II-T7L 1ITIOF Agricultural Experiment Station. AUB URN. VOL. XI. BULLETINS 122-126, AND 16TH ANNUAL REPORT. JANUARY TO 1)ECEiMI3R, 190,3. M'E MONTGOMERY, ALA.. AND BINDERS. BROWN PRINTING CO., PRIYTERS 1904. A4\ CONTENTS. BULLETINS : 122. Grazing and' Feeding Experiments with Pigs.......Jan. 1903 Vetch. Cowpea, and Soy Bean as substitutes for Wheat Bran........................................April 1903 1_23. 124. The Horticultural Law. Notes on some of the Insects and Fungous Diseases Affecting Horticultural Crops.. May, 1903 125. "126. Some Diseases of Cattle .. . r...........June, 1903 I.... Oct. 1903 A Leaf-Curl Disease of Oaks ................... *Annual Report, Sixteenth ................................. *Edition exhausted. 1903 If ' INDEX. Page numbers in parenthesis refer to Annual Report. A Leaf-Curl Disease of Oak............................169, Anderson, J. T...........................................(5) Agriculturist, report of....................................(9) Betts, Tancard............................................(4) Bilbro, J. A..........................(4) Black. Knot................................................93 Bordeaux How to prepare..........................178 Bragg, Thomas.(5) Britton, Dr. N. L..........................................171 Butter: Amount of food required to produce a pound of........66 Carmichael, J. M..........................................(4) Cary, Dr. C. A........................................108, Cattle, acute indigestion in...............................134 (9) Mixture: (5) (12) Chemist, report of......................................... report ,of soil and soil surveying .................. Clark, Miss Josephine A.................. W Clark, Prof. R. .. .. . ... .. . .7, (15) 171 55 ................................. .... ............... Corn hearts compared with wheat bran....................... composition of..................... ............... Corn meal, composition of................................. Cowpea hay compared with Soy bean......................... composition of................... .................. hay and wheat bran; 68 54 .47 68 54 63 ,60 amount of milk and butter pro- duced ........ ............ ....................... versus wheat, bran as food for cows .. .. .. ............. ...... Cow, furunc~ulosis of ....... ........ ................ obstructions to milk .............................. ........ .............. papillomas (warts).......... flow .. 112 113 115 108 pox of, variola....t*................................ 4 varicella of.111 abortion of..........................................136 daily rations of ......................... . . . effects of rations on live weight of....................67 infectious abortion...................................141 mamiitis, niastitis, garget of.........................166 non-infectious abortion of..............................137 parturient paresis (milk fever) of......................158 poisonous plants for.................................118 (a) aeculus pavia (red buckeye)......................122 (b) kalmia latifolia (Laural ivy).....................118 (c) phytolacca Decandra (poke root)..................126 (d) prunus carolineana (mock orange)................123 (e) Prenus Persisa (peach)..123 (f) Prunus Serotina (wild cherry)...................123 (g) Prunus Virginiana (choke cherry)................123 (bh) Sorghum Vulgare (sorghum).................. 123 Crown Gall...............................................95 Culver, T. U............................................7 (7) Dairy cows, amount of manure produced by....................71 Davis, Win. C.............................................(4) Denson, D ............................ Duggar, Prof. J. F...................................51, (5, Floyd, C. M .. ..... ............ .................... (5, Forbes, Prof. S. A.......... .. ............. ............... Cow, N. (4) Frazer, T. H ....... (86) 7) 7) 84 insects affecting horticultural crops .. Fungious. diseases Grazing anld feeding experiments with pigs .................. Hairy Vetch versus wheat bran as rations for cows............. 55 Haralson, Jonathan.............. ............. ............ Hare, Prof. C. L ...... ............ ...................... .23, 26 and . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4) (8) (4) Heikes, Mr. WV. F................ ........................ 81 Henry's Feed and Feeding quoted................ .... ...... 47 11i11, Hon. I. W . . ............................... ... .(4 ) Hogs, cotton seed meal as food for, in connection with corn meal and sorghum or peanuts ....................... ..... ........... ...... ....... 3 succession of hay crops for................. sweet potatoes for 7 (42) .................................... Horticulture, Board of ................. 81 5 Horticultural Law and Rules adopted by Board of Horticulture 75 Horticulturist, report of .................................... (21) Horticulture, rules....................................... Insects and Fungous Disease affecting horticultural Jelks, Hon. Win. D........................................(4) Jones, Prof. J. M........................................ 55 (5) Kerosene emulsion..........................89 Lard, effects of certain feeds on melting pointo.....23, 28, 34. 38, 40 Law, Horticultural..........................................75 Ligon, H. F...............................................(4) Lime, sulphur and salt wash ................................ 90 MVackintosh, Prof. R. S...............................73, 81, Matthews, F. G...........................................136 Miller, Prof. E. H.......................... ............ 123, New "peach scale...........................................91 Oak, Black or Quercitron Oak-Quercus Velutina.............172 Laural-Quercus Laurifolia..........................172 Live-Quercus Virginiaaa............................173 Scarlet-Quiercus Coccnea......................... 172 Water-Quercus 7T:igra ................................ 172 Willow-Quercus Phellos..............................172 Fungus causing disease of ............................. 175 disease distribution of in Alabama.....................181 disease distribution of in United States ................. 180 Oaks, Leaf-Curl disease .. ........ ... ............. 171 List of that are subject to disease 9f............ ....... .179 prevention the disease of ......... .. ................... 177 symptoms of disease of......... .... ........... .. .. 173 crops......84 (5) 126 of useful as shade trees in State ......................... 172 Oats, growth of before and after grazing ............... ...... Peach and Plum Rosette........ ............. .......... ... Peach Yellows ........ ,.............................. ....... Pigs, average results of feeding rice polish ......... ... corn hearts versus cowpea meal versus corn meal as food cotton seed meal versus cowpea meal and versits corn meal 10 99 97 46 as a finishing food................. ......... 36, crops for .................. ................... effects of cotton seed meal on health of ................. 7 33, 36 6 Pigs, rood consumed before and after weaning...............10 gains made on chufas. ......................... 19 gains made on peannts ................................ 17 graizng and feeding experiments with...................3 grazing sorghum and cowpeas with.....................24 growth of before and after weaning......................9 Internal organs, etc. as effected by food.................48 peanuts and chutas as pasture for......................22 peanuts, corn meal and milk for........................l1 peanuts versus chufas versus mixed grain for............19 rape as winter pasture for.............................12 rice polish as food for................................43, 44 Spanish peanuts as pasture for..........................15 sorghum grazed and soiled versus peanuts grazed. Plant Physiologist, report of............................... Poole, Hon. R. R...........................................81 Ransom, A. McB......................................40 (5) Rice meal, composition of................................., Rice polish, composition of..................................47 Rosette, peach and plum.....................................97 Ross, B. B( ............................. ) San Jose Scale.....................................84, 85, 86, 87 Samford, T. D................................... (4) Sargent, H. 0....,.................................... (57 Scott, Prof. W.M............................................ 86 Shoats, Dwarf Essex Rape as food for......................... 11 cotton seed meal as food for .................. .......... 34 Some Diseases of Cattle .................................... Soy bean compared with cowpea hay ....................... 6 hay, composition of........... ....................... 54 Spraying Materials: How to prepare......................... 89 Station Council .......................... .................. (16) 4754 ...... (8) (5) Terry, W. K...... .......................................... (4) Thach, Prof. Chas. C.......... hay, composition of .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... . ... .. .. . . . .81 Vetdh, cowpea and soy bean as substitutes for wheat bran....... 51 54 ... ...................... ... :............ and wheat bran, amount of nilik and butter produced by Veterinarian, report of..................... 58 (18) 7 Wheat bran compared with corn hearts......................(68 composition of ...... ........................... limitation of the substitution of hay for............ versus cowpea hay as food for cows................ Wilcox, Dr. E. Mead....................................171 Woolly Aphis .............................. Young animals, dysentery in ................... 54 65 60 (5) 101 127 BULLETIN No, 122. JANUARY, 1903. ALABAMA. Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE. AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. Grazing and Feeding Experimelts with Pigs.. By J. F. DUIGGAR. BROWN PRINTING CO., PRINTERS & BINDERS. MONTGOMERY, ALA. 1903. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. THos. WILLIAMS.....................................Wetumpka. JONATHAN HARALSON....................................Selma. STATION COUNCIL C. C. B. THACH ..................... President and Acting Director. B. Ross..........................................Chemist. C. A. CARY.......................................Veterinarian. J. F. DUGGAR ..................................... Agriculturist. E. M.. W cox........................................Biologist. R. S. MAcINToS... ............................ Horticulturist. Chemist. J. T. ANDERSON.................................Associate ASSISTANTS. *C. L. HARE ............................... First Assistant Chemist. A. McB. RANSON.................... Acting First Assistant Chemist. T. BRAGG................................ J.. C. PHELPS............................. T. U. CULVER.............................. J Second Assistant Chemist. Third Assistant Chemist. Superintendent of Farm. Assistant in Animal Industry. MJ JONES ......................... *On leave of absence. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. GRAZING AND FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WiTH PIGS. By J. F. DUGGAR. Summary. Pigs maide a more economical growth weaning than did sow and pigs just before weaning time. -The* following plants were tested ashog food, the hogs doing the harvesting; these plants are available for use in the months indicated: Spanish peanuts, August to, December. Chufas, Novemiber to' March. Cowpeas, July to, November. Sweet potatoes, August to November. Sorghum, July to, November. Vetch and oats, March, April and May. Dwarf Essex rape (spring sown), May and June. Dwarf Essex rape (fall sown), December, January, February, March, and part of April. most case's it was necessary to' feed, in addition to the above crops, from o'ne-fourth to' one-half of the usual r'ation of grain. If w'e assume that this grain 5 pounds was required to pro'duce one pound o'f increase in live weight, we have left, the following amount of growth o'f sho'ats attributable t&o owe acre o'f each crop after deducting the gains! to' the grain consumed. Peanuts (with grain) in 7' tests averaged 333 pounds of gro vth, now worth $16.65. Peanuts alone in 2 tests: averaged 281 po'unds, worth $14.05. just after Lan o'f due Chufas in 2 tests averaged 307 pounds, worth $15.35. 'Cowpeas in 2 tests averaged 229 pounds, worth$11.45. Essex rape in 2 tests averaged 452 pounds, worth $22.50. Sorghum in 2 tests, averaged 174 pounds, worth $8.70. One acre of the best of these crops,(peanuts, rape, and chufas) afforded pasturage for one month for at least 25 100-pound shoats, when a half ration of grain was fed. The average amounts of grain required to make one pound of growth on shoafts, consuming also the crops below, were as follows.: 1.77 pounds of grain with 2.30 pounds of grain with 3.07 pounds of grain with 2..68 pounds of grain with 3.70 pounds of grain with 3.13 pounds of grain with peanuts; chufas; cowpeas; rape ; sorghum; sweet potatoes. Pigs grazing on sorghum, fully headed out, ate only 12 per cent less grain per pound of growth than those supported entirely on corn. Shoats fed on a mixture of corn meal 'and of 20 or 25 per cent cotton seed mieal in most experiments ate but little food and made very slow growth. In other etxperiments they required only 3.84 and 4.68 pounds of this mixture per pound of growth. The feeding of cotton seed meal as part of the grain ration for 34 to 38 days in most cases had ai poisonous effect on shoats weighing from No ill effect 59 to 118 poundjs each. was noticed prior to the thirty-third day and some pigs showed no perceptible ill effects on the thirty-second day. Cotton seed meal caused death or sickness of shoats when constituting oine-fifth or one-fourth of the grain ration whether the cotton seed meal mixture was fled alone or in connection with a bountiful supply of green sorghum or peanuts. Calculated on a basis of 100 pounds live weight, daily doses of .25, .40, .41 and .53 of a pound of cottoin seed meal for 34 to 38 days, caused sickness or death; .61 a pound daily for 35 days fed in different years to shoats of practically the same size caused evident unthrift in one '-experiment,- while in the other no immediate effects were discernible. Shoats averaging 143 pounds in weight were not hu;r't by eating 31 days .73 a pound oaf cottoin seed meal daily 100 pounds livei weight. Evidently the younger the pig the more susceptible they are to cottion seed meal poisoning. The health of shoats was injuriously affected or death resulted, where, in an exclusive mixed grain ration, the amount of coitton seed meal consumed per 100 pounds of live weight reached, with the smallest shoats L3.2 pounds,,and.with larger shoats, 21.4 pounds; while in a tihird experimeznt 21.5 pounds of cotton seed meal was consumed peir hundred weight without immediate of of per for evidences of. injury, pounds per 100 -pounds, of and in a fourth experiment. 22.6 live weight was consumed without visible. effects on the health of large sho'ats. Where a cotton seed meal mixture was fed in connec- tion with grazed sorghum, cut sorghum, or grazed: pearnuts, toxic effects were manifested when respectively 21.,6, 18.9 and 17.7 pounds of cotton seed meal per hundred weight had been consumed. obtained highly when some cotton seed meal was fed for short periods to shoats while grazing peanuts. Peanuts fed up-to the date of slaughter made a very satisfactory growth We solfti lard. Chufas softened the lard to an almost equal degree. 6 The feeding of grain of any of the kinds tested to pigs .whose flesh had previously been softened by feeding on peanuts greatly solidified the lard, but the exclusive feeding of grain for 26 to 35 days just before butchering failed to' make the flesh lard as firm as that of pigs which had never consumed peanuts. a mixture was fed containing 20 or 25 per cent o'f cotton seed meal and the remainder corn meal, the melting point of the lard was 3.4 degrees F. higher than when only corn; meal was fed. Rice bran was not relished by hogs and it did not afford rapid growth. Rice polish in 5 experiments proved superior to'corn meal. One pound of growth required only 3.73 pounds of rice polish as compared with 4.74 pounds of corn meal. Hence 78.6 pounds of polish were equal to100 pounds of corn meal for shoats. Corn, hearts proved decidedly inferior to corn meal, and to colwpea, meal. Skim.. milk in moldeiate amount saved about half of the usual quantity of grain in the ration of shoats. and When INTRODUCTORY. Hogs are profitable property. Now that the prices of live hogs and o'f meat are unusually high this lesson is being brought ho'me most forcefully. Ho'gs were profitable even when they sold on f oot at 3 to 3-1 cents a pouwnd as they did locally when our earlier experiments, published in Bulletins. Nos. 82 and 93 of this station, were under way. Whatever the. price o'f ho'gs to the maximum profit or, of pork it is necessary that we make sparing use of corn in most*portions of the Gulf States. econo'mize in the use of corn,, not by stinting We need to the total amount of food off er'ed, but by making use of other crops which cani be grown on certain soils at less expense or which are more effective foods. To ascertain the relative pork-producing values o'f some of the special hog flesh and lard crops and their effect o'n the quality has been the principal aim of most of the experiments in this bulletin. These experiments herein recorded extend over a period of four years. During the first year of this. period the details o'f feeding and weighing were in the hands of Mr. T. U. Culver. During the last three years the work has been done by Mr. R. W. Clark, this part recently Assistant Agriculturisto'f this. Station. Tot botch of these acknowledgements are due for cordial cooperation and for faithful services. The results of seven years' experiments in growing special hog crops enable us to suggest a succession of crops of proven value to, be harverted by hogs, to, which others.when list, we hope to' be able to add a number they have beetn further tested, among them being falfa,, artichokes, pumpkins aid soy beans. Succession of hay crops. of of of al- Months when used. January and February... March 1, to April ... April ....... May . .... .... Crops. Fall-sown rape and chufas. Fall-sown rape, vetch and oats, rye, wheat, etc. Vetch and oats, crimson clover, oats and wheat Spring-sown rape, vetch and oats, wheat and the usual pastures. June......... Spring rape, stubble turf oats and the usual pastures. July and August..... Sorghum, early varieties of cowpeas, and the usual pastures. September, October and November .. Spanish peanuts, cowpeas, sweet potatoes and sorghum. 15. fields, December .. . chuf as and fall-sown rape. Among these special hog crops attention is here directed to Dwarf Essex rape, because it is so little known, so palatable, so' nutritious and because it can effectively used at once to relieve', to some extent,.the prlesent scarcity of corn. For the successful growth rape the land must be as rich and as highly fertilized as for turnips, and preparation, sowing and cultivation are the same as with that crop,'except that rape is not -thinned. Sow 3 to 5 pounds of seed per acre in narrow drills between. September 20 and October 20. Seed are cheap, 10 to, 12 cents pler pound, and they are sold by all seedsm'en. have also sown rape in March, getting hog pasturage in May and June. In the summary the present local price of hogs, 5 cents per pound, has been used in estimating the value of one ;acre of each crop, when converted in the body o'f the bulletin use has been made of the local price prevailing at the time when each experiment was made. We can estimate the increase in- live weight due to one acre of' so'me special crop only by calculating the probable approximate~ amount of growth due, to' the grain fed. Th'e amount of grain -required, when fed beso of We into'pork.-ilowever, to proiduce onet pound of growth varies of course ments is no't very far' fro'm five pounds. alone, with mnzy conditions, -but the average- of m'any expferi- In assuming this figure we have; sacrificed str'ict accuracy to uniformity and clear' presenltation'l. Those who prefer to, use a, different facto'r will find it possible from the date in thei bo'dy o'f this bulletin to calculate the net gains per acre~ of hog crop, whatever factor they select. GROWTH OF PIGS BEFORE AND AFTER WEANING. On farms, where dairying is an important industry and where there is an ab'undancei of ski milk for sow and littter, it is not unnsual for the brood sow to' nurse a litter pigs without herself losing weight. In the .absence of skim milk we find that the sow generally loses in weight, however bountiful the supply of and green material. For example in the period between farrowing, February 24, 1899, and the beginning of the experiment April 1, a, sow lost 29.6 pounds, and her litter of 7 pigs gained 67.3 pounds. During this time sow and pigs were- kept in a. hare lot and fed.amixture equal weights of ground cowpeas and a very coarse grade of rice meal, which in this case consisted largely of of grain of ground rice chaff. This sow The amount of this, mixture con- sumed in this time was 273 pounds,. and her, seven pigs were co'nfined At the end by means of hurdles. or movable panels on. a field! where vetch and turf oats gr'ew together. period, May 6, the sow was removed and the pigs,, now of a five weeks' 10 weeks old, were continued on the same character' pasture three weeks longer, or until May 27. The herbage was mnor'e tender and succulent in the earlier periods, though its weight per acre was greater' in the later pie niod. The grain fed to the sow and pigs while they grazed on vetch pasture was, corn, meal. of 10 (ains made and food consumed before and after weaning. Before weaning. Per week. After weaning. .Per k. 5 weeks. week. Lbs. 18.5 81.3* Lbs. Lbs. Growth made by 7 pigs............ 113.60 22.70 Loss in weight of sow.............. 19.40 38 Net gain in weight of sow & pigs. 9.20 182........ Meal consumed by sow* & pigs .. 554 20 110.8 Lb. meal per lb. growth of pigs.. II~4.88......44.... Ls. meal per lb. net gain of sow and pigs. ....................... 5.88...... Area of pasture grazed; square ft (8550) (1710) Total weigbt of sow and pigs at beginning of period.............350.30..................... Total weight of 7 pigs at the beginning of each period.......... 118.60.....:.322 *Only pigs during last 3 weeks. Lbs. 55.40 244.00* ...... (3858.) (1286) A pound of growth was made with less meal, 4.40 after weaning ; before weaning it 4.88 pounds, of corn meal for each pound of growth or if we deductsfrom the gains made by the pigs the decrease in the weight of the sow, we find that it required pounds required 5.88 poiunds meal make one pound of growth of pigs. This is a very unsatisfactory rate of growth and probably due, at least in part, to sow aud cient of to insuffi- shade. Growth vetclh and oats after grazing-As stated. above., the pigs just after weaning were penned on a. mixture of hairy vetch' and turf oats, sown the previons; October on poor upland soil. Both oats and vetch had been delayed i gro'wth and otherwise injured bythe unprecedented cold of February, 1899. Moreover,. the vetch had been injured by root-knot. While penned on the vetch and oats the weaned pigs of 11 required, as stated in a, preceding table 4.4 pounds of corn, meal to make one pound of growth, in addition the pasturage. It is interesting to, note that on the areas grazed over prior to April 21 the vetch made, after the pigs were removed, sufficient, second gr'owth afford about twofifths of a normal crop of excellent hay, the average yield of second-growth hay on the plots grazedbetween these dates being 1,278 pounds per acre. The vetch should be credited with part of the growth made by the pigs, with the hay producedi as a second growth, and with the improvement o'f the fertility of the land which was very marked as measured by the growth of silage corn planted in June of the same year. to, to' DWARF ESSEX RSAPE AS FOOD FOR SHOATS. Frolm M1Iay 27 to June 23 ,1899, these same seven shoats were maainitained on drilled greenrape and corn meal. During the first. two. weeks the rape was pulled and carried to the shoatis,- while during the latter period the rape was grazed. The four weeks.o'f rape feeding will be. treated as o'ne period. The seven sho'ats averaged in weight at the beginning of this period 41 pounds each. Thel area. of drilled rape us'ed was 4190 square feet; corn meal. was fed each day, averaging 1.62 pounds per pig per day, or 317.6. pounds for the seven pigs in twenty-eight days. Th'e increase in was 103 pounds. ilence make one pound o'f gr'owth required 3.1 po'unds o'f corn mealand 40.5 square feet of rape pasture. This is at rate of 1078 pounds of growth fo'r o'ne acre o'f rape and 3324 pounds of corn meal., If we that shoats of this size fed on corn meal alone 5 _pounds of this grain would have been re- weight to, the assume for' 12 quired for each pound of growth, the acre of rape would be credited with producing alone 413 pounds of growth, worth, at 4 cents per pound, $16.52. In addition, the raipe which hiad been grazed made a second growth which was ready for pasturing within a month after the removal of the shoats, but which was ruined by the, iairlequin cabbage bugs, or "calico backs," before it could be utilized. The soil in which this patch of rape grew would be classed as sandy bottom land of medium grade. Let us turn aside here from the history of this litter of pigs, which we may call litter M, to describe some tests of raple made in 1900 and 1901. RAPE AS WINTER PASTURAGE FOR PIGS. Dwarf Essex Ralpe sowin in drills on sandy upland, October 13, 1900, was ready for pastuT'age January 6, 1901, when four pigs from litter O, weaned three weeks before, were confined on it with hurdles which were moved about once a week. The first growth of rape af- forded pasturage until March 28. The second growth, on land previously grazed over, afforded' pasturage from March 28 to April 18. Throughout the whole period that the pigs were on rape they received also about a half ration of corn meal. Less rapid and more expensive gains were made in March, when the plants had become tough and ready to seed, than during January and February. The most rapid and economical growth was made during the brief period while the succulent second growth was being consumed. 13 Weight of 4 pigs January 6................130 Weight of 4 pigs March 28.................311 lbs. lbs. lbs. Gain in 81 days :..........................181 Corn meal consumed in 81 days...........524 lbs. Pounds meal per pound growth............2.9 lbs. .13912 sq. ft. Area of 1st growth rape grazed... This is at the rate of 570 pounds of growth in live weight afforded by o'ne acre of first-growth rape assisted by 1641 pounds of corn meal. If we assume that 5 pounds of corn meal made one pound of growth we have left, 242 pounds of live weight, worth $9.68, to'be credited) to one acre of first-growth rape. havMarch 28, the rape having begun to' blossom ing become] relatively unpalatable, the hurdles were placed about the rape grazed in January and part of February, on which the second growth was by this in good condition for p'asturage, though small. On this second growth the pigs remained three weeks, meantine consuming the crop' on one-sixth acre and eating 168 pounds of corn meal. and time The growth made during these three weeks was 82 pounds, or one pound of growth fo'r only 2.05 pounds of meal, which figure indicates that the pigs must have derived about half their sustenance from the green crop. One acre of s'econd gro'wth rape assisted by 1008 pounds of co'rn meal resulted in a growth o'f 492 pounds. If we~ again assume a normal requirement of five pounds o'f grain for one of growth we have 290 pounds o'f increase in live weight, worth $11.60, as the value of an acre o'f second crop rape when converted into po'rk. It is fair to add together the gains made on an acre each of first gro'wth and o'f seco'nd growth, since part of the area was grazed twice. This gives a growth of 512 pounds of po'rk then worth $20.48, as attributable 14 to an acre of rape grazedi twice. This is on the assump, tion that it would require 5 pounds of an.exclusive grain ration to produce' a pound of growth. GRAZING SORGHUM, FIRST EXPERIMENT. Let us now return to the history of litter M, which had grazed on rape until June 23, 1899. This litter of seven shoats was grazed on fro'm June 24 to, September 2, 1899, meantime receiving daily a very small amount, alboiut 1-1pounds per day per shoat a mixture of equal weightsof cowpea meal and corn meal. During this time the seven shoats made an aggregate gain of 22.44 poundsi and utilized 15,374 square feet of drilled and cultivated sorghum, and also grazed the second growth on 8380 square feet; or about half of this same plot. The grain meantime consumed was 812 pounds by the lots of seven shoats, or 3.6 punds of grain for each pound of increase in live weight. This is equal to' a gain of 635 pounds of live weight sorghum of per acre of sorghum, assisted. by 2298 pounds of grain. Assuming that if the grain had been' fed alone 5 pounds would have been. required to, produce one piound of growth, we have left 195 plunds of growth attributable to one acre of growth sorghum and to about half of the second growth on, the same. At 4 cents pier pound 195 pounds of growth gives a first return of $7.80 ler acre of sorghum. Doubtless the value, of an acre of sorghum would have been considerably greater if the second growth on entire area, instead of on half of it, had been utilized. It was noticed the shoats required per the that, week about twice as large an area of second growth as of first growth sorghum. 15 and During a small portion of the time covered by this experiment sorghum cut and carried to, the pigs when this was done a given area lasted much longer than when hogs were turned in to graze, in which ease the waste o'f green food, bitten down and not consumed, was excessive. labor is' abundant and cheap or where the use of a, corn harvester is possible it is believed that it will pay to cut and carry the, sorghum to the pigs rather than to, graze it:. When shoiats averaging about 80 pounds received only and one-half pounds o'f grain a day per head and were r'equire'd to, make growth chiefly on sorghum, the trae of gain was slow, being a, little more than half a pound per day. The sorghum when grazed was at the stages of growth between early bloom and complete maturity and most feet high. The yield was rather ,of it was about light, the land being poor, sandy upland, moderately fertilized. The sorghum used in all our' grazing experiments has been drilled and cultivated. was Where ,one five THE VALUE OF SPANISH PEANUTS AS PASTURnAGE FOR PIGS. In Bulletin No. 93 of this Station the writer has recorded the very satisfactory results of several experiments in grazing pigs peanuts 1897. The results below confirm the conclusions which we have expressed' as great value of peanuts as food for on In, to' the her'etofore hogs. Peanuts and corn September 1, 1899, was penned on Spanish peanuts November 4, after weaning. There was only about two;thirds of a stand of peanuts. meal. -A litter of pigs farrowed 16 The total increase of live weight up to, December 23 was 298 pounds, during which time 482 pounds corn meal was consumed or 1.62 pounds grain per pound of growth. The area grazed over was 34,944 square feet, or nearly five-sixths of an acre. This is equal to' a gain of 371.4 pounds of live weight from one acre of peanuts assisted by 601 pounds of corn meal. If we assume that it required 5 pounds grain produce one pound of growth and subtract this amount; of pork we have left 251 pounds of live weight attributable exclusively to a poor crop of peanuts,, on one acre. With pork worth 4 cents per pound gross this gives a value o'f $10.04 to an acre of peanuts converted into poirk. of of to, of increase in 30 Peanats, corn meal and milk.-From to November 4, 1899, account was kept of the food consumed b'y a sow and litter of 9 pigs farrowed tember 2. Thee food consumed during these five weeks was as follows : September' Sep- 3,55 pounds corn meal at 1 cent..............$3.55 2.30 921 pounds skim milk at 4 cent............... Total ......... ........ ................ $5.85 In addition to above fooid, Spanish peanuts from one-fourth acre of land were also fed. During this time the sow made a gain of 9 pounds, showing that oin a sufficiently- nutritious and palatable diet the weight the nursing so'w can be maintained. The pigs made a gain of 226.5 pounds. The total gain of sow and pigs was 235.5 pounds, making the cost of grain and skim milk for o'ne pound of growth 2.5 cents. Assuming that one pound of growth of sow and pigs the of requires 5 pounds' of grain in a ration like this, and 17 that, as in certain Wisconsin lexperiments, 3 pounds of skim milk are equal to, one pound of com, we flid that per acre of peanuts, assisted by 2552 pounds grain or its equivalent there was made an increase 942 pounds in live weight. Deducting the amount attributable to the grain, 510 pounds, we have a balance of 432 pounds of pork the equivalent of oneacre.of peanuts, then worth, at 4 cents; per plound, $17.28. of of -as Peanuts and corn meal for shoats in1902.-Another litter of 7 shoats was penned on Spanish peanuts from October 11, 1902 to, November' 2, 1902. Their average weight at the beginning was nearly 100 pounds each. They made a growth 224.5 pounds while consuming 286 pounds of colrn meal and the peanuts on .47 of au acre. To produce a pound of growth required only 1.3 pounds of corn meal. This gain isat the rate of 486 pounds of live pork per acre peanuts assisted by 632 pounds of corn weal. Assuming that five poiunds of grain would make one pound of growth we have left 360.5 pounds of growth which we may attribute toy one acre of pleainluts alolne. These shoats were sold after further experimental feeding and brought five cents on: foot, making the acre peanuts worth $18.02. of of of Gains made by very small pigs on peanuts alone. A litter o'f seven Poland China pigs, was weaned Septenmber 4, 1901, and immediately hurdled on Spanish peanuts. After a week allowed for them to become accustomed to, their new food, the experiment proper' began, and continued for six weeks, during which time no' grain was fed. 2 Th'e initial weight averaged 28.1 pounds. The 18 gains in six weeks aggregated 156.5 pounds, which is at the rate of a little more than half a pound per day per pig. The area grazed was 13, 887 square feet. This is -equivalent ,to' a, gain-of 503 pounds of live pork per acre of peanuts, worth, with pork 4 cents, $20.12. taken: from peanuts October 31, 1901, one of these pigs, No'. 12, ways butchered and the melting point of the lard determined. When at corn meal in 1899.-On September 2, 1899, a. lot of seven shoats previously supported on sorghum and on' a diet o'f corn and cowpeas (see p. was transferred from sorghum to, Spanish peanuts, and to iake a properly balanced ration the was changed to corn meal. During the next four weeks the lot of seven pigs made gains of 120.7 pounds while consuming 333 pounds of corn meal and the peainuts on 10,593 square feet. This is at the rate of 496 pounds of growth produced by an acre of peanuts assisted by 1356 pounds of corn meal. If 5 pounds of grain alone would have produced one po'undtlo'f growth there remains 225 pounds of pork, worth $9.00, as the value o~f an acre of peanuts converted into pork. Beisides the peanuts there was required 2.73 pounds' of corn meal to' produce a pound of gro'wth. Aweek after the close of this per'iod these seven pigs, and Peanuts 14) grain all of one litter, wer'e divided into' several lots, together one lot continuing to' graze on peanuts, a second lot grazing on chufas with grain as stated further' on, a; third lot being penne~d and fed o'n a, mixture of cotton seed meal and corn meal, and the remaining pig with one off a diff erent, litter being fed in a pen on cor'n meal alone. 19 S.Peanuts and corn meal in 1899, second period.-For five weeks certain of these pigs were hurdled on a field of Spanish peanuts. During the last three weeks of this grazing period they gained in weight at the rate o'f 293 pounds per acre of peanuts, assisted by 274 pounds of corn meal, or o'ne pound of growth for .94 of a, pound of corn meal. Crediting the corn meal as before we have left 247 pounds of pork, then worth $9.88, as apparently attributable to, one acre of peanuts. GAINS MADE BY YOUNG PIGS ON CHUFAS. From November 19 to, December 17, 1898, nine Berkshire pigs were hurdled on a, field of chufas where there was only a poor stand of plants. They were also fed a little grain, mixed corn and cowpea meal, of which only 262 pounds was fed during the four weeks. The increase in weight was 121.1 pounds and the area grazed over' was 7986 square feet. This is at the rate of 660 pounds of live pork pier acre of chufas assisted by 1429 pounds of grain or one pound of growth for 2.17 pounds of grain. Attributing one pound of growth to five pounds of grain we have left 374 pounds of increase in live weight as apparently due to one acre of peanuts alone. Hogs were then selling at 3 cents per' pound on foot, so that the acre of chufas when converted into po'rk was worth $13.09. PEANUTS VERSUS CHtUFAS VERSUS MIXED GRAIN. Four lots of pigs (from litters N and P.) were fed for twenty-five days, October 19 to November 13, 1900, as follows: Lot A.