine for himself the varieties which seem to readily adapt themselves and produce the finest and greatest quantity of nuts on his soils. Pecans can be grown in every county in Alabama and it is hoped that this Bulletin will create more interest in this profitable industry. Plant pecan trees either for their shade or their profits. The best nut for every county has been found and every farmer should try out new varieties and keep records of them, then in a few years we can safely say which is the best nut for each particular county. Co-operative work along these lines is strongly urged and specimens of nuts with the form filled in under Appendix and their names should be sent into the State Horticulturist at Auburn, Ala., for recording. 5P 66 APPENDIX GENERAL FORM FOR PECAN RECORDS. All persons owning budded or grafted trees or exceptionally fine seedling trees should keep records of them in the following way. This outline was prepared by the Secretary of the National Nut Growers' Association and where possible this blank should be properly filled in, torn out and mailed to the State Horticulturist at Auburn, Alabama, as these records will be invaluable to the State at large. GENERAL. 1. 2. Name of variety. Place of observation. 3. Origin and parentage of tree. 4 Date of Planting. 5 General character of growth. 6. Height., 7. Circumference, 3 feet from the ground. 8. Form of top-upright, spreading or dropping. LEAF. 1. 2. 3. 4. Date Date Date Date of of of of first appearance. full leaf. first falling of leaf. tree bare. 67 FLOWER. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Yield. of of of of of of of of appearance of first male flowers. full blooning of male flowers. disappearance of male blossom. formation of first nuts. first mature nuts. average ripening of crop. last ripening. gathering crop. INSECT INJURIES. 1. 2. 3. 4. What What What What insects affect the limbs, trunks, leaves? is the extent and character of the damage? fungus diseases affect the tree? is the character and extent of the damage? CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 1. Frosts-date of occurrence at or after blooming. 2. Frosts--date of occurrence before ripening of fruit. 3. Rainfall, by months. 4. Temperature, maximum and minimum, each month. This can be supplied from nearest Weather Bureau station. SOIL AND DRAINAGE. 1. 2. 3. 4. Character of surface soil. Character of the subsoil. Lay of the land, flat, sloping or hilly. Exposure. 68 5. Proximity t streams or ponds. 6. Depth to ground water, as indicated by average water of near by wells. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS. 1. Date after permanent planting that tree bore first nuts. 2. Is the tree a regular or irregular bearer? 3. Is the tree solitary? If not, how near to other trees? 4. 5. Does the nut part easily from the husk? Fertilizers-kind, amount, when applied? BULLETIN NO. 156 ALABAMA SEPTEMBER, 1911 Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN PEACH GROWING IN ALABAMA BY P. F. WILLIAMS, Horticulturist AND J. C. C. PRICE, Ass't. Horticulturist- .Opelika, 1911 Ala. Post Publishing Company COMM IT'TEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION HON, R. F. KOLB__ HON. H. L. MARTIN- HON. A. W. BELL_. STATION STAFF C. C. THACHJ . F . D UGG A R -- _Montgomery ----Ozark Anniston B. B. Ross Y -C. A. CART - - -- - - ------------------------ Chemist and ------------ President of the College State Chemist Director and Agriculturist F. E. LLOYD -P. F. WILLIAMS- J, T. ANDERSON HINDS-- DAN T. GRAY -. __ VVeterinarian and Director Farmers' Institutes ------ ------ - -- --- -- --- Bo tanist .__ ___ __ ___ __. ____-_ -__H orticulturist Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations .___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___Anim al Industry W. E. ----------------ntom ologist ----E ------ ------ C. L. HARE- - L. N. DUNCAN*-.- -- C hem ist T. BRAGG -- - E. F CAUTHEN.W. F. WARD*-I. S. MCADORYF. TURNERM. J. FUNCHESSJ. B HOBDY*--------C. S. RIDGWAY------J. C. C. PRICE - - - - - -L. W . SHOOK --------E. R. EUDALY* -------J. T. WILLIAMSON- ----- ---__________Junior -______--_-Assistant Superintendent of Extension Work ------------ --- First Assistant Chemist Associate Agriculturist and Recorder W. ---- ---Assistant ----- --- -Assistant in Entomology Agriculturist in Botany Animal Husbandman in Veterinary Science -Assistant in Extension Work ---- ---- A ssistant -------- ____ ___ ___Assistant in Horticulture ___ -_________Assistant in Animal Industry _ _Assistant in Beef and Swine Husbandry L. L. GLOVER -- ---- ---- ----------------------- Field Agent in Agriculture ield Agent in Agriculture Horticulture H. 0. E. HODSON M. CONOLLY ------H. SELLERS---- --- _ J. COHEN-- - - - ----- - - - - - - - - ____ ---______ ---- ----___ ------ Field Assistant in ___Secretary to Director inAgriculture Assistant I. W. CARPENTER ------L. W. SUMMERS-------S. S. JERDAN*--- - -A. C. R. GISSENDANNER ---. Assistant in Swine Husbandry - - - - - - -D. ALLIS-____ ____ ____-__ Assistant in Poultry Co-operation with U. S. Department of Agriculture. -------------Assistant in Beef ---------- ____ ___ ___Assistant in Chemistry ___ Field Assistant in Entomology Assistant in Animal Industry Industry *In PEACH GROWING IN ALABAMA Peaches can be grown with success in practically all parts of Alabama, certain sections being particularly well adapted to their culture. The average fruit grown in this State has fine flavor and a good appearance, and is of exceptionally good shipping quality; the latter point being most important, as it is a difficult fruit to handle. Few fruit bearing plants are less particular about the soil in which they grow, and few will yield so much fruit in proportion to the land they occupy. Peaches will grow and bear heavy crops with very little attention, and yet without intelligent care, they are sure to prove disappointing. The work of caring for the trees is comparatively simple and easily learned. The development of new varieties has made the crop nmuch more certain and the introduction of new methods of spraying has made the control of insects and fungi successful. The outlook for peach growing in Alabama, has never been better than it is at present. The soils and weather conditions are as favorable as they were years ago, except some of the land has been neglected and is in need of fertilization. Several through lines of railroads give an outlet to the best Northern markets. The old markets are consuming more fruit each year, and new markets are being developed in the rapidly growing towns and cities. For the past few years first class peaches have brought fancy prices. The number of trees in some sections have greatly decreased because of poor shipping facilities, fungous diseases, and insect pests. With proper culture, spraying, etc., no other State offers a better opportunity for the peach growing induotry. LOCATION. For home use, one can have character, but for commercial given to the selection of a site ing the best advantages in choosing a location' one must fair success on soils of diverse use, careful attention must be favorable to the crop, and havshipping, marketing, etc. In have in mind the ultimate de- 112 velopment of the orchard. If only a limited amount is to be grown, for local markets or express shipments, it is best to locate convenient to a good market, or preferably, near several small ones. S STE. After the locality has been determined, a proper site for the. orchard must be selected, and to do this, a number of things must be considered. The higher land should be selected rather than the low bottom, and some parts of the farm may be better suited than others. Good air drainage is a most i rpo-tant factor to be considered, as the fruit is not as likely to be injured by frost when such is secured. By selecting a site elevated above the surrounding. land, good air drainage is secured, with free circulation of air in the summer, keeping the brown rot reduced and producing fruit of high color. Never select a site exposed to strong winds, as the trees are blown about until they become loosened in the soil; spraying is difficult, trees loaded with fruit are apt to be broken and the fruit shaken from the trees before it has matured. The soil is also an important factor in selecting the site. The soil best suited for the peach is a well drained sandy loam with a good porous sub-soil. Any of the loams may be used. Soils containing stiff clay or coarse sand for any depth should be avoided. PREPARATION OF THE LAND. The preparation of the land for planting should be thoroughly done, as without this trees will start off poorly. The prep ration of the land should be made as thorough for peaches as for the cotton or truck crop. If the trees are to be planted, in the spring, the ground should be plowed as early as possible, so as to conserve moisture. Late plowing tends to dry ott the soil. For fall planting, the land may be sown in cowpeas the summer previous. All large stones should be picked up and carted off. All stumps should be pulled out of the ground and burned. Any other litter that would hinder the growth of the orchard, should be removed, 113 SELECTION OF TREES. Nurserymen grade trees according to their caliper (diameter) and height. It is best to select trees graded by caliper, as in many cases they may be simply a long whip, and of very small caliper. Where the tree is to be cut back to the proper height, there is less waste of growth. In selecting the trees, those of medium size, either one year "dormant" or first class "June buds" are preferable. June buds may be secured from four to five feet in height, or from 7/16 to 9/16 inches caliper, which are excellent for setting. Trees are graded as follows: Peach One year: Height in ft. 6-8, 5-6, 4-5, 3-4, 2-3, 1-2. Caliper in inches 34 and up, /, 9/16-/, '-9/16,, 7/16-/ 3s-7/16. Height in ft. 5-6, 4-5, 3-4, 2- 3 , 1'2-2, 1-1/, /-1. Caliper in inches -7/16. 7/16-/, /-/4, 9/16-/s, Peach June Buds: /-9/16, It is usually best to patronize the local nurserymen, as they generally handle the varieties that are best adapted to local conditions. In case the local dealer does not handlei varieties desired, it is best to order from a distance, ?ath than accept undesirable stock. It is an advantage, in purchasing trees from the local nursery, to be able to inspect them before purchasing. Again, one is less apt to introduce injurious insects and diseases that are uncommon to the neighborhood. The home nurseryman in order to continue his business must supply trees as represented. PLANTING. There are two seasons for planting orchards, namely, in the. fall and spring. Both have their advantages and disadvantages. The trees planted in the fall have a better chance to become established in the soil, ready for growth in the spring; the roots that have been broken having calloused. The greatest disadvantage of planting in the fall is that such trees are apt to 114 be blown and rocked by the winter winds until they become loosened in the ground: This can be remedied however, by going through the orchard in the early spring, and pressing the soil about the trees. Trees planted in the spring, have less chance to become established, and if the season is dry, there is a greater risk of losing them. In planting the trees, the hole should be dug large enough to allow the trees to be planted without crowding any of the roots. The sub-soil should be well loosened and the tree placed in the hole about one inch deeper than it was in the nursery. All broken and bruised roots should be carefully removed and a search should be made for borers. This may save much trouble later. The bottom of the hole should be filled with good soil, then set in the trees, and fill the hole with soil, and pack it firmly with the heel. On soils that are poor, manure should be used. A splendid method is to dig the hole for the trees and then fill them with manure, leaving them until two or three good rains have fallen. The fertilizing material is thus leached out and carried into the soil. When ready to plant, the manure is forked out, and the trees put in place, and the manure mixed with the soil about the trees. When manure is not obtainable, the trees are planted, placing good soil in the bhttom of the holes, and applying commercial fertilizers in ly_ spring, about the time when the trees are budding out. LAYING OFF THE ORCHARD. There are several ways of laying off an orchard, viz.: in squares, triangles, and in rows running parallel with the terraces. In most cases squares 18x18 feet are the best, as cultivation and spraying operations are carried on much easier. The most satisfactory way is to have the orchard in as regular form as it can be made, on the site selected. The outside rows should not be crowded against the fence, making it impossible to get around the trees in these rows to cultivate and spray them. Mixed planting is generally unsuccessful. In such cases, the culture for one fruit is radically different from that required by the other, for example, the apple planted with the peach. Peaches and plums are in the same class, but plums- 115 rot so much quicker than peaches, they are apt to be a disadvantage to the peaches when planted with them. It is rather a difficult problem to make the orchard rows straight on rolling ground. An orchard with straight rows is much more attractive and satisfactory than one irregularly planted. The time devoted to lining up the rows will be repaid during the life of the orchard. The first step is to establish a base line along one side of the proposed orchard, preferably on the longer side. If the field is to be set in squares, another line should be run at right angles to this base line, starting at the corner of the field where the first tree is to stand. The direction of this line may be established by the use of a carpenter's square on three stakes, one at the corner, 'another along the base line, and another along the side line. Good, strong stakes should be driven in the ground where the trees are to be planted on the base and side lines. A wire or cord may be stretched across the field parallel to the base line, and this will indicate the position of the second row, and this process is continued until the entire field has been laid off. Conspicuous tags should be tied to the wire at intervals equal to the distances apart which the trees are to be planted in the row. Distance between the trees:-The proper distance between the trees, depends upon their ultimate size, variety, soil, location, and kind of treatment they are to be given. With good treatment and rich soils, some of the larger growing varieties should be planted twenty to twenty-four feet apart, while on the poorer land sixteen feet apart will be sufficient. Commercial orchards require a greater distance between the trees than for those in a home orchard, as more space is required in the former for the use of machinery in spraying and cultivating. It is best in all cases to give the trees plenty of room, as a higher grade of fruit, and larger crops are borne on the individual trees if they are not crowded. The best distance is 18 ft x 18 ft. or 18 ft. x 20 ft. apart. The first distance will give 134 trees per acre, and the latter 121 trees per acre. FERTILIZERS. Peach trees will generally make a satisfactory growth the first year, if the soil has been well prepared, the trees planted 116 ,arly, and given good culture. If the land is poorly prepared ,and the weeds are allowed to grow between the young trees, very little growth is to be expected. It is a bad practice to plant trees on poor land, and then try to build that land up. It is far more satisfactory to turn under a few crops of cow peas or other organic material before planting the peach trees. However, with a moderately poor soil, a successful orchard may be produced, with proper management and fertilization. For soils that will produce a fair crop of corn ,the following formulae are recommended at the rate of 3 lbs. for one year old trees, and increased 1 lb. for each year until the seventh year, which will give a full grown tree eight to ten pounds: Acid Phosphate 14% ............. 1060 lbs. ....... 580 lbs. 360 lbs. 2000 lbs. 925 lbs. 580 lbs. 360 lb. 1865 lbs. 13 lbs:. C. S. M . ................... Muriate of Potash .............. Total ....................... Or the following: Acid Phosphate 16% ............... C. S. M ......................... Muriate of Potash... . . . . . . . . . Soil or sand ..................... Total ....................... 