-Spanish peanuts, grazed, and a half ration of mixed grain. 20 Lot B.-Spanish peanuts grazed, without grain. Lot C.-Chufas grazed and a half ration of mixed grain. Lot D.-Mixed grain alone, fed in hare lot, as much grain as shoats would clean up. ,The grain fed to, Lots A. C. and D., consisted of onethird by weight of ground cowpeas and two-hirds ground corn. The table bellow gives the data for the last 18 days of the experiment, the preceding week being regarded as preliminary as needed to fully accustom all lots to their food. At the beginning of the.experiment proper lots A, B, C, and D, weighed respectively 363, 256, 318 and 392 pounds. and Growth made by each lot of 3 pigs and in 18 d".-Ay Lot. Area grazed. ___________weight. food consumed Incr'ase Lbs. grain in live for 1 lb. growth. Lbs. Lbs. FooD. Grain eaten. A B C, Square ft.Lbs Spanish peanuts, grazed 8,344 ~~~Mixed grain, %2 ration 12,A48 7,937 152s81 2.......... .8 79 Spanish peaniuts, grazed .... Chufas, grazed .... D ............. Mixed grain, %2ration.. Mixed grain, full ration 152 304 70 1.92 4.31 5 Chufas equality, and when half a ration of grain was fed with. and ipeanuts in this test were nearly on an either theire was required only 1.92 or 1.88 pounds of grain to produce one pound of groth. As compared with the exclusive grain ration this represents a saying of 56 per cent of the grain by the use of either chufas or peanuts. Spanish peanuts without grain afforded a very slow growth, and the increase in live weight wais only 761 21 pounds for each acre of peanuts. This is an abnormally poor returns and due' in part to'thepo'or growth and poor' stand of peanuts. live pork, at; 4 cents per pound this gives only $3.03 as the returns per, acre when nograin was fed, a result entirely unsatisfactory. A much larger return was, made when peanuts were supplemented with a half ration of grain. lot the gain due jointly to' o'ne acre of peants and to' 791 pounds of corn was; 423 pounds of live pork. Dividing the amount of grain fe'd to this lot by 4.31, the amount required per pound of growth when nothing but grain was fed, we have 184 pounds of live weight as apparently due to the grain fed; subtracting this from the total increase in live weight we have left 239 pounds asthe amount of growth that we may credit to' one acre of peanuts. por'k at 4 cents per pound this gives $9.56 as the value o'f an acre of peanuts converted into pork. An acre of chufas supplemented by 832 pounds of grain produced 433.5 pounds of live pork and by the same process as above we calculate that one acre of chufas should be credited with 240 9 pounds of pork, or $9.62. This experiment agrees with a previous. one, reported in Alabama 'Station Bulletin No ',,$3, p. 118, in showing that it is more. profitable to' feed some' grain to small shoats grazing on peanuts, than require them to make With With A, With their entire gro'wth fro'm The following table the nuts. shows, the to' daily gain per~ pig, the grain. consumed daily per 100 pounds o'f live weight and the number o'f days o'f pasturage afforded by one acre of peanuts or chufas. In calculating the last two columns the average o'f the live weight at the be- ginning and eind of the experiment has been used. 22 Peanuts and chit/as as pasturagye. Daily Grain con- Pasturage gain per sumed daily on 1 acre pig per 100 lb.fora 100 live weight. lb. shoat. Lbs Days. 1.50 2.58 850 41........... 463 1.46 2 99 827 Lot. FooD. A B C D Peanuts, and % grain ration.. Peanuts, alone. ................. Chufas and / grain ration..... Full grain ration.............. 1.31 4.67 The rate of gain, nearly one and one-half pounds per the lot receivday per head, was satisfactory except was oniy .41 ing nio grain, with which the 'daily of a pound per head. The second column shows that when shoats were "hogging off" peanuts or chufas they made go'oduse.of 2.58 poiunds and 2.99 pounds respectively of grain daily for every hundred pounds of live weight. The third column shows that an acre of peanuts, without. grain, afforded p'aistiirage at the rate of 463 growth for days a hundred pound shoat, which is equal to 15 such shoats one month. In 1899 when receiving fo'r for about one-fourth of a normal grain ration pigs grazing on inferior peanuts made moderate gains when the field was stocked at,the rate o'f 13 100-ponnd shoats for one month.. When a. half ration of grain was fed the peanuts or chufasi lasted nearly twice as long, the rate of pasturing per acre for' every 100 po'unds of live weightl being 850 days for' peanuts and 827 days for chufas, equal to the support one month of 28 iQO- pound sho'ats on~ an acre o'f peanuts and of 27' on an, acre of chufas. for 23 EFFECTS OF PEANUTS, CHUFAS AND COWPEAS ON FIRM- NESS OF LARD. At the conclusion of the two experiments just described one barrow fromeach of the four lots was killed, November 14, 1900, and lard rendered from the fat taken from the jowl of each. The ,melting points of these samples of lard were determined by Prof. C. L. Hare of the Chemical Department. Effect of peainuts and chuf[as on melting point of lard. Lot. Food during 2F6 days before butchering. Melting Food fed prior to 26 days before butch- point of fat. ering. Deg'sp P A Deg's A B C D Peanuts, ground cowpeas and corn Peanuts, alone ....... Chufas and ground cowpeas and corn.. Ground cowpeas and corn...... ........ Sorghum grazed Ground cowp's & corn 28.0 Sorg'm grazed; pean'ts 22 0 Cowpeas grazed.. 27 5 Ground cowpeas and corn..............30.0 82.4 71.6 81.5 10.8 9.9 87.0 15.6 The half ration, of one-third cowpeas and two-thirds corn meal fed to lot A, for several months immediately' before butchering raised the melting point 10.8 F. for the lard of pigs fed partly on peanuts as c ompared with 'pigs that had several months. fo'r received nog grain, but only peanuts This grain ration fed alone to lot D afforded a lard which was firmer by 15.6 degrees F. than that from pigs which up to the day when killed had consumed peanuts. In this test sorghum shows no marked tendency to soften the lard, at le'ais't, when its use was discontinued nearly a month before the hogs- were killed. Additional tests are required to determine its effect, if a'ny, in this r'espect when fed up' to' the last. day. 24 The cowplea? evidently afforded a rather lard, but our tests do, not show exactly how it compared with corn in this respect. GRAZING SORGHUM AND COWPEAS. firm 'Septiemi.1er 14th, 1900 twelve pigs recently weaned (litters N and P.) were divided into' fourlots of three pigs each. The different lofts were quite evenly matched in all essential respects and weighed respectively 175.5, 176.5, 170.5 and 193 pounds per lot. The experiment lasted five weeks in aiddition toytthe preliminary period. Lot A was confined by means; of movable hurdles on drilled sorghum, in, dough and ripening stages, and supplied with what was regarded as a half ration of a mixture of two-thirds corn meal and one-third cowpea meal by weight. Lot B was penned on sorghum alongside of lot A; no grain was furnished to, this lot, but instead ripe Spanish peanuts were pulled and thrown in the pen daily in quantities estimated as furnishing about a half ration of peanuts. Lot C was hurdled on drilled whippoorwill co'wpeas on which the pods were ripe, and this lot received no other gratn. was Lot D was confined in a small bare pen and furnished with as much as the pigs would consume of the same grain mixture as that supplied to, lot A. Grain eaten, area sorghum, oowpe'a, and peanuts grazed, and growth made in flve weeks by three of pigs in each lot. Grain eaten, Lbs. 244 Lot. FOOD. __________________Iweight. Increase in live Lbs. 74.5 Lbs. grain for 1 lb. growth. Lbs. A Corn and cowpea B C. 5 48 72 4872 sq. ft. of sorg'm, grazed .................... sq. ft. of sorg'm, grazed........... 53 5 29905 sq. ft. of Sp. peanuts........... .......... 17964 sq. ft. ripe cowpeas.............. 50 mixture. D Corn and. cowpea mixture . 464 124 5 ....... ...... ....... ...... 3.28 :... 3 74 25 Evidently sloryghum was in this case of very slight value; for with lot A sorghum saved only 12 per cent of the grain, required by lot D to make a growth. Equally unsatisfactory growth of .lot B, which made to subsist entirely on sorghum supplemented by peanuts grown without fertilizer betwe:en corn rows- on very poor sandy land. Lot C grew at the rate of 122.5 pounds of live weight per acre of cowpeas, which, at~ 4 cents per pound, gives $i4.90 as the value of an acre of amodierate, crop of ripe cowpeas when converted into pork. The wastei was very great, the peas falling on the ground and sprouting before being consumed. In a former experiment (Bulletin No. 93) in which some corn was furnished to shoats grazing on nearly ripe cowpeas the results were far more satisfactory, one acre of cowpeas assisted by 1578 pounds of corn making 730 pounds po'unds of live pork. If we assume that each of grain formed one pounds of growth, we have 336 pounds of live pork, worth at 4 cents $13.44, as the value of an acre of cowpeas alone converted into pork in that was was the poundof five test, while in this one an acre of cowpeas alone made much less. Lot D made a very satisfactory growth on the mix- ture of one-third cowpea and two-thirds corn meal, only 3.74 pounds of this mixture being required pound of growth. The rate more rapid than with the pigs dependent entirely of growth was several times upon to, make one cowpeas or upon so'rghum and peanuts, and considerably more rapid thalni with lot A, which received a limited ration of grain and an unlimited supply of sorghum. The average daily gain per shoat was 1.18 pounds when a full ration of mixed cowpea 'and corn meal was fed. The average daily consumption of this grain per -100 pound of live weight was 5.19 pounds,. 26 COTTON SEED MEAL IN THE GRAIN RATION. November 13, 1900, after the conclusion periment just described, one pig from each of 1, grain C, and D was kept for five weeks ol dilet made up' o'f one-fourth b'y weight of cotton seed meal and three-fourths corn meal. They were given all they wouldi eat, but did Inot relish the food. During the five weeks they gained 67.5 pounds, requiring 4.68 pounds of food per pound of growth. This is an average daily gain of .64 of a pound per head. Near the unth'e end of the fifth week the attendant thrifty appearaniice of the pigs, but no death occurred. The amount of cotton seed mPeal which had produced sickness but not immediate death, was 25.5 pounds per shoat of an average weighti of 117.6 pounds. Hence the toixic dose of cotton seed meal was here, per 100 pounds of live weight, 21.4 pounds, of .61 of a pound per day for 35 days. After eating. this grain, containing 25 per cent of an exclusive of lots the ex- noted cotton seed meal, for five weeks the pigs were slaugh- tered and a sample of lard from the fat of the body was Melting point examined by Prof. C~. L. Hare, who found the melting pointls to be as follows:. of lard from cotton seed meal ration. last '5 meal.. Melting Food second month before point of Lot. Food during ____Deg. weeks of life, B C' butchering, Paus ln......- c aeameal82 1, 3 3 lard F. 4cotton seed 34 conamelt 8 2 do ............. do............. 8 Chufas, &c. oeornmeal D Full ration cowpeameal 28 corne meal. 84. . 27 The lard from some pigs in lot B had melted at 71.6° F., immediately after the pigs were taken from a peanut pasture ; now, after five weeks feeding of a ration containing 25 per cents of cotton seed mieai, the melting point has risen to 87.4 degrees,, a hardening effect of 15.8 degrees attributable to, this food. This cotton seed meal and corn meal mixtulr'e did not very greatly increase the hardness of the lard of the lots which had been receiving a partial or exclusive grain for a number of weeks before the cotton seed meal feeding was begun. ration COTTON SEED MEAL (25 PER CENT) IN THE RATION OF PIGS. In the fall of 1899 three Poland China shoats from the same litter, previously maintained on peanuts with a light ration of corn meal, and an Essex pig previously consuming ordinary pasturage and penned. Two of the Poland Chinaswere fed all theywould'eat a mixture' of one-fourth cotton seed meal and threefourths corn meal. The third Poland and the corn, were of China Essex shoait were fed in separate'pens on cornmeal alone. A mixtuare of cotton seed meal and corn mleal versu~s corn meal alone. ~~ b Lot No. FOOD. bp r 0 Lbs. 3 Lbs. Lbs. 128 8 200.0 164.4 Lbs. 7 11 Lbs. 2.46 Lbs. .41 (P. C.)S4 3cotton . 4 corn s. meal, meal. .. 113 1 14.3 J4 (P. C.)Corn meal ......... 5(Es.) Corn meal......... Av. 4 & 5 Corn meal ......... 121 5 21 97.5 58.5 109.5 39.7 97.7 6.13 3.43 4 13 3 02 5.86 4.28 .60 1.67 1 13 28 None of the Poland China pigs (lots 3 and 4) ate sufficient grain for rapid growth when changed from peanuts to an exclusive grain diet. As a result of the small daily consumption of food slow growth was made by lots 3 and 4, with the almost inevitable result that the increase in live weight was made act a financial loss. It required 7.11 plounds of the mixture containing cotton seed meal or 6.13 pounds of corn meal alone to make one pound of growth, both figures showing unsatisfactory rates of growth. The cotton, seed meal mixture was decidedly unprofitable, but up,to five weeks it was not preceptibly injurious to health. During these 35 days the almount of cotton Iseed meal consumeld per 100 pounds live weight was .61 of a poulnd daily or'a total of 21.5 pounds. tFFECT OF PEANUTS, CHUFAS, CORN MEAL AND COTTON SEED MEAL ON QUALITY OF LARD. After the conclusion of certain experiments previously described, (grazing peanuts and feeding cotton seed meal in comparison with corn meal) the pigs thus fed were butchered. Samples of the lard made from the bodies of these pigs and from others which had subsisted for some months on chufas, supplemented by a light ration of grain, were tested by Prof. C. L. Hare of the Chemical Department to learn the temperature neceilssary to melt the lard. 29 Melting point of lard from various foods.' Pig No. Food during 5 weeks just before butchering. Food fed prior to 5 weeks before butchering Melting point of fat. Average melting point of fat Degrees F. Degrees 84 86 Av. 84 & 86 87 89 Av 87 & 89 90 Peanuts..... ...... Peanuts......... 75.7 Peanuts ...... Peanuts ........... Peanuts........... Peanuts............. Chufas............. Peanuts.......75.2 Chufas............ Peanuts,.......74.6 Chufas............ Peanuts............. 88 34 corn [neal, 14 cotton seed meal .... F. 74.6 74.9 Peanuts...... 84.2 34 corn meal, 14 cot- ton seed meal.... Av. 88 & 90 % corn meal, 14 cotton seed meal.... 85* Corn meal......... E. Corn meal 'Essex).. Peanuts.......84 Peanuts...............84. Peanuts...... 80.7 Corn and grass 86.0 pasturage.. 80.7 . *This pig was from same litter as Nos. 84 ,86, 87, 88, 89 and 90. It is well known that peanuts produce a soft lard. the feeding of peanuts was continued uninterrupteidly up to the date of slaughter'the-resulting lard When heit, melted at the low temperature of 74.6 or at the temperature of degrees Fahren- an ordinary living room in sprinig. It has been claimed that by feeding encorn fo'r a few weeks before the date of butchtirely and lard can be brought to' the normal' ering, the degree of hardness. This*was not the case in. this ex- on flesh By perimlent. hoigs were killed and feeding thenceforward fore exclusively on corn meal we succeeded in raising the melting point to 80.7 degrees Fahrenheit, an increase of 6.1 degrees Fahrenheit. This lard, however, was still much softer than that from hogs never fed on peanuts. a similar 'experiment in 1897-'98 (see -Bulletin No. the discontlinuing the peanuts five weeks be- In 93) the feeding of coirp during the four weeks imme- 30 diately preceding the time of butchering effected a considerably greater increaste in the melting point of lard from the pigs previously fed on peanuts, but in that test as in the present one, the feeding of corn during a short period did not make the resulting lard equal in firmness to, that made by continued feeding of corn. In this experiment the lard produced by feeding chufas was practically as soft as that obtained from peanutfed pigs. After ascertaining in a, previous experiment that the melting point of lard from peanut-fed pigs could not be raised to the normal degree of firmness by feeding exclusively on corn during the month immediately preceding death, search was made for some food which might have a greater effect in solidifying the flesh and lard. Cotton- seed meal seemed worthy of a trial for this purpose as it has been shown to increase the firmness of butter, and as a few determinations appear to indicate that it produces tallow and suet with a high melting point. Unfortunately no safe method of feeding to hogs for a, long period any considerable proportion of cotton seed meal has yet been entirely demonstrated. In small amountis it may be fed for four weeks, or even a little longer without causing death. In this experiment a, mixture of one pound of cotton seed meal to three pounds of corn m)eal was fed during the five weeks before the date of butchering to pigs which prior to this time had grazed on peanuts. The effects of the food containing cotton seed meal was to raise the melting point of the resulting fat to 84.1 degrees Fahrenhiet. This is a gain of 9.5 degrees als compared with an uninterrupted diet of peanuts. The cotton seed meal mixture afforded lard which required for melting a temperature of 3.4 degrees Fahrenheit higher tha1 that necessary with fat produced by feeding corn meal alone during the same length of time. The result of this experiment is encouraging as indicating the superior hardening power of a mixture of alone. cotton seed 1 meal and corn meal over corn The lard from the pigs, fed for six weeks on this mix ture was practically as firm as that obtained in this experiment from an Essex pig that had never eaten pea nuts, but it was nut, sl ofirm as the lard produced in the corespo'nding experiment of 1897-'98 from pigs fed uninterruptedly on corn. (See Alabama Station Bulletin No. 93, p. 30.) meal COTTON SEED MEAL AS FOOD FOR HOGS IN CONNECTION WITH CORN MEAL AND SORGHUM OR PEANUTS. On September 14, 1901, a litter of six thoroughbred Poland China, pigs, farrowed April 2, was divided into three lots and these were fed as follows: Lot I,grazeidi on drilled sorghumt, (blooming to ripe stage), and a, half ration of grain, as below. Lot II, in dry lot, fed sorghum from same field, cut into leughts of 1 to 2 inches, and also fed gr'ain like lot 1. Lot III, grazed on Spanish peanuts and givens same grain as other lots. All three lots received in addition, to sorghum a mixture of one-fifth cotton seed meal and fourfifths corn, meal, which no't greatly relished and of nuits or' pea- was, which the pigs in a dry lot could not be induced toy eat as much as was desirable. This lot also' ate far less sorghum than was, desired. After' a week of preliminary feeding the experiment began September 20 and continued until the last week in October. 32 Sorghm, grazed and soiled, versus peanuts grazed. Weight Sept. 20 Lot. BLEach. Total. C P4FooD. -o P I ii) II 2 74 5 6. 6 64.5 61.Lbs. 1 135.5 Sorghum grazed; cotton seed meal & corn meal. 124.5 Sorghum in pen; cotton seed meal and cornmeal 135.5 Peanuts grazed; cotton seed meal & corn meal. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. .53 36 .11 8.5 140 3.80 9411.05 134 1.85 .9472.5 During the experiment lot I grazed over (with great waste) 2203 square feet of sorghum and lot 3 consumed the peanuts on 3880 square feet; 782 pounds of green, cut sorghum were offered to lot, II but only 372 pounds were consumed. iReducing these results to the basis of one acre we have the Groitth made on one acre of soryhum or peanuts. Pasture Crops. Lot I. Sorghum grazed; and grain Lot II. Sorghum fed; and grain... Lot III. Peanuts grazed; and grain.. *On Growth per acre of greetn food. Lbs. 707 210 814 *Growth Grain attributaper acre ble to 1 of green acre green food. food. Lbs Lbs. 2768 153 2323 loss 1504 513 the assumption that 5 lbs. of grain made 1.pound of growth. To, produce one pound of growth, there was required 3.8 pounds of grain connectioln with sorghum pasturage, only 1.85 pounds in of grain in connection with peanuts and 11.05 pounds of grain when cut sorghum was fed in a, dry lot. 33 The financial results are quite satisfactory for peanuts, one acre of which is estimated as producing 513 pounds of live pork, worth at 4 cents per pound, $20.52. An acreof sorghum grazed is estimated as affording 153 pounds of live pork worth $6.12, while sorghum fed to pigs in a pen was consumed in quantities too small to give any measurelable financial results. Effect of a 20 per cent. cotton seed meal mixture on health of pigs.-A mixture of one-fifth cotton seed meal and four-fifths corn meal was fed as just stated, in connection with sorghum or' peanuts continuously from September 14. All wenit well until October 24, when pig No.' 1 in lot II died suddenly. Three days later the other pig in lot 1 died and also, both 'pigs in lot II. Oc-tober 28 the use of cotton seed meal was discontinued with lot III, which had thus far shown no symptom's or sickness or unthr'iftiness, but which, as the subsequent history of one of theses pigs shows, had been injured by the use of cotton seed meial. One of these pigs, No. 6, from the lot grazing on peanuts was used in a subsequent experiment, in which he died, though not given any more cotton seed meal. The other one was butchered October 28 and samples of fat were taken from this one, as well as from one of the pigs that died in each of the other two lots. Let us calculate the amounts of cotton seed meal which constituted a dangerous ration when fed for about six weeks. 34 Amrouants of cotton seed meal cauasng death shouts when fed with corn and sorghum or peanuts. Lot I. Lot II. Lot III. Mixed Mixed Mixed grain and grain and grain and sorghum sorghum peanuts (grazed.) (fed.) (grazed.) Lbs. of Total grain per head daily...... ..... Total grain per 100 lbs. av. live weight Cotton seed meal per head daily...... Cotton seed meal dafly per 100 lbs. av. live weight.... .................... Total amount cotton seed meal (inol'g preliminary week) .................. Total amount cotton seed meal per 100 lbs. av. live weight................ 2 06 2.67 . 53 Lbs. Lbs. 1 1 27 2 00 25 1 76 2 05 .35 .40 12 20 .41 15.20 16.60 21.60 18.90 17.70 From this table it may be seen that a daily ration containing one-fourth pound or more of cotton seed.meal per 100 pounds of average live weight was fatal when cointinued for' about six weeks. No deaths occurred until the small shoats (averaging about 64 pounds) had each consumed 12.2- pounds of cotton seed meal. Per 100 pounds of liveweight minimum fatal quantity was the EFFECTS OF A 20 PER CENT COTTON SEED MEAL MIXTURE AND OF LARD. OF SORGHUM AND PEANUTS ON MELTING POINT Lard was, rendered from samples of fat taken from the neck and also from around the kidneys, of onei pig in each of the lots just referred to. The, melting points of the lard were as follows : 35 Effect of cotton seed meal on melting point of lard. FooD. Lard from kidneys Lard from jowl Sorghum grazed; Sorghum fed, Peanuts grazed, 3 ration of * cotton seed meal.. W~ corn meal... Deg. F. Deg. F. 115.2 87.4 115.2 99.7 85.3 80.6 do do It is evident that peanuts affo'rded a much softer lard than did sor'ghum, even when each constituted only about half the ration. The feeding of somewhat less than a half ration olf mixed cotton seed meal and corn meal (1 to 4) for weeks while peanuts were being grazed, failed to' overcome the softening effects:of peanuts. In twoi experiments already recorded in this bulletin the body lard from pigs getting only peanuts melted at temperatures of 74.6 and 71.6 degrees Fahrenheit; the feeding of a small.amount of a mixture of cotton seed meal and corn meal for five consecutive weekswhile peanuts we're being eaten in this test raised the melting point to' 87.4 degrees, a gain of 12.8 and 15.8 degrees. This increase of 12.8 to' 15.8 degrees in hardness is somewhat greater~ than had previously resulted from feeding ai stronger cotton seed meal mixture for six weeks after the peanuts were discontined (see Experi- five ment o'n p. 29.) On the whole thelse experiments viewed together indiicaite that greater hardening effeict results from the grain when fed- with the softening food (as peanuts or chufas) than from that fed as the ,exclusive ration in the six weeks just before the date of butchering. This is also practically the conclusion reached b'y Bennett in Arkansas Bulletin No. 65. 36 COTTON SEED MEAL VERSUS CORN COWPEA MEAL AND VERSUS MEAL AS A FINISHING FOOD. Six pigs from one litter' which had suhsisted for six weeks after weaning on a, field of Spanish peanuts without any grain, were later divided into three lots and fed for 37 days (including the preliminary period of 7'days) as much as they would -eat of the rations mentioned below: Food consumed (ind growth made in 30 days. Lbs. Growth grain per made. lb. _____growth. _____ FOOD.Grain Foo.eaten. __________________________ Lbs. Lbs. 19 5.00 Lot III 3 cowpea meal, 23 corn meal.... Lot IV. Corn meal....... ............... Lot V. ' cotton seed meal, .t meal ... 95.3 corn 140 0 92.0 29 16.5 4.82 5.57 All three lots made but slow growth, which we attribute inf the case of lots III and V to the relaitive unpalatability of the mixture containing either cowpeas or cotton seed meal. Corn meal was more relished and hence in this brief experiment ,more satisfactory, though in previous experiments mixture of co'wpeas and corn has been superior to either alone, and especially so when the feeding period has been a long one. may a EFFECTS ON HEALTH. After 37 days' feeding of the 20 per cent. cotton seed meal mixture, No,. 13, one of the pigs in Lot V, died, after having appeared gaunt and weak for two days. This death and the unthrifty appearance of the other 37 pig receiving cotton seed meal notified us that it was time for the experiment to close. The pigs in the other pens remained healthy. All were butchered as soon as the experiment was stopped, and samples of fat were taken and rendered into lard. Up to,the time of the delath of one pig and the evident unthriftiness of another, the pigs in Lot V, averaging at the middle o'f the period 59.4 pounds per head in weight, had each consumed since the seventh of November 5.4 pounds of cottoin seed meal. This is equivalent to saying that toxic effects were evident when for each 100 pounds of average live weight 9.2 of cotton seed meal had been consumed. During the experiment proper the average daily consumption of cotton seed meal was .25 of a pounds per 100 pounds of live weight. It will be recalled that when the same mixture was fed in an earlier experiment to somewhat larger, but young shoats, the daily consumption of .41 of a pound per 100 pounds live weight resulted fatally. In a,still earlier experiment with still larger shoats, cotton seed meal was consumed at the rate of .61 of a pound daily per 100 pounds of live weight, for 35 days; no immediate conspicuous injury resulted, and observations on subsequent effects were preventedi by the disposition made of the pigs. ,, US Effects on quality of lard of small shoats fed on cowpea meal and cotton seed meal. Lot. Pig No. Food for last 37 days of life, Food from Sept. 14 to Oct. 31. ° III. III. III. 12 11 8 Av. 10 9 IV. IV. IV. V. V. V. Av. 7 13 Av. Peanuts alone...... Peanuts [kil'd Oct.31] 82.6 ; cowpea meal... 21 corn meal .. Peanuts.............81.5 do do 799 do do 80.7 Corn meal. ...... do 88.3 do do 77 2 do do cotton seed meal 5 corn meal...... o 90.0 do (died.) do 83.3 do do 86.7 68.2 720 72.5 72.3 78.8 72.4 75.6 J- 82.7 70.3 64.4 67.4 The lard from all lots had a, very low melting point for grain fed animals, probably due in part to small size and extreme immaturity of the pigs as well as to the softening effects of peanutis in earlier period. We may safely discard the melting point of cidental conditions, possibly lard fat of Lot V, as probably being influenced by ac- centage of the jowl by variations, in the perrend- an ering. moisture or other impurities left after Shutt has observed that unthrifty pigs have soft pork, which condition may constitute the -explanation of the low melting points in Lot V. The kidney lard was firmest when the cotton seed meal mixture was fed, the advantage in favor of this food being 4 degrees F. as compared with corn meal. 39 Corn meal afforded a slightly firmer lard, both from kidneys and jowl, than did a, mixture of cowpeas and corn mleal. As compared with the lard obtained from No. 12 (immediately after feeding peanuts), the cowpea mixture and cornmeal scarcely affected the melting point of the kidney lard, but increased that of the jowl lard by 4.1 and 7.4 degrees F. respectively. The cotton seed meal mixture raised the melting point of kidney lard 4.1 degrees F. above that of pure peanut lard from kidney fat. Apparently 37 days was too' short a period for any of the grain foods to thoroughly harden pork once softened by peanuts. The tendency of our experiments and of those made by Bennett, in Arkansas, is to show the need for a longer hardening period than is generally regarded as necessary, o'r else the feeding of soue grain while the peanuts are being consumed. COTTON SEED MEAL MIXTURE VERSUS CORN MEAL-FOURTH EXPERIMENT. Shoats which had grazedl for 23 days on peanuts October, 1902, were then penned and divided into two lots,. One lot was fed- on co'rn meal alone!, the. other on a mixture o'f three-fourths, corn meal and o'ne-fourth cotton seed meal. The average weight per sho'at during the experiment was 136.3 pounds fo'r those getting corn the cotton: seed meal, and 142.8 ponunds for' those meal diet. The amounts of food consumed by the two lots were practically identical. Omitting the prelimi- in on nary follows: period, the results for the. next 28 days were as Food.' Corn meal............. 14 cotton seed meal, % Daily growth per pig. .......... corn meal .... Grairu, per lb. growth Lbs. 5 31 3.84 Lbs. 1 1................. . 8.................... 40 Ini this experiment the rations containing 25 per cent. of cotton seed meal caused much more rapid and econolmi cal growth than corn meal alone. Throughout the 31 days during which cotton seed meal was feid the health of the shoats was good. The shoats getting the mixed rations consumed daily, per 100 pounds of mean live weights, .73 of a pound cotton seed meal. Their toital consumptions of cottonseed meal in 31 days, including the preliminary period, was 22.6 pounds per 100 pounds of live weight. Comparing this result with those previously recorded let us note the increasing amount of cotton seed meal per 100 pounds of live weight which may be safely fed as the, pigs increase in size. of EFFECT OF COTTON SEED MEAL, CORN MEAL, AND RICE POLISH ON LARD. In the following table are recorded the results of determinations, made by Mr. MeB. Ransom of the Chemical Department, of the melting point of lard from the jowls. same litter, The pigs were Poland Chinas from but were not butchered on the same date. A. the _Melting point of lard. Melting Food during 31 days Food from 55th to 32d point before slaughtering, day before slaughof body tering. lard. ____ ___ __ ___Deg. ____ F. Lot F. No. 101 Corn meal............ Peanuts & corn meal. No. 102 do do Average do Lot G. No. 103IY4V cotton seed meal, do 78.0 50 1 82 6 76.1 79.9 do do do Peanuts and corn meal L23 days]] . .... Grain ration.......... Grain ration.......... Peanuts & corn meal, [23 days]........... *Only small amounts of skim milk were used and for only 19 Scorn meal . No. 104 do Average do 105 Rice polish ast 8 weeks] 106 Rice polish [8 weeks] 107 Corn meal [8 weeks].. 108 Corn and skim milk * [l 81.4 74.2 78.3 85.1 76.1 days. 41 In this test the feeding for 31 days of corn meal raised the melting point of lard (previously softened by peanuts) by only 3.8 degrees F.The feeding for the same time of a mixture containing 25 per cent. of cotton seed meal raised the melting point by 7.2 delgrees F. The lard afforded by the cotton seed meal ration was firmer than that from corn meal, the melting point of the former (81.4 degrees F.) being 3.4 higher. This last result, together with other experimjents described in previous pages, indicates that cotton seed meal has an appreciable valule for hardening the lard and doubtless also the flesh of pigs raised on peanuts, chufas, and most other softening foods. This will be an important point in its favor when hog raising for sale, as well as for home consumption, becomes an important industry in Alabanaia; for the buyer for a packing house will not knowingly buy hogs with soft flesh. There is every reason why those sections of Alabama where peanuts thrive should at no distant date ship carloads of hogs to packing houses in Birmingham, Atlanta, New Orleans, or other markets, provided the flesh can be In many counties the sale of hogs and hardene!d. of hog products could easily be made to bring in as much money as the cotton crop. Cholera is not an insuperable obstacle. Keeping hogs off the public range, away from flowing streams of cholera-infected water, an understanding of the nature and means of spreading of this disease, and judicious feeding and care, will greatly reduce this danger. Hog raising requires little capital and brings its returns quickly. Improved blood, food, care, and knowl- 42 edge are caplable of making the Alabama hog, as well as his relative in the corn belt, a, "mortgage lifter." SWEET POTATOES FOR HOGS. From November 13 to December 18, 1900, a period of 35 days, two. sho'ats were penned on sweet potatoes growing on poor sandy soil, and furnished daily per head with 2 pounds ground corn and 1 pound ground cowpeas, which was regarded as a half ration. The total weight at the beginning of the test was 231 pounds, and during the five weeks the two shoats made a total gain of 67 pounds, requiring besides sweet potatoes, 3.13 pounds of grain per pound of growth. The potatoes were not eaten with much relish, and after being rooted up they were left on the surface, some of them remaining there until they decayed. Probably the waste would have been less if less graih had been fed. The composition of the sweet potato leads us to expect that it would be advisable not at any time to confine shoats to sweet potatoes aloine, but to give them while on the potato field a little nitrogenous food, such as cowpeas, peanuts, etc. 43 'CORN HEARTS VERSUS COWPEA MEAL VERSUS CORN MEAL. For a period, of seven weeks, in addition to a week of February, 1899, preliminary feeding, in January these food stuffs were comp'ared, each being fed in conniectio'n with an equal weight of rice bran obtained from Ernst & Co., 'Orleans. There were three lots of recently weaned pigs, each lot containing three pigs. All the pigs except one were from the same litter, and were crossbred Berkshire-Poland Chinas. unusually cold weather of this time, inadequate pig pens, and the rather unpalatable nature of the rations, due to the admixture of rice, bran, made the rates of growth slow and unsatisfactory. and New , The all Growuth and food eaten in seven weeks. Food. .d r Pen 4-50% corn hearts and 50% rice bran...65 Pen 5-50% cowpea meal and 50% rice bran. 80.6 Pen 6-50% corn meal and 50% rice bran.... 98.1 479.5 478.5 540.0 7.38 5.95 5.501 The ration containing corn meal was the most effect- ive one, probably because of its greatier palatability, hence the larger' amount consumed. According to partial analyses made in the chemical laboratory here the rice bran used contained 9 per cent. of protein, and the corn hearts 8.9 per cent. of protein. desirable RICE POLISH AS A FOOD FOR PIGS. The high price of corn during 1902 mde it to look for some substitute in addition to such materials as can be grown on the farm. plodyed ina Hence rice polish was a number of experiments and was tested in em- comparison with corn meal.. In different experiments these two foods were used alone or each combined with corresponding proportions- of other foods. Each lot con- 44 In all sisted of three pigs, usually recently weaned. cases the f ood was fed dry. corn meal in connection with skim Rice polish milk.--Inu the first experiment, made in the spring of 1902, skim milk was fed in connection with either corn meal or rice polish. The results were as follows: versus rn Food. A Corn meal and skim milk............89.5 Rice polish and skim milk..........109.0 2.1 1.7 4.65 3.67 It will be seen. that, in connection with skim milk, rice polish was more effective, pound for pound, than corn meal. Rice polish versus corn meal alone, first experiment. At the end of the fifth week the skim milk was dropped from the rations of both lots and the rate and economy of growth were immediately greatly decreased, as shown below. It then required to make one pound of growth 6.7 pounds of corn meal or 6.7 pounds of rice polish. In this test, in which the conditions were unfavorable to rapid gains, the rice polish and corm meal were of equal value. Rice. polish versus mixed grain.-The following test was made with a different litter of pigs just after weanThe experiment covered, in addition to the preing. liminary period, five weeks, terminating June 11, 1902. There were three pigs in each lot. The one fourth corn meal, and one-fourth rice polish.. This was fed in comparison with a grain ration of rice polish, the pigs of both lots, mixed grain consisted of one-half co'wpea meal, amount of skim milk. receiving in addition a nearly equal grain per growth. 1.78 1.93 Lbs. lbs. Lot B-Mixed grain and skim milk.. Lot C-Rice polish and skim milk.... Lbs. milk per lb. growth. 4.13 4.74 45 It will be noticed that mixed grain consisting partly of cowpea meal, and hence very rich in nitrogenous material, proved superior to rice polish. Rice polish in different proportions.-During next the five weeks the grain mixture for lot B same, namely 50 per cent. cowpea, meal, 25 per cent. corn meal and 25 per cent. rice polish. The grain of lot C, was so changed as to consist of equal parts of corn meal and rice polish. Exclusive of the preliminary period the results were as follows: remained the Lot B 1/2 cowpea meal............................ / corn meal.................................5.0 1/4 Lbs. grain per lbs growth. 1/2 corn meal.................................4.2 Lot C1 2 rice polish............................ rice polish. .......................... This test was, made during mid summer and the pigs, confined in small, bare yards and deprived of green food, did not make as rapid or as economical growth as they would doubtless have done under more natural conditions. Ordinarily we should expect that for young pigs the more nitrogenous mixture fed to, lot B, would prove superior, as it did in the test described immediately above. .Rice polish versus corrn meal alone. During a third period of five weeks terminating gust 20, 1902, these same lots Au- of shoats were used in a comnparison of rice polish with corn meal, both foods being fed alone. The amounts grain fed to the two lots were Lbs. growth 3 pigs in 4 weeks. Lot B-Corn meal................... 53.5 Lot C-Rice polish................... ,79 identical. of Lbs. grain per lb. of growth. 5.01 3.40 The daily rate of growth was much more rapid for the pigs eating polish and these also required considerably less food to make one pound, of increase in live weight. 46 Rice polish versus corn meal in mixed grain ration. A litter of six Poland China pigs, dropped April 29, 1902, were. divided into, two' lofts and fed for weeks on two lots o'f grain that were exactly similarexcept that rice polish in one was substituted for an equal percentage of corn meal in the other. The results of the last four weeks of the period follow: five Lbs. food per Lbs. 40% 40% 20% 40% Lot E 40% 20% Lot D corn meal................... cowpea meal..................56 wheat bran .................. rice polish ........ ...... cowpea meal............... 65.5 wheat bran................... growth. growth. 3.7 3.1 lb. Both of the above mixtures afforded satisfactory rates oif growth, but the one co'ntaining rice polish was decidedly mo're effective than the mixture into which corn meal entered. Rice polish versus corn mneal alone, third experiment. This experiment, was made with two' lots of three shoats each and extended over eight weeks, terminating October 1, 1902. The shoats used were the same as those employed in the last mentioned experiment. Lbs. growth in 8 weeks. Lot D--Corn meal............ 68 Lot E-Rice polish.. ......... 131.5 'Total food in 8 weeks. 422.2 492.9 Lbs food per lb growth. 6.21 3.75 The rate of growth was almost twice as rapid with the pigs fed polish as for those consuming corn meal. To, make one po'und of increase in live weight required in this experiment 39 per cent. less o'f polish than of corn meal. Average results with rice polish. In most o'f the dire'ct comparisons rice polish with corn meal the polish proved deicidedly superior. Taking the average o'f all five' of these direct comparisons we find that to produce one po'und of increase in on of live weight polish and 4.74 pounds of corn meal. o'f pigs required only 3.73 pound's At this rate 78.6 of rice 47 pounds of rice polish was equal to 100 pounds of corn meal, a saving of 21.4 per centi of the grain by the substitution of polish for corn meal. The differences, in composition are not such as to explain the superiority of the polish, but this may possibly have been partly due to, the fact that the rice meal, a flour-like powder', was in a finer state of division than the corn mDeal. Composition of rice polish, rice meal and corrumeal. Figures fromn Henry's Fceds and Feeding. Rice Rice Rice Corn polish .................. meal.................. bran .................... meal .... .............. Nitrogenous Matter. 11.7 12.0 12.1 9.2 Starch. etc. 58.0 51.0 49.9 68.7 Fiber. 6.3 5.4 J.5 1.9 Fat, etc. 7.3 13.1 8.8 3.8 We have had some difficulty in obtaining rice polish from states east of us, it being more profitable for the mills to' mix it with o'ther less valuable by-products!and to sell the mixture of polish, rice, bran, etc., under' the name o'f rice meal. Rice meal is' variable quality, according to the amounts of each by-product mixed in. Hence the figures, quoted above need niot be regarded as showing the composition an average grade of rice meal. As stated in a previous -page we employed in one of o'f per'iment rice bran mixed with an equal weight o'f sev- ex- eral other foods. found the rice bran mixtures unpalatable and the growth pigs fed on it slow. At the South Carolina station rice meal, in connection with large amounts skim milk, in a brief feeding period produced po'rk at less cost. than when co'rn meal and skim milk were fed. In November, 1902, rice meal was quoted to' us by Planter's Rice Millsi, Savann~ah, Ga., at $17.90 delivered We o'f of at Auburn, Ala.., in less than carload lots. Rice bought from the firm two year's ago cost about same $26 per to'n delivered at this station. no'te that a part o'f this rice polish ditio'n for more polish It is of juterest to, According to our -experiments rice polish could with great profit be sulbstituted fo'r' corn meaiselnatth than kept in good con- a year. same price. Isliga h APPENDIX. Percentages of internal organ'ts, etc., as affected by food. FOOD. Corn meal alone No. 85, female. FOOD. 25 per cent cotton seed meal, 75 per cent corn meal. No. 88. No. 90, - Av. Nos. female. 88 & 90. kQ r. ri=rj Essex Barrow. 4 Av. Nos. 35 & Essex. r.1 j ) Date of butchering .................... Bloosdaa Nov. 16. j Nov. 16. Nov. 20. Nov. 16. .......................................... in.....0 .............. .52 1 80 71..............31 .41 1.42 22 .73 .50 1.41 30 .60 3.10 26103. 293 49 1.92 Lungs ................... Liver............... 49 1.60 .42 .22 .40 _09 .51 .28 .42 .10 .42 1.40 .47 2 44 .66 2 50 29 Heart .. Kidneys.................. ............ .38 09 Spleen...... ................. .............. ....................... 1,.37 1.70 1 91 .23 .30 07 .26 .46 .10 .23 .35 .08 .26 .35 .12 .19 .26 .09 .24 .33 .12 .19 .26 .09 .25 .34 .12 .26 .09 .19 the foods is the greater weight of kidneys The most signific hztt differences attributable and heart of the pigs receiving the more nitrogenous ration, and the greater weight of lungs (as in our former experiments) when the ration was highly carbonaceous. to APRIL 1903I BULLETIN No, 123. )4 t /Id " ALABAMA;' Agricultura1 Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. Vetch, Cowpea, and SoyBean flay as Substitutes for Wheat Bran. By J. F. DIJGGAR. a31 OWN PRINTING CO., PRINTERS & BINDERS. MONTGOMERY, ALA. 1903. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. JONATHAN HARALSON ..................... Selma. STATION COUNCIL C. B. C. THACH ....... B. Ross.. ........... President and Acting-Director. ... ....... ............ .................................. Chemist. C. A. CARY............................ J. F. DtGGAR ...... ..................... Veterinarian. Agriculturist. E. M. WILCOX........................................Biologist. R. S. MACKINTOSH . ............................... Horticulturist. Associate Chemist. 3. T. ANDERSON.......... ...................... ASSISTANTS. *0. L. HARE .............................. A. MocB. T. BRAGG First Assistant Chemist. Acting First Assistant Chemist. Second Assistant Chemist. Third Assistant Chemist. RANsoN ......... ...... ....... ............ ................... J. C. PREnPS..... T. U. CULVER............... J. M. JoNES *On leave ..... will ... Superintendent of Farm. Animal Industry. of absence. ..... ............ Assistant in The Bulletins of this Station be sent free to any citizen. of the. State on application to the Agricultural Experiment- Station, Auburn, Alabama. VETCH, COWIVPEA AND SOY BEAN HAY AS SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT BRAN. BY J. F. DUGGAR. SUMMARY. The object of the feeding experiments herein described was to ascertain whether hay made from hairy vetch, cowpeas and soy beans could be advantageously substituted for most of the wheat bran in the ration of dairy cows. The following values per ton were used in calculating the cost of foo'd : Wheat bran, $20.00; vetch hay, $10.00; cowpea hay, $10.00; cotton seed $12.00; cotton seed meal, $20.00; cotton seed hulls, Vetch hay proved fully equal in feeding value to a similar weight of wheat bran. By this substitution the cost of the food required to make a pound of butter was reduced 25 per cent., which is equivalent to a monthly saving of $22.20 in a herd of twenty cows. With the vetch ration the cost of food for one pound of butter averaged 10 cents in contract with 13.4 cents when wheat bran was fed. The waste in feeding vetch hay was, with most cows, about 6 per cent. of the amount offered and with cowpea hay about 16 per cent.; the latter residue, being unless, is charged as a part of the ration. That portion of the cowpea hay actually eaten proved fully equal in feeding value to a similar weight of wheat bran. Charging the cows with all the cowpea hay offered them, we find that cowpea hay had 86 per $5.00. 52 cent. of the feeding value of wheat bran, one ton of this hay being equal to 1720 pounds of wheat bran. When wheat bran was worth $20.00 per ton cowpea hay was worth $17.20 and vetch hay $20.00. The monthly profits per cow were $4.65 on the vetch ration and $4.35 on the cowpea ration. One of the Jersey cows used in this test produced butter at a cost for food of only 8 1-3 cents per poun3, when fed on the vetch ration. Running cowpea hay through a feed cutter did not decrease the waste in feeding this food. Four and a half per cent more butter was produced with soybean hay than with cowpea hay, if we take account of the portion of each actually eaten; however a larger proportion of the coarse stems of the soybean hay was left uneaten. When corn hearts was substituted for wheat bran the yield of butter was increased by 8 per cent. The following combinations of food stuffs made satisfactory daily rations for Jersey cows weighing between 700 and 800 pounds and producing a little more than a pound of butter per day : (a) 4 lbs. cotton seed. 2 lbs. wheat bran. 11.8 lbs. vetch hay. Total 17.8 lbs. (b) 6.5 lbs. cowpea hay. 9.6 lbs. cotton seed hulls. 4.8 lbs. cotton seed. 2.4 lbs. cotton seed meal. 2.4 lbs. wheat bran. Total 25.7 lbs. (c) 6.6 lbs. soybean hay. 8.6 lbs. cotton seed hulls. 4.3 lbs. cotton seed. 53 2.2 lbs. cotton seed meal. 2.2 lbs. wheat bran. Total 23.7 lbs. Account was kept of the manure produced during certain periods, and it was found that this was produced at the rate of 1,749 pounds per month, or 3 1-2 tons per cow during a stabling period of four months. Almost exactly half of the manure was left in the barn during the stabling period of 16 hours and an almost exactly equal amount .was deposited during the 8 hours while the cows were in the lots. T'HE GENERAL PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTS. The chief aim of the experimental feeding of dairy cows as conducted by the Agricultural Department of this Station during the past four years has been to ascertain the means by which the dairymen might reduce his expenditures for purchased food. The chief profits in live stock consist in using them as the means of improving the soil and of advantageously marketing the crops grown on the farm. Hence the larger the proportion of farm-grown food and the smaller the proportion of purchased material in the ration of an animal the greater the profit. The proximity of cotton seed oil mills, the relative cheapness of cotton seed meal and hulls, and the comvenience with which these by-products can be fed, have had the effect of making many southern farmers too dependent upon purchased foods. In Bulletin No. 114, issued in 1901 by this department, it was shown that at prices then prevailing a home-grown ration of cotton seed meal and sorghem hay afforded less butter, but at a lower cost per pound, than a diet of cotton seed meal and hulls. 54 The southern dairyman incurs considerable hexpense in the purchase of wheat bran. The experimental feeding of dairy cows during the past two winters has had for its object to learn whether the dairyman could advantageously reduce the amount of wheat bran often fed. Instead of wheat bran, we fed in 1901-2 In comvetch hay and the past winter cowpea hay. position these two hays are quite similar to, wheat bran, as may be seen in the table of composition below, giving the composition of the foods used as determined by the Chemical Department of this station. In 100 pounds of food are: Protein Lbs. 15.19 13.62 17.15 12.19 10.75 10.56 Starch. etc. Lbs. 51.84 34.66 32.12 34.26 58.95 49.97 Fat. Lbs. 4.59 4.08 2.14 2.35 7.76 8.30 Fiber. Lbs. 12.00 25.62 22.50 35.12 9.84 13.55 Water. 9.21 Wheat bran .. 9.84 Cowpea hay ... Vetch hay .... **20.30 9.25 Soy bean hay.. Corn hearts .. 10.21 8.54 Rice meal .... Ash. sugar I II 7.17 12.18 5.79 6.01 2.49 9.14 *Starchy matter, etc. **Vetcih hay, when analyzed, (Ala. Bul. No. 105), contained more water than when fed. In each experiment six thoroughbred Jersey cows have been employed, carefully divided into two nearly similar lots. Each lot has been fed (in addition to a basal ration which was the same for all) for half of the time on wheat bran and during the other portion of the experiment on either vetch or cowpea hay instead. The effort has been to make each lot of cows consume as nearly as practicable as many pounds of wheat bran during one period as of hay during the other period of each experiment. In other words hay of hairy vetch or of cowpea has been substituted almost pound for pound for wheat bran. Each cow in each lot did not receive exactly the same amount of food, but so far as practicable it was the aim to make the total amount of food of one lot equal, or nearly equal, to that of the other lot. While the results have a very positive value, for the dairyman they should also convey to the grower of beef cattle suggestions of almost equal value. The details of the first experiment recorded below were under the immediate care of Prof. R. W. Clark. In the later ,experime nts the writer was assisted by Mr. J. M. Jones and by 'students. To the intelligent care and interest of all of these are largely due the satisfactory results obtained. HAIRY VETCH VERSUS WHEAT BRAN. This experiment extended over a period of eight weeks during the winter of 1901-2. The rations were reversed at the end of four weeks, so that the cows which at first received an extra quantity of wheat bran later had an extra amount of vetch hay. The first week of each period was regarded as a preliminary period and, as usual, excluded from the record. Every cow received daily a basal ration which averaged as follows: 4 lbs. uncooked cotton seed. 2 lbs. wheat bran. 5.2 lbs. vetch hay (average.) 11.2 lbs. total basal ration. Besides the above, each cow in one lot received an additional amount of vetch hay, which varied with the appetite of the individual cow, and which averaged 6.6 pounds per cow daily, excluding the small amount which was offered but not eaten. The other lot of cows was fed, besides the basal ration, an additional amount of wheat bran, which extra 56 allowance averaged 7 pounds per head daily. The ratime reversed so tions of the two lots of cows were as to eliminate any possible inequality due to' the individuality of the cows. For the sake of simplicity we shall hereafter speak of the one as the vetch ration and of the other as the bran ration. The vetch ration consisted of a daily allowance of 17.8 pounds of food per day and the bran ration of 18.2 pounds. This gives slight advantage in the amount of food to the cows on the bran ration. The following prices for food stuffs are assumed as average local prices on :the farm for the last two, winters: 'Cotton seed, $12.00 per ton. Wheat, bran, $20.00 per ton. Vetch hay, $10.00 per ton. Cowpea hay, $10.00 per ton. The actual prices for a small portion of the food varied from this average; for example, the supply of home-grown peavine hay becoming exhau'sted before the conclusion of this experiment, it was necessary to buy a few bales at one dollar per hundred weight. The vetch hay was of good quality, though it con- in tained a small amount of coarse oat hay, it being nec- essary to sow oats or other grain with vetc1h to hold the slender vetch plant off the ground. The cows used were as follows: Breed. Lot. 0 I I I A v. I II Ida........... ... Jersey ..... Hazena ............. do Hlypatia.............. do Average.................. ...... Lukie*................ do . 6 3* 6 ...... 3* 143 65 44 .8*5 108 766 831 653 813 699 1I II Susan............. II Ada.... .. do do 4 10 68 99 672 .............. Average . *Heifers with first calves. ....... 92 734 831 57 Composite samples of the"milk were tested weekly by the Babcock test and the amount of fat thus found was converted into butter by the usual method of multiplying by one and one-sixth. From the table below it will be seen that the basal ration r was the same for l~~nl every cow, whatever the extra food consumed at the same time. ~ n f17 Pounds food in 21 days. 0 Cows. rd In basal ration. Vetch flay Extra. 1 i _ i Wheat Bran Extra. r''cd o C) v i i r Dec. 19 to Jan. 9. I Ida ...... I Hazena ... I Hypatia .. Jan. l6 to II Feb. 6 . II Lukie ....... Susan..... II Ada ......... II . Total. 6 cows ...... I II II 157.6 61.1 195.6 74.6 166.1 179.6 84 84 84 84 84 81 504 159.6 92.4 176.4 126.0 168.0 168.0 890.4 84 84 84 84 84 84 42 42 42 42 42 42 253 42 42 42 42 42 42 252 108.4 108-4 108.4 231.4 234.4 234.4 834.6 108.4 234.4 108.4 234.4 108.4 234.4 650.4 .1406.4 129 255 63 189 126 252 84 210 122.5 245.5 126.0 252 650.5 1406.5 Ida ...... Hazena ... II I I I Total. ilypatia .. Lukie .... Susan .... Ada.......... 6 cows....... 504 cow was 10.3 The average daily cost of food ,cents for the veteh ration and 14 cents for the wheat bran ration at the price assumed as an average for wheat bran, namely $20.00 per ton. Hence the vetch ration was the cheaper by 3.7 cents per pier cow per day or -$1.11 per month per cow. At this rate the saving through the substitution of vetch hay for wheat bran in a herd of 20 cows would be $22.20 per -month. 58 Only the vetch hay actually consumed is charged, for the reason that with most cows the amount of vetch hay left uneaten was very small. The percentages jected by five of these cows during the time when large amounts of vetch hay were fed were respectively 1, 3, 7, 9, and 9 per cent. of the amount offered. Hazena and Lukie, however, could not be induced to eat the desired amount of hay and hence were on rather "short rations" (with corresponding shrinkage in yield) ing the: time that they*were receiving the vetch ration. The greater _part of the waste consisted in the case of most cows of the coarser part of the oat plant, which was mixed with the vetch. If the average proportion rejected by five cows, 6 I.-Pt cent., be regarded as the usual waste and charged to the cows, it would change the relative results only re- dur- by a small fraction of a cent per day. The amount of milk and of butter produced by each cow on both rations are recorded for' periods of 3 weeks in the following table : Mill, and batter in 21 days from nearly equal amrouants vetch and w;heat bran. of Vetch Hay Ration. t I I I II II II Total. Wheat Bran Ration. rac1.03 1t Cow. Ida. ....... Hazena .. Hypatia . Lukie.. Milk lbs. Butter lbs. 16.15' 17.92 27.15 20.63 27.74 20.12II II 11 I I I Total. S Cow. Milk lbs Butter lbs. 15.08 18.50 25.06. 62.39 29.00 266.4 280.3 430.9 298.2 381.4 Susan. .. 356.5 Ada . .. 6 cows, 121 days.f 2013.7 SPer cowl S per dayl 16.0 Ida. .. .... Hazena .. Hypatia . Lukie. .. Susan. .. Ada .. . 6 cows, 245.6 262.8 373 2 338.5 398.8 377.8 .1 I21.76 129.71 1per day 21 days,, 1996.7 1131.79 Per cow 15i.8 11.05 59 practically of equal value, rations judged by the amount of milk or of butter 1Fether prnduced. During the entire period covered by the expe-ri liint and on both rations the average daily of bni ter exceeded one pound per cow. As u1iiinng that manure and skim milk bahance thc labor of caring for the cows and that butter is worth 25 cents per pound we have the following financial stah 'hment : Financial statement. With vetch ration, Value of butter from 6 cows, 21 days............$32.43 Cost of feed, 6 cows, 21 days...................12.96 butter, cents............100 Cost of food per pound Daily profit per cow, cents.........................155 .15 Profit per pound of butter cents With bran ration. $32.95 'Y two he were of 17.69 .134 .121 .116 By substituting vetch hay for wheat bran there was saving of 2.4 cents, or 26 per cent on the cost of each pound, of butter. P. as c tni tI)fl. Not To ;mpared Uf <r.11011 a' SorIll)' 7100O.) n i mi 'l in u AItp juIIo lport i iI i 1, :; Hi alli ori- I Quinlanvu, (Georgia Stiu 97 comes irregular and confused, On old galls, soft, white, growing points apipear here and there in early spring, which enlarging ra.pidly, become gradually darker and harder, and by fall take on the appearance of the older growth. There is much evidence that the crown-gall of the peach, apricot and almond is a contagious disease due to a minute parasitic organism (Dendrophagusglobosus Tourney) belonging to a peculiar group of fungi known as the "slime moulds," but this conclusion has not yet been fully verified for the apple, the pear, the respherry, or, indeed, for any other of the numerous kinds of fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs: on which similar wartlike growths have been observed. Until experimental work now in progress has been carTied so far as to warrant conclusions on this point, the crown-gall of the apple, now extremenly common in manny nurseries of the Mississippi valley, can be regarded as a suspicious object, and not certainly as a dangerous one. But the careful nurseymen, jealous of his business reputation, will not send out even suspected material, and in doubtful cases will give his customers the benefit of the doubt. On this account I strongly advise that no stock of any kind showing galls of this sort on crown, root or trunk should be placed on the market. All trees growing in close contact with those thus affected should have their roots dipped in Bordeaux mixture as a precautionary disinfectant, and the ground on which the stock so diseased has grown should be temporarily used for some other purpose than that of raising nursery stock. PEACOH YELLOWS. It is American in its origin, and has been known for about one hundred years. It is quite generally distributed over the Eastern States north of Tennessee and North Carolina. Some of the most important peach sections of the East have suffered immensely from its destructive work and in not a few cases entire orchards have been completely destroyed. It seems to prefer peaches, but apricots, almonds, nectarines and Japanese plums are not free from its attacks. How to detect it.-If the affected trees is in bearing, the first symptom is manifested in the premature ripening of the fruit, which may take place several weeks or 98 only 'a few days before the normal season of ripening. Premature ripening may be due to other causes, but the yellow peaches bear characteristic bright-red, measly blotches over the skin and streaks of red through the flesh often reaching to the pit. Another reliable symptom is the pushing out of newly formed buds at the ends of aplparently healthy twigs or water sprouts, into short shoots with small yellowish leaves. Such buds should not normally put out until the following season. Also, the disease may cause dormant buds on the trunk and larger limbs to push into feeble, often branched shoots, characterized by narrow stiff leaves. This stage is illustated in figure 5, showing the abnormal growth on a tree dying with the yellows. Affected trees may live for three to five years, during which time they are graudally weakened and finally the foliage becomes yellowish or reddish in color. nr Fig. 5.-Yellows the fourth year. U. S. Dept. Agr.) (Smith, Farmers' Bul. No. 17,. The term "yellows" is somewhat misleading. Quite a number of supposed cases of yellows in this State have been reported to the writer, but, upon investigation, the 99 yellowing of the foliage in every case proved to be due to the pleach borers, drouth or some other weakening effect on the trees. Premature ripening of the fruit from similar causes has also lead many to believe their trees to be affected with the yellows. The absence of red spots on the skin and red streaks through the flesh of the fruit should serve to relieve uneasiness in such cases. The cause of yellows is yet undetermined, but it is definitely known that it is a disease and can be communicated from tree to tree and from orchard to orchard. Experiments have shown that it can be communicated to healthy trees through buds taken from diseased trees, but the manner of its natural spread from tree to tree is yet unknown. It is known, however, that from scattered cases in the orchard it will gradually spread over the entire orchard and completely destroy it if left unmolested. Prevention.-Sinceyellows is an incurable disease, we can only look to preventive measures for protection. (1) Peach trees should not be obtained from nurseries located immediately in infested sections. Such stock is liable to develop yellows after planting out. (2) Peach pits from affected trees should never be planted. They may reasonably be expected to convey the disease to the young stock. (3) Whenever the disease appears in an orchard every affected tree should be rooted up and burned. Simply cutting off affected parts is not sufficient. The virus exists in the apiparently healthy parts and would soon develope the symptoms of yellows. The whole tree, root and branch, must be destroyed. PEACH AND PLUM ROSETTE. Similar to the yellows is a disease known as "Rosette" from the peculiar tufts into which the leaf buds grow on trees under the influence of the disease. It attacks peaches and plum's and is quite generally distributed over the northern portion of Middle Georgia, extending from Augusta to the Alabama line, and from Macon to some distance north of Atlanta. The writer has quite thoroughly worked the State over and has never found it south of Macon nor in extreme North Georgia. It also occurs, although to a limited extent, in Eastern Kansas and in Western South Carolina. It seems to be most 100 prevalent in Georgia,, where it has been known for about twenty years. It causes the destruction of many trees annually in infested sections of this State, but the growers do not consider it with any great dread from the fact that they effectively hold it under control by the destruction of all affected trees as soon as the disease appears. In some localities, however, rosetted trees have been left in hedges and waste places to propagate the disease and cause considerable destruction to adjacent orchards. Fig. 6.-Rosette induced in a seeding by innoculation. Farmers' Bul. No. 17, U. S. Dept. Agr.) (Smith, How to detect it-Figure 6 well illustrates the appearance of a tree affected with rosette. This clustering together of the leaves into rosettes usually, takes place in early spring and is one distinguishing character of the disease. The foliage assumes a yellowish green or orange color, or, in case of plums, paricularly a beautiful red color. The leaves have a straight, stiff appearance with 101 inrolled margins. One season is usually sufficient to completely kill the affected tree. In some cases, however, a tree may live two years, especially if it is not attacked in all parts at once; but when a tree is once'attacked it never recovers. Prevention. The same preventive measures suggested for yellows apply also to rosette, and particularly should all diseased trees be promptly dug up and burned. Fence rows and hedges where peaches and plums are growing slihould be watched and affected trees destroyed. By a series of experiments, Dr. Erwin F. Smith,* of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, determined that it can be communicated by bud inoculation, it being necessary, however, for the tissues of the bud and stock to unite before inocculation is effected. Further than this its manner of spread is unknown. Dr. Sm ith suggests that possibly the disease may enter through the roots, but this has not yet been proved. It is certain, however, that it does spread naturally and that a few affected trees left standing in an orchard will in time cause the destruction of the entire orchard. Hence the importance of rooting up diseased trees. THE WOOLLY APHIS. (Schizoneura lanigera.) This insect is especially injurious to young apple trees, first in the nursery and then in the orchard. It is most abundant and does its principal damage on the roots of the trees, but spreads also to the bark above ground, where it is particularly likely to appear on the young sprouts which start up from the root of an injured or unhealthy tree. Where abundant it forms bluish-white cottony patches, not unlike some kinds of mould, which, on careful examination, are seen to consist of a crowd or layer of minute sluggish insects, their bodies covered with a cottony coating which gives the general effect described. They are usually most abundant on the roots, but sometimes appear above ground also on the bark of *Farmers' Bulletin, No. 17, U. S. Dept. Agr., page 17. 102 the trunk or branches. On the exposed parts of the tree they are most likely to be noticed about the collar and at the forks of the principal branches, or wherever an injury to the bark has left a scar. When trees in a nursery or young orchard have a sickly look-the leaves dull and yellowish-and are not growing well, the pres- Fig. 7.-Woolly Aphis (Schizoneura laniger.)-a, Agamic female; b, larval house; c, pupa; d, winged female with antenna enlarged above, all greatly enlarged and with waxy excretin removed. (Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.,) ence of this, insect on their roots may be suspected even though there may be no appearance of it on the bark above ground. If the roots of such an infested tree be examined they will commonly be found distorted and deformed with hard knot-like enlargements, many of them almost dead, or even in course of decomposition. These gall-like growths occur on roots of all sizes to a depth of a foot or more beneath the surface. Unless the tree is so far gone that the insects have deserted it, they will commonly be found upon these injured roots at all seasons of the year. The apple is the only tree liable to attack by this insect, the current supposition that it may live on the roots of forest trees being an error due to confusion of injury by the woolly aphis with that by the root-rot. As 103 it lives under ground at all seasons of the year it comes to infest more or less generally the soil itself, although this may be cleared of it by a few months' thorough cultivation sufficient to destroy effectively all living appleroots. Like many other plant-lice, the woolly aphis multiplies throughout the greater part of the year by the birth of living young from generations of wingless fe- I Fig.. 8.-Woolly Aphis (chizoneura lanigera.)-a, root of young tree illustrating deformation; b, section of root with aphides clustered over it; c, root louse, female-a and b, natural size; c, much enlarged. (Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) males only, but in October or November winged females appear somewhat abundantly, and, flying freely, especially before the wind, distribute the species widely. From these descend in the same autumn a generation of males and females, the latter of which eventually lay each a single winter egg. This is commonly placed within a crevice of the bark, and, hatching in spring, give rise to a new colony. There may be more or less migration back and forth from the groups above ground 104 to those on the roots at almost any 'time of the summer and fall. This insect is universally distributed and extremely common, both in orchards and nurseries, becoming evidently more so to the southward. Being highly injurions to young trees, it is a difficult pest to deal with in the nursery trade. It probably cannot be wholly eradicated from an infested nursery, and, perhaps, can never be completely and permanently kept out of a new plantation. Fortunately, trees a few years old, once well established, commonly suffer but little from its presence, and our preventive and remedial measures must consequently be directed to the preservation of young stock. No tree whose roots are visibly injured by the woolly aphis should be allowed to go from the nursery, and none in the least infested by it should be sent out until the roots have been freed from it by insecticide aplication. The simplest method of destruction of the aphis on the roots is dipping for a few seconds in water kept heated to 130-150 deg. Fahr. Where heat cannot be conveniently maintained, kerosene emulsion, diluted to contain about ten per cent. of kerosene, may be substituted. In the nursery, seedlings or graftings may be protected by using tobacco dust freely in the trenches in which they are planted, or by sprinkling together dust in a shallow furrow along each side of the nursery row as closely to the tree, and afterwards covering loosely with earth. Infested trees should not be sent out from the nursery except after fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas or after dipping the roots in hot water or in kerosene emulsion. Trees- with aphis galls or knots should never be sold, but thrown out and burned. Trees which have been growing longest in the nursery are usually the worst infested. Culls kept from year to year, apt to be mere nurseries for the multiplication of these and other destructive pests. In preserving overgrown trees in hope of making a cheap sale, the nurseryman usually "saves the penny and loses the pound." BUILLETIN No, 125.,UE JUNE, 1903. 93 ALABAMA. Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE~ AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. Some Disease Di C. f Cattle. CA eA. and s RY soBy F. G. MATTHEWS. BROWN PRINTING CO., PRINTERS 'ALA. &BINDERS MONTGOMERY, 1903. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. JONATHAN HARALSON. ........................................ Selma. STATION COUNCIL C. C. THACH.....................President B. B. Ross..........................................Chemist. C. A. CARY.............................................Veterinarian. and Acting Director. J. F. DUGGAR.....................................Agriculturist. E. M. H. S. WILCOX........................................Biologist. MACKINTOSH. ...................................... Horticulturist. J. T. ANDERSON......................................Associate ASSISTANTS. *C. L. HARE..................................First A. Chemist. Assistant Chemist. McB. HANsON .................. Acting First Assistant Chemist Second Assistant Chemist. Third Assistant Chemist. Farm. T." BRAGG................................... J. C. PHELPS................................ CULVER................................ T.. U. F. Superintendent of Assistant in G. MATTHEWS..................... Veterinary Science. J. M. JONES........................... *On leave of absence. Assistant. in Animal Industry. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. CONTENTS. Cow Pox-Variola .......................................... .......................... ........... ................... 108 Varicella ............. Furunculosis..... ... 111 112 Obstructions to Milk Flow................ ...... .......... ... ........ ........ .......... 113 118 118 122 123 Papillomas (warts) ........... ".................115 ............ .......... Poisonous Plants............ (a) Kalmia Latifolia (Laural Ivy)..................... (b) Aeculuts Pavia (Red Buckeye)........... (c) Pramus Carolineaua (Mock Orange)................. Prunus Serotina (Wild Cherry)......... .......... Prutnus Tirginiana (Choke Cherry)............... Prunus Persica (Peach)........... ................ Sorghlumb Vugare (Sorghum)....................... (d) (e) (f) (g) 123 123 123 123 (h) Phytolacca decandra (Poke Root).................. Dysentery in Young Animals ............................... .................. Acute Indigestion in Cattle............... Abortion...............................136 ...................... Non-Infectious Abortion............ Infectious Abortion ............ 126 127 134 137 141 ........................... ...................... ..................... Parturient Paresis (Milk Fever) ...... 158 166 Mammitis-Mastitis-Garge't........... PART I. BY C. A. CARY. COW POX. VARIOLA. COW POX is a skin disease naturally occurring in cows and rarely appearing in other cattle. It may be transmitted by inoculation to calves and to man. The true nature of the virus has never been discovered: various kinds of bacteria have been reported as the cause, and some investigators claim that it is produced by an animal micro-parasite. The period of incubation is said to be from two to four days. The eruption occur usually on the teats, the udder and neighboring parts; some observers report eruptions on the inside of the thighs, on the head, and on the scrotum and perineum of the bull. The teats at first become slightly swollen, sensitive and somewhat hard; in a short time appear a number of pimple-like modules, having hard or tumified bases, on the teats and udder around the base of the teats. On transparent skin these modules are scarlet red or rose red; on white skin they are bluish white, giving a flourescent reflection; on a dark skin the nodules have a leadgray color; and, if the skin is thick and tough the pimples may be a dirty yellowish gray in color. The pimples or nodules are enlarged popillie of the skin and vary in size, yet they average about one-fourth of an inch in diameter. In about two days the outer layer of the skin is raised, around the center of the enlarged pimple, by viscid, yellowish lymph, which is in separate saccules (multilocular vesicles) ; by thus raising the outer borders of the nodule its center appears depressed. But in 109 some nodules the excess of lymph raises the entire outer layer of skin over the nodule, forming one large unicellular vesicle, filled with thick, yellowish lymph (serum). The vesicles usually become mature in 8 to 10 days, and vary in size from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in diameter; they are usually circular on the udder and may be elliptical on the teats. When the vesicles are not broken their contents become purulent (filled with pus), the centre first becomes brown in color which soon extends to the border of the pustule. The pustule dries and a dark brown scab or. crust is formed which usually drops off about the fourteenth day, leaving a pale red or white and shining, depressed scar. The vesicles or pustules on the teats are always broken by the milker and the brown scabs come off prematurely and sometimes drop into the milk to be removed from it by the strainer. Complete recovery takes place in the eruptions that appear on the udder in about 21 days; but with those on the teats successive scabs or crusts are removed, ulcers become "cracked" and raw, and healing occurs slowly, requiring in some instances thirty to forty days. During this time re-infection or infection with pus germs may take place and thus successive crops of nodules (possibly vesicles and pustules) and scabs may appear. In one case under my direct observation there were four successive crops of eruptions in four months (winter and spring) on the teats and udder of the same cow. Crusts from the third crop were mixed with dilute glycerine and a calf was inoculated, by vaccination, producing an ulcer with a scab or crust without apparently passing through vesicular and pustular stages. Had I used the crusts from the first crop I am confident true cow pox would have been produced in the calf. Moreover, the calf inoculated had been getting the milk from this cow (not sucking) and may have become immune before being inoculated. 110 Dr. Van Es, while practicing in Mobile, reported to me a case where a milker became infected on the hand by milking cows with cow pox. Owing to the fact that man is inoculated (vaccinated) with bovine virus (cow pox virus) to produce a partial immunity to small pox, it is possible that many cows may become inoculated by milkers who scratch their vaccinated arms and fail to disinfect their finger nails before milking the cows. Records (Crookshank and others) seem to indicate that cow pox is usually more prevalent when small pox scares are numerous, and many persons are vaccinated; this relationship appears to be true so far as the imperfect records of cow pox in Alabama can indicate. I have observed that children who drink raw milk sometimes have ulcers not unlike vaccination ulcers, about the mouth or face or on the hands; this might result from scratching pimples, eroded places or sores when the finger nails are covered with infected milk. The fact that milkers, who become infected with cow pox, were partly or wholly immune to small pox, led the celebrated Jenner to discover and apply the method of vaccinating man with cow pox virus in order to prevent virulent small pox. The virus of cow pox is fixed and can only be transmitted by direct inoculation. Generally the milker carries it from one cow to another and, if not immune, inoculates himself, or carries it from his vaccinated arm to a susceptible cow. One attack, or series of eruptions, produces immunity in a cow for life. Hence young cows at first period of lactation (with first calf) are the ones most frequently infected; yet older cows may have it if not already immune. It is generally more virulent in winter than in summer. The chief troubles resulting from cow pox are the annoyance or difficulty in milking and sometimes a decrease 111 flow of milk; the latter may be due to lack of removing all the milk; also "caked bag" or mammitis may be a sequel to lack of removing all the milk. Moreover, there is some danger to non-immune milkers and possibly to non-vaccinated children. Treatment consists in isolating the affected cows and allowing the same milker to milk the diseased cows and no others. The milker should keep his finger nails cut close and smooth and thoroughly wash and disinfect his hands after and before milking with a 2 per cent. solution of creolin, or corrosive sublimate 1 part and water 1,000 parts. The udder and teats should be washed just before milking and covered with one of the above antiseptics. After milking apply some of the following to the bag and teats: Copper sulphate 1 dram and water 1 quart. Some have used the following with fairly good results: Tannic acid ............. 1 ounce; 4 drams; Salicylic acid ....... 3 ounces. Vaseline ............. Apply just after using the copper sulphate solution. The milk should be boiled before using, especially for children. Apparently it has no bad effects on calves not alowed to suck. Varicella or false cow pox is characterized by having single celled vesicles and by its rapid course, passing through the papular, vesicular, pustular and healing stages in six to twelve days. The scab or crust is thinner and not depressed in its centre as in cow pox. The vesidles and pustules have the same outline as those of cow pox, but are smaller in varicella than in cow pox. Notice that these are variations in degree rather than in kind; this makes it difficult to distinguish true cow pox and false cow pox in some instances-especially in the early stages. In varicella there may be successive 112 crops of eruptions on the udder and teats extending over several weeks or three or more months. Possibly the later eruptions are due to infection by pus germs or to mixed infection. The true cause of varicella is also unknown. Yet it is infectious and can be transmitted by the milker from one cow to another and possibly from the cow to the milker. A similar disease in men is commonly called chicken pox; so far no direct relation between been established. the disease in cows and in man h No inoculations have been made as in cow pox. The treatment for this is the same as for cow pox. i's a disease that is also found on the Furunculosis teats and udder of the milch cow. It is an inflammation of a hair follicle and its subaceous gland, and of a certain amount of connective tissue surrounding them. The cause is an infection through the follicle by one or more of the pus germs, usually the micrococcus pyogenes, var. aureus or albus. Generally the central parts undergo necrosis, or degenerative changes, forming a small pps collection, which usually escapes by a break in the skin and rarely by erupting into the milk sinus or reservoir of the udder or ducts of the teat or udder. Furuncles (small boils) appear usually about the base of the teats, but may occur anywhere on the udder or teats; some report their occurrence on the vulva and perineum. At first the furuncle is a hard, swollen nodule, about one-half inch in diameter; in the course of a few days it becomes soft in its centre and with slight pressure may erupt. Another or several more may appear near or around the first one, and thus a series of successive furuncles may appear on the teats and udder during the greater part of the period of lactation. Sometimes the nodules are quite deeply situated and remain without erupting; these are usually about the base of the teat, 113 or in other parts of the udder; they may be, in some cases, tuberculous modules. No doubt that filthy hands, dirty finger nails, open the way to infection. Pus germs are very often found on dirty fingler nails and on the dirty skin of the udder; moreover, long, sharp, and rough finger nails are fine instruments for inoculation. Treatment consists in cleanliness and disinfection. smooth and closely cut, and the With the finger n and hands t oroughly washed, chances for infecudder tion are very limited. After infection, wash the udder with water that has been boiled and cooled; apply a 2 per cent. creolin, lysol or corbolic acid solution; or corrosive sublimate 1 part and water 1,000 parts. Be sure to wash and disinfect the udder well immediately after a furuncle erupts. Remember cleanliness of hands, finger nails and udder will prevent it. OBSTRUCTIONIS TO THE FLOW OF MILK FROM T'HE TEAT. Chronic inflammation or irritation of the lining membrane of milk duct or canal in the teat (through which passes the milk from the milk reservoir or sinus in the bag to the bucket or air at time of milking) may lead to a graudual thickening of the lining membrane and consequent narrowing of the duct. The milk will then flow in a very small stream and the calf or milker may be unable to remove all of the milk, and thus "dry up" that quarter or produce clotting of the milk or inflammation Chronic of the bag ("garget" or "caked bag.") inflammation may be a result of the growth of germs in the small amount of milk left in the milk sinus or duct, or the growth of germs in the lining membrane 114 of the duct. The use of a filthy or rough dilator or milk tube may irritate the membrane. The most common cause of infection, according to my observations, is the employment of filthy finger nails or a dirty knife to remove a clot or a temporary obstruction in the duct. The thickening of the lining membrane is usually near the lower end of the duct, but in one instance I found the duct obstructed in the entire length in all four tests; and, according to the owner, the cow was not carefully or properly "dried up." The duct in the teat may, also, be obstructed by a growth in the substance of the teat, which presses on the duct and obstructs the flow of milk. The growth may be in or on the lining membrane of duct and anywhere along its course, but most frequently at its lower end. In some cases a false membrane develops across the milk sinus or reservoir preventing the flow of milk into the teat; this can be determined by using the milk tube or probe or small dilator. In extremely rare instances lime-like deposits may take place in the milk ducts and sinuses, and appear in the duct of the teat as sand-like grains or particles obstructing the flow of milk. The most common causes of obstruction of the flow .of milk in the teat are clots of milk (casein) resulting from infection of the milk by germs getting into the udder through the duct in the teat; retention of milk in the udder for a long time; and catarrhal and other forms of inflammation in the udder. Milk is a good food for germs, and various kind of bacteria will grow in it, many of which will precipitate the casein, thus forming clots in the sinus of the udder. TREATMENT of obstructions will vary with the conditions presented. Narrowing of the duct may sometimes be relieved by using dilators (figs. 1, 2) ; it may be neces- 115 sary to leave the dilator in the canal or duct for an hour or more just before milking. Be careful to cleanse and sterilize the dilator just before using, with boiling water or a good disinfectant. When dilators will not accomplish the desired result, use a small knife blade, lance (fig. 4), or the teat slitter (fig. 5), and enlarge the duct at the place of narrowing; then use the dilator or probe to prevent the narrowing of the duct as the wound heals. Sometimes growths or small enlargements on the inner surface of the duct may be clipped off with very small sharp pointed scissors or twisted off with small forceps. Lime or sand-like deposits in the sinus may require considerable dilatation of the duct with the ordinary or spring dilator (fig. 3) ; or the small forceps may be used to remove the sand-like particles. A false membrane across the milk sinus or reservoir may be pierced and slit open with a small knife (fig. 8). Clots of casein may be removed by using a milk tube (figs. 9, 10), or by using dilators (fig. 3), and complete and frequent milking. If the udder is inflamed use antiseptic injections and applications as directed under head of garget or inflammation of the udder. PAPILLOMAS or WARTS on the bag or teats may be clipped off with knife or scissors when the cow is dry; cut about as deep or a little deeper than the thickness of the skin. Care should be taken not to cut around or into the opening of the duct of the teat; it might leave a permanent opening or the contraction of the scar might close the duct. After clipping apply once or twice per day, castor oil, 3 ounces; salicylic acid, 4 drams. X116 ig, 1.--Teat dilator closed and open: used in dilating a narrov~ or contracted milk duct. w r 1N li1 e 5 1 i %'c q Cfl -+VN o ., c N, o O O op x I-u - o0 C I 0 II!U --. W . 0 0" I 8I 117 M NX OGHER& SON. GIN..0. I MAX WOCHER&SON. DIN~ 0 MAX WOCHER &rSON, 41N.. O. ,Figs. 5, 6 and 7.-Three kinds of teat slitters, any one of which may be used for enlarging narrow or contracted milk ducts. Fig. 8.-Small tenotome knife (showing only part of handle), which may be used in enlarging a contracted milk duct or cutting an ,opening in a false membrane across the milk sinus. & MA jOHER SON. GIN 0. & MAX WOOHER SON, 0I~O Figs. 9 and 10.-Milk tubes. Fig. 11.-Lead probe to be inserted in the milk duct after teat slitting, and retained until healing and danger from excessive contraction of the wound is passed. 118 POISONOUS PLANTS. TESTS or EXPERIMENTS WITH KALMIA LATIFOLIA. We used a 5 per cent. infusion of the leaves, which prepared under the direction of E. R. Miller, professor of pharmacy. I. A scrub cow, about 5 years old, weighing 600 pounds,' was used. Her temperature was 103.2 Fah., respirations 10 and 3 p. m. she pulse 34 just before the drug was given. was given 3 quarts of the 5 per cent. infusion. was At At 4 p. in.- Temparature.............103.2 Fah. Respirations ............. 37. Pulse ................. 10. At 5 p. O m.Temperature ............ Respirations ............. 103.4 10. 36. Pulse .................. showed distinct muscular Pulse slightly irregular; cow weakness; wabbled about as if drunk; pupils slightly dilated; some. muscles showed quivering or twitching movements. At 8 p. in.Temperature .... .... Respirations .... .... ..... 11. .. .. .. . .24. .... ...... to move, cow fell and was unable to In rise. Pulse somewhat irregular and weak ; muzzle dry and mucous membrane pale and dry ; pupils greatly dilated (amaurotic) ; some muscular twitchings. At 9:30 p. in.Temperature .... .... .... 102 . 12. Respirations ............ 36. Pulse .... .... .......... .... 102.4 Pulse attempting 119 Pulse weak, but more regular; cow could rise, but in trying to walk fell; pupils still greatly dilated; muzzle dry, and mucous membranes pale. Air was cool, and cow was shivering. Next morning cow was up, but weak and wabbling; pulse stronger and pupils normal in size. Temperature ........... 100.4 Respirations ............. 12. Pulse..................36. II. A hull calf, about 10 months old, was given at 10:15 a. In. one-half pint of a 5 per cent. infusion of leaves of Kalmia latifolia. At 9 :30 a. m.Temperature ............... 99.2 Fah. Respiration .............. 8 Pulse ................. 32. At 11:15 a. m.Temperature ............ 1008 Respirations........ 2. Pulse .................. 54. At this time calf was given one-half pint of linseed oil and 2 drais of tannic acid. At 1 p. i.- Temperature............101 .2 Calf was down, unable to rise; pupils modic twitching of Pulse ......... Respirations.......10. ........... ......... 48. muscles; dilated; spas- pulse weak and irregular. The' next morning calf was up ready for its breakfast. The tannic acid may have temporarily prevented the absorption of the poisonous principle, but prevented the oil from producing purgation. III. A sorrel mare, about 9 years old, weighing about 800 pounds. Just before giving the drug her Temperature was.......... 99. Respirations .... .... ..... 12. Pulse ................ 30. 120 At 10 a. m. she was given 1 quart of a 5 per cent. infusion of the leaves of the laurel ivy (Kalmia latifolia). She coughed considerable during the drenching, which indicated that some of the infusion went into the larnyx and wind pipe; possibly this made the drug act quicker than usual. At once the mare began to retch, froth at the mouth and breathe rapidly; pupils became dilated; co-ordination of muscular action lost; animal excited and struggling. At 11 a. m.Temperature ............. 96. Respirations ............ 56. Pulse .................. 46. Breathing rapid and irregular; pulse weak; mucous membrane of nose pale and of the eye slightly congested; frequent convulsive movements of the limbs. At noon-. ..... 95. 60. Pulse .................. 46. Breathing still very rapid; pulse weak; animal becomes more quiet; pupils still greatly dilated. Muscular twitchings appear first in the face and extended to all the surface muscles of the body; occasionally there were convulsive movements of the limbs; surface of body cool. At 1 p. m. Temperature ............ 94.4 Respirations ... . .... 52. Pulse ..... ............. 46. Animal very quiet; pupils dilated; eye dull; mucous membrane of mouth and nose of leaden color and mucous membrane of eyes congested; muscles continue to twitch; surface of body cool. Respirations ............ Temperature ...... At this time (1 p. in.) of 95 per cent, alcohol in 4 ounces of water. At 2 p. In.Teumperature ............. 95. Respirations ............. 30. Pulse .................. 48. A nimnal relatively more quiet; pupils continue to deerease in size; the mucous membranes of nose aid in uth become slightly scarlet in color; muscles still twitch. Gave animal another ounce of alcohol. At 3 p. in.-Temperature ............. 98.2 Respirations ......... 28. Pulse ................ 50. Pupils normal. in size; muscles twitching less and more relaxed; mucous of mouth and nose about normal in color, and surface of body warns. Given another dose of alcohol with small quantity of lysol in it. At 4 p!. i.Temperature ... ......... 99.6 Respirations ............. 28. Pulse...................60. .Animal much better; given another dose of alcohol. -the 121 animal was given 1 o flCe membranes At 5 p. in.- Temperature .... .... .... 100.4 Respirations .... .... ..... 26. Pulse ...... .... ........ 63. At 5 :30 p. m. animal was able to rise with a little help ; muscles still twitching some; animal some weak, and wabhling, but able to walk about 200 yeards to a box stall. Next morning her appetite was good, and. she showed some signs of having had a hard drive, but 24 hours later she had entirely recovered. From the three tests and from numerous cases, where animals have eaten the leaves of Kalmia latifolia it im 2 122 very evident that the leaves' contain an active poison. Several chemists and pharmacists have found indications of an alkaloid, but a sufficient quantity has never been isolated to test its poisonous effects on cattle or horses or sheep. Sheep, and cattle eat the leaves of the shrub in winter or spring when pasturage is short, and the animals are hungry for green feed. No doubt they will eat it at, any season where pasturage and feed are short, and the opportunity is given to them. This flowering shrub is very common in nearly all parts of Alabama; possibly more common in hilly regions and along mountain creeks. The shrub flowers in the spring, and is an evergreen, having green leaves all the year arouid. It is commonly called the laurel or laurel ivy. TREATMENT.-Alcohol acts as physiological or chemical antidote. Whiskey, brandy or alcohol (dilute) may be given every two hours in 1 to 3 fluid ounce doses. Also, a purgative of 1 to 2 pounds of Epsom salts dissolved in 1 quart of water or 1 to 2 pints of raw linseed oil. Do not repeat the purgative under 24 hours. One to three fluid drains of creolin or lysol may be 'added to the purgative in order to check fermentation while the bowels are inactive. The shrub should be cut down, or, better still, grub it up and burn it, and thus prevent cattle and sheep from getting it; this is possible and practicable in pastures. The Red Buckeye (Aesculus Pavia, L.) is another shrub or small tree whose leaves are poisonous. The clinical symptoms are very like those of poisoning from Kalmnia latifolia. The treatment is about the same; at first a good purgative is given and foltow it with a stimulant, especially during the period of depression. In pastures grub it up and burn all the Red Buckeye bushes and small trees. Batchelor (American Journal Pharmacy, 1873, p. 145), found in the seed of the red buckeye, a poi.onu u 123 glucoside (22 per cent. in seed). It acted on the cat somewhat like strychnine. The leaves are said be most poisonous just before, or about, the time ing. Cattle and sheep usually become poisoned by ing the leaves, and occasionally by eating the seed. of flowereat- to POISONOUS PLANTS CONTAINING HYDR10 CYANIC ACID. Prof. E. R. Miller, Pharmacist at the Alabama Poly technic Institute, found that the leaves, bark and root of the Pruntus Carolirteanas (mock orange) con tai ned hydrocyanic acid. Pranus scrot/na (wild cherry), Praunus I7 (choke.cherry, and Prunus Pcr.sica (peach), all contain hydri ail acid at times in their leaves. They contain ainygdaln, a glucoside and emulsin, a ferment or enzyme. In the presence of water the emulsin acts on ibo amvydalin a nd h;3irocyanic acid, glucose au a volatil? oil are formed. The action of the ferment is destroyed by boiling. The leaves of these plants are said to be more poisonous or contain more hydrocyanic acid when kept in a wilted condition, without completely drying out, for several hours. In the rumen or first stomach of the ox or the sheep where there is little or no acid and where the food macerates in a watery secretion, neutral or slightly alkaline, would be an admirable place for emulsin to act on amygdalin irginia'na and produce hydrocyanic acid. Sorghum Slade and (sorghum ealgare), according to Peters, Avery, of the Nebraska. Station, contains hydrocyanic acid when it is stunted or checked- in growth by dry seasons and also young, frosted or second growth sorghum may contain it. No doubt, many of the reported cases of sorghum poisoning are due to acute indigestion (bloat) and not to hydrocyanic acid. As 124 the conditions now stand no one can tell when sorghum is poisonous without a feeding test or a chemical analysis. Cases have been reported of poisoning from feeding kaffir corn and pasturing Johnson grass, but the presence of hydrocyanic acid has not been discovered in Johnson grass. In August, 1902, Mr. J. P. Logan, of Sehna, Ala., reported the following facts to me: Nine head of cattle were turned into a Johnson grass pasture for the first time; it was about four o'clock in the evening; the cattle became sick in ten minutes after eating the grass; gave 8 of them linseed oil and alum; 2 died that night and 6 recovered; one not treated died in three hours. The Johnson grass from this field was tested for hydrocyanic acid, and none was found in it. The recoveries, by the treatment given, seems to indicate that the cattle had acute indigestion. In July, 1899, during a very dry time, Mr. Hazzard, a dairyman of Birmingham, Ala., turned 20 cows into a sorghum field that had been injured by army worms and by drouth; in twenty minutes, he says, 18 were dead; 2 were saved by treatment. The 18 cattle died within 50 feet of the gate through which they passed into the sorghum field. Hydrocyanic acid is a very unstable compound, and this accounts for the fact that many plants that sometimes contain it do so only under certain conditions and for a short time. Any condition that checks or stunts the growth of sorghum should lead one to regard it as a dangerous feed until proven otherwise. SYMPTOMS OF HYDROCYANIC ACID POISONING are the same regardless of the source of the drug. Of course the larger the dost the more rapid and fatal its action. It can be absorbed from the unbroken skin when in a pure watery solution: it is readily absorbed from the alimen- 125 tary canal acting as a sedative and anaesthetic on the mucous' membranes. Small doses depress the heart by stimulating the vagus centre in the medulla; large doses stimulate the vagus centre and depress the heart by acting directly on it, paralyzing it almost instantly. The vaso-motor centre is paralyzed and blood pressure falls very low. The respiratory centre is paralyzed usually before the cardiac or vaso-motor centres. Toxic doses produce insensibility and coma; in animals convulsions may occur. Large dose paralyze the peripheral nerves and the voluntary muscles. Shortly before death the spinal cord is paralyzed. The pupils are dilated. In brief, hydrocyanic 'acid quickly depresses respirations, the pulse or heart action and blood pressure, and paralyzes the muscles and nerves of the limbs; depresses the action of the alimentary canal and dilates the pupil. In many cases these actions are so quick that there is no time to give antidotes or treatment. Drowsiness, running at eyes, twitching of the muscles, staggering gait, inability to stand, involuntary passing of urine and feces, dilated pupils, frothing at the mouth-are given by Peters as the prominent symptoms. In cases where time is given for TREATMENT give a stimulant of 1 to 4 ounces of brandy, whiskey, or diluted alcohol or ether. When the animal can not swallow, give the drug per rectum or hypodermically. Stimulate respiration by holding dilute ammonia to the nose and by giving one-half grain doses of strychnine hypodermically once every three or four hours. As soon as the animal can swallow give cow or ox 1 quart of melted lard (not too hot), or 1 quart or raw linseed oil and 1 pint of syrup diluted with 1 pint of water. If cow begins to swell from the formation of gas by fermentation in the stomach and intestines, give Do not repeat I ounce of creolin in 1 quart of water. purgatives under twenty-four hours. Sheep and calves 126 take doses of medicine about one-fourth as large as full grown cattle. In all cases where possible prevent the animal from eating the leaves of the mock orange, the cherry and the peach-especially wilted leaves on recently cut or pruned branches. In case of sorghum, always test the stunted sorghum by cutting and feeding a little before turning cattle into the field to graze, on it. In fact, it is best and safest to begin to feed it gradually, by the soiling method, and after the cattle have been brought up to full feed in that way, they may be turned into the field for a short time each day until they become accustomed to it. Very few cases of accidental poisoning have been produced by cutting sorghum and feeding i* to cattle; yet such instances have occurred both with sorghum and kaffir corn. Phytolacca decandra has been reported as poisonous for cattle. G. R. White, in the Journal Comp. Med. and Vet. Arch., 1902, p. 439, reports that 5 cattle out of a herd of 13 were affected with haem irrhagic enteritis accompanied with dysentery. These cattle had eaten large quantities of phytolacca, and White attributed the enteritis to the eating of that plant. From an unpublished article of Prof. E. R. Miller, of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, at Auburn, I obtained the following facts: Three different times Prof. Miller became sick following the grinding of the roots of phytolacca. The sickness was very like the preliminary symptoms of influenza; alternate periods of chilling and high fever; intense headache; insomnia and restlessness; some irritation of nose and throat; lasting for about 24 hours. Two students were very similary affected; also a negro ground the roots of phytolaeca and was similarly troubled. One student was not affected; another had irrita- 127 tion of the nose and throat and eyes, lasting about 24 hours. The professor became affected three different times; 3 students and a negro once and one student was apparently unsusceptible. The following was reported to Prof. Miller: A boy applied a decoction all over his body for the itch, it produced vesication, and the skin peeled off as from a blister. It is reported that many people eat young poke root as "greens ;" possibly the cooking produces somen change that renders the poison inert. It is also suggested that the young plant may not have or contain the toxic principle; as a rule, most plants contain the greatest amount of their active principles just before or at the time of blossoming. The seed or fruit of phytolacca are said to contain phytolaccio, phytolaccic acid, sugar and gum; the root of phytolacca a resin, probably a glucoside and a volatile acid. Prof. Miller and his students have obtained strong indications of several alkoloids. Having never treated a case of phytolacca poisoning, I can only suggest that small oleaginous purgatives be given and the animal be fed soft feed in small quantities. Raw linseed oil one-half pint and creolin 1 to 2 drains might be given once or twice per day. If the animal is in pain give 1 to 3 dramins of fluid extract of belladonna or 4 drams of tincture of opium two or three times per day. DYSENTERY IN YOUNG ANIMALS. Young calves, lamb's or colts may have an infectious form of dysentery that begins usually during the first few days, or not later than two weeks, after birth; in some instances infection may occur in calves several weeks old. The cause of the disease, according to Nocard, is a short, stumpy, bacillus with rounded ends; frequently found arranged in parrallel lines, like a 128 comb, with short, close teeth; sometimes they are in linear series, having very short joints, becoming thicker until last segment, which is longer and club-shaped. Some are swollen in the centre and drawn into threads at extremities; others are ovoid like cocco-bacilli. From Nocard's description the bacillus seems to take on a variety of formis; it is found in pus and in free or intercellular masses. It is an obligative aerobe; stains always by Gram's method; grows in or on all media at a temperature above 86° F. (best at 95° F. to 100.4). It grows best on coagulated blood serum where in 36 to 39 hours appear a number of colonies with a shining surface, slightly raised in the centre, and appearing to send a number of roots into the medium; these colonies are white on serum from the horse, bright yellow on serum from the ox, and gray on coagulated blood. Nocard, Lasage and Delmer believe that the principal, if not the only, method of infection is by way of the umbilical (navel) cord. Infection occurs during birth or immediately following birth while the cord is soft. Possibly it occurs in the vagina or vulva, or most likely after the cord is torn or broken, and the young is on the ground. Nocard attempted to infect calves by the alimentary canal and by the respiratory passages, and failed. But he succeeded by subcutaneous inoculation. The experiments of Nocard, Lasage and Delmer were confined to calves in Ireland and on the continent of Europe; and their tests may not be conclusive, yet the evidence points very strongly toward navel infection. Law, Friedberger and Frohner, de Bruin, Moussu, Deikerhoff, and others believe the disease is infectious. Many attending or predisposing causes are given, some of which are aids to transmission or infection. The following are given by various authorities as causes, both of infectious dysentery and of ordinary diarrhoea, or dysentery: The young or new-born offspring failing to get the 129 first milk (colostrum) which is laxative in its action and is consequently required to remove the meconium (foetal feces) from the alimentary canal of the young. Without it the young animal is liable to have indigestion, constipation or diarrhoea: any one of these conditions might favor infection with the germ of dysentery. Filthy, dirty milk; sudden changes from whole milk to skim milk, or from skim milk to whole milk, or sweet milk to sour; putting a young calf on a cow far advanced in the period of lactation (milk contains too much solids) ; adding too much meal to milk or giving too much dry meal or corn to young calves when the salivary glands are insufficiently developed to digest the starchy food; giving cow's milk to the foal without proper dilution or modification; filthy buckets or udders; damp, filthy, unclean stalls, barns and pens; bad water from infected wells, tanks, troughs or vessels; ergotized grasses; mouldy, decaying, irritating vegetables or grains or hays; too much cotton seed or cotton seed meal; allowing colt or calf to suck when dam has been over-heated by violent exercise; feeding young calf or colt only once every twelve hours; feeding too much (over feeding) ; great irregularity in feeding, allowing calf or colt to get very hungry and then rapidly devouring a full feed. SYMPTOMS. -Some cases begin with constipation; others with soft, soon becoming watery, bowel discharges, which may be white like undigested milk, or grayish or yellow in color. At times the calf or colt is restless, with more or less straining to pass feces; appetite (stops sucking) is lost; abdomen may become distended or swollen and tender or tucked up (contracted) and tender; feces becomes frothy, bad smelling and sometimes streaked with blood; calf may bellow and slobber: the calf, colt or lamb may become dull,, stupid, weak, emaciated and die in one to three days, or may live one or two weeks and die or make a slow recovery: 130 Some cases have pneumonia, inflammation of the articulations, pleritonitis, laminitis, hepatitis (inflammation of the liver), or opthalmia (inflammation of the eyes). This disease is very frequently found in herds where infectious abortion or tuberculosis exists. About 80 per cent. of the cases in foals are fatal; 54 to 90 per cent. in calves and 66 per cent. in lambs. POST MORTEM CONDITIONS Here and there may appear erosions or desquamations and red or congested areas in the mucous membrane of the intestines, and sometimes in the stomach.. Catarrhal exudate or pseudo-membranous patches mna- occur on the mucous membrane of the intestines. Peyer's patches may be infiltrated and prominent; sub-mucous infiltrated, softened, and marked by small red spots (homorrhagic spots.) Sometimes hemorrhages may be found in the small or large intestine or in the stomach. In calves and lambs the desquamation of epithelium is most marked near the pyloric end of the fourth stomach. The contents of the intestines may be yellowish, white, gray, red, mucou-purulent and very foetid. The intestinal lymph glands are usually enlarged. Some cases show inflammatory changes in the lungs, liver, peritoneum, kidneys, spleen, heart, articulations, and eyes. TREATMENT. Prevention is the only means of successfully combatting this very fatal disaese. Cleanliness and disinfections will usually keep it from a place or herd. The stalls, pens, barns, buckets, water, feed, milk, cows and calves must be kept clean. Regular feed, with proper quantity and quality, avoiding any or all sudden or radical changes and the extremities of too little and too much feed, will tend to maintain healthy calves, colts and lambs. It is always safer and better to milk a cow that is far along in the period of lactation and dilute the milk 131 with water that has been boiled and cooled and feed it to the calf than to turn a young calf to such a cow. Do not force meal, corn or other grain upon the young calf before its digestive apparatus is sufficiently developed to digest them. At least wait one or two weeks and then begin the use of such feeds very gradually. Never permit the calf to eat mouldy, decayed or rotten feed or hay or vegetables; keep it in well ventilated, clean, dry stall or pen and give it freedom in a clean, grassy pasture all the time that weather will permit. Nocard recommends the following: "White scours is generally the consequence of an umbilical (navel) infection which takes place at the time of parturition. Farmers may prevent the disease by conforming strictly to the folowing instructions: 1. Cows that are at the point of calving should be provided with dry and clean litter until after the act of parturition. 