2000 lbs. The materials for the above formulae can be secured and mixed at home, thus saving the cost of having them mixed or paying freight on sand or soil. The mixing can be done by spreading out the different materials on the barn floor. All lumps should be broken up with a shovel, and the pile should be turned several times. With a little care, the pile can be evenly mixed, and this work can be done on rainy days when the farm hands have spare time. The .method of applying the fertilizer consists of putting the desired amounts about the trees out as far as the branche3 extend, and care being taken not to spread any of the fertilizer in a zone of two feet immediately around the trunk. Where cowpeas or clover are grown between the trees, these 117 will maintain the fertility of the soil on that space. With the above fertilization of the trees, and with the cultivation of the legumes mentioned, the trees will get the full benefit of the fertilizers applied. A cover crop of rye, vetch, or clover should be used to hold the soil during the winter rains. LIMING THE SOIL. A large proportion of the soils of the State are acid, and reThe blue litmus test is genquire an application of lime. erally sufficient to determine whether or not soils are acid. Either the air slaked or the ground lime rock, may be used. Soils that are not apt to leach badly may have a liberal appli cation, and may not require to be limed again for several years. Soils of a sandy nature, and which leach easily should be limed frequently. Two or three tons per acre is considered a liberal application. It is a good practice to use 20 to 30 bushels per acre each spring, especially when green crops are being turned under. Lime corrects acidity and aids the soil in decomposing organic material in it. PRUNING. Of all our orchard trees, the peach stands in greatest need of careful and regular pruning. The pruning of the peach should be practiced every winter, and it should be cut back mnore severely than any other fruit tree. A study of the habit of growth of the peach, makes this statement more emphatic. The fruit buds of the apple or pear are mostly borne on old, short spurs, attached to the older limbs. The fruit spurs of the apple and pear lengthen but little each year and the fruit is found for the most part on the body of the tree instead of on the new growth at the extremities of the branches. On the contrary, the fruit buds of the peach, are borne chiefly on the long whips of new growth, which is most abundant at the extremity of the branches. In order to secure an abundant crop of peaches, it is necessary to so treat the trees, as to secure abundant new wood growth, the year before the peach crop is expected. PI_ A I I I. .A one-pear-old tree showing normal >4- vih hc:uliog low. Photo taken August Ist_ 1411. result d l , rmirl tht" 11cad.-Thc one tree that i vvcll ,halcd, ;111(M lllentY of ;tir and tate the nlleratlnllti of main thin" in yicv\ i- tit ltraV-ill- -llich ul the Itccc in primilil, tlcltcild, on grtting the tree >tartcd r] ,-ht the 1114 year. W11cli the yuun- tree i , lllalitcd in t1w Orchard it should >trlppcd of all it, limbs, and cut back 1S to 24 inches above the (r)ill ld. deltendin'- Ill xn the ,izc tof the tree. I'ar-c tree; -hottld nut he Cut back as far a, ,rnlaII ,erne'. If the tree, ;u-c lark and vycll branched, the branchc; >lhould be cllt to three inch stuh , as the burly on the branches arc u, nally better dcvclulletl than on the trunk, and they make a Netter "r(mth. llid)uddin is rece arv if the arv, and if robbed (dif at the llrullcr time, mll thrmy the gnmih to the rest of the tree where it i , recded. l'or an ideal tree three shoots should he allowed to gi-mv from 3 to () inches from each other, and in such a way that they vyill form equal tri- \ cruitchlc( ci amd~c , aih, nt thec ti-mik if v icxxd fimi in ib c. Beal shldi be ax 'Mdci in tie cb'ach tree a, wxithi all o1hcr t- ii'tild be dl rtcncti back at thec clt sc of cc trees. TIEc thre iii Ill to altnlit lle fot in lcitl, andi duriiig the firsK ciiti1 the c dix ice inlto three r' four 'xxci tlicx 11111(1 het aliowt netjt calvi hriant. lic -it' ldhtakc place tle thiirdi -ca-i nii. I lll> xxicrc 'tichl a branchec- has dcx dollcd f ri''n ttc umain ibranches a fi ancxx)r 1S to 14 iicihcs fr,,mi tile of tioc trec, whict. I- ic noit lii ric tihai 1 nd _ii liii rcpt. O l~iIi inkcease iii size itn al- factuor not a picinu. all iii ati of a alitN the friti islitcid. \II ripe frit shull 1he -adiiered at ;m ic ciii i lcit iiudgie ile cilicieture can 1\ juiJcer. lie hN athicr cuiiltiill uiteii caiie ilk time if liarN-c ii'. \\ ct wedw cti culend o sioften andl onuhuciiil\ thtey nutit I c piked carlier ai such ii io ;uiil lhe onl 129 a time. Careless picking ruins many a grower. The fruits must be handled carefully. Do not allow them to be dropped into the baskets or allow them to be poured from one basket to another. PACKING. At the packing house the fruit should be culled, grading it according to size at the same time. Imperfect fruit means those which are even slightly bruised, curculio stung, showing slightest signs of decay, and deformed or split slightly along the suture. It requires much experience and skill to grade the fruit properly. The packers should also be required to cull the fruit as the graders often allow inferior fruit to remain unnoticed. Much of the culled fruit can be regraded and shipped as culls, canned, or evaporated. Peaches are generally packed in the Georgia six-carrier crate which holds 7-8 of a bushel. Each carrier or "cup" should be packed uniformly. The colored side of each peach should show to the best advantage. The crate should be full enough to require slight pressure on the top to fasten it. A competent inspector should watch every layer placed in the cups. All crates should be labelled according to the grade of fruit they contain. Trouble may result from careless work here. It is rather difficult for all growers to decide on standards for grades. Each grower, or each organization, as the case may be, attempts some such standardization. Mr. Jones may put his Carmans out as "Extra Fancies" and Mr. Smith may do likewise yet the actual grade of the former's may be far superior to that of the latter. If both shipments reach the same market the commission men spend little time in deciding the merits of the case and Mr. Jones gets the order the next season. However, Mr. Smith may have been very conscientious in his grading. The best fruit one year may not reach that standard the next year and where a standard has been set, maintain it, even if it should be necessary to send out crates labelled "seconds" one or two seasons. Honesty counts here as elewhere. Serious losses are often caused by the shipment reaching a so-called "glutted" market. The majority of the large growers seem to think that New York, Philadelphia and Chicago need 130 all the peaches. As a result prices in those cities very often hardly pay the freight, while smaller cities are hungry for peaches and willing to pay good prices for them. BY-PRODUCTS. Some of the largest growers in Alabama have installed large canning factories in their orchards and find them very profitable investments. Canning the peaches prevents loss from poor shipping facilities at the time the crop is moving and furnishes employment for experts and laborers should the market "go wrong." Every farmer who owns peach trees should have a home canning outfit. These can be purchased from $5.00 up and one season's trial with one will prove their value. Having a goodly supply of canned peaches in mid-winter sounds better than feeding surplus peaches to the hogs. Farmers' Bulletin No. 426 gives instruction concerning the operation of canning and demonstrations have been conducted by the Horticultural Department at Auburn during the farmer's institutes and also in co-operation with the Extension Department. There are a number of reliable firms handling home canning outfits and the names of these can easily be secured by referring to the advertisements in the various horticultural journals. Some of the oufits familiar to the writers and which give very good satisfaction are as follows: Tharpe Hardware Mfg. Co., Elkin, N. C. Slemmer & Son, Goldsboro, Md. Home Canner Co., Chattanooga, Tenn. The Raney Canner Co., Chapel Hill, N. C. Reeves and Son, Collinsville, Ala. Dixie Hardware Mfg Co., Elkin, N. C. F. S. Stahl Mfg. Co., Quincy, Illinois. Cans are supplied by many companies, a few given below: E. F. Kirwin & Co., Baltimore, Md. American Can Co., Atlanta, Ga. Modern Canner Co., Chattanooga, Tenn. F. S. Stahl Mfg. Co., Quincy, Illinois. 131 A FEW DONT'S. Don't purchase trees from tree agents unless they and the companies they represent are well known. Don't turn stock in the orchard. Don't sow oats in the orchard. Don't plant too many varieties in commercial orcharding. Don't wait until the last minute to order crate material. Don't allow the trees'to suffer from insects and diseases as attention to spraying will control both. Don't ship immature fruit. Don't attempt pruning with cheap and dull knives. SELECTION OF VARIETIES. The question of varieties is a most important one with the large grower. He can ill afford to plant varieties other than those given a fair trial in the vicinity of his proposed orchard. The description of varieties which follows is based entirely on notes taken at this Station for the past eight years and the dates of blooming, ripening, quality, etc., will only be relative in other portions of the State. There is generally a difference of two weeks between the ripening period of trees in the southern section of the State and those at the Station. In the northern section of the State the fruit will ripen about two weeks later than at Auburn. The home orchard should contain varieties which will give a succession of fruit from May 15th to August 15th. Only those varieties should be selected which have either been tried in your particular vicinity or reported upon by Experiment Stations of the southern States. The local nmarket generally prefers freestone varieties, which can be used for home canning. Shipping varieties require durability to withstand long rail trips and they should have firm flesh and rather thick skin. Notes on varieties tested at Auburn follow: DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. ALEXANDER.-Low spreading tree, vigorous grower; fruit small to medium; color pink on yellow ground; flesh white; quality rather poor; fair for home use; ripens May 30th to June 5th. AMELIA.-An upright grower but shy bearer; fruit medium to 132 small; apex prominent and distinct; color yellow with splashes and dots of crimson; flesh yellow, red at pit, firm and rather coarse; quality fairly good; freestone; ripens August 2nd. ANGEL.-Tree prolific; fruit medium size, round and slightly pointed; skin yellow washed with red; flesh white, sweet; freestone ripens July 10th to 14th; for home use. BEAUTY BLUSH.-Large upright tree, light foliage; heavy bearer; fruit medium to large; freestone; ripens June 30th to July 6th; recommended for home use. BELLE-(Georgia Belle).-Tree of low spreading habit, vigorous grower, and very productive; foliage heavy; fruit very large; skin greenish white with splashes of carmine; flesh white, firm, flavor sweet; quality good; freestone; ripens July 1st to 10th; good shipper; highly recommended for home and market. CARMAN.-Tree round and well shaped, vigorous and medium size; foliage heavy; fruit large, round and flattened at cavity; skin light yellow with crimson patches deepening to magenta in sun; flesh white, quality fine, freestone when fully ripe; the best for its season; excellent shipper; ripens June 1st to 10th; highly recommended for home and market. CHAMPION.-Tree has spreading top, a heavy bearer; fruit round, large; skin greenish yellow-rose in sun; flesh greenish white, solid, sub-acid; fair quality; good for commercial or home use; ripens June 26th to July 6th. CHINESE CLING.-Open, spreading and fairly vigorous tree; fruit slightly oblong, very large; skin straw colored, with deep red blush, striped and splashed; skin thin showing slight bruises; flesh white, reddish at pit, soft and tender; mild sub-acid, quality excellent; prolific; a good shipper, and also good for home use; ripens July 4th to 11th. COBLERS INDIAN.-A fair peach of medium size, ripening July 15th to the 20th, but not recommended for this section. DAWSON.-Tree slow growing, unproductive; fruit round, medium large; Skin, upper half rich magenta in irregular splotches on crimson; lower half rich yellow; flesh yellow, flavor excellent, quality good; a poor shipper and not recommended for this section. Ripens June 15th. ADMIRAL DEWEY.-Tree an upright grower; winter kills badly; prolific; fruit medium to large, conical in shape; skin rough, red to yellow, flavor very good; quality fine; rots badly and a poor shipper; ripens June 10th to 15th. EARLY CRAWFORD.-Tree vigorous with open top; fruit medium to large, round; skin yellow, reddish in sun, flesh yellow, reddish at pit, firm; freestone, quality good, shy bearer; ripens July 10th to 14th. Not recommended. ELBERTA.-Tree vigorous, spreading, with heavy foliage; a good bearer; fruit large, skin yellow, rose tinted in sun; flesh yellow, firm and juicy, sub-acid; good quality, excellent for shipping and home use; a standard variety; ripens July 8th to 20th. EMMA.-Tree of large upright form, very productive, but fruit rots and drops badly; fruit round, small; skin has tinge of pink on yellow ground; flesh yellow, sweet to sub-acid; quality fair; ripens July 15th to 25th, freestone, for home use. EVERBEARING.-Not promising so far; ripens July 18th to 22nd. FAMILY FAVORITE.-Tree vigorous, fruit ripens a day later than Champion, and resembles that fruit, being a little smaller, and 133 not as heavy a bearer; flavor sub-acid; fair quality; ships fairly well; recommended for home use; ripens July 2nd to the 8th. FAME.-An upright growing tree; fruit medium size, freestone; yellow flesh; good quality; rots badly; for home use only; ripens July 18th. FRANCES.-A large upright growing tree; fruit of medium size; skin magenta on yellow ; flesh yellow, sweet; freestone; quality good; ripens July 15th to 19th. GLOBE.-A well shaped, vigorous tree of medium size, not prolific; fruit medium to large, round; skin a yellowish green with pink blush; flesh yellow, firm; sub-acid; fair quality, ships well, but being unproductive is not recommended; ripens July 14th to 17th. GOV. HOGG.-A large upright growing tree, fairly productive; foliage medium to heavy; fruit large, round; skin cream yellow with light crimson blush in sun; flesh cream yellow, pinkish near pit; slightly sub-acid; good quality; ripens June 22nd to 26th; too soft for shipment; recommended for home use. GRAY.-Tree spreading, fairly productive; fruit large, flesh yellow; freestone; acid; ripens June 26th to July 8th; not recommended. GREENSBORO.--Vigorous low spreading tree, with heavy foliage, and fairly productive; buds and. wood hardy; fruit large, oblong, compressed; skin velvety, light yellow, pinkish about apex and along suture; flesh white, sweet and juicy; quality good; cracks badly; ripens at apex first, highly recommended for home use; ripens May 25th to June 1st. HILEY (Early Belle).-A low spreading, fairly vigorous tree; a rather irregular bearer; fruit conical, medium to large; skin very light yellow, with crimson blush; flesh white, tinged with red near tip, fairly firm and juicy; sub-acid; quality very good, a good shipper; ripens June 21st to 30th; recommended for home or market. HONEY (De Montigny).-Fruit medium size, oval compressed, suture deep, apex sharp recurved; skin whitish yellow; flesh creamy white, juicy and very sweet; freestone; ripens July 1st to 10th; recommended for South Alabama. IMPERIAL (White Imperial).-Fruit medium to large, skin greenish yellow, washed with red; flesh white, sweet and juicy, flavor excellent; quality good; freestone; ripens July 10th to 14th. INGOLD (Lady Ingold), (Stark).-Wood and buds tender; fruited in 1906, ripening July 2nd to July 5th; fruits were well colored, seventy-five per cent dropped from brown rot; color deep yellow with red cheek, showy; flesh yellow, red at pit, juicy and good; freestone. LATE CRAWFORD (Crawford's Late).-Fruit of medium size, round; skin yellow with red cheek; flesh yellow, red at stone; tender, free; quality good; buds rather tender; only suitable to certain localities; a good shipper; ripens July 10th to 15th. LEMON CLING (Kennedy's Carolina).-An upright growing tree with medium sized foliage; fruit medium, conical; apex very prominent; skin lemon yellow with pink blush; flesh yellowish white, juicy, sweet; quality excellent; ships fairly well; fairly productive; ripens July 17th to 26th. MAMIE ROSS.-A low spreading tree of medium size, with heavy foliage and of medium productiveness; fruit large, round; skin thick, tenacious, light yellow, pinkish near apex; flesh yellow, sub-acid; quality good; home use, promising for' some localities, particularly South Alabama; freestone; ripens May 28th to June 10th. MATTHEWS (Matthews' Beauty).-Tree with large spreading top; vigorous; medium sized foliage and very productive; fruit medium to large, oval; skin greenish yellow with pink splash; flesh 134 yellow, firm, sub-acid; recommended for home use; a fair shipper; ripens July 6th to 14th. MAYFLOWER.-A low spreading tree; productive, fruit medium sized, oval; apex pointed; surface velvety, dark red and evenly colored; flesh greenish white, juicy and soft, sub-acid; quality fair; clingstone; a good bearer and good shipper; valuable for its earliness; ripens May 15th to 20th. McKINNEL.-An upright, rank growing tree with heavy foliage, very productive but very susceptible to rot; trees must be thoroughly sprayed to secure a crop; fruit conical, medium to large; apex small and sharp pointed; surface smooth, red to greenish yellow; flesh yellowish white, fine grained; flavor very good, juicy; quality very good; ripens May 25th to June 5th. MOUNTAIN ROSE.-Tree vigorous with a spreading top and medium foliage; fruit medium sized, roundish; color white with red in sun; flesh white, slightly red at pit, juicy and sweet; freestone; productive; good for home use; ripens July 1st to the 9th. OLDMIXON FREE.-Fruit small to medium sized; color white with red cheek; flesh white and red at pit; fair quality; good for home use only; ripens September 10th to 25th. sized; medium ONDERDONK (Onderdonk's Favorite).-Fruit skin and flesh yellow; productive; freestone; ripens July 15th to 21st. OVIEDA.-A spreading slender branched tree; fruit oval and small; color yellow, blushed with red-attractive; prolific; ripens July 3rd to the 15th. Home use; particularly the southern portion of the state. PALLAS (Honeydew).-A medium sized peach; red tipped at base and apex with light yellow; flesh white, fine grained; freestone; ripens July 6th to 10th. A variety adapted to the southern portion of the state. PEENTO (Chinese Flat).-Fruit medium sized, flattened at both ends; skin pale greenish white with mottling of red in sun; flesh light yellow, sweet and juicy; clingstone. This, like the other varieties of the Peento group, should only be planted in the extreme southern sections of the state, as they bloom so early; ripens June 30th to July 5th. PICQUET (Picquet's Late). A medium to large peach; color yellow with a red cheek; flesh yellow, rich, sweet and of good flavor; ripens July 28th to August 4th. REEVES (Reeve's Favorite). A round, medium sized peach; apex elongated pointed; color yellow green with magneta in sun; flesh yellow, firm, sub-acid; quality rather poor; ripens July 12th to the 15th; prolific. RIVERS (Early Rivers).-A very hardy spreading, vigorous tree; fruit medium to large, conical; surface smooth, white with dark crimson blush in sun; flesh white, firm, fine grained, juicy; very good quality. Too soft to ship; fairly productive and good for home use; ripens June 10th to the 20th. SALWAY.-Fruit large, not attractive yet it ships well and ripens so late that it is very desirable; color yellow, mottled with brownish red; flesh yellow, firm, sub-acid; ripens July 30th to August 6th. SIMMS. An upright vigorous tree with heavy foliage; not prolific and rots badly; fruit of medium size, round; color yellow splashed with red stripes; bloom abundant; skin tough and thick; flesh yellow slightly juicy, sub-acid; quality good; freestone; ripens July 20th to 27th. SLAPPEY.-Upright growing tree, foliage heavy, fairly productive; fruit medium to large, conical; apex elongated, slightly rounded; color bright orange yellow with red cheek; ;flesh yellow, mealy; qual- 135 ity very good; ripens June 19th to the 27th; recommended for commercial or home use. SMOCK (Smock's Free).-An upright growing tree, not hardy, leaves, medium to large; rather productive; fruit medium in size, roundish; color yellow with red cheek; flesh yellow, dry; quality fair; rots badly; recommended for home use only; ripens July 2nd to 6th. SNEED (Peeble's May Cling).-A large spreading tree bearing well when young; fruit medium in size, oval; color creamy white with red blush in sun; flesh white, juicy; semi-cling; quality poor; not recommended; ripens May 15th to June 2nd. STINSON (Stinson's October).-Fruit large, oval; color creamy white; flesh white with pink veins; scabs badly in Station orchard; ripens October 4th to 8th. (Griffith Mammoth).-An upright medium SUSQUEHANNAH sized hardy tree; not prolific; fruit large, oval; apex prominent point; surface smooth; color lemon yellow tinted in sun with magenta-blush; skin thick, tenacious; flesh yellow, rather stringy, very good, subacid; freestone; ripens July 15th to the 20th. TABER.-A large tree, upright, hardy, prolific, with medium sized leaves; fruit medium to large, round; surface yellow, crimson blush in places; flesh whitish yellow, juicy, sub-acid, quality fairly good; excellent for canning; ripens July 1st to the 15th. THURBER.-A medium sized tree, low spreading; productive; fruit large; color creamy white, light crimson in sun; ots small red and numerous; flesh white, red at pit, juicy; freestone; quality very good; a good shipper; ripens July 15th to the 24th; recommended for home use. TILLOTSON (Early Tillotson).-Fruit medium sized, white, practically covered with red; not prolific; ripens June 27th to July 6th. TRIUMPH.-A strong tall growing tree, hardy, very prolific; fruit medium to large, conical; color yellow splashed with maroon; larger portion being covered with red; flesh bright yellow, red at pit; semicling but free when ripe; ripens June 3rd to the 10th; variety for home use or shipping. VICTORIA.-A large, round fruit; color yellow; flesh yellow, juicy; freestone; fairly productive; suitable for south sections of the state; ripens June 23rd. WADDELL.-A low open spreading tree, hardy but not vigorous; leaves medium to large; fruit medium to large; color yellow with pink patches; flesh white, firm and juicy; very productive; an excellent shipper; recommended for general planting; ripe June 28th to July 2nd. WALDO.-Fruit medium sized; roundish oblong; color light yellow, dark red in sunlight; flesh yellowish white, red at pit; sweet and of good quality; freestone; suitable for planting in south portion of state with the others of the Peento group; ripens June 16th to 24th. Varieties and Date of Opening Normal Blooming Dates At Auburn, Ala. of Buds for Season of 1911 FEB. MARCH 13 24 MAYI 30 Normal, Ripening Dates at Auburn, Ala. JUNE 8 17 26 5 JULY AUGUST 1 242711410 Alexander------------------ '14 23 Amelia 2-13-1._-Angel 12-8-11--------- ----- - ------ U U U Beauty Blush 2-13-11 Belle ------------- ------------------- Carman 2-21-11------- -------- Champion Dawson-- 2-21.11------ ----- Chinese Cling 2-15-11_----Cobblers Indian 2-8-11----- - --- - - ---- - - Admiral Dewey 2-21-11 Elberta 2-14-11Emma - --- - BU Early Crawford 2-4-11------------ l~lU U 7U U Everbearing Family Favorite 2-13-11 Fame--Frances ------ - - - - - - ::: Globe 2-15-11-----______ _____ __ _ __ _ Gov. Hogg 2-21-11--I Varieties and Date of Opening Normal Blooming Dates At Auburn,: Ala. of Buds for Season of 1911 FEB. 27 24 7101316192124 Normal Ripening Dates at Auburn, Ala. MAY 21 Gray---------------Greensboro-----Hiley Honey -------Imperial ----- ----- rK j I U MARCH JUNE 301 5 JULY AUGUST 10 19 8 14172023 26291258111417202326I1 Ingold---------- Late Crawford--Lemon ClingMamie -- Ross -------- Matthews Mayflower 2-26-11 -- M cKinnel - - - - - - - - - Mountain Rose --------------- - ----- - Oldmixon Onderdonk 2-8-11 ----------Ovieda 2-8-11 --Pallas 1-18-05 2-12-11 ---------Peento 1-22-11 - ------ Sept. 10-25 Picquat 2-21-11- -------- Reeves------------------ Normal Blooming Dates At Auburn, Ala. Varieties and Date of Opening of Buds for Season of 1911 FEB. MARCH 27 Normal Ripening Dates at Auburn Ala. MAY 21 301 8 JUNE 17 26 5 JULY 14 23 1 AUGUST 10 19 11 7 16 19 24 Rivers 2-27-1 _ ________ _-_____ Saiway 2-15-11---------------Sim m s---------- - ---- - Slappey 2-15-11---------------Smock 3-21-11- ----------------__-__--_ Sneed 2-21-11__--__-__ Stinson 2-21-11-- UM -8~i a Oct. 4-8 Susquehannah 2-19-11_ Taber 2-11-11 _ *__- ---- Thurber 2-12-11___--__---Tillotson Victoria-- -- -- - --- - - - Triumph - - - - - _ _ - ---------- ---- -------- -. __K- _ _ W addell -- - - - - - - - - - Waldo 2-2-11 Charts Showing Maximum and Minimum Temperatures Recorded by the Horticultural Department at Auburn, Ala., for the Years 1904-1911, Inclusive, During the Peach Blooming Period. Fig. 4. Fig. 6. CONTENTS PAGE After-care of Orchard -- - -- -- ---- -- - - 21 Arsenate of Lead Brown Rot____-------By-products-------Canning Outfits Description of Varieties_-_- ---=- --- --- --- -- 1 2 3 ----- --- --- --- 1 2 6 - ---------- 130 Diseases Distance to Plant Fertilizers -- _ - - Forming the head of Tree Harvesting Insects -- --- ---- Laying Off Orchard Lime-Sulfur Liming Si Wash Location for Orchards----------Borer Marketing Peach Plum Tree Pcig---- P a tn Curculio - ----------- Profits --- - --- - - - - Pruning 2- - - - - - - - - Self-Boiled Selection of Lime-Sulfur- Selection Site for TreesVarieties_ __-__-_. - Orchard - of Thinning--- - - - - -- ----- --- --- -- --- 1 3 0 ---- --- --- --- 131-135 -- --- - - - ---- - 126 ----- --- =-- --- --- 1 1 4 ----- --- -- -- -- 1 5 -- -- - - ---- -- - - - - --- - - 1 1 8 --- --- -- ---127 --- ----- - - -- -- 123 ------ --- --- -- 1 1 4 --- ------- -- --- --- 1 2 5 - --- 117 -- --- --- -- --- -- -. - --- --- --- -- 1 1 1 --------- --- --- --- --- 1 2 7 --- ---2 9 --- ---- --1 - ------- ---- --- -.- 2 5 ----- --- --- --- 1 1 3 - --------- --- --- -- 1 2 3 - -------- --- --- --- 1 23 ----- ----- --- --- 1 1 7 --- --- ------- - --- --- 1 2 6 ------ --- -- -- 1 1 3 - --------- --- --- - --- 13 1 ------- -- --- --- --1 2 ------- --- -- -- 1 2 7 Plate. Plate 2. One year old peach tree__________ ______ Two year old peach tree Plate 3. Plate 4. Plate 5. Carman tree_-121_ Four year Showing equipment for preparing Lime-Sulfur Wash and straining wash into spray barrel -___-_-.124An Alabama product. An express shipment of peaches old -- -- -- - 119° ---128, Figs. 1-3. Charts showing average blooming and ripening dates of 136-135peach varieties at Auburn, Ala. Figs, 4-6 Charts showing maximum and minimun temperatures during the blooming period for the years 1904 to 1911, inclusive- 139-141_ BULLETIN NO. 157 ALABAMA SEPTEMBER, 1911 Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN THE SATSUMA ORANGE BY P. F. WILLIAMS, Horticulturist. Opelika, Ala. Post Publishing Company 1911 COMMI TTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION HON. R. F. KOLB---------- --- -HON. H. L. MARTIN-__ HON. A. W. BELL ----- - - - -- - -- ---- Montgomery - -Ozark __--_-._---Anniston STATION STAFF J. C. C. THACH F. DUGGAR--------B. B. Ross--------C. A. CART F. E. LLOYD-Botanist P. F. WILLIAMS _--President of the College Director and Agriculturist ----------------- Veterinarian and Director -------------- Chemist and State Chemist Farmers' Institutes Horticulturist J, T. ANDERSON _ ------ -------DAN T. GRAY _ W. E. HINDS--Entomologist-----------------E -C. L. HARE- Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations Animal Industry Chemist of Extension Work Assistant Chemist 1. N. T. DUNCAN*------------------------ Superintendent BRAGG- First Associate --------E. F CAUTHEN W. F. WARD*_Junior ------I. S. MCADORY W. F. TURNER-----M. C. Agriculturist and Recorder Animal Husbandman Assistant in Veterinary Science in Entomology Agriculturist in Botany Assistant Assistant J. FUNCHESS___--_ S. RIDGWAY----------------- Assistant _Assistant J. B' HOBDY*---------------- in Extension Work Assistant in Horticulture J. C. C. PRICE ----------------Assistant in Animal Industry L. W. SHOOK --------------E. R. T. M. H. EUDALY*---------WILLIAMSON--------------- Assistant in Beef and Swine Husbandry Field Agent in Agriculture J. H. L. L GLOVER----------CONOLLY ------------ ----- Field Agent in Agriculture Horticulture to Director Field Assistant in 0. E. SELLERS-- Secretary -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _Assistant HoDsoN ---------- ---- ---- Assistant in Agriculture J. COHEN -- in Chemistry I. W . CARPENTER_____________-__--___-- Field Assistant in Entomology L. W. SUMMERS-------------- Assistant in Animal Industry Assistant in Beef Industry ---- _-____S.-S.-JRDAN*A. R. GISSENDANN ER . ___________C. D. ALLIS- Assistant in Swine Husbandry in Poultry - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - -Assistant *In Co-operation with U. S. Department of Agriculture. CONTENTS. PAGE spring and summer Citrus trifoliata_ .. ______ Budding, ----------- 155 ------ - -- --- --_153-155 --_ - Cost of trees Cultivation -- - __---- - -- - - -__- 157 Co-operative experiments ----- --- ---- ------ - - - -- 175 162 -- 169 162 - -- D escription of fruit ----------- - - - -- - D iseases - ---- - -- - - - --- ----- --Fertilization---Inter-cropping-- --- -Insects Marketing Minimum temperatures at Mobile 1897-1911 Planting-160 Planting, Systems of, -159 Planting, Time for, - -- - --Preparation of land Protection against cold-166____ Pruning - - - - - - - - - 149 -159 170 167 152 _- - -- --- 159 158 16 164 Purple Scale---- -- -S cab ---- -- -- -- -- - --- ---- -- -- - -- - -172 --- - --- - 169 Selection of trees,154 -- -Site - -- -- - - - - - - -So ils ----- - ----- - Soft Scale, - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sooty M old,-- - - - - - - - - -Stock for Satsumas - - - - - -- -- - - -W hite F ly - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE -151 --- -- -- 1 5 3 - - - - - - - - - 172 - - - - - - 169. --- -153 - - - - - - - - - 170 I. II. III. IV. 1LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. A cluster of. Alabama Satsumas showing their. shape and relative A Satsuma fruit, actual size, showing how readily the ------ 1 50 sectio ns pa r t ---- ------ -------- --- --------- -An ideal Satsuma. tree from the nursery. One year top on three year size-- __- _-------- Frontispiece Showing a row )f roots ----- - - - - - - - ---one-year-o14 Satsumas in nursery. 154 -157 PLA I F V. VI.,-. PLATE PLATE VII. PLATE VIII.- One of Dr. Scott's two-year-old trees--________--__-163 A six-year-old Satsuma tree-------------165 'Interior of a small grading and packing shed-----168 A portion of the Glen St. Mary Nursery Company's. Satsuma orchard.--173 ,Poll s ; I ; PL1 A ~luster of Alajbama~ Saitsumas, c shoN ig thir shap p ana c .1~c ai si/ e. (Phloto by auth lor,) THE SATSUMA ORANGE There has been such a demand for information relating to the culture and adaptability of the Satsuma orange to Baldwin and Mobile counties in Alabama that the following bulletin has been prepared nct only to tell of the work already done but to encourage an industry that promises to bring considerable wealth to the lower section of the State. As the boill weevil advances in Alabama more attention must be given to the cultivation of crops other than cotton and there is no fruit or vegetable which yields or even promises to yield higher net returns per acre than Satsuma oranges. Although this orange is the hardiest edible orange in cultivation there is always a possibility of an unusual freeze killing the trees back and fcr this reason the writer does not advise anyone to invest in Satsuma oranges and nothing else. As explained later, banking the trees above the bud wood, during the winter, insures the orchardist against total loss as trees killed back to the mound will throw out sprouts which will bear again in two seasons. However, the earning capacity of the orchard is practically nil for several years and should such a disaster occur some other crop should be depended upon to tide over such an occasion. Most of the large groves now being planted have the Satsumas interspaced with pecans and this makes an excellent combination. The pecans will eventually overshadow the Satsumas but a considerable income will be realized on the latter before it becomes necessary o remove them. There are many so-called "native" citrus trees in the lower counties of the State and these would indicate that there is reason to believe that Satsuma orange culture in that section could be made profitable. But aside from this there is evidence on every hand that the orange business has come to stay in Alabama as the writer has visited several bearing orchards which have not only produced profitable crops but their owianers are increasing the planting every year. Note. The author is indebted to Prof H. Harold Hume for criticisms and suggestions kindly offered during the preparation of this bulletin. 