2. As soon as the premonitary signs of parturition are observed the valva, anus, and perineum ought to be washed with a warm solution of lysol, of a strength of 20 grammes to a liter of water (2 per cent. solution). At the same time a large quantity of this solution may be used to syringe out the vagina. 3. As far as possible the calf ought to be received into a clean cloth, or at least on a thick layer of fresh litter, which has not been soiled by urine or excrement. 4. Immediately after birth the cord should be tied with a ligature (strong string) that has been soaked in lysol. (The tie is made 2 to 3 inches below the abdomen and the cord cut off one-half inch below the ligature.) 5. Mop or cover the umbilicus and remainder of the cord with the following solution: Rain water .......... 1 quart. 30 grains. Iodine ............. Potassium iodine ..... .1 dram. 132 6. The disinfection of the umbilicus and cord should be completed by applying the following: Methyl alcohol........ 1 quart. 30 grains. Iodine ............ 7. When the alcohol has evaporated the operation will be completed by dressing the cord and umbilicus with a thick layer of iodised collodion (1 per cent.). As soon as the collodion has dried the calf may be left with its mother." In one outbreak of infectious dysentery in valves I have had good results by employing the following dust powder: 3 ounces. Tannic acid ........ 3 ounces. Boric 'acid .......... Iodoform .......... 4 drains. 4 drams. Salicylic acid ....... Mix and apply to the ligated cord and umbilicus (navel) immediately after birth and two or three times per day during the first three days. This thoroughly disinfects and also dries up the cord very quickly. It can be applied with 'a dust blower or sifter. If calves are allowed to suckle a cow, it is always best to wash the udder once or twice daily with a 1 or 2 per cent. solution of creolin or lysol. Just before birth it is wise to wash the vulva, anus, perineum and tail of the cow with one the above disinfectants. Barns, lots and pens must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Change calves and cows from one cleaned and disinfected place to another and keep well calves entirely isolated from sick ones. Use plenty of lime, whitewash, carbolic acid, creolin, lysol and other disinfectants on walls, floors, etc. Above all wash and scrub often the walls and stalls. CURATIVE TREATMENT is not very promising; hence the great number of remedies herein suggested. It is usually best to begin the treatment with a purgative in order to remove the fermenting and irritating materials in the alimentary canal. 133 For the calf or colt give 1 to 2 ounces (2 to 4 tablespoonsful) of castor oil; the lamb can be given one-fourth as much. Or, rubarb may be given in 30 to 60 grain doses to the calf or colt and 7 to 15 grains to the lamb. Or, calomel 6 grains for colt or calf and 1 grain for lamb. Tincture of opium is sometimes given with, or following, the purgative. Law recommends the following: Tincture of cinnamon. ..... 2 fluid ounces. ........... 1 ounce. .. Chalk ........ Gum arabic ............ 4 drams. Mix and give to calf or colt 1 tablespoonful 2 or 3 times per day. Cadec uses: Subnitrate of bismuth .... 5 grains. grains. Salicylic acid...........5 Naphtol ............... 20 grains. ...... 5 ounces. ...... Syrup .... 4 ounces. Distilled water ......... Mix and give to calf or colt 1 to 2 tablespoonsful after each time it is fed. Another authority advises the following: Coal tar .. .......... 5 ounces. Boiling water ...... 6 quarts. Let cool and give one-half pint evry half hour. This is very useful in cases where liver is involved, (indicated by yellow mucous membrances). Lime water is sometimes useful: Give on to four tablespoonsful after calf has taken its milk. It is well to boil the milk and allow it to cool without putting cold water into it. Some give a one or two per cent. solution of creolin; 1 to 2 ounces for calf or colt once or twice a day. If the calf, coli or lamb is very weak, it may require a stimulant; such as coffee or a teaspoonful (calf or colt) of turpentine with egg or milk, or tincture of capsicum, a teaspoonful. 134 Wine of ipicac is said to be very valuable in some forms of dysentery in man. It may be given to calves or colts in 1 tablespoonful doses; 10 drops to the lamb. ACUTE INDIGESTION IN CATTLE. This is sometimes called "hoven" or "bloat." In the first stomach or paunch, there may be undigested, fermenting food, resulting in the formation of gases ( carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc.) and possibly some acids or toxic alkaloids or glucosides. The causes are not always apparent, but generally it is due to over feeding or sudden change from dry feed to green succulent peavines, potato vines, corn, sorghum, clover, oats, potatoes or turnips which undergo fermentation in the paunch. When a cow or an ox lies down for some time, as in milk fever, lung fever or tick fever, the digestive organs may be checked in action or partially paralyzed; then fermentation may occur. SYMPTOMS.-If gas is formed the abdomen becomes distended and resonant; (left flank larger than the right,) respirations are rapid and shallow; temper atu e about normal; animal may grunt or moan. In some cases (Dieckerhoff) the greatest swdlling or distention of the abdom n,, may appear in 15 to 20 minutes after eating clover (especially when the cloveu is in a partially withered or wilted condition on a hot day). In some cases of indigestion there is no appreciable quantity of gas formed and consequently little or no distention of the abdomen and flanks; the appetite may be partially or completely suspended; little or no rmimination (chewing and regurgitating of the cuds), the paunch or first stomach is inactive or paralyzed; bowels normal in acting during the first day, constipated or inactive thereafter, except in few instances where the bowels may be very loose and active; pulse may be acceler- 135 ated; temperature normal; and in the cow the flow of milk is greatly decreased. The animal may die in 1 to 4 hours or may recover in from 2 to 8 days. When toxic gases, alkaloids or glucosides are rapidly forming death may occur in a comparatively short time. Treatment may be preventative or curative. Avoid over-feeding of concentrates; such as corn, cotton-seed meal, oats, wheat etc., and decayed, moldy, rotton feed. But it is most difficult to prevent cattle from g-itoo much green feed when they accidentally get into the corn, sorghum, pea patch or clover. Prevention means continual care and watchfulness. Change from dry to green feed gradually. Curative remedies are directed toward removing the undigested food and preventing fermentation and death while removing these materials from the ailmentary canal. If the animal can swallow, give 1 to 2 lbs. Epsom salts and 10 to 20 drops of croton oil in one quart of water; do not repeat this under 12 to 24 hours. Follow or precede this with 1 tablespo(nful of strong creolin in 1 quart of water. If you have nothing else and the animal continues to bloat or swell, repeat the creolin solution every two hours until the bloating ceases. If you have no creolin, dissolve as much table salt as you can in two quarts of warm water and give 2 quarts of salt water every 3 or 4 hours. If you have no Epsom salts give 1 to 2 pints of raw linseed oil, or castor oil, or cotton seed oil, or melted (not hot) lard. Remember, do not repeat the dose of Epsom salts or oil under 12 to 24 hours. In case the animal is greatly swollen and about to die before purgatives and antiseptics can act, then you can puncture the rumen with a trocar and canula or a knife. This should be done on the left side some where between the hip point (haunch) and the last rib. Cleanse the left flank with soap and water and weak creolin solution; cut an opening through skin, about 136 one-half inch long; now push the trocar and canula into the paunch (3 to 4 inches deep), pull out the trocar and let the gas escape through the canula for one or more hours; when you desire to remove the canula always insert the trocar into it and remove both together, this prevents infection of the wound. In case you have no trocar get a long quill or better a joint of swamp cnne about the size of a lead pencil or pipe stem, boil it in water, (at least scald it), make a sharp bevelled edge on one end, and push the sharp end into the p:tunch through the opening made in the skin as directed above. After removing the trocar and canula or cane stem, apply weak creolin solution to disinfect the place; also give purgatives and antiseptics internally if not already given. Feed carefully for the next few days, always give salt every day; granulated salt is better than rock salt. PART II. BY G. F. MATTHEWS. ABORTION. Commonly known as miscarriage or losing, slipping or slinking the calf, colt, lamb, whichever the case may be. Abortion may be defined as delivering (parturition) before the end of the regular period of pregnancy (gestation) or before the young has fully completed foetal life whether the little creature be dead or alive. Foetal live refers to life before birth, the young up to this time being a foetus. The average period of pregnancy in farm animals is for mare and jennie, 11 months and 15 days; cow 9 months and 15 days; sheep and goat 5 months; sow 4 months. If an animal delivers a few days before time the deviation is unimportant since the 137 period of pregnancy may vary a few days with different individuals and under different circumstances. Abortion, from an economic standpoint, takes rank among former animals as follows: Cow, Mare, Sheep, Sow. The cow is the most liable while the sow is seldom subject to the mishap. The viability or whether the foetus is capable of living is another question. Usually it is dead. A dead foetus may be delivered at any time during pregnancy, but when abortion -occurs in the first two-thirds of pregnancy the foetus is always dead. In the last third a live foetus is frequently born. The later the stage the more likely is the little creature to live. Many die immediately, and others are weakly and prove to be absolutely worthless, and in rare instances one becomes sufficiently vigorous to develop into a valuable animal. Some idea of the number of living calves delivered by aborting cows in the last months of pregnancy and their value may be had from the record reported by Nelson of the New Jersey Experiment Station. Twelve cows aborted. Four births occurred between the 6th and 7th months; four between the 7th and 8th months; Three of and four between the 8th and 9th months. the twelve were dead: 1 died; 6 were killed and 2 were raised. Thus only a small percentage were of sufficient promise to be kept, and it is a question if it ever pays in the long run to raise any of them. Abortion may be either non-infectious or infectious. When occurring in the latter form it assumes an enzootic or an epizootic type and it is of greatest importance to recognize this form in order to prevent the spread of the contagion. Non-infectious abortion. Non-infectious abortion results from some known cause or accident, irregular feeding, improper feed, etc., 3 138 or happens only as a casual affair not preceded or followed by miscarriage in the same individual or other members of the herd. Not only should the home herd be excluded as a sourse of the disease, but the mishap should be free from any relationship whatever with a similar accident among cows which the attending bull may have served. Causes: The causes of non-infectious abortion are too numerous to discuss in detail. Frequently it is to be ascribed to the poor condition of the pregnant animal. This may result from insufficient or improper food and irregular feeding. The foetus dies for the want of nourChronic ishment, and is expelled as a consequence. by deranging diwasting diseases may have a like effect gestion impairing assimilation and impoverishing the blood. According to some authors an extremely fat condition predisposes an animal to abortion. This is said to occur most frequently in old cows of improved beef breeds suffering with fatty degeneration of the heart, the circulation being weak and irregular and insufficient to supply the foetus. Drinking ice-cold water and feeding upon pastures covered by frost, or eating herbage which has been injured by frost, have caused abortion. One writer reports an instance where one-fifth of the pregnant ewes in a flock of sheep aborted immediately after drinking from a hole made through ice. Overloading the paunch (rumen) with succulent foods, like green sorghum, clover and cow-peas, especially when covered by dew; apples, sweet potatoe vines or tubers, etc., and gorging the animal with stimulating foods like corn, wheat, peas, beans, cotton-seed and cotton-seed meal are exciting causes. Foods improperly harvested and improperly cured, musty, molded and partially decayed foods may set 139 up fermentation in the paunch, which compress the womb and kill or displace the foetus. Acute diseases, manifested by colicy pains or circulatory disturbances, may be followed by abortion. Diseases of the rectum and urinary organs, as diarrhoea and inflammation of the kidneys, bladder, etc., are predisposing causes. Parasites, like worms in the intestines, liver or lungs, and lice, are accessory causes. Medicines injudiciously administered to ailing animals are as liable to cause abortion as the affliction. Large doses of purgatives are to be avoided, also another class of drugs known as ecbolics, rye-smut, cornsmut; cotton-root bark; cotton-seed, and cotton-seed meal, probably possess to a slight extent the active principles of cotton-root bark. Evil effects from this source have been overestimated. Grain smuts, seeds, leaves, etc., containing medicinal principles, must be consumed in enormous quantities usually to cause deliterious effects upon healthy organs. Taking for example, the smut of rye (ergot), which is the most potent of the class; it is said to require 10 p'ounds of the sdlect drug to produce acute poisoning in a 750-pound cow. Such enormous quantities are not likely to be consumed at one time. The chief danger is in pasturing cattle continually on pastures where smut is abundant. A moderate quantity is consumed each day, without bad effects at first, but after a few days the active medicinal principles in the smut will have accumulated to such an extent as to cause chronic poisChronic poisoning oning (ergotism), and abortion. from rye smut is rare, and it is questionable if corn smut ever has that effect. Drugs, like spanish fly, which irritate the urinary organs, and purgatives which stimulate the involuntary muscles of the rectum to excessive action should be given to pregnant animals with caution, if at all. Sudden fright, thunder storms, chasing by dogs, and 140 the smell of blood, or the discharge from an aborting animal, may cause abortion in sensitive, highly-bred Jerseys. Miscarriage may follow sudden changes in the weather especially if the victims are poorly nourished. Violence in any form is a fruitful cause of abortion. Mares which "balk" or refuse to pull and cows which "sulk" or refuse to travel about from the unmerciful beatings received. Jars and jolts in railway cars, and shipping long distances may cause the trouble. Mounting other cows or being mounted by other cows or the bull; falling into ditches or having the hind foot slip unexpectedly into gutters behind the cow; jumping fences; crowding through door ways; and so on indefinitely may result in abortion. While it stands to reason that slight injury is less liable than severe violence to result in abortion, the results cannot be judged by the extent of the violence, for at one time an animal will carry her foetus successfully through a violent accident, and at another time abort after sustaining the most insignificant injury. In one case a calf which was born alive, but required the assistance of a surgeon for delivery, and died as a consequence of the manipulation, was found to have one hind leg bent at right angle just above the hock. When the flesh was boiled off, the bone showed evidence of having been broken, union being complete with the exception of a small spicule of bone projecting from that part where the tissue had separated most. The owner had not seen any accident, but remembered a break in a rail fence, made, probably, by this cow, about one month prior to delivery. At any rate, it shows that a pregnant animal may suffer violence little short of death of the foetus and not abort. On the other hand, the most insignificant accident may be responsible for abortion. A mare had one hind foot 141 to slip unexpectedly through the board crossing over an open ditch. The foot sank but a few inches, not more than 12 or 15, as the drain was not deep. However, the mare aborted and the owner could ascribe the mishap to no other cause. A dead foetus is seldom retained, though in exceptional eases it may remain in the womb until quite putrid. The foetus may be killed as a result of external violence; die from displacement or twist of the womb; excessive collection of fluids in the fotal membranes; deformation; diminished circulation or impaired nutrition, whether affecting it directly or indirectly through condition of the mother. The symptoms, cause and after treatment does not differ materially from that of infectious abortion. The principal requisite in treatment is to remove the cause. Directions for treating retention of the after-birth (placenta) always a serious consequence in these cases and prolapsus of the uterus, will be given in the treatment of infectious abortion. INFECTIOUS ABORTION. By infectious abortion is meant that form of abortion which has a tendency to recur in the same subject or is associated with-proceeds or follows--abortion in other animals. Single cases caused by infection cannot be distinguished from the non-infectious sort. Prevalence in Alabama.Infectious abortion is said to be widely distributed over the civilized world. In Alabama it is confined largely to the herds in the vicinity of the larger towns and cities. The hardy range or "scrub" cattle of the State, like wild cattle, are remarkably free from the disease. At present marked interest is being manifested in breeding beef cattle. This interest is increasing. Several herds have been started in various parts of 142 the State, and there is a growing desire to breed up the native cattle. Improved stock have been shipped from the North, Northwest and West for this purpose. One purpose of this article is to acquaint present and prospective breeders with the nature of the disease and warn them of the dangers of introducing a disease which would prove detrimental to the business. The first requisite in breeding beef cattle is to secure the greatest number of vigorous calves. Infectious abortion strikes with certain fatality at this part of the industry. The only way to avoid incurring the dangers of an infectious disease is to prevent its introduction. Dairymen, especially those who keep cows for milk and milk products, often fail to realize the economic importance of the disease. Such dairymen do not value the calves. Indeed, the loss of the calf in this case amounts to nothing, and the matter might be dismissed if there were not other sources of loss. There is another reason why some persons are led to believe abortion is no disadvantage. Occasionally a cow having missed one calving period, aborts before the next and begins to give a full flow of milk. This is well illustrated by the report of four cases which came under the observation of W. W. Cook of Vermont Experiment Station. So also is the pecuniary loss illustrated. One cow aborting two months before the time to drop a calf, yielded 200 gallons of milk, or the equivalent of 70 pounds of butter less than she had yielded the previous year after normal birth. Loss from the second cow was 240 gallons of milk with a butter equivalent of 60 pounds and from the third 200 gallons of milk or 75 pounds of butter. The fourth cow, which had been milking 16 months and had carried her foetus 7 months, miscarried without aparent disadvantage. In fact, this cow the previous year, 5 months after delivery, gave 15 pounds of milk per day and 21 pounds per day 5 months after aborting. 143 Causes.-Infectious abortion, as the name implies, is caused by an infectious agency, or contagion. Authors do not agree as to the nature of the germ or as to how the germ brings about the act of abortion. American and European investigators do not agree and European investigiators do not agree among themselves as to the identity of the microbe. Some claiming a micrococcus and others a bacterium as the effective agent. American investigators have found true bacilli belonging to the coli group, in the membranes and womb of aborting animals. Aside from this there are other reasons for separating the disease in America and that in Europe into two different types. The disease in Europe is more virulent; a longer time is required to establish immunity; and there seems to be a difference in the manner in which abortion is brought about, viz.: in some cases the germ invades the foetus, inhabiting the alimentary canal, in one instance, and the meninges of the brain and spinal cord in another; again the infection is insinuated between the cotyledons on the maternal and foetal membranes, and modifies the foetal food supply, causing in either case the death of the foetus, which, for that reason, is subsequently expelled. In America no writer has ever reported the presence of the germ in the fetus, and the number of living foetuses born indicate that death from modified food supply is not a prerequisite. In view of these facts the writer will confine the discussions to what he may term the American form of Infectious Abortion. It is singularly significant that all American investigators have found closely related, if not identical bacilli associated with the disease. Chester, of the Delaware Experiment Station, isolated from the placenta of an aborted calf, a bacillus closely resembling the bacillus coli; which produced slight catarrh of mucous membranes when injected into the vagina of a cow. Law and Moore, of New York, found 144 in a number of aborting cows, widely distributed over the State, a bacillus almost, if not identical, with bacillus coli in form and culture characteristics. This, also, caused. more or less catarrh when injecting into the vagina of healthy cows. Law further states that this particular microbe could not be found in the vaginal discharge of cows in herds free from infectious abortion. Kilborne and Th. Smith studied a bacillus of the coli group, infesting the vagina of aborting mares. Supurating catarrh resulted from vaginal injections in mares and cows. At this Station we have isolated from vaginal discharge and from ulcers on the vaginal mucous membrane of two heifers which have never been bred, but which are supposed to be infected with the abortion microbe, a bacillus which is indistinguishable from the bacillus coli morphologically and closely resembles Chester's bacillus in culture characteristics. Inoculation into the mucous membrane of the vulva of an old cow, not pregnan3t, was followed by the formation of a small ulcer and a discharge. The cow came in heat in a few days, but the symptoms were more pronounced than in ordinary oestrum. Planted into the prepuce of a rabbit a small ulcer formed with undulating borders surrounding a slightly depressed granular surface. The heifers in question, one an Angus and the other a Shorthorn, came to the hospital last February with a discharge from the vagina. The Angus had been to the State fair in November previous, being shipped to and from the fair by rail. No disease of the kind had ever been observed in the herd prior to this outbreak, and it is supposed that the disease was contracted while at the fair or from the stock cars in which the animals were shipped. is a bare possibility that the germs might have been brought unintenionally to the Station on the There 145 clothing of an attendant who came from another State about one month before the disease was first noticed. No ulcers were found on the vaginal membranes of the Angus, but there was evidence of extensive previous ulcerations. The Angus was supposed to have contracted the disease first, gradually acquiring a resistance for the microbe, and was on the way to recovery. In this case the disease yielded readily to antiseptic treatment. The Shorthorn probably contracted the disease from the Angus, though a steer occupied a stall between the two in the barn. This heifer was at the climax of an acute attack. There was ecchymosis of the muc.us membrane of the vagina as for farward as could be seen, with extensive exfoliation of the epithelium and ulceration. The discharge was odorless, but dirty, gray'sh and heavily turbid. The vagina was irrigated with 2 per cent. creolin solution and packed with iodoform gauze once per day for the course of two weeks. This discharge soon ceased, but a kind of stimulation of the genitals, probably irritation, continued as the animal was frequently in heat. Oestrum, or heat, recurred every seven to ten days, manifested by a swollen and loose condition of the vulva. The discharge was somewhat profuse and yellowish, translucent instead of transparent. The ulcers gradually disappeared from the visible mucous membranes and the application of medicine was discontinued. About two weeks later the animal was brough up for final examination and dismissal. But it was found that another crop of ulcers had appeared. This time the catarrh was much less severe, and the visible ulcers were very few, limited in size and closely resembled the one on the prepuce of the inoculated rabbit. The animal was subjected to another course of treat- 146 ment. lodoform incorporated in vaseline was applied at intervals o'f three days by means of a swab of gauze introduced into the vagina and so manipulated as to smear the salve over all parts of the vagina. Rapid improvement followed. About three weeks later another examination was made and a few small transparent vesicles but little larger than a pin-head were found. These vesicles were kept under observation one week. No change occurred in size, but they became somewhat more raised and translucent. There was no zone of congested capillaries surrounding the vesicles, but the vaginal mucous membrane remained more congested than normal. This is believed to be the third crop of colonies. Where could this renewed infection have come from? The tail and external parts were carefully disinfected and cleaned from all locia. Evidently the source of reinfection was from the uterus (8) Fig. 12-through the os uteri. There is no doubt that the microbe inhabits the womb. Law and Moore found it on the "uterine mucosa and foetal membranes." Then, the successive reinfections of the vagina is accounted for by the fact that the microbe growing in the uterus (8) is protected from therapeutic measures and passing out through the os uteri (7) re-establishes a footing in the vagina as soon as the field is free from disinfectants. This, doubtless, also accounts for the almost invariable failures, however thorough the measures may have been to rid aborting animals of the infection. Modes of Distribution. 1. The infection may be introduced into a herd by the admission of cows or bulls from infected herds. When a newly purchased cow is the carrier, whether she may abort or not, transmits the disease to cows 147 usually in adjoining stalls, which miscarry, sometimes one after another in consecutive order down the line of stalls. The disease may be confined to one side of the barn for years. If the bull distributes the infection, infection occurs promiscuously through the herd. 2. Allowing the bull to serve infected cows or patronizing a bull which has served infected cows. 3. Shipping in cars and keeping in pens or stalls which have been occupied by aborting animals. 4. An attendant who removes the afterbirth of an infected cow has been known to transmit the disease to other cows operated on afterwards. 5. It is possible to have the infection transmitted from one herd to another by the interchange of help or by securing milkers, herdsmen, etc., from dairies where the disease prevails. Overalls and like clothing which are worn at one farm go with the owner to new localities, oftimes without even a washing. 6. The manner of handling manure in cow barns where one trench receives the excrement from a whole row of cows in open stalls may be responsible for the spreading of the disease in the herd. It is the rule to begin at one end of the trench and push the manure along until enough accumulates to shovel in quantities, thus the discharge from an aborting cow may be scattered behind a dozen or more animals. How the germ gains access to the genetal organs may be explained as follows: When the bull is infected, it is easily understood how germs would be introduced into the vagina at copulation. There are a number of instances on record where the purchase, borrowing or patronizing of bulls have been responsible for serious outbreaks. More often the disease spreads from one cow to the next nearest, and so on as already indicated. 148 Fig. 12.-1, backbone; 2, rectum or last gut; 3, broad ligament of womb; 4, ovary or pride; 5, Fallopian tube; 6, vagina or first division of womb; 7, os uteri or opening between the two parts of the womb; 8, uterus or deep portion of womb; 9 and 10, horns of the womb; 11, bladder; 12, pelvic bone. [Nos. in () refer to Fig. 12.] In order to understand how this may occur the reader who has no knowledge of the female generative organs, is referred to the diagram Fig. 12. To exemplify one possible course the infecting agents might take, we will say: A cow lying in the stall has the switch on the tail soiled in a manure trench, which 149 has been smeared with infection from an aborting subject. The cow goes out to pasture; the filth dries and is scattered over the rump by the switching tail. Some germs lodge upon the vulva and find their way into the vagina (6) where they multiply with prodigious rapidity. The germs are actively motile, and make their way through the os uteri (7) into the uterus or inner division of the womb (8), thence through the horns of the womb (9 and 10), and possibly up the Fallopian tubes (5) to the prides or ovaries (4). Remembering the catarrh caused by the microbe, it would be strange indeed if its presence in the small Fallopian tubes did not sometimes result in obliteration of the passage and sterility. In fact, many animals do become sterile. The existence of the Microbe in the Womb. The indications are that the germ causing abortion remains in the infected womb for years, though no more than one, two or three abortions may occur. This is not incompatible with our knowledge of germ life. A little blood from one of our Southern cattle, apparently in perfect health, injected into the circulation of cattle brought from the North is followed by violent fever, typical of Southern cattle, or Texas fever. In this way it is proved that an animal which has had no fever for one, two or more years harbors the living parasite in its blood, and is capable of transmitting the disease to susceptible animals. Authorities are now agreed that the infection causing swine plague, often mistaken for hog cholera, live in the lungs of the pig after recovery from the acute attack, and continues to be a source of infection for other pigs many months and possibly years. This explains the reason the disease breaks out year after year when once introduced. 150 Nelson, after the second year's experience with the disease in the herd at the New Jersey Experiment Station, observed that either the microbe had modified its life habits to better suit the cow or the cow acquires a tolerance for the germ. At any rate, the cow carried her calf longer the second time and often carried the full period the third time. But newly purchased cows were attacked' with renwed violence and young cows were more susceptible than old cows. One young cow, 1 years old, aborted 2 months after conception, and two cows, each 2 years old, aborted at 2 months, while older cows aborted after the fifth month, and the second year no cow aborted under 6 months. Immunity. This tendency on the part of the microbe and its host to adjust themselves to each other results after two or three abortions in a form of immunity. However immunity in this case is not meant to convey the idea that the cow is rid of the germs, but that she simply will not abort again, while for a long period the germs remain in the womb and may be transmitted to susceptible animals. SYMPTOMs.-The first one or two months of pregnancy abortion occurs without labor pains or straining, and sometimes the foetus lodges for a few hours in the vagina with portions of the foetal membranes hanging from the vulva or the foetus may be found in the stable or pasture. If these evidences pass unobserved, the discharge from the vulva may be mistaken for heat; but if the cow refuses the bull then, and allows service in due course of time, the evidence, in connection with supposed previous pregnancy, though circumstantial, is quite conclusive that abortion had occurred. Known 151 non-infectious cases are traced to some misfortune or accident. But cases caused by infection, not being expected, more frequently pass without due consideration. However, it may be a serious mistake to neglect such cases because of the danger of disseminating the disease. Though many have claimed that abortion seldom occurs before the fifth month, the contrary is quite probable, but, being of apparently little consequence, is not taken into account. Referring again to Nelson's experience, four cows supposed to be pregnant required service again, and abortion was suspected, though no expelled foetus was found. This supposition was strengthened by the fact that these cows had already aborted or did abort later. The last half of pregnancy the symptoms are more marked and the consequences more grave. One, two or three days before delivery the ligaments relax, the flanks sink, the vulva enlarges, and the milk has a colostrum-like appearance. The discharge from the vagina is less thansparent than normal-yellowish red in cows and white in mares. Labor pains precede delivery. The animal walks around in a circle, looks at the side, lies down and gets up again; strains; and the foetus is expelled. The foetal membranes pass out with the foetus in the early stages of pregnancy, but are liable to be retained during the last half. This not infrequently happens after regular birth, but more is liable to occur after premature deliveries. The afterbirth may come away in the course of three or four days, and no further trouble be experienced. Occasionally the placenta is retained until it decays in the womb. The animal ceases to ru-ninate, and eats sparingly and irregularly. She stands alone with the head down, or occasionally turns to look at the side. She is dull, weak and listless. The dis- 152 charge from the vulva may be profuse or slight; it is watery and carries more or less decayed tissue, making it heavily turbid and giving a dirty, nasty appearance, and an offensive odor. The tail is soiled by the putrid discharge. Frequent efforts are made to urinate. The animal becomes lean and bony (emaciated), and may linger weeks in this condition. The system may cast off the putrid matter, and the cow recover, or if the condition grows worse, she grows weaker and weaker until death. Less frequently the animal dies from blood poison. Prolapsus of the uterus or inversion of the womb is sometimes a sequel to abortion. Inversion of the womb is recognized by a tumor-like mass projecting from the vulva, moist and red at first, but becoming dark-almost black-and dry after long exposure. TREATMENT.-Retention of the afterbirth (placenta) and inversion of the womb occur so frequently in connection with abortion that it is deemed advisable to include these accidents in the treatment. Where the womb is inverted, secure the cow in a narrow stall; wash with 2 per cent. creolin solution; oil with vaseline or lard and when the cow is not straining replace by pressing against the mass with the palms of the open hands. If the effort is not successful, or if the womb is inverted again as often as replaced, obtain the assistance of a surgeon or some one who has had experience with such cases. An afterbirth retained longer than three or four days should be removed by manual effort. Secure the animal in a narrow, open stall. The arm bare to the shoulder, is washed in 2 per cent. creolin solution and introduced. The os uteri (7) will be found dilated as long as the afterbirth remains 153 connected with the womb, and should the afterbirth decay in the womb, the os uteri will remain sufficiently open to admit a man's hand long after delivery. (If all the fPetal membrane, is expelled when the calf is born the os will close in one to three days.) Whatever parts of the afterbirth protrudes from the vulva is grasped by the free hand and gently pulled while the hand in the womb traces the membrane to its attachments and each attachment is separated by teasing with the ends of the fingers. In neglected cases where the afterbirth has decayed, the membrane will be found in a semi-fluid state collected in the deepest cavities of an apparently paralyzed womb. The putrid content is scraped or scooped out with the .hand, fingers kept close together and bent half way to palm. Fig. 13. A womb irrigator that may be used by connecting it to a fountain syringe. The womb is flushed, with 2 per cent creolin solution, and again scooped out and the process repeated until the womb is clean. Creolin solution may be introduced by means of an ordinary fountain or rubber bulb syringe with a long rubber discharge tube, the free end being carried arm's length into the womb by the hand. PREVENTION.-Referring now to the disease proper prevention is urged as the only economical course to pursue. Enough has already been said to imply that the infection once introduced will baffle the most careful effort to effect its destruction. Some of the principle means by which the disease is distributed have been detailed 154 and it is not necessary to refer to the subject again, except to urge that no animal be purchased from any herd where the disease prevails, or has been known to exist in enzootic or epizootic form. Equal care should be exercised over the bull's patronage where the disease is suspected in the vicinity. After the disease has appeared in the herd the affected animals should be isolated, at any rate given a special corner in the barn to themselves. And immediately after the bull serves an infected cow the penis and prepuce should be thoroughly disinfected. The different methods of treatment have given uncertain results: 1. Efforts have been made to control the disease by injecting small quantities of some antiseptic, like carbolic acid, under the skin at long or short intervals, or by requiring the animal to consume such remedies with the food. But it is quite probable the only good accomplished was to satisfy the owner until the affected cow acquired immunity. 2. Flushing the womb with solutions of disinfectants have not been attended with the results expected. Persons who have applied these remedies with the greatest care and thoroughness have been surprised to see the disease appear again in the subjects treated. We have already, considered the stracture of the female generative organs, and it is readily understood how the germ inhabiting the deeper portions of the womb, cut off from the outer portion with the exception of a small opening, the os uteri (7), could escape the most thorough effort to apply remedies in such manner as to be efficient. 3. Attempts to stamp out the disease by means of antiseptics has met with so little success that some writers have recommended the slaughter of all animals affected. Disposing of the animals with a view to pur- -- 155 chasing new subjects is, however, an unsatisfactory practice. All experience goes to prove this. For example, Morck refers to, a herd where the animals were sold off as they aborted and new ones purchased to take the place for a period of eight years without improvement. The owner then resolved to keep the animals at all hazards, and within two years abortion disappeared from the herd. This method would be practicable where the owner is prepared to sacrifice all exposed animals for slaughter and begin business with new stock and in different quarters. A cow, it matters not how valuable her milking qualities, should never be sold for breeding purposes if she is suspected of having infectious abortion. 4. There is another recourse for the breeder; he can establish immunity in his herd. This will, perhaps, entail the loss of two or three calves, for each cow, and a reduction of milk during as many periods of lactation, but, after all, it is doubtles the most economical course to pursue. In making up a forecast for a line of treatment we are reminded that cows which miss one calving period and abort before the next or those which carry almost full time, often give a full flow of milk, seeming to suffer no inconvenience from the mishap. Also the number of living calves delivered by aborting cows implies that it may be possible to bring the infected cow to the full period of pregnancy, thereby securing a viable calf. Then, presupposing irritation, as previously intimated, to be the active cause of abortion, the first object of treatment should be to tide animals which show signs of aborting over the crisis by giving anodynes. Such a course of treatment gave highly satisfactory results at the Vermont Experiment Station. After four abortions had occurred three out of nine other cows pregnant, showed signs of aborting, but the act was pre- 156 vented by the administration of laudanum and all the animals delivered without accident at the proper time. These animals were kept under the influence of the drug two weeks. pulverized opium or laudanum may be used. For the cow the powder may be given in 2 or 3 drachm doses, or the laudanum in wine glass doses six hours apart. To counteract the tendency of the opium to constipate the animal one-fourth pound of Epsom salts may be given in the feed or as a drench dissolved in water twice a day. Fluid extract of Indian hemp is a better remedy, if a reliable quality of the drug can be had. Its effect endures longer and it also has the advantage of not interfering with the action of the bowels. The dose is one fluid ounce two or three times a day. In either case the remedy should be given several days, and weeks, if necessary. If by this means cows can be rendered immune without ill effects upon the animal or loss of calf or milk product to the owner, all will be accomplished that could be expected. Much can be done to prevent the spread of infection by disinfecting infected cows and bulls and premises occupied by such animals. As a matter of fact treatment is not complete without the general use of disinfectants. There is a bare posibility of freeing the animal of infection if the case be taken in hand immediately after delivery before the os uteri (7) has closed. Then the deeper parts of the womb (8) may be irrigated with the solution to be used. Creolin or lysol in the proportion of 1 part to 50 of water is preferable for flushing out the womb. Either solution may be left in the womb, with little danger, since neither drug is poisonous. However, if the animal does not eject the surplus fluid, which usually happen within half an hour, it may be well to wash out the 157 womb with water which has been boiled and cooled These applications should be made two or three times a day while the os uteri (7) remains open, but after the os closes the application once a day should be continued for ten days. Other antiseptic solutions, as carbolic acid 1 to 40 parts water, or corrosive sublimate 1 to 3,000 or 1 to 5,000 parts water, may be used, but requires to be washed out in a very short time because of the poisonous nature of the drugs. The tail and other parts near the vulva should be frequently cleaned with the antiseptic solution employed. An ordinary fountain or a rubber bulb syringe may be used for injecting solutions. The nozzle should be carried arm's length into the womb. To disinfect bulls the nozzle of the syringe is introduced into the prepuce, and the fore-skin is held tightly about the nozzle until the cavity flows full. The practice of irrigating the genital organs with antiseptic solutions just prior to service is not to be encouraged, since conception is very uncertain after such applications. Every precaution should be taken to disinfect premises occupied by aborting animals. All dead fuetuses and membranes should be burned or enveloped in quicklime and burned. Litter in the stall where abortion occurs should be piled up in a corner, or, better, shoveled into a box and mixed with milk of lime (1 measure of freshly slaked lime with 2 measures of water). Mop the stalls with bluestone solution (4 pounds bluestone, 4 pounds fresh lime, dissolved in 40 gallons of water), and whitewash a's soon as dry. Abortion occurring in cows which have been purchased from herds the reputation of which are not known should arouse suspicion and be isolated from other ani- 158 mals, and not allowed service by a bull kept for general use. Some young or old bull ready for castration may be used to test such cows. MILK FEVER. DROPPING AFTER CALVING.-PARTURIANT FEVER. Cause.-The cause is unknown. Opinions on this part of the subject are very numerous and varied. Some claim the disease is caused by the growth of bacteria in the udder or the elaboration of bacterial products which are absorbed into the circulation. Others hold that it is due to a bloodless condition of the brain or, on the the contrary, to the congestion of the brain. The view once held that the shock at the time of calving could be responsible for the disorder is hardly tenable, since it seldom, if ever, occurs in connection with difficult parturition. More recent investigators have turned their attention to the modification of the blood, finding it extremely rich and dense, so dense in fact, that the red blood corpuscles are reduced fully one-half normal size. Whether this is due to the blood being surcharged with albuminous and fatty matters stored up for the formation of colostrum or first milk, failing to be excreted by the udder, or whether the current of nutrition intended for the fetus failing to find its way out through the usual channel, reacts on the system through the blood, has not been determined. Another line of argument purports to establish the theory that toxic products are produced in the womb and absorbed, leading to a form of intoxication. The arguments adduced are interesting. The fact is pointed out that the os uteri or neck of the womb (7) is open 159 quite a long period of time before the expulsion of the foetus, thus admitting infection and allowing time for the development of poisonous products. The absorption of these products is facilitated by the absence of a placenta in the cow to which the disease seems peculiar. The parts are retracted and the blood irregularly distributed in the womb and intestines. This in connection with the presence in the womb of a profuse adherent and semi-solid gelatinuous mucoid substance, translucent in appearance and far less ropy than the clear and liquid discharge after normal delivery particularly favors this idea. As a matter of fact calving is an essential condition; the disease never appears except in connection with calving, usually one or two or three days after that act, and, in rare instances, may occur a few hours beforehand. Two other conditions, less essential, but quite as constant, should be mentioned. First, the cow is nearly always a deep milker and in full flesh. Second, the disease occurs in mature cows seldom earlier than the third calving, and when delivery is easy. More or less disorder of the digestive organs always accompany the disease, but this is probably secondary, though some have thought this a source of a part, at least, of primary cause. All breeds are subject to the malady, but the leading milk breeds, Jerseys, Geurnseys and Ayershires are the most frequent victims. An animal which has once suffered with the disease is liable to have it recur at the next calving. SYMPTOMs.-The cow calves with ease, in most instances the afterbirth (placenta) is passed with the calf. For a period of time varying from a few hours to three and rarely four' days, the cow is in apparently gooo health. Then, if the first signs are noticed, the cow .material Holsteins, 160 looks anxiously after the calf; the gate is unsteady; the knees appear weak ,and the hind quarters rock from side to side, and the hind feet are awkardly lifted and replaced one after ano'ther in order to regain equilibrum. This is the treading act sometimes noticed. The tail also swings back and forth, following the motion of the body. The temperature is now 102-103 °, the normal being 101 ° . Pulse only slightly accelerated, full strong and regular. In the course of half an hour the cow staggers, bellows, walks blindly against objectsi, and, at times, tries to mount the manger. The hind feet are lifted high and awkardly, apearing to strike at the abdomen. She stumbles over objects and falls completely or only to the knees, but rises again. The eyes wander, appear wild and glassy or peculiarly lusterless, the rays appear to be reflected rather than transmitted. The head hangs pendant from the withers and is disposed to swing far to one or the other side. The animal seems to lose her balance and falls; falls with the limbs sprawled as if under the influence of an intoxicant. She is now unable to rise again to her feet, but at times, seeming to recover, momentarily from a torpor, an effort is made to rise. The result is characteristic. The cow comes to her knees, but the effort of the hind limbs to bear up the posterior part of the body overbalances the equilibrum at the front and the cow tumbles a half length forward. The pulse is now rapid, weak and irregular; temperature uncertain, but may be 103-105°; head 'and horns are said to be hot; membranes of the eye red and tears flow freely. The sphincter muscles at the anus relaxes; heat radiates from the part and rectal temperatures become less and less reliable. After a varying period the torpor passes into complete coma. The cow lies on her breast with her head turned 161 around to one side, the muzzle resting on the ground. This position illustrated in figure 14 is a characteristic Fig. 14.-Characteristic position of cow in comatose condition. Funnel, rubber tube and milk-tube arranged for injecting Schmidt's solution. symptom. Or the animal may stretch broadside upon the ground. While in this position the paunch (rumen) is more elevated than the head and fluids from the paunch flow to the head. About one gill of green fluid carrying particles of masticated food in suspension collect in the uppermost nostril. The presence of this fluid accounts for the rattling, gurgling sound which now accompany breathing. The muscular tissue of the gullet (esophagus) is paralyzed. So, also, are the muscles of the voice box (larynx). Thus, when the head rests on a plane lower than the paunch liquids may ,162 gravitate unhindered to the head, collect in the nose and when the head is raised, which occurs periodically, the fluid flows back to the pharynx, thence between the paralyzed vocal cords and down the wind pipe to the lungs. Ordinarily this would cause violent coughing, but the cow is not now capable of the act. However, in fatal cases, when the wind pipe is opened after death, particles of food are found adhering to the surface of the inflamed mucous membrane. The rattling, gurgling sounds just referred to should be distinguished from sonouous vocal sounds emitted by animals when no fluids have been allowed to come in contact with the vocal cords. These sounds are low and moaning, and are due to the vibrations of the relaxed vocal cords dhring expiration. Sensibility has disappeared, the animal no longer responds to pin pricks. A better test for the comatose state, however, is to place the finger en the eyeball: If the eyelids do not close the animal is insensible. Respirations are slow and indicate deep sleep. Temperature normal or below normal. Course-The disease appears one, two and rarely three or four days after delivery. The sooner the more serious will be the consequences. Taking a case of average severity, the couse will be about as follows: One-half hour after the first symptoms, which are seldom observed, appear, the cow is staggering, bellowing and falling; a half to one hour later she is down, but able to make efforts to rise; one to three hours she lies in a semi-conscious condition, then passes into a state of coma. In order to test whether the cow is conscious offer to, put the finger in the eye, if the eye is not sensitive to the touch, the comatose stage is reached. Coma persists six to fifteen hours in favorable cases, or in fatal cases, until death, which 163 transpires from one to four days after the first symptoms are noted. TREATMENT-All cows which are heavy milkers and in good flesh, especially cows which have suffered an attack of milk fever, should have the feed reduced, or, what is better, be turned out to find a living on scant pastures. Lean cows are seldom (if ever) att'.cked, therefore an effort shauld be made to reduce the cow's flesh as a preventative measure. Some regime of exercise on a reduced food supply should begin not less than two weeks, and longer, if possible, before the cow is due to deliver. The practice of giving a purgative .when the cow begins to spring is of questionable utility, if not objectionable. It is not a good practice to give purgatives to heavily pregnant animals. Three courses of medicinal treatment are admissible and attended with varying degrees of success. 1. Give a purgative while the cow is conscious, but by all means never administer drenches after the animal is unable to hold up the head. Medicines are then liable to go down the wind pipe, causing p'neufonia and death. During- the comatose stage the animal must be kept braced in a normal position . This is one of the most important features of treatment, and should be executed even if it is necessary to watch over the animal day and night. Bags filled with straw or cotton-seed hulls are very convenient for bracing the animal on the breast. If she lies stretched upon the side, bags should be used to elevate the head a's high as the highest part of the body. For a good purgative use Epsom salts 1 pound, common table salt 2 pound, ground ginger 1 ounce, and aloes ounce. Mix in two quarts of water; shake and drench. 164 Drench always through the mouth and never through the nostrils. 2. The second course of treatment aims at the same result, i. e., to empty the bowels, but has the advantage of avoiding the dangers of giving drenches. Divide two grains of eserine sulphate in three parts, dissolve each part in a little water and inject into the wind pipe at half hour intervals by means of a hypodermic syringe. Repeat in twenty-four (24) hours if the animal shows no signs of recovery. This course is attended with moderate success. 3. The third course is that of Schmidt. This is by far the safest and most successful treatment known, 90 per cent. of cases are said to recover. Dissolve 2 drachms of iodide of potash in one quart of water which has been boiled and cooled to blood heat. Inject one-fourth of the solution into each teat after milking out thoroughly. Leave this in the udder 12 hours; milk out and repeat if the animal shows no signs of 'improvement. A funnel, rubber tube 3 to 5 feet long, and milk tube, connected as illustrated in Fig. 14, may be used for injecting the solution. The milk tube is inserted into the teat and some of the solution is poured into the funnel by an assistant. If the liquid refuses to flow at first compress the rubber tube a few times in the hand. This will force out some of the air and start the flow. If a milk tube cannot be secured, almost any druggist can make a tube that will serve by heating a glass rod of suitable size in an alcohol flame and drawing it out to the proper proportions. Then the broken ends of the glass are rounded in the flame. A rubber bulb or fountain syringe may be used instead of a funnel. All vessels and apparatus to be used 165 for injecting medicine should be thoroughly disinfected in boiling water before use. Fig. 15.-Female catheter. Some think it advisable to introduce the hand into the womb, remove the mucous and portions of placenta that may have been retained, and irrigate the womb with 2 per cent. creolin, or some other suitable antiseptic solution. The foregoing courses of treatment should be supplemented by one-half grain doses of strychnine given hypodermically, or one grain doses given in capsules on the root of the tongue every three or four hours. Keep the animal braced in a normal position or the head elevated and expect recovery in 15 to 24 hours. In some instances the animal suffers with debility after recovery from the acute attack. The writer's experience with such cases is limited, but usually the animal eats sparingly, digestion is impaired, and the excrement softer than normal, and lacking color. If there is no improvement, death occurs in the course of one, two or three weeks. Some animals never fully overcome the effects of an attack of milk fever. This is manifested by the reduction in milk flow. In order to ascertain approximately the amount of permanent injury sustained from milk fever, questions were addressed to four parties taken at random, whose cows had been successfully treated with Schmdt's remedy. Mr. L. H.: Has your cow given as much milk since she had milk fever, and how much has been the reduction? Ans. "My cow does not give as much as before the 166 attack. She gave a little more than three gallons, but since she has given but little more than two gallons, and I have never been able to get her above two and one-half gallons per day." Mr. J. T.: "My cow has had two attacks, the first severe, and the second very mild. There was a reduction of one-half gallon in the milk flow after the first attack, but have not noticed any reduction after the second." Mr. S. T.: "My cow has her third calf. Nearly two months ago she suffered a severe attack of milk fever. The milk yield is now nearly three gallons per day, which is better than at any time in her previous history." Mr. W.: "My cow suffered a severe attack of milk fever about one month ago. She is 10 or 12 years old. She improved rapidly and as evidence that her health is unimpaired she has a ravenous appetite. She gives as much milk as ever, about 3 1-2 gallons, without extra feed." These animals were treated by the writer or Dr. C. A. Cary, and we testify that the cases were genuine milk fever or parturient apoplexy of a severe type. Each animal passed through a stage of complete coma lasting for several hours. INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER-GARGET-MAMMITIS MASTITIS. The udder of the cow is divided into four distinct glands or portions, with complete partitions, i. e., onequarter is not connected with another. Prominent among the causes are imperfect milking, allowing some of the milk to remain in the udder which becomes infected, curdles, begins to decompose, and inflammation follows. Heavy milkers are most frequently attacked. Ex- 167 tremely easy and extremely difficulty milkers are equally liable. Hard milkers because these are more liable to be imperfectly milked; easy milkers because a drop of milk is often carried suspended to the point of the teat, which, becoming infected, infects the milk within the udder. Milk is an ideal medium for the growth of bacteria. Injuries to the udder, like kicks, blows, etc., and even the calf punching the bag while sucking, are claimed to cause the disease. Symptoms. The bag is swollen, feverish, painful, and red with congested blood. Milk flow is reduced, and the milk is changed in appearance and character. The milk is lumpy or watery and may be tinged with blood. As the disease progresses it assumes the appearance of whey, containing shreds or floccules of solid matter. In some cases there is little flow or none from the teat, the bag becomes hard and unyielding, if a hind quarter the inflammation extends far up toward the vulva. Pus or matter may form and decay progress till the affected quarter literally rots out or if inflammation is limited the pus may be discharged, the bag softens and recovery follows, though the power of the gland to secrete milk may be permanently diminished. Often the diseased products are not cast off through the teat, but an abscess forms between the teats or to one side of the bag, and opens. Pus in varying quantities discharge and stringy, ragged particles of decayed tissue may be .rawn out. Such cases are prone to recover after apparently successful treatment. Treatment. Prevention: Milk cows with new-born calves, especially heavy milkers, not less than four times a day for 168 a few days after delivery. Forbid the filthy practice of moistening the teat with milk before milking. Allow no filth from the bedding or portions of the after-birth to adhere to the udder or to the legs near the udder. Provide clean stables and clean bedding. Cleanliness, in all probability, is the best preventative. Remedial: Treatment is systemic and local. Drench the animal at once with the following: Epsom salts, 1 lb., common table salt, 1-2 lb., powdered ginger 1 oz., powdered belladonna (roots or leaves) 1-2 oz., mixed with two quarts of water. Supply abundance of fresh cool water. Begin local treatment by injecting into each teat 1-2 pint of Schmidt's iodide of potash solution (potassium iodide 2 drachms, water which has been boiled and A/fter the first application inject cooled, one quart.) onece per day, 1-2 pint into the affected quarter only. Rub the affected part once each day with campho-phenol (a saturated solution of camphor gum in carbolic acid; carbolic acid 1, camphor 3-5.) This medicine may be applied with the bare hands with perfect safety, and is the remedy par excellence for external use in garget. It relieves pain, and penetrating destroys infection, and acting as a counter-irritant (a mild blister) it softens the parts and hastens absorption of diseased products. A simple treatment for which much is claimed is the application of water as hot as can be borne, at frequent intervals, followed by glycerine, vaseline or lard smeared over the parts. Glycerine is to be preferred. Empty the teats frequently by hand or by means of a milk tube, if necessary. (Fig. 10.) rkr"led VVilcox. OCT1OBER, 1903. BULLETIN No. 126. ALABA MA. Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute. AUB URN. A LEAF-CURL DISEASE OF OAKS. .With 1 plate and 3. text-figures. E. MEAD WILCOX, Ph D. (Harvard). MONTGOMERY, ALA,. rHE BROWN PRINTING CO., PRINTERS AND 1903. BINI)ERS STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH........................................President. J. F. DUGGAR............................Director and Agriculturist. H. B. Ross...........................Chemist C. A. CARY.......................................Veterinarian. and State Chemist. E. M. WILCOX................Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. R. S MACKINTOSH....... .Horticulturist and State Horticulturist. J. T. ANDERSON.. Chemist in Charge of Soil and Crop Investigations. ASSISTANTS. C. L. HARE .............................. T. BRAGG First Assistant Chemist. Second Assistant Chemist. .............................. T. U. CULVER............................ Superintendent of Farm. W. L. THORNTON .................. J. M. JONES ............................. H. 0. SARGENT.................... Assistant in Veterinary Science. Assistant in Animal Industry. .. ........ Assistant in Horticulture. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent. free ,to any citizen of the State, on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. r " b A LEAF-CURL DISEASE OF OAKS. BY B. MEAD WILCOX. Several of the native oaks are widely planted and highly prized in this State as shade trees both along city and town streets and about private dwellings. No small part of the beauty of a city or town is to be found in the number and character of the shade trees along its streets. While shade trees about private dwellings add much to the general appearance and attractiveness of the home and contribute largely to, the comfort and pleasure of the occupants of the house. In fact, the general condition of the shade trees along the streets of any town may well be taken as a fairly accurate index of the prosperity and intelligence of the people of the community. Many of our people now appreciate the value of good shade trees and are desirous of protecting them against all their enemnies. The purpose of the present bulletin is to call attention to one of the fungus diseases of some of our native oaks that threatens now to destroy many of these trees, particularly in our cities and towns. If, incidentally, more interest is aroused in home and city adornment through the agency of good shade trees, a useful purpose will have been accomplished in that direction. It is a pleasure to acknowledge here the kindness of numerous correspondents in this and other States who have sent the writer specimens and notes of great value. I wish also to give expression here to my indebtedness to Dr. N. L. Britton, Director-in-chief of the N. Y. Botanic Gardens, and members of his staff, and Miss Josephine A. Clark, Librarian of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, for many exceptional favors and helpful assistance rendered in the consultation of the extensive litearture in their charge. 172 NATIVE OAKS USEFUL AS SHADE TREES IN THIS STATE. The distribution over the state of the oaks that are most important for shade purposes in this state follows. Quotation marks enclose the_ statements made in Mohr's Plant Life of Alabama regarding the special habitat of The species are arranged alphabetieach of the cally by the scientific names. species. SCARLET OAK. Q aecrcas: coccinca Muench).-This known ' oak is frequent in the mountain region in "dry uplands, sandy and rocky soil." .well LAUREL OAK. (Quercus laurifolia Michx-. This species occurs over the southern half of the state but is most characteristic of the central pine belt and the coast plain. It occurs in "low rich woods." This is one of our most highly prized shade trees on account of its evergreen foliage. This oak is (9uercus nigra WAT'ER OAK. rather common from the Tennessee river valley south to the coast occurring naturally in."low rich woods and sandy pine-barren swamps." This tree is very widely planted as a shade tree in every part of the state. WILLOWXY OAK. (Quercus 1)hellos L - ThTis species is found front the 'rj'enInessee river valley southwTard the central pine belt of time state hut is not common in the southern half of the state. It occurs "in the bottom lands, borders of swamps. Most frequent in the, coves of damp soil." the Tennessee basin iu low woods of a This is also widely planted as a shade tree' and in some towns practically to. the exclusion of all other oaks. L. to cold' BLACK OAK OR QUERCIT'RON OAK. (Quercus the Tennessee occurs tvlutinta' Lam.) -This species from 173 river valley south to the upper portion of the coast pine belt. The bark is the so-called "quercitron bark" employed for tanning and as a dyestuff while the timber is of some value. LIVE OAK. (Quercus virginiana Mill. ) This oak occurs only in the coast plain district and rarely extends north of about 310. This, one of the valuable timber and tanning trees of the state, is at times in the coast plain counties a very important shade tree. SYMPTOMS OF THE DISEASE. The disease now under consideration makes its appearance early in the spring before the new leaves are mature. A number of grey or bluish spots appear on the leaf and the more rapid growth of the parenchyma of the leaf at these points renders the surface convex on one side and concave on the other. The concave side of this spot or area is: frequently on the upper side of the leaf but the spots on the same leaf may show variation in this regard. Somi trees have been seen in which the great, majority of the concavities were upon the lower surface but this is by no means the rule. These characteristic depressions, or "pockets," in the leaf result from the more rapid growth set up in that part of the leaf by the presence and action of the fungus causing the disease. These areas vary in diamnieter from 0.25 to 1 cm and are either isolated or confluent. In some of the narrow leaved oaks, such as Quercus phellos and laurifolia, it is not rare to find the spots confluent over so large a part of the whole leaf that the leaf is as badly curled as occurs in the peach leaf-curl, a closely related disease. The rapid spread of the disease from one leaf to another may lead to a partial or even complete defoliation 174 of the tree in early summer. However serious the outbreak of the disease and the resulting defoliation may be, the tree generally attempts by the formation of new leaves to compensate itself for the foliage lost. In extreme cases of defoliation it is not uncommon to see a tree with an entirely new foliage covering in midsummer. In most cases the second growth of leaves is not so badly injured by the disease as was the first and it may entirely escape the attacks of the disease. It is plain therefore from what has been said that the general effect of the disease upon the tree is much the same as defoliation due to any other cause. The effect of such a disease upon the life of the tree may best be appreciated when one recalls the fact that one of the most important functions of the leaves is to elaborate within their tissues the food material for use by the various parts of the plant in the building up of new tissues and other purposes. Even the roots are dependent upon the leaves for the food required for their growth and the defoliation of the tree may result in the most serious damage to the root system of the plant. Defoliation may result also in the great reduction of the growth in diameter of the stemn, and particularly in the reduction in the amount of reserve food material stored up in stems, roots and buds for the following year's growth. The second growth of leaves results from the proleptic developmeint of buds intended for the following year's growth. And since, as just stated, these buds have had stored in them less food than usual owing to the diseased condition of the foliage of the tree, it is natural that the second growth of leaves developing from them should not be so luxuriant as was the first leaf covering of the tree. Under such conditions, therefore, the tree enters upon the second year's growth with a very small supply of reserve food material. The cumulative effect of the disease may therefore result in many cases in the death of the tree from actual starvation. It is very rare 175 however that the most, severe attack of the disease will resuit in the death of the tree duringthe first year. FUNGUS CAUSING THE DISEASE. The fungus causing this disease is one of the lower Ascomn a group characterized by the formation.of its spores in small sacs of '"aci," singular "ascus." This fungus is very closely related to the Iwoascus deforman causing the well known leaf-curldisease'of ycetes, peaches. m Unlike the latter our fungus does not possess a perennial 'mycelium and. is carried over from one. year to 'another entirely through the agency of the ascospores. These germinate in the spring and, form a, mycelium that spreads out beneath the cuticle' of the leaves of the host to form there more or less extensive network of hyphw. From this vegetative, mycelium asci arise in large a numbers. These are-,more or less cy ndrical in form and are packed closely together side by side. See Fig. 1. the Fig. .- CGross section of a portion of a diseased leaf, showing the young. asci of the fungus. Each division of the scale is equivalent to 10 mu. 176 The asci arise between the epidermal cells and true cuticle and break through the cuticle toward maturity. Each ascus contains at maturity a large number of small spores though it is probable that in younger stages the typical condition is the 8-spored ascus. These'original 8 spores however multiply to a large extent within the cus resulting in the much larger number that be found in the Mature asci. The asci in the material have examined arefrwomi. 