148 The Satsuma orange belongs to the Mandarian group of oranges and undoubtedly came originally from China. Some three centuries ago the Satsuma was introduced into Japan and it is from this latter country that China now gets its supply. Some of the Japanese Satsumas enter our American markets. The Japanese name for the Satsuma is Oonshiu and was introduced into Florida by Dr. Geo. Hall in 1876, and later by Mrs. Van Valkenburg in 1878. There are several bearing Satsuma orange orchards in Baldwin and Mobile counties and one that the writer is particularly familiar with is that of Dr. Scott at Battles Wharf on the eastern shore of Mobile Bay. The trees in this grove range between 2 and 12 years of age and are in a very thrifty condition. A two and one-third acre grove netted Dr. Scott $1,400.00 in 1909. The South Orchards Company, which is developing a 2400 acre tract a few miles south of Mobile, has planted approximately 48,000 Satsuma trees among a grove of 16,000 pecan trees. When this tract is completely planted it will be one of the largest combination orchards in the South. Mr. A. H. Daves, of Irvington, has a grove in bearing in connection with his nursery. The trees are in a strong and vigorous condition. Dr. A. B. Farnham, of Citronelle, has a small orchard which has proved successful. Mr. A. B. Gaston, of Springhill; E. T. Molyneux, of Fairhope; Dr. Gaylord, of Barnwell, and J. M. Kroner, of Theodore, all have bearing trees which give every evidence that the Satsuma orange is particularly adapted to the lower section of the State. Mr. Chas. Schultz, of Marlow, sold $50.00 worth from 12 trees, besides all the family could pick up for themselves and friends. Mr. Thomas Brigden, a pioneer horticulturist residing at Prospect in Walker county, recently informed the writer that he experimented with Satsumas some years ago, a friend in Japan having sent him several specimens. One of his trees was 149 given no protection and was killed by frosts the first season. The second tree was sheltered with pine boughs during the winter. The second season this was killed when the temperature went to 15 degrees below zero. The third tree was planted in a box and placed in a shed during the winter from November 1 to March 1. This third tree produced 8 or 10 crops consisting of 20 to 30 of the most delicious fruit. He stated further, "that with the same care given a tea rose, Satsumas could be handled in a small way even as far north in the State as Prospect." This would indicate that those who take pleasure in handling any sort of plants that need this protection through the winter could grow a few Satsuma oranges which would not only add much interest to their endeavors but would at the same time supply a considerable number of delicious fruits. Should the effort fail a few times the expense and loss of time would be very slight. POMOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT. Form oblate; sections frequently showing through the rind; size variable, 1sx 2 s inches and 2sx3 7-16 inches representing the variation in size; color, orange yellow; base usually slightly creased; calyx, small; apex, scarred with a round brownish spot situated in a broad shallow depression; rind, -- inch thick, inclined to be rough; oil cells, large, conspicuous, frequently depressed, though sometimes flush with the surface; flesh coarse grained, deep orange in color; juice sacks short, broad; juice abundant, yellowish orange in color; pulp melting; acidity and sweetness well balanced; flavor sprightly, agreeable; quality excellent; pith open with the sections, frequently separated at the inner edges; generally seedless, though occasionally from one to four seeds are found, top-shaped, broad, plump, not distinctly beaked as in others of the group; season October-November, Tree thornless, evergreen, and of spreading dwarf habit, branches reclinate, branchlets angled; leaves broad, tapering abruptly toward the apex, petioles scarcely margined. The leaves generally point upward and thus either follow the direction of the branches or are at right angels to them. The smaller 10) i t C ri iii Ivll pen i~ l. Ir tiL\a I eri ~ tII II I II II 1~ 11 LA I F' 11. A S i1,tom~ rIt. atiual size. ug sholcss l os re:,cd i s I thesecion \>lh e~lll 1,1c Ilil th II tl dli r . lc fut cn 151 vest being made October 8th or 9th. The fruits remaining on the tree even into January retain their excellent flavor but it is not advisable to leave large quantities of the fruit on the trees as late as this as freezing weather will cause serious damage to the fruit. However, this shows that the market season easily ranges from October 1st to January 1st. The larger Satsumas seem to lack the quality and flavor of the medium sized fruits. Many of these larger fruits are coarse rinded and often warted and contain a large percentage of "rag," indicating that the tree has been supplied with an excess of nitrogen supplied from vegetable sources or that the crop on the tree or sometimes on a single branch of an otherwise well laden tree was scattered which would produce the same effect, the fruits in such cases having an excess food supply. The more oblate fruits seem to have the best flavor. Variations in the fruit as well as the different stages of ripening will be found upon the same tree. To the person picking Satsumas for the first time, it seems peculiar in removing the rind of a green fruit to find the pulp ripe. Of course, it takes a golden color to sell the fruit and these green fruits are allowed to color up before picking. In extreme southern sections of the gulf coast the coloring comes very late. This is objectionable as the fruits on the trees are apt to be injured by subsequent freezing temperatures and shipments are delayed. SITE. There are many factors which make Baldwin and Mobile counties adaptable for the production of Satsuma oranges. Both have the advantage of accessibility to a central shipping point, namely, Mobile, which has direct through railroad lines to the north and east. The principal advantage of the region is the climate. There are no locations in the orange growing regions which are positively safe from the danger of frosts. There are sometimes, numerous locations within a radius of a mile where frosts seldom cause any serious damage while within that same radius might be found spots which are affected by even the slightest frosts. Such factors as elevation, proximity to bodies of water, direction of the wind, wind breaks, cold air drainage, etc., determine the susceptibility to 152 frost injury even more than latitude. A location either on the side of an elevation or upon its top is preferable to the lower situations. The prevailing winds in different sections of Mobile and Baldwin counties are variable for the most part. At Daphne, on the eastern shore of Mobile bay, the wind generally comes from the southwest. In determining the position of windbreaks the older residents of the locality where the orchard is to be planted should be consulted. The fact that there are many thrifty twelve-year-old trees about Mobile is sufficient proof that the lowest temperatures of the winters during the life of those trees has not been detrimental to them. There is more danger from freezes which follow wind and rain storms than the frosts. Under the subject "methods of protection" the elimination of this danger is discussed. Although Satsumas have not been killed back in the past 12 years there is always a possibility that this may occur and should it, provided the trees have been banked above the bud wood, sprouts will throw out forming new heads which will bear in two or three years. Of course, this may mean a serious, although a temporary loss and the grower of limited means should not be dependent entirely upon his citrus grove but should cultivate other crops in conjunction with it to tide over any period of misfortune. If Satsumas are killed to the ground every twelve years, which is very unlikely to happen, they will still pay splendid dividends on the money invested, where they are cultivated and fertilized properly. The minimum temperatures from 1897 to 1911 as recorded by the weather bureau station at Mobile follow: Jan. Jan. Feb. Feb. Dec. Dec. Feb. Jan, Feb. Dec. 28th, 2nd, 13th, 18th, 21st, 27th, 17th, 27th, 14th, 24th, 1897.........................18 1908.........................20 ... 1899............. ..... 1900.......................19 1901..........................16 1902.........................23 24 1903........................ 1904..........................27 1905.........................15 1906..........................27 153 Dec. 5th, 1907..........................32 28 Jan. 24th, 1908........... .............. Dec. 20th, 1909...........................22 Jan. 7th, 1910 ......................26 Jan, 5th, 1911...............18 SOILS. In Mobile and Baldwin counties the coastal plain rises in gentle swells to about 300 feet above tidewater. There are several types of soil in both these counties and for the most part the surface soil is generally adapted to Satsuma orange culture. More depends upon the nature and proximity of the sub-soil to the surface. Citrus fruits grow on a great diversity of soils although it is noted that a soil containing too much vegetable nitrogen produces abundant wood growth and very poor fruit. This condition may be counteracted by using fertilizers rich in potash. A sandy hammock soil is preferred by the older growers. This soil is found where the timber growth consists or consisted of such trees as magnolia, hickories and oaks. The clay should be within at least 12 to 18 inches of the surface. Bloom will drop if the clay is down too far below the surface. It is impossible to grow Satsumas on alkali soils. High lands are preferable. The soils in Mobile county, for the most part, are a little heavier than those in Baldwin county. Above every consideration drainage should be thought of. Either the underlying sub-soil should be sufficiently porous to allow moisture to pass down through it or ditches should be made to carry off the excess water. STOCK FOR SATSUMAS. Satsuma trees should be budded on Citrus trifoliata roots. These are conceded to be the hardiest roots known, and adapt themselves to a wide variation of soils. Prof. Hume has noted an instance where this plant has withstood a temperature of 22 degrees F. below zero without injury. Citrus trifoliata is deciduous and this is the only instance we find of the kind among the citrus fruits. As a fruit itself, it is worthless, except for propagating and breeding purposes. There are other stocks used to a considerable extent in the orange industry, but the Citrus trifoliata is the only stock that should be used for propagating attain1 ;irh clellntIlali ( it;rI t Ii ils, anil the trce; riipci iii rathe <,Ick arc 1xxi11 i ii'liuil tiw frit scx ci al tlax earlier *hn tliier I' ther 11111iiilu ) I L l t il iyI () 1liL I la dir t hclii eit I ithati ti-liiu arc dliiltcd )II ( i( ( 1 iliu i> 111 Plnti Intntv. t i c ha t ia M r u \ aclteri theg r I'iliii xxitliiiitc ;I C ilc the )I Ixli L ii t\ iijii I iI iiil t ili iit expila ie kih cI I .triL. x I n un xcn ii liL i h pII lit I r IC ( ii tli c i a liL rixx tuliC tii plin Di IIa e c t ihII th I )iyii-. xcllt~ xhIa n cil l- l~ith.I t~ttU alI llt I I Li iii the itt Iix litI Ii ca tru ()heci xn Ie tak n It It e )i cimirer tree, i. I WIs.-I( The hc't l III r e 11 vri)O1,w 155 The Chinese and Japanese have used Citrus trifoliata as a stock for citrus trees for centuries, but it is only recently that the stock has been used for this purpose in this country, and there are yet many points to determine, concerning its adaptability for certain soils and elevations, also its influence in dwarfing trees worked upon it. San Jose scale attacks Citrus trifoliata,but as it does not attack other species of citrus fruits, this is not serious. The stock generally outgrows the top worked upon it, and the more vigorous the top, the more vigorous the stock. The fact that this stock is not responsive to sudden changes in temperature, especially to those warm spells which generally start activity in other trees during January and February, adds greatly to its value. There is no question but that the stock has a very marked influence on the top growing upon it, and as the Satsuma is the hardiest sweet orange grown, the combination adds, of course, materially to its hardiness. Satsuma oranges are budded to Citrus trifoliata stocks. Buds are inserted in March and April, this being known as Spring Budding. When budding is performed in June or July, the term .Summer Budding is given, and Dormant Budding is practiced during September and October. In the latter case the buds remain dormant until the following spring. To protect the dormant buds or the point of union where the budded top has already grown out, soil is banked up on either side of the nursery rows. The common method of budding is known as T budding but in this case the reversed T is used. The stocks selected are often those resulting from seed planted in the spring, during February, and worked the following spring if of sufficient size. Generally the trifoliata seed is sown in the fall. They sprout in the spring and the following spring they are transplanted and budded in September. The older stocks are better and those two or three years old are most commonly selected. The greatest danger from excessive cold is at the point of union of bud and stock and for this reason care should be taken to bank the soil up above this. Where the point of union is well down toward the crown of the stock this is more easily accomplished. All leaves and limbs should be removed from the stock near 156 the ground to facilitate wrapping the inserted bud. A little wood removed with the shield containing the bud does no harm. The bud is pushed gently up under the raised ends of the bark of the stock until all its cut surface has come in contact with the opened surface of the stock. Budding cannot be practiced, unless the bark slips readily. The buds should be wrapped with a strip of waxed cloth, or raffia beginning slightly below the lower cut, wrapping it tightly around the stock in a spiral manner, so that each new edge overlaps the previous one, and as soon as the vertical cut has been covered, draw the cloth down across this, as it will stick readily to the cloth, and there will be no necessity for tying. The bud is covered with cloth, which is contrary to the method practiced with other fruits. Considerable attention should be paid to bud selection, as there is great variation in the character of fruits produced on different branches, and where possible, buds from branches bearing the finest fruit should be selected. The demand for Satsuma trees has been so great the past few years, that many nurserymen have been forced to utilize all available bud wood, and in some cases they have not given as close attention to the selection of buds, as is desirable. Trees grown from selected buds will cost more than those not selected but growers will gladly pay the difference in price. The buds may be unwrapped in from ten to twelve days if the weather has been warm, otherwise they should not be unwrapped for from fifteen to twenty days. Experience will teach the propagator just when the buds should be unwrapped, and an examination of two or three buds will generally indicate the proper time for unwrapping. Practically all orange trees are dormant budded, banked in the autumn and as soon as danger from frost is past the banks are removed and the tops are cut entirely off close down to the buds. Lopping is not often practiced the tops being entirely removed. If the stocks are of good size the cut surfaces are painted immediately with white lead. If they are small in size painting is not necessary. I'A IL lit Sl.thicn .1 oS\ of on -ea-Ic Satu asi tesry I he i Pcal Sat!;uni 1r li (mulc that \\Ywll 1)1ch~l 81 to~ Cut anaCiI in il ic to lIn )(ilcc this iot of tree, it i; ilcc.1i the toll) 4trl .1 in ali t lml-hi .ta hy) SUM t) 55.e ~270 52)te0)gl4yo tip / Ic(t ./ 158 Many beginners in orange culture are over-anxious to se-iand coseqntietly neglect to lay the foundacuire bearinigtrees tion for the orchard properly. As stated above, a crop should have been grown on the land previous to the setting of the trees. Velvet beans, or cow peas are excellent crops to be turned under to supply humus and add nitrogen to the soil. Such a crop saves on the fertilizer bill considerably and at the same time puts the soil in the proper condition for tree planting. PREPARATION OF THE LAND. Complete clearing is far more preferable than parAll standing timber except portions which tial clearing. may be utilized for wind-breaks should be cut and the stumps removed. A stump puller, the use of dynamite or burning out the stumps are methods generally practiced. Alt this work should be done the winter previous to the planting. One method commonly practiced is to plow the land 4 inches deep during the winter before planting and later plowing again about 10 inches deep. This method allows the humus to remain near enough to the surface to promote nitrification and the deep plowing mixes the decomposed vegetable matter thoroughly with the soil. If the first plowing is deep a disc plow should be used, as this turns the soil on edge allowing the vegetable matter to decompose without souring. This method also prevents a deep layer of clay being thrown up to cover the humus. Shallow plowing can then follow in the spring when such crops as cabbage, Irish and sweet potatoes, peas or beans can be planted followed by late Irish potatoes. Good clean culture the first year should be practiced on new land to put it in shape for the orange grove. Where the sub-soil consists of rather stiff clay a sub-soil plow should be used along the proposed tree rows to allow the roots to easily push their way into the moisture retentive soil. After plowing the harrow should be used and this followed by a drag consisting of overlapping planks which will put the surface in excellent condition. This thorough preparation aids the stakers and hole diggers. 159 SYSTEMS OF PLANTING. There are several different methods of laying off a grove consisting of the square, triangular, hexagonal and quincux systems. The hexagonal (six sided) system, or the square system, should be used unless the Satsumas are planted between pecans. In the latter case the square or rectilinear method should be used. Double plantings may be made such as placing a peach tree in each square of orange trees. The peach tree serving its usefulness in 5 or 6 years is cut out. INTER-CROPPING. Many crops can "be grown between the tree rows until they seriously interfere with the best development of the Satsumas. Some growers have been raising vegetables between the rows the first few years with much profit. Laying out. A stout wire is often used, which is long enough to reach along one side of the field. This wire should have rings at 16-foot intervals or pieces of wire soldered to it at these intervals. Two sixteen-foot wires with rings attached to either end are also used. Having placed stakes at the intervals along the wire establishing the locations of the first tree row, take the sixteen-foot wires placing one end of one on stake No. 1 and the end of the other on stake No. 2, then bring the other ends together and at the place they meet place a stake for the beginning of row No. 2. This is repeated, next placing the first 16-foot wire on stake No. 3, bringing it to meet the wire on No. 2, etc., continuing until row 2 has been staked off. Row 3 is similarly determined. TIME FOR PLANTING. There are many planters who advocate November planting of Satsumas, while others contend that the trees should be planted in February. If the soil is moist in February or March, providing the trees are freshly dug, planting at this time may be successful. In fact, there have been successful plantings of the Satsumas at various times throughout the winter but all things considered, November or December planting is preferable. There is, of course, the danger of frosts injuring young trees, but this is obviated by banking 160 clean earth, free from pieces of weeds or trash up several inches about the bud wood, this earth to be pulled away in the spring, after danger from frosts has tassed. Transplanting can be done in July or Augtst if the trees have been selected and there is plenty of moisture in the ground, but Fthere is little necessity for moving trees at this season. PLANTING. ·The roots of the Citrus" trifoliata, upon which the Satsumas have been budded are very fibrous and delicate, and great care must be exercised in. the handling of the trees after they have been removed from the nursery. These delicate roots should not be exposed to wind or sunlight, and even when the trees are taken to the field, the roots should be kept covered, ahd' a sufficient number of holes should be prepared, so that there will be no delay in getting the unpacked trees into the ground. The different States which have nursery inspection laws, re:qucre trees to be entirely defoliated, and fumigated before they are shipped, and this so-called "goose-picking" prevents the dis- tribution of the insect known as White Fly, which is a menace t6 the citrus indtstry. :Most of the nurserymen have been pruning the roots before sending the trees out, but the business ,has grown so rapidly that they have been giving up this practice. It would be much better for the nurserymen to attend to this, as the planters are very apt to pay little attention to either top or root pruning. Satsuma trees are packed in bales by the nurseryman in lots of 100 to 500, depending on their size. Boxes are used for lots of 2,000 or over. It generally pays to have the trees shipped from the grower by express as delays in transit are often dis.astrous. As the roots dry out very rapidly the nurserymen should be required to "puddle" them before packing and when the trees are ready for planting the "caked'" earth should be washed off. The holes should not be prepared until everything is ready for planting, to cpnserve the moisture; they should be commodious, and in planting the trees the fibrous roots should be. spread out very carefully, as wherever they are allowed to become matted, they are apt to ferment and rot. Mr. E. T. 161 Molyneux, of Fairhope, Ala., has had considerable experience in planting Satsumas, and he has one man throw the dirt in about the roots, while another uses a watering pot to settle the. dirt as it is thrown .in, until the. hole is nearly fullb and then the remining portion of the hole is simply filled with loose soil, .which gradually settles. In planting.. trees,particularly oranges, the planter is generally too hasty, and with the exception of poorly, prepared land, this is the cause of the frequent losses in new plantings. Practically all the root system for Satsumas should remain intact and the pruning should consist of the removal of broken and bruised portions, making smooth cuts above these, as these smooth cuts will callous rapidly, and from these callouses, new roots will be rapidly produced. Wherever the roots become dry, the dry portions should be removed. The trees should be planted at the same depth that they were in the nursery rows, and to protect the newly planted trees from the hot rays of the sun, the trunks are often wrapped in paper or straw, or covered with whitewash. The top, if consisting of a single stem, should be cut back about two feet above the ground, and if there are any branches leading from this, these should be cut back to spurs, having two or three buds on them. The top soil should always be saved to place down around the roots and where this is very poor use about one pound of a commercial fertilizer rich in nitrogen well mixed with it placing this in the hole at least six inches below and six inches further out than the roots reach. Some growers have used a dressing of rotted stable manure as the only source of fertilizer until the trees come into bearing, care being taken not to have this come in contact with the roots or body of the tree. This practice is dangerous, however, as manure is not apt to be well rotted when it appears to be. Some nurserymen have lost many trees by using supposedly rotted manure. A pound of bone meal added to the manure is still more beneficial. When the trees have come into bearing fertilization with stable manure or sources of vegetable nitrogen should cease as this tends to produce excessive wood growth at the expense of fruit. Again the fruit resulting from such fertilization tends to be oversized and "warty" and the flavor is very poor. 162 FERTILIZATION. No fertilizer should be used at the time of planting unless the soil is very poor. The fall after planting use stable manure or scrapings from the barnyard and dig it in about the trees, not working too close to the trunk. When the trees are bearing well and growing vigorously, fertilize well, with about five pounds per tree of the following formula on land with a moderately heavy clay sub-soil, applying it about the latter part of March: 100 lbs. sulphate or muriate of potash. 950 Ilbs. cotton seed meal. 950 lbs. 14%o acid phosphate. 2,000 lbs. Total. The above is an 8-3-3 goods. For land with sandy clay sub-soil use an 8-2-9 formula consisting of the following: 1,000 200 36 360 404 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. acid phosphate. cotton seed meal. nitrate of soda. muriate of potash. soil. 2,000 lbs. total. When the sub-soil is light it will require an 8-4-12 formula. Mr. A. H. Daves at Irvington, Ala., who is growing Satsuma oranges successfully, has been apply ng 400 pounds of bone meal and 200 pounds of potash for hi~ half acre orchard, making the application the latter part of April or first of May after the bloom has set. CULTIVATION. In most sections of Mobile and Baldwin counties it is advisable to bank the trees with clear earth up several inches above the bud to protect the trees from possible freezes. Cultivation should not commence until danger of such freezes are past when the banks can be removed.... For the first two years cultivation should consist of using a two-mule plow and harrow, several shovelfuls of stable cl oc enoughi to the tree', to~ Two boc to the trnkl of the tree. px )as m~ay be planted in rows beweek, alter pi xxiii. co tween the tice rows. In the idd~le oft the tree rows nest the wxater furrow a rxx of velvct 1beans can be p~lantedl. TIhe in .1nlv anmi at this time the julp COW pea v ines wxill be did I here is seldom xill hav e rea. hcd the tree ri 'xx veixvet beamsimv t hie beans cliiihiing the tree, as tilex hav e attrotulle fro tained their imaxlium gr xxti hx thte time they- haxve covered I his sxstinl of plaiitiU cx er crops~ will eonthe tree roxxs. mo i tnre and time spent in cuttivxat ion. -After frosts serxve htave killed tihe hean- thtex max he tuiwme tinder. mnire hing ihce 1)(1 catteiCel beiict'i liuml but no t too PLA"I. A'. One of Do. Sct',~' t ' -} ear-old Satsuma trees. Thle came inetim *d may be practiced the third Near using ore ,tahle mauaire aimd ttbstituttiing the lighter oneof cours m mule iplxx as thie springt ph 'xxiii this third year shoonld be Tlhe di e harroxw should folloxw this comparat ixvely igilt. light ph xwing to hev el thte ground. 164 From the third year on light cultivation should be practiced. Provided there is still much vegetable material scattered over the surface of the grove which has remained from the previous fall it will be necessary to use a cut-away harrow for the first cultivation. This first harrowing can be rather deep provided the newroots have not come too close to the surface. After this first harrowing it is merely necessary to maintain a mulch of pulverized soil over the orchard to a depth of not over an inch or two. This can be accomplished by using a light weeder if the preliminary cultivation has been sufficient. Where cow peas are planted between the trees in the grove they should receive a liberal application of fertilizer using 200 pounds of acid phosphate in the drill before planting the peas. The cow peas often pay for a considerable proportion of the cultivating and fertilizer bills. Where the peas are planted the middle of January they can be harvested the latter part of April and at this time they bring good prices in the market. The pea rows should not be planted closer than six feet from the spread of the tree branches and their cultivation should be discontinued at any time when they interfere with the growth of the trees. It will require a light cultivation about every ten days mucn of course depending upon the rains, to keep the grove in perfect tilth. This should be continued until about the first of September. Later cultivation than this may prove disastrous owing to the fact that the trees respond readily to cultivation and it is the object at this season to allow the wood to harden and mature in preparation for winter. All vegetable growth on the ground should be turned under by December first. From observations made the past winter it has been clearly shown that trees should not be forced in view of their susceptibility to frost injury. When the trees are in a thoroughly dormant condition there is little danger from excessive cold weather and the grower should aim to maintain that dormant condition in his trees through the winter. PRUNING. If the trees have been properly pruned at the time of planting there is little need for subsequent pruning. V ~ic \\ ic mo 1, utr a t. lmrt ii 1 h to d Si nt.c l Vit ; 44 PLA F VL Ati si ,-\ear-old Smasunia )rc. stince Iit iith i h t til lilt. of ")\ ipracitItit tical - Iir n cr hta tt. tct ti. tt) theiri k, ofI i tih t reiii,. It is much ei si r~ to 166 have the trees headed low as there is less air circulation in such a grove. Staking the heavily laden branches is not always necessary. The lower branches lying upon the ground will support those above them and there is practically little damage done to the fruit resting upon the ground. Staking or "propping" is rather expensive. Where the owner has but a few trees it might be well to prop the branches. PROTECTION AGAINST COLD. It is advisable to bank the trees through the winter as This had best be done from the before mentioned. Most middle of November to the middle of December. January and of the coldest weather occurs through February but there has been one instance when the temperature has fallen to 16 degrees F. as early as December 21st. Care should be taken not to bank the trees too high as this may injure them. It is only essential that a sufficient amount of bud-wood be protected. The soil used in banking the trees should not contain decaying vegetable matter as this may injure the bark where it comes in contact with it and it may foster the work of wood-lice. Winter rains will cause the banks: about the trees to settle and it may be necessary to go over the trees a second time in the course of a few weeks. When the temperature reaches 27 degrees and there is fruit on the trees wood fires or the orchard heaters should be started. There is also danger with the temperature at 30 degrees when the trees are opening their fruit buds. The older trees withstand low temperatures much better than the younger trees. There are a number of good orchard heaters on the market the average price being $30.00 per hundred. Much depends on their capacity. The heaters should hold not less than two gallons of fuel oil. The greatest damage is apt to be done between 2 a. m. and 6 a. m. but the trouble may start even before this. Fuel oil should be used and this can be secured in carload lots at 2 1-2 cents per gallon. This oil should be purchased on a co-operative basis, that is, several growers should combine in ordering and thus materially reduce the price' they would necessarily pay on small quantities of oil. This oil can be stored in galvanized iron tanks or in cemented 167 cisterns provided the walls of the latter have been coated with a layer.of asphalt paint to prevent leakage. -Although the orchard heater may never be called upon to save an orange orchard or crop it is always prudent to be prepared. The heaters have lately come into nrominence among. the vegetable growers and where the latter are grown in large quantities for the northern markets in addition to the culture of oranges, the value of the heaters is much more augmented. MARKETING. The earlier the period of ripening of the Satsuma the more important, from a commercial standpoint as at that time