50 to 75 mu long and from 15 to 25, mu wide. The measured vary from 1.5 to 2.5 'mu in diameter. As has been mentioned in the discussion of syinptomoloy of the disease, the asci arise in small roundish ,areas upon the surface of the leaf. In the original.deof this fungus Desmazieres states that the spots arise on the lower surface of the leaf but this is We havenocertainy not uniformly the case. ticed that in Qucrcus velut'ina, the black oak, the spots are generally upon the lower surface only. The ame fact is recorded for this species by Robinson 1887. In 9 ercus 'nigra,the water oak, and someother species the spots occur on both the lower and upper surfaces of the leaves. In all the species examined these spots are at first rather definite bu't, sooner or later several, of the spots, fuse together so that the spore bearing areas became very in- the is to as- we spores the 'scription definite .and large. has Like many of the fungi the species, under consideration been referred to, under a rather large number of names in the past.. Desmazieres in 1848 published the Mont. & Desm. to include the sinnew genus gle new species Ascomyces coernlescen-s Mont. & Desm. But the genus Taph via had been established by Fries in 1815 who assigned to it but .onespecies, Taphria popuina, now known as Taphria aurea. Fries in 1825, however, complicated matters. by altering. his Asconzyces first 177 -published' name Taphria to Taphrina, to avoid, as he stated at thetime, confusion with Taphria a genus of insects.. Tulasnel in 1866 revised the genus Taphrina of FPries and made it include also the species of Exoascus. Robinson followed Tulasne and Johanson also in including all the species of the generaAscomyccs and Taphrina and Exoascas in the genus Taphrina, as extended by Tulasne. In my judgment the plan followed by Schroeter 1894) in taking up the original genus Taphria Fries is by far the best, and is in accord with present practices. assigns to this genus all thosespecies whose asci at maturity are multisporic and to the genus Exoascus Facrkciwi he assigns all those species whose uasci .at maturity are 8, or rarely 4, spored. In accordbe writ'ance with the above statements our species !tenTaphria coeralescens (Mont. & Desm.)Schroeter, and the following would be its synonmy Ascomyces coerulescens Mont. & Desm. 1848. Taphrina coerulescens (Mont. & Desm.) 1866. Schroeter shold Tulasne. Ascomyces quercus Cooke. 1878. Ascomyces alutaceus Von Thuemen. 1879. Exoascus coeruiscens (Mont. & Desm.,) beck. 1887. Taphria coerulescens (Mont. & Desm.) 1894. PREVENTION OF THE DISEASE. Sade- Schroeter, The fungus causing the disease now under consideration is an- annual and its myceliiu does, not perennate within the tissues: of the host as is .true of many of the closely related forms, such as the !peach. leaf-curl fun- gus. The treatment of such fungi, is very. much more readily-carried out than is the case with perennial- fungi, 178 a portion of whose mycelium lives over winter within the host plant, itself. In fact in the case of the particular fungus causing this disease no part of the mycelium enters the host plant farther than directly beneath the cuticle of the leaf. During the spring of 1902 an attempt was made to prevent, the appearance of the disease upon a specimen of the water oak, Q ercus nigra. The ordinary Bordeaux mixture was employed, made according to the following formula: Copper sulfat or "blue vitrol" .... 4 lbs. 4 lbs. JUnslaked lime ................ 50 gallons. Water ....................... Place the copper in a coarse cloth sack and dissolve it by suspending the sack in a wooden vessel holding about 115 gallons of water. Thel lime is then to be slaked with just enough water to ensure thorough slaking. The slaked lime is then to be made into a paste having the consistency of thick cream by adding water and stirring. When the solutions thus prepared are cold the lime water is to be poured into the copper sulfat solution through a fine sieve. Water is then to be added to make the solution up to the required 50 gallons and the whole thoroughly stirred before and while using. If too little lime has been employed the solution may injure tender foliage and the potassium ferryconaid test should be applied to determine this point. The test consists in adding to a small sample of the prepared mixture a few drops of a solution of potassium ferrocyanid made by adding one part by weight of the salt to five parts of watIf, upon the addition of a few drops oil this solution, er. the bordeaux mixture becomes a reddish-brown one may know that not enough lime has been employed in the preparation of the spraying solution. After the addition of more lime test again in the same manner and consider 179 the solution ready to use only when no discoloration appears after the addition of a few drops of the test solution to a small sample of the spraying mixture. The tree employed in our experiment was thoroughly sprayed about ten days before the buds opened and then at intervals of ten days three more sprayings were given. The dates were as follows: February 26, March 9, March 18, and March 26. Of course the first and all subsequent dates must be determined by the advancement of the season. Although the sprayed tree was in close proximity to unsprayed trees of the same species that were badly injured by the disease, the sprayed tree was only very slightly affected by the disease. More extensive experiments must be undertaken before one could say with any certainty that this line of treatment will in all cases he effectual in preventing the outbreak of this disease. But the one positive demonstration of the value of this treatment renders it very probable that the disease may be held in check by such treatment as that outlined above. It is expected that further experiments along this line will be undertaken during the coming spring with several species of oaks that are known to have had this disease during the present season. HOST INDEX OF THE FUNGUS. The fungus now under consideration has been reported as occurring on the following species of oaks in the states named. Quercus alba L. White Oak. Conn. N. J. Quercus brevifolia (Lam.) Sargent. Blue Jack. Ala. S. Car. Quercus coccinea Muench. N. J. Wisc. Quercus digitata (Marsh.) Sudworth. Spanish Oak. Ala. 180 Quercus laurifolia Michx. Laurel Oak. Fla. Quercus marylandica Muench. Black Jack. Ala. Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sargent. Ala. Quercus nigra L. Water Oak. Ala. Fla. Quercus pheltos L. Willow Oak. Ala. Fla. Qucrcus rabra L. Red, Oak. N. HI. N. Y. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE DISEASE. The Figure 2. distribution of this disease by states is shown in Fig. 2.-The disease described in' this Bulletin is known to be ent inthe states shaded. pres- disease there It is very likely that the particular fungus causing the indicated herein considered is found outside of the .-ares hut serious outbreaks of the disease are to be expected only in the gulf states. pear It would ap- that the climatic and other conditions. are in that region more favora1ble to the development of the fungus 181 than those prevailing to the north and west. Specimens of leaves showing the disease and the fungus herein described have been examined by the writer from'the following States: Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecti- cut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, ,Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, York, Rhode Island, South Carolina and Wisconsin. New Fig.P 3.--The disease, described in ent in the counties shaded. this Bulletin is known to be pres- 182 In figure 3 is shown the local distribution of the disease in this State counties so far as the writer has been able to examine material. The disease no doubt much damage in every county of the State hut particularly in the counties south of the Tennessee river valley. Material of the disease has been examined from the following counties : Autauga, Barbour, Bullock, Calhoun, Chilton,' Clarke, Coffee, Cullman, Lee, Mobile, Montgomery, Sumter and Tuscaloosa. 'by does Jefferson, OTHER SPECIES CLOSELY RELATED TO TAPHRIA COERULESCTIS. The following notes upon related species described as growing upon species of Qucrcas may be of interest. Ascomyces extensus Peck .1886. Reported on leaves of Quereus macrocarpa from New York state. kruchii Vuillemin. 1891. This species was found by Kruch. in Italy upon leaves of Quercus i-icis, and. is )y Schroeter referred to Taphria. Ascornyces quercus Cooke. 1878. This was reported by Cook in Rovenel's American Fungi upon leaves of Quercus cinera. It is identical appa-. rently with our Taphria cocrulescens. Ascornyces rubro-brunnusPeck. 1887. This was reported by Peck upon leaves of Quercus rubra. It is quite probable that all the above species belong in the genus Taphria but their specific standing we have not refer to the matdetermined with sufficient certainty ter in this connection. Eaoascuss to BIBLIOGRAPHY. following bibliography contains a list of the most articles consulted by the authori in important books The and the preparation of this bulletin. The titles are arranged 183 year of publicationprinted.dialphabetically with rectly beneath the name of the author. Atkinson, G. F. 1897 Some Fungi fron Alabama. Collected chiefly the during the years 1889-1892. Bull, page 13 Taphrina coerUniversity 3 :1-50. ulescens is reported from Alabama upon Quer- -the 'On of of Cornell cuas atica, cinerea, falcata obtusiloba, nigra and phellos. Cooke,M. C. 1878 Ravenel's American Fungi. Orevillea 6:129146. On page 142 is the original description (rAscotnyces quercus sp. n. This is reported from South Carolina upon leaves Quercus cinerea. Oook M. C. 1883 North American Fungi. Grevillea 11:106-ill. On page 106 are notes upon Ascornyces qacrcus Cooke. Desmazieres, J.-B. ll.-J. 1848 Dizieme notice sur les plantes cryptogames recemment decouvertes en France. Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot. lishes the new genus A scorn ges Mont. et Desm. 11110:342-361. On pages 345-346 he estab- to hold Ascoryces coeru'lescens Mont. et Desm. sp. n. Fries, -E. 1815 Observationes Mycologicee. 1:217. On the page gives the new genus Taphria Fr. and cited a single species under it, ie lists of Populus nigra, tremula populina" on and dilata ta. Fig 3 on plate 8 shows Taphria Fries but leaves "Taphria populina. Fries, E. 1825 System orbis vegetabilis. On page 317 he gives the generic namie Taphrina which he Nublsti Lutes 184 for the previously published name Taphri'. His reason for so doing is stated to be to avoid fusion with the genus of insects named Tapbria. con- Fries, E. 1829 Systema iycologicum. On pages 520-521 are notes on Tcphrina Fr. Fries, E. 1849 Summal vegetabilium scandinayhe seenci :eratio .ysstematica et criitica....2.:518. On the page cited is a description of Taphrina Fries with populina as the mentione1 species. L. 1.860 Euumcratio Fungorum Nassoyke. On page 29 he gives a description of the new genus e cies .Exoascus pruni, and gives a figure of the samespecies in figure 26 on plate 1. This establishes the genus Exoascus. Fuckel, L. 1869 Symbo-aie Myvcologicae. Beitraege zur Kenntniss der rheinischen. Pil ze. On page 252 he gives un- Taphrina first Fuckel, and der the genus Exoascus Fuckel )the. following species : prutni, def onnans and alni. Fuckel here states his preference for separating the mnulti spored species from the 8-spored, assigning the the former to the genus Ascornices and Taplhrina as done lat- ter. to the genus Exoascus; and his objection to the inclusion of both genera in the one genus by Tulasne in 1866. Ikeno, S. 1903 92 :1-31. Die, Sporenbildung von Taphrina-Arten. p1. 1-3. Flora fig. 1-2. Johanson, C. J. 1885 Om svaiupslaegtet T'aphrina och dithoerande svenska arter., Oefversigt af K. Vetensi. Akad.. 185 Forhandl. 1885 :29-47. p1. 1. Figrues of the following species are given: Taphrint borealis, carnc'a, nana, polyspora, Joteftillae and sadebeskii. Johanson, C. J. 1885 Studien uebler die Pilzgattung Taphrina. Bot. 'Central.bi. 33 :222-223, 251-256, The author reports Tapl-ina coeralescens in Sweden and Norway. Kru ch, 0. 1890 Sopra un caso di deformazione (Scopazzo) 'der rani deli' Elce1. Nota preliinare. Maipighia Record of Taphrina Quercas on 4 :424-430. ilicis in Italy. This, fungus was described as Exoascas Kruchii by Vuilleinin in 1891. Patterson, F. W. 1895 A study of North American parasitic Exoascaceoe. Bull. Lab. Nat,. list. State Univ. Iowa 33 :89-135. p1. 1-4. Peck, C. H. 1886 Report of the 'Botanist in 39th Report of the Regents of the University of N. Y. On page 50 he describes the new species tscwn yces extencas on Quecus macrocarpa. Fig. 1-3 on plate 1 284-287. represents this species which Peck staties is dis- tinct from Ascomyces quercas in "the character of the spote and also the spores." Peck, C. HI. 1887 Report of the Botanist in the 40th Report of of N\at. History* the New York State for the year 1886. On page 67 he gives a description of the new species Ascowtyces rubrobruarneus on Q. rubra. Meseum 186 IRobinson, B. L. 1887 Notes on the Genus Taphrina. Annals of Botany 1:163-176. Saccardo, P. A. 1880 Fungi dalmatici pauci ex herb. illustr.iR. de Visiani .additio uno -altierove mycete ex agliaet Michelia 2:150-153. On page 153 is a description of Ascrnyces alutaceus Thueml. upon.Quevua robor. Saccardo, P. A. 1898 Sylloge Fungoruln. 13..........Host list for the species of T'aphrina. Sadebeck, R. 1887 Die Pilze (Winter 12 :10. Sadebeck hereasthe genus Exoassigns Taphria coerulcsceens cus. Sa.debeck, R. 1893 Die parasitischeu Exoasceen. Eine Monographie. Jahrb. d. FHamb. Wiss. Anst. 102 :1-110. p1. 1-3. Sadebeck, 1895 Einige, neue Beobachtungen kritische Bemerkungen ueber die Exoasceae. Ber. Dent. bot. * Gesell. 13 :265-280. p1. 21. Cchroeter, J. *1894 Protodiscinee. Engler n. Pranti's Nat. Pflanzenfam. 11:157-161. fig. 136, HI. and J. Smith, W. G. 1894 Untersuchung der Morphologie und Anatomie pannonio,. to R. und der durch Exoiasceen verursachten Spross-und Blatt-Deformationen.. Forst. natural. Zeitschr. 3 :420-427, 433-465, 473-482. 1 plate and 18 text figures.Thuemen. F. von. 1879 Zwei nene blattbewohnende Flora von Wien. Verb. d. K. K. Ascomyceten der Zoool.-Bolt. Ge- 187 sell. Wien 29 :523-524. He describes as anew species Ascon yccs alutaceus on Quercus cens. e, L. B. Super Friesiano T'aphrinarum genee et. Ann.. Sci. Nat Bot. V-5 :222-136. He refers AS cornyces coerulescens of Mont. and Desm. t Taphrinacoerulescens. Tin, P. L'Exoascus Kruchii sp. nov. Rev. Mycol.' 13 " pube - ,'66 91 141-142. This species collected by Kruch iii Italy and its effect upon Quercus described was ilicis by him in 1890. BULLETINS OF ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station AU BU RN. IN DEX. VOL. XII BULLETINS AND 127-129 17TH ANNUAL REPORT January to December, 1904. Opelika, Ala. The Post Publishing 1905. Company CONTENTS. BULLETINS: 127. 128. 129. Alfalfa in Alabama.................................Feb., 1904 Feeding and Grazing Experiment with Beef Cattle Jan., 1904 The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil ................. Aug., 1904 1904 Annual Report, Seventeenth............................... INDEX, to prevent importation of seed from district .................................... Agriculturist, report of...........................R. Alfalfa, analysis of.................................B. harvesting of ............ .. Act boll weevil B. 17: 129: 93 7, 9-11 ... 127: 5 B. 127: 44 at Livingston................................B. 10 at Uniontown............. .............. 127: 9-10, 14 clipping and discing.........................B .127:'41-42 fertilizer experiments with, at Auburn........B. 127: 18-22 fetilizer experiments on prairie land. 127: 25-26 fertilizers for...................B. 127: 17-18 in Alabama.....................(R. 17: 8), 127: 3 inoculation 'of, on. prairie soils..............B. 127: 30-31 Johnson grass land for......................B. 127: 39-40 local experiments with........................B 127: 16 manure for................................B. 127: 25-26 preparations of land for.............B 127: 33-35, 38-39 and profits 'of..........................B. 127: 11 principal enemie:s of.......................B. 127: 40-41 127: 41 root diseases of..............................B 127: 16 sandy soils for..............................B. 127: 11-13 soils for...................................B. 127: 35-36 sowing-broadcast versus in wide drills ........ B. 127: 22, 31-33 spring and fall sowing .................... B. 127: 36-38 sowing 'of........................... toward overflows'.............B.: 127: 42-43 tolerance B. 127: 4 ..................... uses of .................. B. 127: B. B. prices B. of, yields of....... ........... ................... ...... . .. Analysis' -of fertilizers. ............ Analysis of alfalfa ................................. ..... ............ R. 17: B. 127: 8 Anderson, J. 'T............... 12 and 15 B. 127: 5 R. .......... 28-29 R Attendance on Farmers' Institutes................... B. 128: 79-80 Beef cattle, gains' of on pastures alone ............ R. 27-28 inoculation against tick fever............ B. 128: 70-74 Beef, cost of producing .......................... B. 128: 69 production in Alabama ............ ............. B. 127: 38-3.9 Be'st crops precede alfalfa ..................... 129: 104 Bibliography of liteilature on boll weevil.......... "".........................B. 129: 96-97 Boll weevil, adult 17: 17: 17: 15 to B. 108 bibiograiphy of literature on..............B. 129: 104 culture methods to lesson damage of .. B. 129: 102-104 damage done by ........... .......... B. 129: 94 dissemiation of........................B. 129: 99 feeding habits of....................B. 129; 97-98 hibernation of...........................B. 129: 99 introduction and distribution of..........B. 129: 91 larva and pupa of....................B. 129: 95-96 life history of..........................B. 129: 94 methods of control...................B. 129: 99-100 Mexican cotton, Fig 4...................B. 129: 97 number of generations of................B. 129: 98 parasites, predatory insects and iseases of......................... B 129: 100-10,2 pupa of.............................B. 189: 96 Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. D. A...............R. Cane-Brake Experiment Station.....................B. Cane syrup, manufacturer of.....................R. Cary, C. A........................................R. Certificates issued to nurseries....................R. Chemist, report of soils and crop investigation, report of Chickens, diseases of..............................R. Clipping and discing alfalfa.......................B. Clovers, varieties and fertilizers of.................R. Corn, chops.....................................B. meal versus 17: 17: of.................................R. 17: 17: ... 8 127: 14 13-14 17: 27 13-14 12 15 R. 1?: 27 17: 127: 41-42 17:10 128: 59-60 shredding and methods of rice meal..................... B. ........ B. 128: 128: harvesting.............. R. 56, stover................. ........ 17: 74-76 10 59-62 shredded versus sorghum hay......... varieties, fertilizers and culture.................R. .............. Cost of producing -beef ............ Cotton seed.............................B. meal......... B. 128: 74-77 17: 10 B. 128: 70-74 128: 56, 59, 60-62 B. 128: 56, ................... .............. Cotton, shedding of.......... ...................... varieties of ............ ..................... Cowpea hay ........... Cowpeas',I varieties and fertilizers .................... Culture methods' to lesson damage by boll ........ B. weevil ...... 7 R. R. lit: 10 128: 56, 59-62 R. 17:10 102-104 17: 59-62 B. 129: Dillard, J. A ................... .................... Diseases 'of Boll weevil........... ............. Diseases. of chickens................ B B. 127: 26 129: 100-102 R. ....... ........ 17: 129: 27 Dissemination of Boll weevil ................. B. 99 109 Director, report of..................................R. 17: 7 Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. D. A....................................R. 17: 7 Duggar, J. F........................................R. 7 Effect of feed on quality !of steers...................B. 128: 63 Effects of lime. and inoculation on -alfalfa..........B 127: 22-25 Ennis, W. L. ..................................... 127: 10 Farmers' Institutes...............................H. 17: 28-29 Feeding, experiments with grade steers............B. 128: 54-56 and grazing experiments. with beef cattle,.... 17: B. ............. ..... (R. 17: 8-9), B. 128: 51 habits of boll weevil.....................B. 129: 97-98 Fertilizers, analysis of ......................... R. 12 and 15 experiments with alfalfa at Auburn .... B. 127: 18-21 with alfalfa on prairie.land B. 127: 25-26 with alfalfa, summary of.......B. 127: 22 for alfalfa............................B. 127: 17-18 Figure 1, map showing area of cotton Boll weevil 129: 92 2, three large, larva in boll................B. 129: 95 3, larva and pupa of Boll weevil..............B. 129: 96 4, Mexican cotton Boll weevil ................. B. 129: 97 Fillers for fertilizers................................R. 13 Financial returns of steer Leeding experiments .... B. 128: 64-69 Forage plants, analysis of..........................R. 12 Foster, W. L.....................................B. 127: 11 Fruit crop.............................R. 17: 19 Gains, station beef cattle on pasturealone..B 128: 79-80 made by four yearlnig steeirs on pasture alone, B . 128: 80-81 by scrub cattle on pastures .......... 128: 81-83 during pasture season in grazing scrub cat tle of different ages .......... 128: 82-83 17: . -a B. 17: 17: of B. B. Glenn, E. T ................................. Grade steers, feeding experiments with ........ Grazing yearling steers on green rye ............ Green house experiments............... ............ B. 17: 6 B. Green rye, grazing 128: 54, 56 128: 78-79 R. 17: 15 128, Growth made by Hay, methods of young scrub yearling steers on .............. B. 78-79 84-85 10 steers i n two years, B . 128: by scrub cattle under range conditions, B . 128: 84 curing .......... .... .......... B. ....... 17: .Health of Hays, J. 0.................. .................. Harvesting alfalfa.............. .................. the steers ........ .............. ........ Herbarium ............ ............... B. B. 127:, 26, 30 127: 44 R. 17: 17, 128: 69-70 10 110 129: 93 Hibernation of Boll weevil..........................B. 127: 29-31 Hopkins, e. G.................................B. B. 129: 101 Hunter, N. D. ................................... weights, gains and percentages of dressed Individual (Appendix), B. 128: 86 weight of grade steers 127: 22-25, 27-2S Inoculaton................................B. of alfalfa, results of, on sandy land B . 127: 29-3 on prairie soils..............B. 127: 30-31 27-28 beef cattle against tick fever......... 129: 100-102 Insects of Boll weevil.........................B. H. 12 Insecticides, analysis of ............................ 129: 91 Introducition.....................................B. and present distribution of theboll 129: 91 weevil......B. 20 Irish potatoes.................H. 20 Japanese persimmons..............................R. 127: 39-40 Johnson grass land for alfalfa...................B. 17: 7 Jones', Jesse M......................................H. 7, 21 Kinman, C. F....................................R 129: 95 Larva of Boll weevil...............................B. 189: 96 and pupa of boll weevil, Figure 3.............B. 129: 94 Life history of boll Lime' and inoculation...........................B. 127: 22-25 Livingston, alfalfa at...............................B. 127: 10 Local experiments with alfalfa.......................B. 127: 16 Loss of weight by range cattle during winter. B. 128:85 ...... ........ ... :....... ............. B 3 Macon County, wbights and gains during pasture sea:son by scru-b cattle ............ (Appendix), 128: 87-88 ..... .... 17: 17: 17: 17: 17: -weevil.........................B. Lucern 127: B. Mallein ............ .............. .................. R. 17: 27 Manufacturere '!of cane, syrup............. ......... M'anure', for alfalfa .............. ................ produced by steers................. ...... Map showing McAdory, I. B boll weevil area............. ... ..... B. . B. H. 17: 13-14 127: 26-27 128: 70 B. 129: Manls, analysis of..................................R. McEntyre, R. F................................ R. 17: P ..................................... 17: 92 12 7 19 B. 127: 43 Mackintosh, R. S...................................B. .. 17: Me'dicago, Sativa ........... ........................ Methods of control of boll weevil ............... Mexican cotton boll B. 127: 3 129: 99-100 129: 97 weevil, Figure 4.'..................B. Mexican cotton boll weevil .......... Miscellaneous. analysis ........................... (R. 17: 9 and 17) , B . R. 17: 129: 91 16 111 Mitchell, J. H..........................R. 17:14 129: 98 Number of generations of boll weevil................B. 21-26 Nurseries receiving certificates...................R 17: 10 Oats culture, varieties! and fertilizers................R. 127: 1516 Other lime scils for alfalfa.......... ........ Parasites, predatory insects and diseases of boll weevil, "......:.....B. 129: 100-102 ............... ............ 17: 19 Peach crop....................R. varieties.................................R. 17: 19-20 Per cent increase during pasture season, seven months, B. 128: 83-4 12 Phosphates, analysis of.............................R. Pig feeding teists, with cotton seed and cottoniseed meal, R. 17: 27 12 Poultry and stock foods, analysios of.......R. B. 127: 13.15 Prairie soils for alfafa ... ..................... 127: 33-35, 38-39 Preparation !of land for alfalfa..............B 127: 1 Prices and profits of alfalfa..........................B. 128: 63-64 of steers when sold.........................B. 127: 40-41 Principal enemies of alfalfa.....................B. Pupa of weevil...............................B. Quality of steers as, effected by feed.... ........ B. 128: 85 Range cattle, loss of weight during winter.........B H. 14 ...................... Ransom, A. M B...... (H 17: 9), B. 128: 56-62 Rations: fed to steers ................ 7, 9.11 Report :of"Agriculturist..........................R. . .H. 17: 12 Chemist.......... 17: B. 17: 17: 'boll 128:63-64 17: 139:'96 17: of soils and crop investigation the Director and Agriculturist..............R. Horticulturist.......:.... .................. Plant Physiolcgist and Pathologist ............ .... 17: 7 R. 17: 19 Re 17: 15 Re.17: 17 R. 17: 6 Veterinarian ..................... .......... H.e 27 Results of inoculation cf alfalfa 'On sandy land .... .B. 127: 29-30 Hew. N. . .............. .................... _ 7 Rice meal versus meal for calves ............... B. 128: 74 Ross, B. B............ ................... :...........R. 17: 12. Round-up-Farmers' Institute.........................Rt. 29 Sandy for alfalfa..............................B. 127: .16 Treasurer............. .......... .......... 17: C corn R. 17: soils, H. 17: Sargent, 0 ......... ........................ 17: 7, 21 Sclerotil, root disease of alfalfa._.................... B. 127': 41 Scrub cattle, gains, made on pastures............... 128: 81-83 growth made under range conditions-... B. 128: 84 weights and gains made in pasture season in, B. Macon' County.*.'.'..(Appendix) B. 128: 87 112 7 Shedding of cotton..................................R. 127: 40 Sida spinosa.......................................B. 127: 35-36 Sowing alfalfa broadcast versus in wide drills...B ..................... R. 17: 12 Soils, analysis of ........... for alfalfa ................................ 127: 11-13 16 Soil and fertilizer experiments........................R. 56, 59-62 Sorghum....................................B.128 hay versus shredded corn stover..........B. 128: 76-77 17: 10 varieties and fertilizers of..................R. 127: 36-38 Sowing alfalfa..................................B. 17: 10 Soy beans, varieties and fertilizers of..................R. B 127: 22, 31-33 Spring and fall sowing of alfalfa ............... Steer feeding experiments, financial returns of ... . B. 128: 6469 17: 8 Steers, feeding of...................................R. 128: 78-79 grazing of yearlings on green rye......... 128: 69-70 health of.................................B 128: 70 manure produced by.........................B. 128: 63-64 prices of when sold.......................B R. 17: 9 rations fed to' ............................... R. 17: 20 Strawberries ........................................ B. 128: 51-54 .................. Summary..................... B. 128: 51-54 ................ ........................ 17: B. 17: .......... .. Tolerance of _.......... ................ B. 127: 44-47 of fertilizer experiments with alfalfa..B. Thornton, W. L. ..................................... Tick fever........................ alfalfa 17: 127: 127: 22 17: 7 27-28 42-43 towards overflows............B. Tomatoes......... ................ ................. R. 17: 20 Treasurer, report, of......... ........................ R. 17: 6 Tuberculin .......................................... R. 27 -Uniontown, alfalfa at........... .................. 127: 9, 14 Usesi of alfalfa .............. ,.......... .............. B. 127: 4 V'etches, varieties and fertilizers.......... ............ R. 10 Veterinarian, report of ............................... R. 27 ...................... .... R. 17: 8 Ward, W. F.............. ............ ........ R. 17: 12 Waters, analysis of............. 127: 11, 36 We'bb, Jno. -C.............. ....................... pasture season by Weights and gains, made during scrub cattle in Macon County .. .. (Appondix), B . 128: 87-88 Wheat, culture, varieties, and fertilizers ............... R. 17: 10 Wilcox, M.............................. R. 17: 17 Woods, A. F. ............ B. 127: 27 Yields of alfalfa .. . .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . ... . ... .. .. . ... .. .B. 127: 8 17: 17: 17: B. E. BULLETIN No. 127.FERAY194 FEBRUARY, 1904. ALABAMVA. Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE "Alabama Polytechnic Institute. AUB tURN. Alfalfa inAlabama. J. F. DueGG&R, Director and Agriculturist. MONTGOMERY, ALA.. THE BROWN PRINTING CO., PRINTERS AND BINDERS. 1904. STATION COUNCIL. C. C. TIACH ........................................ President. and Agriculturist. J. F. DUGGAR..........................Director C. A. CAR........................................Veterinarian. B. B. Ross ........................... E. M. WILCOX................Plant Chemist and State Chemist. Physiologist and Pathologist. and State Horticulturist. R. S. MACKINTOSH........Horticulturist J. T. ANDERSON.. Chemist in Charge of Soil and Crop Investigations. ASSISTANTS. C. L. HARE..........................:.... T. BRAGG.............................. First Assistant Chemist.. Second Assistant Chemist. of Farm. C. M. FLOYD............................Superintendent J. M. JONES........................ Assistant ........... in Animal Industry. W. L. THORNTON ...... Assistant. in Veterinary Science. Assistant in Horticulture. H. 0. SARGENT .......................... The Bulletins of this Station be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. will ALFALFA. IN ALABAMA. BY J. F. DUGGAR. bulletin combines the results of made by this station and the experience of a number of farmers who have begun to grow alfalfa in different parts of the State, as kindly furnished in correspondence with the writer. This is intended as a preliminary report. Extensive experiments on alfalfa in co-operation with the United States Department of Agriculture were undertaken by this station dnring the fall of 1903. It is the expectation to pr-esent those results, and others, in a future publication. Alfalfa, or lulcern, (ledicago sativa), belongs to the family of plants that normally bear enlargements or tubercles on their roots, through which these plants are able to 'take the introgen of the air. is a perennial, living for niany years without reseeding. Great, numbers of buds put out from the old root each year as soon as the coldest portion of the winter is past. During the first few months of its, life alfalfa may be regarded as a tender plant, both as regards cold and drought. After it has passed through its first summer, alfalfa, is extremely resistant both to cold and to drought. The name lucern, which also is properly applied to alfalfa, 'has led some mnen, unfamiliar with alfalfa, and acquainted with sweet clover or melilotus, sometimes in- ments The present experi- Alfalfa, correctly called luccrn, to confuse the two plants. These are much alike when young. Alfalfa is a much smaller, fine stemmed plant, having purple blossoms and a coiled seed' pod. Alfalfa has, for many centuries, been an important plant, especially in the warmer portions of Europe. Above all other crops alfalfa may be credited with the foremost place in the development of the arid regions of the United States. At no distant day it will doubtless assume i!iportant proportions in the agriculture of Alabanma. On all soils snuitable to it in this State, it will doubtless become one of the, principal foundations on which the live stock industry will be based. USES. Alfalfa is useful for hay making, for feeding green (or soiling), for ,pasturage, and for the fertilization of the soil. Its most important use is as a hay plant. Alfalfa yields more hay per acre than any other leguminous forage plant. Indeed, in yield it has few superiors, sorghum perhaps being the only one of importance in Alabama, and this falling far behind alfalfa in nutritive value. Alfalfa hay is much more nearly a complete food than is the hay of Johnson grass, sorghum, crab grass, etc. Theh following table gives the composition of green and cured alfalfa, and for comparison the composition of certain other forage plants, the chemical data being taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding" and from McBryde's tables. Pounds of food material in, 100 Q pounds of forage. cr3 bs3 4-; ;_q p ay 4D4 Lbs. Lb s. L bs.Lbs.Lbs. .Green Alfalfa hay.............14 Cow pea hay .. .... ..... 7 7 Johnson grass hay ...... .... ,..7.8 Crab grass bay .. 6 Cured corn blades ..... 4 Sorghum hay_(vorydry.) alfalfa ......... 5.2.6 Green rye ............. 5 43 42 46 45 36 37 12 71 2 2' 2 2 1 3 1 25 20 29 28. 22 24 7 7 6 8 5 4)28 3 9 1 10 9.2 30 72 .6I12,2 J 75.8 The nutrients of most value are those in the first three colnmns. An acerrage quality of cowpea and of sorghun hay is believed to be a little poorer, blades (fodder) a little richer, than shown by the figures and corn in the table. From the above table it will be seen that alfalfa is about as rich as other hays and corn blades in starchy materials and sugar, and about twice as rich; in musclehorses, cattle of. all forming material. 'Alfalfa hay is about equal in composition to the best grades of cow 'pea hay, but is not. so coarse. Alfalfa hay is suitable for ages, anid sheep. It is sometimes used in the Southwest as the exclusive. food for farm teams, but it is generally advisable,, for- working animals to have some corn in ad- dition to alfalfa. However, the use of alfalfa hay greatly reduces the amount of corn necessary to keep working 6 teams in condition. For six weeks last summer Capt. J. C. Webb, of Demopolis, Ala., fed all the mules on one of his plantations on alfalfa alone. Although they were at work they kept in satisfactory condition. Alfalfa hay has also been successfully used as part of the winter ration for hogs. Alfalfa hay is similar to melilotus hay in composition, but much more palatable. It is less coarse, makes a better appearance, and, unlike melilotus hay, it is salable. As a soiling plant, alfalfa may be utilized throughout every portion of Alabama, since the small area needed for this purpose will enable the soil to be suitably manured or limed or otherwise brought into condition for its suecessful growth. The especial advantage of alfalfa for soiling is the early date at which it is available, rye being the only other practicable crop which may be cut as early in the season. Alfalfa remains green throughout the year except in December, January, and February. In Central Alabama, alfalfa has been cut for food for horses as early as March 11. In nutritive qualities, green alfalfa is superior to green rye, and is eaten with relish by all farm stock and poultry. Alfalfa is sometimes used as a pasture plant on soils to which it is well adapted, but is too valuable for hay or soiling to justify its general use for pasturage, until the acreage in alfalfa is greater than is needed for hay making and soiling. Pasturage shortens the life of the alfalfa plant by enabling weeds to outgrow it, and by packing the soil too closely around the crown and roots, and also by the injury resulting from very close continuous grazing. Stock should never run on an alfalfa field when the ground is wet or frozen, nor during the first year after the seed are sown. Cattle and sheep are subject to bloat when grazing on alfalfa. It is safer in this respect for horses, and perfectly safe for hogs. No one -decidedly can afford to graze cattle or sheep on alfalfa unless thoroughly informed in regard to all possible precautions for decreasing the amount of bloat and unless he has a surplus of alfalfa over and above that which he can use for hay and soiling. The principal precautions against bloat are (1) feeding dry food before cattle or sheep, are first turned on alfalfa; (2) gradually lengthening the daily grazing period; (3) allowing stock grazing on alfalfa to have access at the same time to a pasture containing palatable grass. One Alfalfa makes an unrivaled pasture for hogs. may conservatively estimate an acre of good alfalfa pasture as capable of supporting a sufficient number of hogs to weigh at least 1,000 pounds. This record has been greatly exceeded. F. D. 