there is practically no competition from either the California or Florida oranges. Where the Satsuma is known, even with this competition, there would hardly be a chance of crowding out the Satsuma, as among a great many people it is preferred even to the Florida and California orange. The Texas growers are somewhat concerned regarding a future market for the Satsumas coming from the large groves which have been planted there recently, but the writer believes that first-class Satsumas, well graded and well packed and placed in the right markets will always bring profitable returns for the growers. The fruit packs and ships well and will not deteriorate in two or three weeks from the time of picking. As the production of Satsuma oranges increases it will be necessary for the fruits to be cured as the Florida and California oranges are treated before shipping them. In Texas they are curing their Satsumas in large curing houses. The fruits are gathered in half bushel boxes which are 22 inches wide, 40 inches long and 12 inches high. These have a partition in them and as they are brought into the curing house they are placed in tiers. At the duration of 4 to 6 days early in the season or 2 to 5 days later in the season the fruits are graded and packed. Treated in this way the fruits will keep a considerable time in the open market. The "special" market uses up the present supply very rapidly, and as more people learn the value of the orange and with constant shipments from the growers there is little doubt that the question of keeping quality will not concern the grow- * A I I 'Y \b il >i11 I tull 11 II Iiri 1.11 t n u.I nm1lb !tdi; t ill ~ :~ p) h11 llt l\\n she t. li fild Ir finIll l l )i 1ll ~ 1lvt Ille al~i.4t 1,,9 iite ai vn a-iih llInl"11 o lf the i- r Iuth lit- ch r i p r ill-l iln t h gI lii ll lt ilkt of )iah l. A tI attilI ;l \\ ian lil vil do crui i lnut l3ti II 1(1~c~furi ic--Iill ahI I ca li trade h~t-it- au III t- foroii 1 ,Ire ii alil tt en intcr.l~r lrlli 169 DISEASES AND INSECTS. .Although there have.been very few reports from Satsuma growers in Alabama concerning fungus or insect troubles the trees have been attacked by both in other sections and there is the probability that with. the increase in plantings more instances will be noted of these troubles. Prof. Harold Hume in his book entitled "Citrus Fruits and Their Culture" has given much valuable information concerning the diseases and insects attacking citrus fruits and abstracts from portions of his descriptions follow: Citrus stock is resistant to a large degree to the disease known as Foot Rot. This trouble is confined to the crown and main roots of trees extending about a foot above the ground and to some distance down along the roots. An exudation of gum indicates the trouble. When the tree 's attacked the leaves turn yellow. Scab. This trouble has been found on Satsumas and when they are attacked by it the fruits become distorted and warty, corky elevations cover the surface and give it a roughened appearance. Often the leaves are drawn out of shape. The disease is caused by a species of Cladosporium citri.* The disease can be controlled by spraying the trees with ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate. This solution is not apt to injure the foliage. The formula is as follows: Copper carbonate, 5 ounces. Strong ammonia (26 per cent.) 3 pints. Water, 50 gallons. Reduce the copper carbonate to a thin paste with water; slowly add the ammonia. Finally add the fifty gallons of water. Sooty mold.-Practically all citrus growers are familiar with this trouble. Where present the leaves, fruits and twigs are covered with a black sooty coating. Wherever scale and associated insects which exude honey-dew are present this sooty mold will be found. This fungus lives on the honey dew and when it follows the attacks of the White Fly (Aleyrodes citri) which attack the under sides of the leaves the damage is considerable. The leaf surfaces being covered with the fungus are unable *Recently determined by Fawcett. 170 to perform their functions and create an unhealthy condition of the trees. The stem end of the fruits are generally covered with the fungus and necessitate brushing of such fruit before placing it upon the market. This treatment is apt to be detrimental to the fruit and adds considerably to the cost of harvesting and marketing. To eradicate the trouble the insects must be destroyed which secrete the honey-dew and this matter is treated under the subject of Insects. INSECTS White Fly (Aleyrodes citri Riley and Howard.) During warm weather egg laying commences within thirty hours after the adults appear. The eggs are deposited upon the under surface of the leaves, generally on new shoots. Hume has noted 20,000 eggs deposited upon a single leaf. The eggs hatch in from three to twenty days much depending upon the weather. The young larvae being whitish green and transluscent are rather difficult to discern. There are four larval stages before the pupal stage is reached. The adult female is a little over 1.4 mm. in length and her wing expanse is about twice the length of the body (1-10 of an inch). These wings are colorless when the female is first hatched but become covered with a white wax within a few hours. The male resembles the female. Treatment.-All nursery stock should be completely defoliated before being planted. Trees affected should be either fur :gated or sprayed with hydrocyanic acid gas with Good's Potash Whale Oil Soap or Schnarr's Insecticide during the pupal stage of the insect. The spray mixtures mentioned are recommended for small growers. Fumigation methods have been discussed at length in several Department of Agriculture Bulletins, the latest contribution to the subject being Bureau of Entomology Bulletin No. 76 which can be obtained by writing Secretary Wilson or addressing the Department of Entomology at Washington, D.C. In a recent article in the Florida Grower, Mr. W. W. Yothers and Mr. S. S. Crossman have discussed some results of their work with miscible oils for controlling the White 171 Fly. Four formulas are given and a summary of their results follow: FORMULA No. I. Caustic potash whale oil sop................... 12 gals. Crude oil (not distallate oil) 24 degrees Baume.. 3 gals. Water to emulsify about ................ ....... 1 gals. This will make about 200 gallons of the spray material containing 1/% of oil. Cost about 63 cents. FORMULA No. II. Caustic potash whale oil soap.................. 2 gals. Distallate oil (gas oil) 30 degrees Baume........... 4 gals. Water to emulsify about........................2 gals. This will make 200 gallons of spray material containing 25% of oil. Cost about 84 cents. FORMULA No. III. Caustic potash whale oil soap.................... 2 gals. Paraffine oil (Diamond paraffine oil) 28 degrees Baume ...................................... 3 gals. Water .... .......................... . 1 gal. This will make 200 gallons of spray material containing 1 2% of miscible oil. Cost about $1.00. FORMULA No. IV. Caustic Potash whale oil soap .... ............ 2 gals. Paraffine oil (Junior Red Engine oil) 2 degrees Baume .................................. .. 3 gals. W ater ....... ................... ....... 1 gal. This will make 200 gallons of spray material, containing %2 Of oil. Cost about $1.05. Preparation.-Careshould be taken to add the oil to the soap gradually while it is being stirred. Satisfactory results cannot be obtained by adding the oil to the soap or the soap to the oil too suddenly. This stirring should continue for about a minute, when the water may be added. To determine whether a perfect emulsion is being obtained, put a little of the mixture in a glass of water. The presence of free oil on the surface will indicate that more stirring is necessary. Where a pump is used in mixing, onehalf the amount of soap is necessary. Formula Nos. I. and II. do not loosen the sooty mold to any great extent and neither have they the stalble qualities which, according to our ideas, will make them valuable to withstand the summer rains. We recommend them for i"us~iiin winter and where the immediate loosening of the sooty mcd is not desired. Formula Nos. III. and IV. loosened the sooty mold perfectly and have the stable qualities which we hope will make them valuable for summer use. W hale oil soap No. 3 ........................ 12 to 15 Lbs. According to the authors perhaps the best time to spray. and Dr. E. A. Back, April is For summer use formulas III and IV should be diluted to make 300 gallons. "Diamond Paraffine and Junior Engine Oil" are trade names. The former is used for slow moving bearings and costs 13 cents per gallon in barrel lots. The latter is used 172 for fast moving- bearings and costs about 14 cents per gallor. "At present we are unable to see any difference in the insecticidal qualities of the two oils, so the other uses to which they may be put will assist each grower to decide for himself which to buy." "Schnarr's Insecticide" sold by J. Schnarr & Co., of Orlando, Fla., has given good results for the control of White Fly. This sells for 40 cents per gallon in 50 gallon lots. The manufacturers recommend 50 gallons of the insecticide for 2,000 gallons of spray. Soft Scale (Lecanium hesperidum. Linn.) This scale is known also. as the turtle-back scale or brown scale, has been reported by many growers in Alabama this fall (1911). In some cases the apprehension of danger from the soft scale has let to some .growers. cutting down many of their trees. The older growers have learned that natural enemies, such as parasites and lady bugs have controlled the insect sufficiently to cause no serious alarm. In fact, as Hume has written -the author "it is probably the least noxious of all citrus scales,'" One thorough spraying with whale oil soap will destroy the insects. This insect changes its color as it develops from a transparent yellow in the young, changing to a brown in the adult. The latter is 3 or 4 mms. long (.12, to .16 inches), is turtle shaped, broadly oval, and- swollen, and has a flattened rim encircling the scale. The female insect during its last stages becomes merely a cap filled with young. The young are thin and flat and scarcely discernible on the leaves or twigs. The insects starve unless they can reach the young tender bark or leaves of the new growth. As they have no true scales but rather a toughened skin they are soon exterminated by the attacks of natural enemies or by spraying. The Purple Scale (Lepidosaphes beckii.) This scale attacks Satsumas and resembles the "Oyster Shell Bark Louse" which has given the apple growers so much trouble. The eggs are very small and white. The young larvae are about one-tenth of an inch long. They soon settle on the bark or along the mid rib of the leaves. When the female scale insect is nine weeks old it deposits eggs of the second brood, the young from these eggs emerging from 1,3 ,n- II ll ' fml in 11 cii tcit' orul 'ut N~IcI W1,11~ acco litll ' S'to I l~ Io i. \\ ittt il r Il.ttu .................................. \\ it it I M ull It) 'I it lr lt 11 ilt1 i I i I-migh ti t) t hli 1-ili n t'lltc t u . t r/ttt'i 11 it l still 11111.11Il tt ~ it (nitul 174 SODA-SULPHUR SOLUTION Sulphur ..... ........ ........................ 20 lbs. Caustic soda (98) ......................... 10 lbs. Water ............. ............... .... 20 gals. Preparation.-Mix the sulphur to a medium thick paste with cold water in a barrel, then add the soda, which will boil the sulphur. Add sufficient water during this boiling process to prevent the mixture burning. Dilute one-half gallon of this stock solution with 40 gallons of water. The solution should be properly strained. Another formula recommended is: Good's potash whale oil soap No. 3...........12 to 15 gals. 1 to 2 quarts Soda sulphur solution (see above)........ 50 gals. W ater ...................................... As the Satsuma orange groves increase there will undoubtably be more attention given to the various fungii and insects which attack the trees and fruit. Growers should report any such troubles to the Department of Horticulture or Department.of Entomology at Auburn that they may be identified and remedies suggested. The writer will be glad to learn the names of all growers, also the number of trees in their respective orchards, and any other data which will help to increase our knowledge od a very promising industry. Co-operative experiments have already been undertaken by the Department of Horticulture at Auburn with Satsuma growing in Alabama and it is the desire of the Department to extend this work. The author suggests that the Satsuma growers organize so that larger quantities of fruit may be shipped than is now the case with individual growers. Again it will be necessary to standardize the grading and packing, a problem to be handled by an organization. Such an organization will do much to disseminate knowledge concerning the culture of the Satsuma. Again a more concerted action can be taken when it becomes necessary to fight insect or fungus pests. Small growers co-operating can afford to buy better spray pumps and in purchasing chemicals for a number of growers the prices are less than where expressed to individuals. Sample boxes of graded Satsumas should be expressed to the larger cities where they should be exhibited to acquaint the public with them. If a growers' organization would handle this matter it would be a very short time before an appreciative market would be developed. BULLETIN NO. 158 ALABAMA OCTOBER, 1911 Agricultural. Experiment ation OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN Fattening Beef Calves in Alabama Investigations in Cooperation With the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. BY DAN T. GRAY Professor of Animal Industry AND W. F. WARD Junior Animal Husbandman, Bureau of Animal Industry Opelika, Ala. Post Publishing Company 1911 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. -HON.R. F. KOLB...................................Montgomery HoN. H. L. MARTIN...........................................Ozark .HON. A. W. BELL................ ........................ Anniston STATION STAFF . C. C. THACH, President of the College J. F. DUGGAR, Director of Station ORGANIZATION BOTANY: DEPARTNIMENTAL AGRICULTU RE: .E. J. F. Dnggar, Agriculturist. F. Ciiuthen, Associat? M. F. Funchess, Assistant. F. E. Lloyd, Botanist. C. S. Ridgway, Assistant. HORTICUJLTURE: J. T. X-'illiamson, FieldAgent. L. L. Glover, Field Agent. s0. Sellers, Secretary. 11. VETEEINARY: C. A. Cary, Veterinarian. 1. S. VicAdory, Assistant WV. I. Howell, Assistant. R. B. XVhitsell, Assistant. CHEMISTRY: P. F. XXilliams, Horticulturist. J. C. C. Price, Assistant. H. M. Conolly, Field Agent ENTOMOLOGY: XV. E. Hinds, Entomaloyist. \V,. F. Tnrner, Assistant J. A. Dew, Field Agent. B. B. Ross, Chemist, State Chemist. T. Anderson, Chemist, Soil & Crops. C. L. Hare, Physiological Chemist. T. Bragg, First Assistant. J. Cohen, Assistant. J. ANIMAL INoSTY: EXTENSION: L. N. Dnncan, Bechdel, J. B. Hobdy, S. I. Assistant.* Assistant. * Superintendent.* Dan T Gray, Animal HusbandImarn. XX F X Tarl, Junsor Animal Hisandan, V. L. XX Summers, Assistant. . L. NW'. Shook, Assistant. F. R. Eudaly, Assistant.* S. S. Jerdan, Assistanti A. R. Gissendanner, Assistant. C. D. Miss Stroud, Assistant.* Allis, Assistant. *In cooperation with U. S. Department of Agriculture. fattening Calves inAlabama BY DAN T. GRAY ANTD W. P. WA:D. INTRODUCTION. ;a The beef cattle business can be, and usually is, divided into two parts-breeing and fattening. As a rule, the v; ho taises the calf does not finish it on his own farm for the iilarket; he usually sells it to a neighboring farmer who makes Ii siess of fattening and preparing the calf or steer for the i.market. Thus the feeder often times 1 as no interest at all ini raiding the calves. Probably the ideal condition, at least for Alabama and adjacent states, is for the calf to be raised and finished on the' same farm. But this ideal condition can se loin be realized1 because the man vho raises the calf has, as a rule, only a few cows and can seldom afford to take the t mie and trouble to fatten the few calves which these cows Ering each year. Even if the small farmer were to fatten ti1iee few calves each year lie cotld seldom afford to ship theii to the large markets, so he is at the mercy of the local buvers. As a result of this condition of affairs the professional feeder has developed. His busness is to collect calves and steers into caiload lots and prepare thei for the open mar~ket. man The farnier, who has as many as 30 breeding cows on his he farii should make it a rule to f atten their can seldonm afford to sell the calves' offspring himself; to the professional feeder. fattening, The feeder usually makes andt money on the process of thc man x ho raises calves in sufficient nunmbcrs shoild keep this extra profit at home. Furthernmore, the farmer who has from 8 to 12 calves or steers ready for the feed lot, will usually finid it profitable to buy a sufficient num- ber of feeders to complete all of themi on his own the farmi. load, aind he can then finish There are many ways of disposing of beef calves or cattle, aiid the fariier should he watchful to avoid methods by which money might be lost. It is lpossible to raise beef cattle piropierly aiid by selling them improperly to lose money on the 178 business in just the same way that it is possible to raise good apples, potatoes, and peaches and lose money on them when the marketing part of the business is not studied and given proper attention. When beef cattle are bred, fed, and marketed in a scientific and businesslike manner satisfactory profits should be realized. This is proved by the experience of good cattle men, and by the cooperative experimental work between this Station and the Bureau of Animal Industry. OBJECTS OF THE WORK. The farmer who raises calves is often at a loss to know at what age they should be disposed of. The spring calf may be sold the subsequent fall; it may be fattened during the winter months and sold as a fat yearling calf; it may be kept on the farm until it is from 2 to 4 years of age and then sold to a professional feeder; or, the mature steer may be fattened on the farm where it was raised instead of being sold to a feeder. On account of the various methods which it is possible to adopt for disposing of beef animals, the owner is often in doubt as to the most profitable manner of handling and disposing of his crop of calves. This Station, working in cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry, has done several years' experimental work in fattening mature steers for the market.* The steers used in this experimental work were not raised on the farm where they were fattened; they were purchased from small farmers who sold them for from 2 1-4 to 3 1-2 cents a pound, the price paid depending upon the quality, age, size, and condition of the animals. Excellent profits were realized on all of the cattle with the exception of one lot, but it is probable that some of the farmers who raised the steers lost money on their part of the transaction, as cattle cannot be raised and sold at a profit for 2 1-4 cents a pound.*' Since the publication of the results of the work above mentioned, many farmers in the South have raised the question, "Why not fatten the animals while they are young?" In the past our farmers and planters insisted on keeping the offspring of their beef cows until they were from three to four years old. *Note-See Bureau of Animal Industry bulletins Nos. 103 and 131, and Alabama Station bulletins Nos. 150 and 151. **See Alabama Station bulletin No. 150, or Bureau of Animal Industry bulletin No. 103. ''V t ir(' a N C''' otl n m auekltu oa fr \1(1 Fi-,n(1C rr~i thr lsnIacti~sdol ta akh -,ta hntu L A nis)t sscr crd wl-rteaill Un w i~ 1t 1 h C ~ ~ kalh a') lt ls'tll the illca.lc cai)' Ii)on ii t of 1 i is 11MIC Tli il i it 1111liii e sIr iti Ih tl ll "I 1 ])Irt1.1 d'i ai ls in hi IIs t illIC1111 arc" ac ti l \ tiii idc th il I I'lit Ii lhicaf \\jil ri fttlndullll' - (' 11 11 ml i . fi-- Iintlil \\ ()n 11 toncl Xl l meai lilt l hjlls, c1111n-an'ltii Part i. Winter Fattening of Calves on Cottonseed Meal and Hulls, Corn-and-Cob Meal and Alfalfa Hay. The main object in doing this calf-feeding work was to determine whether the farmer can afford to raise a good grade of calves and finish them for the market while they are yet less than a year old. Secondary considerations \ere. of course, involved as well. In this part of the test the calves were divided into three lots, so that a comparison of certain feeds could be madew The following problems were studied: 1. To learn whether a farmer can profitably raise and fatten calves and finish them for the market by the time they are a year old. 2. To make comparisons of southern feeds and combinations of feeds which can be used for fattening calves during the winter months. Owing to the fact that a high grade of calves cannot be obtained near the Experiment Station at Auburn, Alabama, the work was carried on upon the farm of Cobb and McMillian, of Sumterville, Alabama, with whom the Station and the Bureau have been in cooperation for a number of years. Cobb and McMillian furnished the calves and the .feed and the Alabama Experiment Station and the Bureau of Animal Industry provided a trained mtan to live on the farm and have personal supervision of the experimental work. Mr. H. J. Chatterton was stationed upon the farm and supervised the work. KIND OF CALVES USED. The calves used in this work were high grade animals. The farmer who raises beef cattle cannot afford to raise scrubs, especially the man who expects to finish them for the market while they are young. It would have been absolutely impossible to have made a profit on these calves if they had. i ' > r.t 4 ;YH,I LO F I. 1 11', NO, "mh, r 17. 1718 nin "I ;-I. P., tu:'r tal.cn :n beill \A h-I Ill, teat h,""_ to tli-.:r.,"rat:od It.rr until Wtr.-h 17. I') I I. .,I, 11. rnit-n~ ,, cre ied a r.ition ui CO,.-1 _'rl '-i pouna in wriChi, :tn.i r., ~ . "m 6 to I LuIln Al!d n-,unIt. ; OW. Al ill,' I p 1' ' n t' ? w It% Pere 11,rn Lt(t C10u. t' 4_t l: I. P1<1 I hci cakcs it cr>en 511 p~ounids iln Itittil N\ hlld W.tl 1'1: Lt' ,.1. L Ii daily gaini oh 1.1 12 to 1-1 mnonhs old. T hey stere lcd 0n the ab1ot e ration 119 days, duriiit Nt Iich time thece made an as ere poun lds. At t he beginingofo the test liey ost S3.511per h u ndred-wteighit; at the close thney sold for $5. 01 pci hunid red-wteight, A car pi otit of $1.84 wasi made oni each calf. 182 been scrubs instead of high grade beef calves. High-priced feeds can seldom be fed profitably to low-priced cattle.. It mtay be possible for a professional feeder to make a profit on scrubs even when high-priced feeds are used, but when such ' isthe case it means that the feeder made the profit at the expense of the man who raised the scrubs. In other words, it means that the feeder did not pay the producer as much for _the scrubs as it actually cost to raise them. The majority of the calves were raised on the farm of Cobb and McMillian, near Sumterville, Alabama, where the feeding was dclone; some of them were purchased from neighboring farmers in Sumter and adjoining counties. The calves were all well-bred animals although not pure bred. They were grade Shorthorns, Aberdeen-angus, Herefords, and Red Polls, the majority being from one-half to seven-eighths pure. All had been born the preceding spring, so they were from 6 to months of age when the fattening experiment began. During the summer they had run with their mothers on good pasture, and during this time they demanded practically no attention from the owner, except to see that they were salted and dipped. Both the mothers and the calves were dipped regularly all through the summer months to reduce the number of ticks. Very few ticks appeared on the cattle during the summer time. 9 On November 17, 1910, when the preliminary feeding began, the calves averaged 338 pounds in weight. GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK. When fall arrived, and th- pastures were exhausted, the calves were taken from their mothers, and placed in this winter work. They were in excellent condition at this time. The original intention had been to begin the winter feeding early in the fall, to avoid losing any part of the calf-fat, but, on account of an unavoidable delay, the feeding was not begun until the above mentioned date, so no doubt the calves lost a few pounds in weight after the pastures became short. On November 17, 1910, the calves were tagged, dehorned, and divided into three lots. Each lot of calves was fed all winter, or until March 15, 1911, on the following feeds 183 Lot 1Cottonseed meal, Cottonseed hulls, Mixed alfalfa hay. Lot 2Cottonseed meal 2-3*, Corn-and-cob meal 1-3, Cottonseed hulls, Mixed alfalfa hay. Lot 3Cottonseed meal 1-3*, Corn-and-cob meal 2-3, Cottonseed hulls, Mixed alfalfa hay. SHELTER AND LOTS. The calves were young, so each lot was provided with shelter sufficiently good to turn the cold rains and break the cold north winds. If they had been mature steers the shelter would not have been necessary, but calves will not do welL even this far South, without some protection from the cold winds and rains of the winter months. Each lot was confined in a one-half acre paddock. While the lots were not paved, still they did not become excessively muddy, even during the periods of excessive rain. The ground floors of the sheds were always dry, so the calves had a comfortable and convenient place in which to rest. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING THE CALVES. On November 17, 1910, all the calves were tagged and dehorned. On the following day the individual weights were secured and the 77 calves were divided into three lots as nearly equal as possible in quality, weight, and breeding. The preliminary feeding began November 18, 1910. All of the males were castrated on November 23 and 24. No doubt the results would have been more satisfactory if the calves had been castrated at an earlier age. *As will be seen later the feeds were not fed in exactly the proportions here indicated. 184 The animals were fed twice eachlday, the morning feed being given about 7 o'clock, and the night feed at 5 o'clock. The concentrated feeds were placed in troughs each of vhich fed was about 12 feet long and 3 feed wide. The hay separate hay racks. Both the troughs and tie racks were under sheds so tiat tie feed never became wet andItie calves had comfortable quarters in which to eat. Salt was supplied regularly, also pure water in clean troughs. At the beginning and end of tie experiment individual ere secured on two successive days. During the weights course of the test tie total weight of each lot was secured every 28 days. was in CHARACTER AND PRICE OF FEEDS. Cottonseed meal, corn-and-cob leal, cottonseedhulls, and mixed alfalfa hay were all used il tlis test. The cottonseed meal and tie hulls were purchased and iauled to tie Tile corn-and-cob uleal and tle mixed-alfalfa hay were grown upon tie farm. All of tile feeds -were of good quality. Tie was fresl anld bright; tie hay consisted of a cottonseed 'leal of about onle-lalf eacl of Johlson grass aid Tile corn was gr own upon tile farm aind before it w as fed tile whole ear of corn with tile shutck w\as run thlroulgh a grinlder aild made inlto corn-aildi-cob mleal. farn. mixture alfalfa. Tile feeds were valued as follows: Cottonlseed meal............. Cottonlseed hllls............. Corn......................... Mixed hlay.............. $26.00 a ton 7.00 a ton .70 a busilel .... 15.00 a ton As a matter of- fact, tile cottoilseed mleal cost only $50 atnanconwswrhol50cnsabsebtteabove tile sake of uniformity. prices were adopted for Thlese prices ilave beell used in otiler publications froultilis Station.. aindi represeilt 'fairly accurately tile average prices of feeds this State. i. N i) : .. :A: he innins nl t."s.. A .i .- nth.r 1,. 14i1. l I,., _; , ,;I d !-s ~ ,.. ,ic cn a unn 1 _ a t~ .~ -.1 in. ,. - , . . . m 1- , t.+ : 1 l po I'Mt2 SI\ n s tI al vedur s mot ,liapii h t'I tht ils i n I t 1. adi 2. 55t id I n tri tliiil t ill~nm aii ,h":il.Ci A oo muc 186 DAILY RATIONS. More care and skill must be exercised in feeding a young animal than an old one. A six-year-old ox may be cared for and fed in a careless manner and still no serious results follow; but the young calf will not grow and develop with any degree of satisfaction under a careless system of management and feeding. The younger the animal the greater the skill required to care for and feed it; one case of overfeeding will often throw the stomach and bowels out of condition for weeks. It will be noticed from the table below that at first the calves were given a very small quantity of concentrated feed, the amount being gradually increased to the end of the test. They were given, from the beginning, all of the hay they would clean up. TABLE 1.-Daily Ration for Each Calf. (Nov. 17, 1910-March 17, 1911.) RATION LOT 1 LOT 2 LOT 3 Pounds Preliminary Periods Nov. 17-Dec. 7 Regular Periods First 28 Days 2.09 cottonseed meal 5.34 cottonseed hulls 5.10 mixed hay Pounds Pounds 1.91 cottonseed meal 1.36 cottonseed meal .69 corn-and-cob meal 1.69 corn-and-cob mea 5.77 cottonseed hulls 5.57 mixed hay 5.35 cottonseed hulls 4.66 mixed hay 2.69 cottonseed meal 7.36 cottonseed hulls 5.05 mixed hay 1.85 cottonseed meal 1.85 cottonseed meal .92 corn-and-cob meal 3.73 corn-and-cob meal 7.36 cottonseed hulls 5.18 mixed hay 7.39 cottonseed hulls 3.70 mixed hay Second 28 Days 3.16 cottonseed meal 7.57 cottonseed hulls 5.24 mixed hay 2.14 cottonseed meal 2.14 cottonseed meal 1.17 corn-and-cob meal 4.67 corn-and-cob meal 7.57 cottonseed hulls 7.57 cottonseed hulls 3.36 mixed hay 5.51 mixed hay 2.70 1.35 8.00 5.51 3.42 1.71 8.80 5.74 cottonseed meal corn-and-cob meal cottonseed hulls mixed hay cottonseed meal corn-and-cob meal cottonseed hulls mixed hay Third 28 Days 3.63 cottonseed meal 8.00 cottonseed hulls 5.86 mixed hay 2.15 cottonseed meal 4.30 corn-and-cob meal 8.00 cottonseed hulls 8.57 mixed hay 2.00 cottonseed meal 4.00 corn-and-cob meal Last 16 Days 3.67 cottonseed meal 8.88 cottonseed hulls 5.79 mixed hay. 8 00 cottonseed hulls 5.60 mixed hay 187 :During the preliminary feeding period each calf in Lot I received an average of only 2.09 pounds of cottonseed meal each day. And during the last 16 days of the feeding period the calves in this lot received an average daily feed of only 3.67 pounds of cottonseed meal. At one time the daily allowance of cottonseed meal was raised to four pounds for each calf, but some of them began to scour and the anount of meal was quickly reduced. The calves in Lots 2 and 3 received a partial feed of corn-and-cob meal; this corn-and-cob meal was mixed with the cottonseed meal, so the daily allowance of concentrated feeds for the calves of these two lots was greater than that of the calves in Lot 1. During the preliminary period each calf in Lot 2 received a daily feed of 2.6 pounds of concentrated feeds, practically one-fourth of the amount being cornand-cob meal. Each calf in Lot 3, during the same period, received 3.05 pounds daily of the concentrated 1eeds 55.4 per cent. of which was corn-and-cob meal. At the end of the test each calf in Lot 3, was eating 6 pounds daily of the mixture of one-thrd cottonseed meal and two-thirds corn-and-cob meal; they ate this amount readily with no ill results following. It should be noted that when the amount of feed was increased it was increased gradually. No abrupt changes were made. WEIGHTS AND GAINS. \When the preliminary weights were secured, November 18, 1910, the calves averaged from 6 to 8 months in age. While they were not large for their age, they were larger than the average for the State. Their mothers probably averaged about 1,000 pounds in weight in usual breeding condition. The calves had not been pampered in any way duriig the summer months; they had simply run with their mothers upon a reasonab'y good pasture. In some previous experimental work* done by this Station and the Bureau of Animal Industry, yearling grade Angus calves attained a weight of only 402 pounds, but they were heavily infested with ticks. Some ticks were permitted to get on the calves used in the present test, but they were not badly infested. Of course, this slight infestation retarded their development, but just how much it is impossible to state. *6ee Alabama Station bulletin No. 150, or Bureau of Animal Industry bulletin No. 103. LOT2. Picts,'n*~ corn-and cobt u-t .~otest.~ 1-3, ct~toniseed hulItt unlatalta uy. hi *'ii.. UP u . cooi I''tw3i it en.. -1 hey ax urugecd 33.3potundts in xs eight Nxubur 17. 1911 2-3.plus i S L OTJ t <. AL~ r\li I,' I97 il e ~ ~i, I' .t cc , ulunuths uulc. I h l uuan ii :seluge chile ode gunu itf 1.74p m,,;,;uj tl tfor 551 PeI unduuured-sxeight, or 10icents a hued -lruI ," .. ... iix a. ciliu rthlii (i ilirte-fourths o hiotu]i. Thec maijii ty- of the calx c> xx rc raictl on the f arm c\%o theim ionC fex xxhere the exlit nimeittal Nxxi i. xas d lie: just he fo re the iiitiiihiliirs howixxcvcr, xxc e pnrcha ,cd fro stateid, they hadl all f the o~niii expel-moat. .AS1 bfrc auati'' iecin buirni ilt ilik the shrmil- ot PC(t), so xx cie irum sex cii to th eight iii 'itlo. l xxhcii thcxy xx rc fir t xx Iglicil I )cccmhcrr 3. 1iO(). Ii ir their a(ge, the- wxcre nuit lark, altltiugh tlic\- xwcre larger than the ax ii h cr-ae calv aca, xc \c~t Mtate.8i \t the 1) nof the a (nu cgi to PAR 111IIl. Piturt iaken t lhtginitrii, tftesi antl NScro lt poundlitl in 5 tight 3Si6 t. et-niht (U 3. i9. At iti nitheile SeTe b to 8 mothis otlt. I lit' us ss tirigt'd t'd iliiouil the 21. 1911, so madeti goodtt w~inig t rc is tragutd 512 poundts in sst'ighx andi itutuils. xxhen spring camet'they wextre tijie intoit a lutsiituiti fteted. is-r. sullpit'nltitirN cake e coWldttt th cotitonst'cd FEED) A\1 MAXNAGEMENTI. 1'I, i1 xtr.me 1lactil iii the nt 3, 1(U), thle cailx )citenli ruil alt,()i dcl ampille un ttcctinnI i' lcil that as xxhichl xx a 1i il fie&Iilg iintcr date the xx ( )II the abiovx coll rilainWill xx il. cn, (; I hex xxcit -.altced at regular interl ml. Legan. 214 -fresh water was kept in troughs all of the time. The hay racks the feed bunks, or troughs, were all under shelter so that the calves could eat in a comfortable place no matter how inthe weather became. During the winter months they were fed twice daily, once .early in the morning and again an hour or so before dark. When grass appeared in the spring (March 22, 1910), each calf was weighed and all turned upon the pasture to be fattened cn grass. While on pasture they were fed only once a day, and this was done about sun-down, or the cool part of the .afternoon, so that all would come out to the feed troughs. The feed, which consisted of cottonseed cake and alfalfa hay, was not thrown upon the ground" the cake was placed in feed troughs situated at convenient places in the pastures, and the -hay was fed from hay racks. When cattle are thus fed in properly constructed hay racks and troughs practically no feed is wasted. The pasture was not free from ticks, so the calves became slightly infested. However, they .were dipped at irregular intervals and very few ticks appeared on them. No Texas fever -cases developed. A good supply of water was afforded by a creek and an artificial pool. .and -clement THE PASTURE. In the western part of Alabama sweet clover (Melilotus) appears earlier than any other pasture plant. In the spring of 1910 this clover pasture was ready for grazing by March 22, but it did not afford complete and satisfactory grazing at this early date. However, no hay was used to supplement the pasture until April 29, when a small allowance of freshly-cut alfalfa hay was added to the pasture and cake ration. Later on in the season the sweet clover died down, when Japan clover (Lespedeza), some Bermuda, and carpet grass constituted the main grazing plants. The pasture had been in cultivation the season of 1909 so did not furnish ample grazing as the grasses had not become thoroughly established. Still the calves made good and economical gains during the pasture season. The 34 animals were graced upon a field which contained practically 100 acres. 215 CHARACTER AND PRICES OF FEEDS. Cottonseed meal, cottonseed cake, cottonseed hulls, corn chops and freshly-cut alfalfa hay were all used at various times throughout the test. The purchased feeds were charged against the calves at the market prices. Estimated prices, corresponding as nearly as possible to the market prices, were placed upon the two feeds which were grown upon the farm. The folloing prices were placed upon the feeds: $26.00 a ton. Cottonseed meal .............. Cottonseed cake (broken) ....... 26.00 a ton. 7.00 a ton. Cottonseed hulls ................ ............ 70 a bushel. Corn ........... 15.00 a ton. Alfalfa hay .................... .50 a month. Pasture (per head) ............ During the winter months a hay made up of a mixture of Johnson grass and alfalfa was fed, but that which was fed along with the pasture was practically all freshly-cut alfalfa. The corn, which was grown on the farm, was used in the shape of corn chops, the shelled corn being run through a grinder and crushed into coarse meal. The cottonseed meal and the cottonseed cake were both purchased from a near-by oil mill. The cake had been broken into nut size and sacked; this had been done at the mill. All of the feeds were of good quality. DAILY RATIONS. As noted in the early part of this bulletin, young animals must be fed with a great deal of care and skill; they require more care and attention than steers and oxen. These calves were fed at practically the same hour each day, and received a definite amount of feed. This daily allowance of feed was limited, and it was expected that the troughs would be clean within ;an hour after each feeding. 216 TABLE 14.-Daily Feed for Each Calf for the Whole Period. (Dec. 3, 1909-June 22, 1910). DAILY RATION Periods Winter Period (December 3-March 24) Pasture Period (March 25-June 22) Pounds Pounds First 28 days 2.18 1.38 3.93 7. 13 cottonseed meal corn chops mixed alfalfa hay cottonseed hulls 3.23 cottonseed cake Second 28 days 1.68 cottonseed meal 2.40 corn chops 3.85 cottonseed cake 1.59 alfalfa hay. 3.99 mixed alfalfa hay 7.23 cottonseed hulls. Third 28 days 1.38 1.07 3.82 9.39 1.48 .72 3.36 10.24 cottonseed meal corn chops mixed alfalfa hay cottonseed hulls cottonseed meal corn chops mixed alfalfa hay cottonseed hulls 5.00 cottonseed cake 2.74 alfalfa hay Fourth 28 days Last 5 days: 5.00 cottonseed cake 2.74 alfalfa hay It will be seen that the calves did not get a heavy grain ration at any time. The first 28 days of the winter period each calf was given practically 3.5 pounds of grain each day; during the second period of 28 days, the quantity was raised to four pounds for each calf daily. This large amount, however, was too expensive, so the grain part of the ration was reduced considerably during the third period of 28 days. The object was to get these calves through the winter as cheaply as possible, and still produce reasonable and steady gains. The pasture was looked forward to as the feed for making rapid and cheap gains, so the high-priced winter feeds were used as sparingly as possible. It will be seen later, however, that the calves made satisfactory gains in the winter months. During the winter months a definite amount of cottonseed. hulls was weighed out to the animals at each feed. It is seen that for the first 28 days, each calf ate 7.13 pounds of hulls: x li tllirili the last 28 daN s, the dajix allowxanice xxas. risid to 10.24 pouns. \Alfaifa hax xvas fed adI libitniml they \\ ~l "i~ e ll i thex cariedI to cat after 1 eceixiii a the reg-uiar feed Iof hull, aiid it iieilitel Thn dieill n ot consumeiil much alfalfa hii Ill vv cic, as tech eai slid ui t axeii-e as 1IMMi as four i dlajil- rai intl alflfa hiS alin'; ksith p tre. T il. x re i0d on paistire trotm Ma~rchI 21. 191.1to Ju- x\ hI'lt, o pai .. 1 e eachn calf atei 4.l:6 ptiundls of coitoinitd caike antd I55 pouindts of altatlta, h: (piillx I lit stolt lii 5 12 tents tip ,ioi andI madle aicler prollito 1.8 eif acti. the feed i 32'3 puuiii of cnta ii it cake fiii the first 28 dis. The past' xas nut ') ii~ at thi, iar i date andl tihe caixes made onix, 0.23 of a poliiid axeraiidanik -n pir hlead dii ik the first pi id. It xx(i1aid pi thaid_ ihaxe 1]cell prnditaide to haxve iippili'iltiii t11( pa tuft' xx ih s iii alfalfa liax Buiiii thtis pIi d, hut tie hax ci l nil o t he stniui'd. 11 ixApil 29 a nexx crops o fi alala hall iieei ct, so that dlate mai'rkeds tile he'iiiinIo thi u' liif of tile iax. :After1 tlhs date hax xxas fed each dax ut ii lii c':iec xxcr goih. I )huin~ the iast 33 dax s of the test eaiti edf",'. xxL ixi' a dailix feed1 of fire pounds of cottionseedl cause iiid 2.7 !pimiii i f ailfailfi iiix in additioii to the pastture. -c ic li \\ 1(ill die I \\ii I tili ari\ id', Mairih 23, 1910, ilx(2 tii ltune iupon ii as ant~i 1 tixcn an ax eia-e dil NVEI(,IITS AND) GAINS. lie~ alI x,e i' ev li cr pxx thiani thous iedi in the test reportedl ini I arit i. \ h* thtie test bigan the caixves axveraged 386 poultitI 218 in weight; when it closed, they averaged 628 pounds, or they made an average total gain of 242 pounds each from December 3, 1909, to June 22, 1910. Taken as a whole, the gains were entirely satisfactory. TABLE 15.-Total and Daily Gains. Average Average final weight of each calf Average total gain of each calf Average daily gain of each calf Period initial Number of Number of calves days fed weight of each calf Pounds Winter Period Pounds Pounds Pounds (Dec. 3-Mar. 24) Pasture Period (March 25-June 22) 34 112 386 512 126 1.13 34 89 509 628 119 1.33 The calves were in the test 201 days. For the first 112 days they were on dry winter feed; during the final 89 days they were on pasture. Each calf made an average total gain of 126 pounds from December 3, 1909, to March 24, 1910, or, an average daily gain of 1.13 pounds. This was satisfactory. On March 24, they averaged 512 pounds in weight and were from 11 to 12 months of age. During the pasture season of 89 days (March 25 to June 22), the calves made an average total gain of 119 pounds each, or, an average daily gain of 1.33 pounds. These gains were also satisfactory, but nothing unusual. When the test closed on June 22 the calves had reached an average weight of 628 pounds. They were from 14 to 15 months old at this time. QUANTITY AND COST OF FEED REQUIRED TO MAKE 100 POUNDS GAIN IN WEIGHT. The table below shows the average daily ration for each calf, the pounds of feed required to make one hundred pounds of increase in live weight, and the cost to make the gains. In this connection, it should be remembered that these were young and small animals. As a result of their being young and small their daily feed was small and their gains were made economically. 219 TABLE 16.--Average Daily Ration and Quantity and Cost of Feed to Make ioo Pounds of Gain. Pounds feed Cost to make Averaged feed per calf pounds of 100 pounds of gain Period Ration Pounds Pounds Winter Period ,(Dec. 3-Mar. 24) Cottonseed meal Corn chops 1.68 meal 1.39 corn 149 meal 123 corn Cottonseed hulls Mixed alfalfa hay 8.49 hulls 3.77 hay 754 hulls 335 hay $8.63 Pasture Period Cottonseed cake (March 25-June 22) Alfalfa hay 4.06 cake 1.55 hay 305 cake 116 hay $4.84 It cost $8.63 to make 100 pounds of gain during the winter period, but the same gains were made for only $4.84 when the calves were on pasture and receiving a partial ration of cottonseed cake and alfalfa hay. This strikingly illustrates the importance and value of pastures. During the winter months expensive gains are almost always encountered no matter what kind of live stock is being raised or fattened. This condition of affairs is usually due to two factors. First, the feeds which .are used during the winter months are the high-priced ones, and second, smaller gains are usually secured (especially with young and growing stock) during the cold months, and small gains are almost always expensive. The cost of the summer gains was small compared with that of the winter gains, yet the summer gains were unusually expensive. In previous pasture-feeding work* in this State, summer gains were made for $2.56 to $3.24 per hundred pounds increase in live weight when cake was fed along with the pasture. The short pasture during the early part of the test probably accounts for the expensive gains; the calves made a daily gain of only 0.23 of a pound during the first 28 days of the summer feeding. *See Alabama Station bulletin No. 151, or Bureau of Animal Indu. try bulletin No. 131. 220 PRICES REALIZED FOR THE FEEDS AS A RESULT OF FEEDING THE CALVES. It will be seen below that excellent prices were realized upon all of the feeds used during the fattening period. By means of the calves the feeds were sold for a greater price than they would have brought had they been placed upon the open grain or hay markets. The feeds brought the following prices as a result of being fed to the calves: Cottonseed meal was sold, by means of the $45.93 a ton. calves, for ........................... Corn chops was sold, by means of the a bushel. calves, for...........................1.37 Cottonseed hulls were sold, by means of the 10.99 a ton. calves ,for ............................ The hay fed in the winter time was sold, by means of the calves, for .................. 23.89 a ton.. Cottonseed cake was sold, by means of the calves, for ................................... 35.82 a ton. Alfalfa hay was sold, by means of the calves, for .................................. 21.48 a ton. Pasture rented (per month per calf) for ...... 1.06 Cottonseed cake cost $26.00 a ton. but was resold, by means of the calves, for $35.82 a ton. If the hay had been sold on the hay market it would have brought approximately $15.00 a ton, but when it was fed to the calves and marketed by means of them each ton realized from $21.48 to $23.89. When meas ured in terms of profits made on the calves, the pasture was rented for $1.06 a month for each calf. If the corn had been hauled to town and sold it would not have brought over 70 cents a bushel, but when it was fed to the calves each bushel realized $1.37. The cottonseed meal and hulls were sold through the calves for $45.93 and $10.99 a ton, respectively. These results all emphasize the fact that the farmer can usually sell his farm crops, by means of some kind of live stock, for more than can be obtained for them when placed one the market as raw farm products. RI~~~~ Is III CSo oi'oftetl 4 ~~ Nihlt:tr1Zctost te u to i i: T90 um R1 .1 \cl tall. If w il of theCA i caix .I , cotn .il e c es xx Pire .0-el 1.190 iaee ap 11tilal. IA Ii. x xx el l. T at~ E ti i x II otile (2-e tari\ tir Naa,2the24,nc opuenimakt cii 1l A1th)11)c an1 cetntcfal fall an tilatc2 at intr,11 al f to hea 1(111 hctl.1l2in u V 34 aix on 1i1c wa place (i.41 them.1 (241011 r ll 84.-8 charge tcJ Thi % N4e) piaf mT i them5( a(t~ t (0l. lial ieigull IVII(i market pil 14 Torc~ thealve M2 ~iIl (if at , $7.0 ah til. 11r425 oc morx athan th0 a ia.10.l lt........ u1,t of Maaix NI 24 ath 4 Toa ot tl March 25. cle 4ci 1113 ~x~..........$ 1)10. pe 182ll~s and1 their total cos~t had reached~ 84.1 illlldred- vceigkt , 222 consequently they were valued at this sum at the beginning of the pasture work. It cost $10.90 to feed each calf from December 3, 1909, to March 25, 1910. TABLE 18.-Results of Fattening the Calves on Pasture. To 34 calves, 17,313 pounds at $4.79-t per cwt...... $ To 12,291 pounds of cottonseed cake at $26.00 a ton. To 4,691 pounds of alfalfa hay at $15.00 a ton.... To total pasture rent, 89 days (March 25 to June 22) at 50 cents per head per month................... Total expense .............. ............ 829.82 159.78 35.18 50.43 $ 1,075.21 By sale of 34 calves, 20,702 pounds at 5 1-2 cents $ 1,138.61 . ........... ............ a pound ........................ Total profit Profit per, calf ............ $ .. 63.40 1.86 These calves were sold June 22,. 1910, for 5 1-2 cents a ;pound on the farm, after a 3 per cent shrink. They were shipped to the Meridian, Mississippi, market for slaughter. The above shows that a profit of $1.86 was made on each ,calf after all expenses were taken into account. The financial statement means that the calves were put into the test at 3 1-2 cents a pound in the fall of 1909; that the alfalfa hay, which was grown on .the farm, was sold for $15.00 a ton; that the corn which was also produced on the farm was disposed of for 70 cents a bushel; and finally, an additional profit of $1.86 was made on each calf. This was satisfactory, especially when it is recalled that a large amount of manure was produced while the calves were being fed. SLAUGHTER RECORDS. The calves were shipped to Meridian, Mississippi, for slaughter. They were driven to Scooba, Mississippi, a distance of 11 miles, to be loaded on the cars. Through a misunderstanding the live weights were not secured at Meridian but the individual weights of the dressed carcasses were all obtained. t_1.E 19.-S lat.li/cr N timb~ Pala. Pertcenl drixese ll by ix o .i per ater eiht cent shrink er of F ool xx iglit oni I oiial wxeight iif P'ei farmi carcaistx in iii diressetd tilt out1 byx tarti weihts Nim'Hi erili~it trlii x. xx P'ounds(1 Pounds Per icent P'er centi 34 2t1342 ii that 11t2i 52. x 5I.1I It \ ill be the calves dlressedl ut, by tota. farm ni ii'htr .8 per cent. The cat ca-cs ii ere goo d ones 11anl~ul IMIP iticsrlli it alI~VtttttC. ic txtt un