'Coburn says: "Ten young hogs per acre will not damage alfalfa, and should make 1,000 pounds of gain in a season, under ordinary conditions, without grain." While hogs make satisfactory and economical growth on green alfalfa alone, they more completely utilize this crop when a little corn is fed. Alfalfa used as a hog 'pasture, should be mowed whenever it becomes tall or coarse, to promote fresh tender growth. Rings in the hogs' noses are advisable to prevent destruction of alfalfa pastures by rooting. The young shoots on alfalfa remain green practically all winter in central Alabama. Alfalfa has been made into silage with varying success. In our climate where we have frequent, rains, the silo might prove a profitable means of utilizing cuttings of alfalfa too much injured by rains to make good hay, but still succulent. In Alabama alfalfa should be uesd for soil-improvement \only after it has outlived its usefulness as a food plant. Alfalfa greatly enriches the soil in nitrogen gathered from the air. 8 YIELDS OF ALFALFA HAY. The following estimates of their yields of alfalfa.hay obtained are reported in correspondence by the parties named' below:' Total no. tons.' per acre. No.Date cuttings.Reportcd by County 1st cutting. 3 unmanured 4 to 7 5 to 6 mauured 4 to 5 4 to 5 ~4 11/2 medium, land 5 on bottoms 1/2 to 214 3 3 or 4 1 to 5 3 or 4 2- to 4 4 to 6 1 post oak 0 sandy land ........... ................. 3.. ................. 11/2 prairie J. C. Webb.........Marengo...... J. I. Thornton........Greene. May 1. Dr. W. J. McCain....Sumter. May. G. Lightfoot..... May 10 E. F. Bouchelle...... J. 0. Hays...........Greene.May 10 5. Selden............Greene.April P. Greene. J. McKee Gould, Jr.... Greene. May 10 4 W. M. ....... May 1 4 or 5 B. B. Rudolph.........Lowndes....May 10 3 M. H. Traylor.......... Fall sowing May . .... Lowndes Spring sowing June 1 to 3.... .......... 4 J. A. Dillard.........Montgomery..Mch 24 3 ................... .3 Judge W. H. Tayloe... Marengo............. ... ................ 4 Cobb & Macmillan ... "."Sumtr. April 22...t................3 E. H. Allison...........Morgan.............. Hill...........Hale The yields estimated by tie above named alfalfa growers as the average production under their conditions indicate that after the first season alfalfa, can be cut to six times 4 times), and that the yield of hay (usually three on good land three or six tons per acre. Land producing less than two tons per acre may yield a profit, but should not be selected for alfalfa without first being fertilized with some legume, with 'manure, or with fertilizers. The most usual date' for the first. cutting found by the above named growers is about. the first. of May or earlier. When sown in the spring one would expect. no cutting of consequence for a. month later, and ;mnnch less a normal yield~ the first season of growth. On pp-or lands with unfavorable seasons no cuttings worth raking are is as, than obtained during the first season from- spring sowing. 9 the The following extract from Bulletin No. 20 Alabama Canebrake Experiment Station, at Uniontown, prepared by the writer, illustrates the possibility of obtaining from prairie soils large yields of alfalfa the first season, even from spring sowing. "A tract of dark pebbly hillside of medium fertility was plowed and harrowed, and alfalfa seed was sown broadcast on ;March. 20, 19.03. The stand was so thick of althat. weeds were not troublesome until falfa, was' checked. by drought, which prevailed almost continuously from about the middleof 'August until November. and'af"Up to that tilme alfalfa made rapid forded'three cuttings, by September 3. Because of-contoo slow tinuous dry weather, growth after that date for another cutting to be obtained, though with the ordinary rainfall of S'ept.ember and October a fourth ting would doubtless have been secured. "This alfalfa occupied all of 'Cut 23' except 1-20th of an acre, used, for another forage plant. The area of this T. M. -Cocoran, plot, according to, a survey made by of the growth growth was cut- Mr was 55-100 of an acre. Mrt. Corcoran's survey thew basis of the calculated yield per acrc in the ing -isfollowmade table. curing. "Each cutting ,of hay required only one day iniz It was then regardeid by M R icheson as dry enough to store in the barn, where it kept without molding. "The yields of hay thus cured were as follows : Lbs. per plot, ..... 1,030 1, 682 June 16 .... July 15..... ......... .... .... Sept. 3...... .... Total.............. .... ......... .... ..... Lbs. per acre. 1,871 3, 058 ... .1,922 4,634 3,495 8,424 10 "This shows a yield of more than four tons of hay per acre when stored. It would probably not be safe to regard this as thoroughly cured hay, suitable for storing in large masses. If, to ble thoroughly conservative, we assume that a further drying out to the extent of 25 per cent. after being placed in the barn would be necessary beforel we could regard this as thoroughly cured hay, we should still have a yield of more than three tons per acre. This is an unusually large yield for spring sown alfalfa in its first season of growth, and is probably as much as can ordinarily be expected from very young alfalfa, even when sown in the fall. The conditions producing this large yield were a thick stand, abundant rains from March 'to, August, thorough surface drainage, and a ,supply of root tubercles. "T'o ,emphasize the statement that this was upland prairie land of a fair degree of fertility, the following facts are mentionedd: Corn without fertilizer and without any special treat:ment, averaged in the two cuts which bordered the alfalf area 21 bushels per acre. The land sown to alfalfa in March, 1903, was in 1902 in cotton, without fertilizer; and in 1901 it had borne a. crop of corn without cowpeas. No stable manure had been applied in very recent years, and it is not known that any manure had ever been applied." The following is another instance showing the possibility of getting good yields from alfalfa the first season, even when sown in spring. Mr. W. L. Ennis, Litvingston, Ala., reports as follows: "Sowed 23 pounds of alfalfa seed, inoculated with earth from a bur clover field, on March 20, 1903, on the best land we had, about one acre. Yields of baled hay were as follows: "First cutting, 21 bales; second cutting, 40 bales; third cutting, 17 bales. Total, 97 bales. Average weight of bales 104 1-2 pounds." This is about 5 tons per acre. 11 PRICES AND PROFITS. Those Alabama alfalfa growers who have sold alfalfa report that the price in recent years has been not less than $13 to $15 per ton. Even if we assume a minimum yield of 4 tons of hay per acre on land to which alfalfa is adapted, and a minimum price of $10 per ton, there would still be larger profits in growing alfalfa than most other field crops. Captain John C. Webb, of Demopolis, Ala., writes: "It has paid me better than any other crop I ever planted." Mr. WV. L. Foster is reported in Louisiana Bulletin No. 72 as follows in regard to alfalfa in the bottoms of the Red River, near Shreveport: "It costs an average of $1.25 to $2.00 per ton to put [alfalfa hay] in shape for the market." The books of another alfalfa grower in the same region showed a cost of $1.90 per ton to cut, cure, market, and bale a crop of this hay. The same publication contains this significant paragraph as to the profits of alfalfa in that region: "When the land is seeded to alfalfa by the owner and rented out, he gets fifteen dollars an acre, and the renter furnishes his own harvesting tools, or he gets eighteen dollars rent and furnishes the harvesting tools. This is on land that rents for five dollars an acre for cotton." SOILS FOR ALFALFA. At present the most important question in connection with alfalfa in Alabama is the determination of soils on which it can be made a profitable crop. In determining the best soils for alfalfa we shall be helped by bearing in mind that this plant needs a soil (1) well supplied with moisture, (2) well drained, (3) having an abundance of lime, (4) rich in other plalt food. 12 'Alfalfa, is at its best when grown under irrigation, which fact indicates its response, to large amounts of water judiciously applied. In humid regions alfalfa is pre-eminently a crop for valleys, because on these low levels there is a relative abundance of moisture even during dry seasons. On the other hand, the roots of alfalfa in congenial, well drained, permeable soils, penetrate to great depths in search of moisture. But. with the poor drainage in a large part of the south this habit of alfalfa is not fully utilized. The need for ample supplies of moisture can be better understood by the statement that ordinarily hay plants mustl pass through their leaves about 400 tons of water for every ton of hiy produced, or 1,600 tons of water per acre for every crop of four tons. Drainage, important for most ordinary farm crops because of the need of the roots for air, and because of the deelper growth of roots in drained soil, is doubly important for any leguminous or soil-improving plant like alfalfa. For not only do the roots of such plants need water, but the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the root tubercles must have thorough soil ventilation in order to perform their work of transforming the valueless nitrogen of the air into the valuable nitrogen of plant food. Whatever may be thought by some of the sufficiency of shallow ditches and levees for draining prairie land sufficiently for cotton and corn, it is certain that such mere surface drainage is insufficient for alfalfa, as, indeed, we believe it to be for the maximum results with other crops. Deeper ditches are needed for alfalfa. No argument is needed to show the greater convenience and saving of land and work if some of these ditches could be converted into underground drains, whether box drains of plank, pole drains, or whether tile be the material employed. If tile drainage in Alabama can be shown to be cheap enough and continuously 13 effective for any field crop,: that crop will be alfalfa:, While few farmers- owning land valued only at . or $25 per acre will be found at present willing to $15 make the large expenditure necessary for tile drainage, this investment will doubtless. be found feasible on certain stiff bottom lands, otherwise peculiarly adapted to alfalfa, especially as these lands advance in price because of their suitability to alfalfa. The establishment of tile factories in the south, or the co-operative purchase of tile machines would so greatly cheapen the cost of tile drainage as to make it practicable for alfalfa fields and other land farmed intensively. Alfallfa should endure for many years. One of our correspondents has alfalfa plants seventeen years old growing on prairie land. If a field of alfalfa, free from disease and from excessive growth of weeds, begins to fail when only a few years old, deficient drainage may be suspected. Alfalfa is wsually spoken of as needing an open soil. While permeability is desirable, yet in Alabama the soils to which it has thus far proved best adapted are lime soils of close 'texture. PRAIRIE SOILS. Taking up the different soils somewhat in the order of their proved or probable fitness for alfalfa we must 'deal first with the Central .Prairie Region of Alabama, extending from Union Springs in a northwest direction past Montgomery, Selma, Uniontown, Demopolis, and Livingston, and into Mississippi. In this region a few very small patches of alfalfa were grown many years ago. So far as I can learn, Capt. J. C. Webb, of Demopolis, was the first one in that part of the State to grow alfalfa on any considerable scale. One of his earliest plantings was made on a shallow gray soil underlaid near the surface, with white rotten limestone. This field lay next to the 14 Tombigbee bluffs, on the western edge of Demopolis, and hence was well drained. Steers had been fed here on cottonseed meal and hulls, and the growth of alfalfa was most satisfactory. Capt. Webb has since largely increased the area which he devotes to alfalfa. The prinicpaz part of the alfalfa area of Alabama is now in Greene and Sumter counties. Prairie soils may be subdivided into quite a number of classes merging into each other by imperceptible gradations. Those prairie soils are best suited to this crop which are best drained and best supplied with vegetabic matter. Extensive inquiries were made of a number of growers of alfallfa in Alabama, and below follows a summary of their, answers to the question as to the character of soil in the prairie region best suited to alfalfa. All expressing an opinion preferred lime to sandy or clay soils. Black prairie is the choice of most of these correspondents, sonme of these expressly naming black bottoms or slough land, others fertile black upland soil. Those who prefer bottom land specify bottoms that are well drained. Two prefer "hammock" land, one of these describing his favorite Alfalfa soil as "alluvial land overlaying stiff prairie." One choses shelly prairie, two cedar "hammock," and one gray upland prairie and "hammock," and another yellow prairie. One correspondent has succeeded best in growing alfalfa on the mixed soil at the base of white marl hills. On the farm of the Canebrake Experiment Station at Uniontown, alfalfa has done remarkably well during its first year's growth on upland of medium quality, and containing a small number of rough pebbles. We are far from recommending alfalfa for that grade of prairie soil that consists largely of these roughened pebbles and that is too poor to make fair crops of cotton. Alfalfa needs fertile soil. 15 Answering the question what soils are unfit for alfalfa, these correspondents are almost unanimous in naming sandy soils. Three (including one farmer who has a very large acreage in alfalfa) specify post oak, and one especially designates black post oak. With the confessedly incomnplete data now available the soils of the prairie region of Alabama may be tentatively ranked in about the following order as regards their suitability for alfalfa: First class: Black bottoms, well drained, and drained alluvial lime bottoms containing a little sand. Second class: Black uplands; shelly gray uplands, and rich chocolate uplands. Third class: Poor gray to white prairie, and poor, stiff red or post oak land. OTHER LIME SOILS. As to the suitability to alfalfa of the soils of the remainder of the State, there is much less evidence available. From theoretical considerations there is every reason for expecting alfalfa to succeed in all the lime soils of the Tennessee Valley region, and in the narrow lime valleys in the northeastern .part of the State. Messrs. E. H. Allison and R. P. M'cEntire, of Decatur, write of their success with alfalfa in that part of the Tennessee Valley, and other instances of success in that part of the State have been heard of, but not confirmed by answers to our inquiries. There is reason to expect the best red calcareous soils of Talladega, Calhoun, and counties north of these, to give satisfactory results with alfalfa. In a word, there is a prospect for the successful growth of alfalfa on rich, well drained lime soils in, any part of the State where they occur. Rich bottoms in every part of the State, if not subject 16 to long or otherwise injurious- overflows, and not too wet or too sandy, are probably suitable for alfalfa. If they are deficient in lime it can be added with the probability of profit. SANDY SOILS. .garden .conditions, While it is possible that' alfalfa can be grown under on almost any soils in Alabama, yet it is probable that it will not be a profitable sale crop on upland sandy or clay soils deficient in lime unless they are exceptionally rich. In order for it to be grown at all successfully, on these soils, great care will be required and in many cases heavy applications of stable manure or lime (the latter being supplemented by large amounts of commercial fertilizers) will be necessary. It then becomes a question whether it is more profitable on these sandy uplands thus to coddle alfalfa or to rely on hardier forage plants, as hairy vetch, cowpeas, soy beans, sorghum, etc. We are certainly not yet in a position to recommend alfalfa. for non-calcareous upland soils except on a very small scale. However, the great value of the plant on congenial soil makes it worthy of trial in a small way on every class of soils. LOCAL EXPERIMENTS IN PROGRESS. To determine the suitability to alfalfa of each of the principal soils of the State, this station in co-operation with the United States Department of Agricil'ture, last fall arranged for an experiment with alfalfa in nearly every county in Alabama. The unusually dry fall, necessitating late planting, and the early occurrence of frost and freezes, destroyed the stand of alfalfa in many of the experiments referred 'to. It is planned to continue the work along this line. 17 FERTILIZERS FOR ALFALFA. One ton of alfalfa hay contains approximately 44 lbs. of nitrogen, 10.2 lbs. of phosphoric acid, and 33.6 lbs. of potash. Hence a crop of four tons contains as much nitrogen as is found in 2,450 lbs. of cotton seed meal, as much phosphoric acid as is contained in 336 lbs. of high grade acid phosphate, and as much potash as is contained in 1,075< lbs. of kainit. It would cost, to buy all these amounts of plant food in the form of commercial fertilizers, approximately $35.00. Fortunately iot all of this is removed from the, soil, the greater part being the value of the nitrogen, the largest proportion of which the algets fromn the air. It would, however, refalfa quire about $8.75 worth of phosphate and kainit to replace the amount of phosphoric acid and potash which would be removed from the soil of an acre by a crop of four tons. Hence it is evident that even the richest prairie soils, if cropped for many years in alfalfa, will need to have their supplies of phosphoric acid and potash replenished by the application of manure or fertilizers. This will be especially true if Johnson grass hay has previously been removed from these soils for a numler of years, thus making heavy drafts on the soil's supply of these two minerals. According to Wolff, one ton of alfalfa hay contains 70 pounds of lime, or 280 pounds in a crop of four tons. In three experiments on the station farm at Auburn lime has proved highly beneficial to the growth, permanency and hardiness of alfalfa. In the case of soils not rich in lime it will be necessary from the beginning to apply this material, as is clearly shown in the experiments on the station farm at Auburn. Not only do lime and phosphoric acid directly stimulate the growth of alfalfa on soils deficient in these min- ,doubtlesss 18 erals, but their presence is believed to favor the development of tuherles, on the abundance which largely lepends the thrift, of the alfalfa plant. From 6 to 12 rels, equal to ~ to 1 ton of unslaked lime, or to at least to 1. tons after slaking, may be applied per acre. Liming (or the use of manure or wood, ashes)will be inlispensable for alfalfa on acid soils, of which there are large areas in Alabama. test a soil for acidity, a strip of litmus pap-er should be kept in contact with the moist soil until damp. If the soil is acid the color of the paper will change to pink. On application to the writer litmu.s paper for this test will be furnished free. of bar- blue To Where there is no local experience to guide one in sefertilizer, the following formula. (orstable manure), is suggested as a fertilizer' for alfalfa, in regions where the use of commercial fertilizers is general: 400 pounds acd phosphate acreand 50 -pounds inuriate of Potash pier acre. The above isnot. intended to take place of lime, where the soil' is deficient in lime, buttos upplement it. When: lime and acid phosphate are both used for any crop they be applied sepoaaiel y, and. one should be worked into the soil before other, is applied. Tu berdles on the roots alfalfa should supply it with, But if the roots are (levoid of tubereles., nitrate of, lecting per the should gen. of the nitro- soda or cotton seed mayN FERTILIZER be needed. AT AUBURN. ExPERIMLENrr On reddish sandy upland soil l~ rl)cing4 without, fertilizer, ten plots of alfalfa were; sown, October 29, 1900. The soil was not acid. onl-y at, Auburn, capable of about 10 to'f12 bushels of corn per acre, that time fertilized at same rate per acre, namely, pounds of acid phosphate and SO pounds of sulphate 320 the All plots were at 19 of potash. An effort was made to inoculate the seed, but this was not entirely successful. good stand of plants was found on all plots the latter part bf the following March and the early part.of April, when different nitrogenous fertilizers were applied to these plo'ts as shown in the nexttable. Alfalfa made extremely (poor growth in .1901 on the plots receiving no manure. On all plots, weeds, leaf a slerotial ct sease of the roots, and perhaps nitrogen starvation, killed the larger part of the, plants. The}lime and the stable manure plots suffered leastand kept the best stands. No plo't made a. yield worth harvesting separately. Octobler 7, 1901, without plowing, an additional amount of seed was disced in on all plots. Again in the phenomenally dry summer of 1902, the justify alfalfa on most plots did not yield enough hay raking it up. IHolwever, the plots were clipped four times in 1902-May 6, June 17, Sept. 13, and October 10. On the best plots, those 'to which stabile nanure had been applied about 15 months before, and which were now, reduced by disease and dry weather to a mere fraction of a stand, the yield was only about one ton of bay for the entire season. The extremie drought of 1902, extending practically fromi the middle ;April to A rust, to of Aug- ust, will be recalled by miost readers,. In the summer of 1902, the poorest plots of alfalfa in New Era cow peas in drills. These slight growth, but were kept clean by late cultivation. The, plots then, plowed up as being were plowed up and made planted the poorest were those which 18 mnths before had re- ceived per acre either, 200 pounds of nitrate of soda or pounds of cotton seed meal or no, fertilizer. 13, 1902, inoculated alfalfa, seed, 20 lbs. 500 September to the acre., were sown on these plots, first running a 20 disc harrow several times over the small growth of cow pea vines, a procedure that in ordinary seasons would not suffice to dispose of a crop of cow peas of the usual luxuriance, but which is sometimes a satisfactory treatment of cow pea stubble. On all these plots and nearly all other plots, 2,000 lbs. of slaked lime (equal to abou't 1,200 lbs. of unslaked lime) were harrowed in. Next March certain other plots where the stand had become very thin were plowed and sown in alfalfa. The, stand of alfalfa on other plots, (those which eighteen months before had been fertilized with either manure or lime), was thickened by drilling in with a grain drill a small amount of alfalfa seed, mixed with sand to make the distribution more uniform. The yields of hay obtained in 1903 on each plot are shown in the following table: Yields of alfalfa,hay per acre in 1903, and fertiizers per acre previously used. ~VVr~y~ I y yryrCl.v( rVry~\ly yVry ~yVyJ y Lbs. hay c per acre. Fed 06 C) When sown. 0 Fertilizer for 1901. Fertilizer winter 1902-1903~. C 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sept. 13, 1902........ ________________________ 320 lbs. acid phosphate $0 lbs. sulphate potash. 240 lbs. acid phos. 1 ton slaked lime. 240 lbs. acid phos. 1 ton slaked lime. I toa slaked lime. j6 tons horse manure. 1 ton slaked lime. 240 lbs. acid phos. 1 ton slaked lime. f 900 J2700 .: 500 . .. 1100 . . . .. 1600 2300 2400 J 12050 2200 900 1200 2000 2300 2200 1600 1600 1500 200 lbs. nitrate of soda. Sept. 13, 1902........80 lbs. sulphate potash. Drilled. 320 lbs. acid phosphate. 500 lbs. cotton seed meal. 320 lbs. acid phosphate. Sept. 13, 1902........ 80 lbs. sulphate potash. S320 lbs. acid phosphate March 18, 1903.......80 lbs. sulphate potash. 20 bbls. lime. Oct. 29, 1900........320 lbs. acid phosphate. 80 lbs. sulphate potash. 18.4 tons horse manure. Oct. 29, 1900........320 lbs. acid phosphate. 80 lbs. sulphate potash. 80 lbs. sulphate potash. March 3600 6700 6800 2500 (240 lbs. acid phos. 1 ton slaked lime. (240 lbs. acid pls. 1 ton slaked lime. (240 lbs. acid phos. S1 ton slaked lime. 80 lbs. nitrate of soda. 240 lbs. acid-phos. 1 ton slaked lime. (340 lbs. acid phos. 1 --- ton slaked lime. ~------ 7 18,,1903....... 320 lbs. acid phosphate. 8 22.2 tons cow manure. C22.5 tons horse manure. Oct. 29, 1900........ J lbs. acid phosphate. 80 lbs. sulphate potash. 320 ________________________ ~20 bbls. 1400 1100 ... 800 . 2000 1000 1300 4500 {1800 2200 lime. 9 10 I March 18, 1903...S March 18, 1903...320 320 lbs. acid phosphate 80 lbs. sulphate potash. (6 tons rotton cowpea vines lbs.acid phosphate. lbs. sulphate potash. I \ 80-~ I. . 900 . . 22 The results for 1903 shown in the above table may summarized as follows: be (1) Spring and fall sowing afforded practically the same yields, about one tol of hay pe acre the firstsum flier. (2)>-Nitrate of soda applied at the rate of 80 pounds per acre with the seed in spring failed to increase the yield. (3) tons of stable: manure more than doubled the yield the first season when applied in February to fall sown young alfalfa plants. -Six (4) tons of stable nanure enabled alfalfa to yield 3.4 tons off hay per acre the third season after thme application. -Eighteen the rate of 20 barrels per acre, result(5) -Ehue, ed the third year, after application in a 'crop practically equal to ;that obtained by tie use of 1S tons of stable manure at the same time. (6) application of both lime and large amounts of stable manure together did not increase the yield the at -The third year after application as, comparedl with either applied alone. The first~cutting of hay was nearly pure second contained considerable crabgrass., the third cutting contained more crabgrass than alfalfa.. EFFECTS OF LIME AND INOCULATION COMBINED. and alfalfa, the On October 3, 1902, three plots of sandy soil of fair quality on the Experiment Station farum at Auburn were sown with alfalfa. were used on oculation; all Phosphate and muriate of. potash Polt 3 had neither lime nor plots. plot 4 was not limed, but inoculated lows : Soil from an old alfalfa field 100 yards a's in- fol- distant, 1r:i cr:- an I harI I 14rt;1 i i o N O 140~N~ 5 wa;s sut - IIll 14111inc4 il uu I- 1!1r11c III 8 F itli I s im s il the41 w it1t il Im~cr11111 l-I p l w 11Ic limcWl Ittl i o te th uu ~ l m " 111 .GtIt 11 r:Ill ;-v :111 m l ~~a z 1 11 iis4' 11114 444 pm-1 JIpper (1' il4 1. 114444e 1' c.414h shw 'Note4 4]i4141 hi-W the( 1414444;Is t'lkell1 ill Apr;il 144,14 (of 1nler1 iu 14 l~ AnI 4 4 Ic ciii n111c4I?plow" I11l441. u44' 444' pl44. frnb III(i4' blo414]4t N 411111 lo4th Ii I11144 ie : 14ii s44ill44441 liwL14 1 4sst4411 444 44411. 14411444 B144 1' li iml4 ' 1tln,:: ;II1(] _1141(1412144441 4 philltlunli S 114411 e Ine 11 ;l s1u~ P. rc-4 (f tic-, 14snccr4 :\I. , thlP. (11441 u 144111 14e tof 41' 4414c ol\ :I~ n 11411, 44 5, :Il141 much41 bUsS 4444 O1w4 441444 Iw phis4144. The4 41 1'' 1441 14iel1 Il' sea,-54oi4 Nv\ s 2.261(; 14114 1441 : 1 1 rr Ndwr iln;H144i 1444-111411411 j4114 11414 41141414 \c wh41. (n1144 444 (41 1 41 1114s "' 5 I l*4 1'44i (4141 4414 I:\ 4~It I 44 ro Ill, . c 1ll-, 'F 44~ A'- 4"' ...1 "W f~4 4 (4 'N' >~ A Fig. '. 4 4 .4444 not 141444 ed ce4t4' 44 1141, (plant4 est plant, inocullated anlime1d44(. n4(t limIled; lar1g 25 iAn adjacent plot was sown in crimson clover at the same time that the alfalfa was sown, and, after the cutting of the crimson clover, the same plot was sown in June in broadcast, sorghu m. The yields obtained give an interesting illustration of the fact that under ordinary conditions on sandy land unsuited to alfalfa, other crops often furnish a far larger quantity of forage. The yield of crimson clover on this adjacent plot, was 6,100 pounds per acre, and the amount of sorghum hay obtained at one cutting during the same season was 13,000 pounds per acre. These are exceptionally good yields of both crimson clover and sorghum. This is an extreme case where all conditions were highly favorable for crimson clover and sorghum, and exceedingly unfavorable for alfalfa. FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS ON PRAIRIE LAND. A series of fertilizer experiments on 10 plots was begun in 1902 in co-operation with Mr. J. Hays, Sumter county, Ala., by .whom the fertilizers were applied in accordance with the writer's plan. The seed were not sown until April 3, only a few weeks before the beginning of the memorable drought. In the absence of any considerable amount of rain until August 28, the fertilizers were without effect. No hay was raked, but Mr. Hays reports that this alfalfa, though sown late, "stood the drought better than any other forage plant, and is the only one that kept a good lively green color, while Bermuda grass was parched perfectly yellow, and sorghum was twisted and stopped growing." It should be added that eight of the plots were inoculated with soil from an old alfalfa field. In 1903 Mr. Hays again undertook a fertilizer experimnent for this station. On June 13 he writes: "Plots 9 and 10, the ones most highly fertilized, are the best." 0. 26 These both received per acre 200 pounds meal, 240 ponuds acid phosphate, and respectively 200 and 100 pounds of kainit. MANURE. cotton seed For the prairie region it may be said that no fertilizer except stable manure has yet been snffciently tested on alfalfa to deter-ine its suitability. In nunbers of instances stable manure has greatly increased the yield of alfalfa on prairie lands, and the most experienced growers of alfalfa use it so far as the limited supply permits. The benefit from the use of stable manure is a common experience in west Alabamia, and the application of mma nure has immensely increased the yield of alfalfa on the lime land of Mr. J. A. Dillard near Montgomery, Ala., as the writer can testify from a personal inspeclion. be raised whether alHowever, the question may falfa is the best crop on which to apply stable manure which is so scarce and so sure to largely increase the yield of any crop. So far as concerns the nitrogen stable manure, alfalfa could well dispense with that. For alfalfa thoroughly inoculated and; on land sufficientlv well 'drained to insure fair soil ventilation, should well of be able to obtain through its root tubercles unlimited quantities of nitrognen from the air. On the other hand, sorghum or cotton, not having This means \of securing nitrogen, would make good use of time nitrogen as well of the other constituents of stable nmanure. In favor of the application of manure to alfalfa is the fact that this application in winter promotles early development of the plants, and forces the alfalfa to a sufficient height as for cutting at a time when other forage is scarce. if immense quantities of stable manure are- used it will serve as a mulch, retaining the moisture in the soil over, Afore- 27 On the other and alleviating the effectis of drought. band, snrface application of manure without incorporation with the soil results in great loss of thevaluable portions of the 'manur'e and is ordinarily awasteful nethod of application. INOCULATION. Alfalfa belongs to, that family of plants able to derive a large part of their nittrogen from the gaseous nitrogen of the air. This is dlone through the agency of.enlargements on the roots, called tubercles or nodules. Within these tuberclcs dwell countless numbers of nicronitrosncopic vegetable. organismis, usually referred to gen-fixing bacteria. or, germs. tub'ercles of alfalfa, clovers, vetches, cowpeas, velvet beans, and. other legumes, are essentially fertilizer factories engaged in the manufacture of nitrogen. This is a fertilizer material, which, when bought in the forum11 of cotton seed meal or nitrate'of sodaoraimonilate'd guano, costs about 15 cents per pound. The im- as .Root piortance growing of the work of root tubercles may be realized from 'the~fact that a crop of any one of these plants on an acre usually contains from 75 to 200 pounds: of nitrogen in roots and tops taken together,. when the germns' necessary for causing develop on the roots of alfalfa tubercles to are absent from the soil and from the seed, the roots of alfalfa have no tuberdles. T'he proper gerums, which we may designate as alfalfa germs, are usually absent from the sandy andc- non- calcareous soils of Alabanma, and often from other soils. More frequently there are a, few of the pr'oper germs present either in the seed sown or in the soil, so that tubercles develop on a. sall -proportion of 'time plants. legunminous plant without tubercles is a drone A 28 that no farmer can afford to provide for. Such plants depend entirely upon fertilizers for their expensive nitrogen, or draw it from the earth, thus impoverishing the soil. his The farmer has it in, power to cause tubercles to develop on the roots of his alfalfa, and thus to force the plants to provide their own itrogenous food, and to enrich the land in nitrogen. When leguminous plants form their tuberc'les without aid from man we may Experispeak of the process as natural inoculation. ments on a. number of soils at Auburn and observations of young alfalfa plants in a number of other localities, lead us to. conclude that the alfalfa, germ is wanting or ; not present in sufficient numbers s tn:ost of the sandy and clay soils of Alabama that are deficient in lime. On such soils, the necessary germs must be supplied by the process of inoculation, or more accurately, by artificial inoculation. Thie material used for inoculating alfalfa may be soil from a field where alfalfa or bur clover (a plant of the same genus) has in recent years been well supplied with root tubercles, or it may be a concentrated patented material now being manufactured in the laboratories of the United States Department of Agriculture. To inoculate with soil we have used the following methods, depending on convenience and on the amount of inoculating soil available. (1) With small amounts of inoculating soil: To about a peck of soil from an old alfalfa or bar clover field add several gallons of water; stir well; allow a few minutes for settling and then moisten every alfalfa seed thoroughly with the muddy water, which contains the necessary germs. Then dry the seed by mixing with them more of the same inoculating earth in a dry condition and 'crushed as fine as possible. Cover seed promptly. 29 (2.) With large amounts of inoculating earth: Moisten the seed as above'; dry as above, if convenient; sow broadcast per acre 20 to 30 bushels of the same earth in as fine a, condition as possible, and harrow in seed andfinoculating earth ;as promptly as possible. The method of inoculation and the amount of inoculating soil can be varied accordiing to convenience. Directions for use accompany the pure cultures sent from Washington. Dr. A. F. Woods, under whose direction this inoculating material is distrilnuted, authorizes me to state that the Department will supply free inoculating material for alfalfa to any parties whose natves I shall send in, and who will furnish their own seed. Applicants should state the number of acres that they will plant. On prairie soiil the writer has repeatedly observed that alfalfa plants are, when young, well stocked with tubercles. The cause for this is evident from the recent investigation of Dr. 'C. G. Hopkins, of the Illinois Experiment Station. Under date of February 2, 1904, he writes as follows with reference to his bulletin now in press, and gives permission for this use of his results: "The ,iinvestigations reported in this bulletin pjrove conthat the bacteria of sweet clover are similar to the bacteria of alfalfa." clusively RESULTS OF INOCULATION OF ALFALFA ON SANDY LAND. In an inoculation experiment with alfalfa made by the writer in February, 1897, the yield of alfalfa at the first cutting was increased 336 per cent as the result of inoculation. The soil within the plots was from a sandy field near Auburn, and the inoculating material was the dust sifted out of bur clover seed and derived from the soil on which bur clover had grown. In several later 30 field experiments the! of bur clover earth has produced tubercles and greatly increased the yield of alfalfa. Figure 2 shows typical alfalfa plants taken April, 1903, from three plots at Auburn, sown the preceding October. The small plants on the right had been neither limed nor inoculated ,and were free from tubercles; those in the center, had been inoculated, but not limed; the largest plant had, been inoculated and imed, and here the supply of tubercles is abundant. Soil from an old alfalfa field was used in this experiinent as inoculating material. use in INOCULATION OF ALFALFA ON PRAIRIE SOILS. In the light of Dr. Hopkins' denonstration we can now see why it is unnecessary to inoculate alfalfa on fields where melilotus (sweet clover) has recently. grown, and produced tubercles, as it .almost invariably does on prairie soil. It would still seen, advisable, however, to inoculate alfalfa seed to be sown on such prairie land as has not recently grown melilotus. probably in the prairie region, we have no proof that otherwise, been widely distributed by wind and water and While these germs have 1ihey are prescnt in all fields of prairie land in sufficient Sm umbers for best immediate resuilts with alfalfa. Indeed the observation made by Mr. J. 0. Hays in our fertilizer, experiment on gray prairie land in Greene county, previously -referred:'to, seems, to indicate that there is, an advantage, at least during the first few months of growth, in inoculating- alfalfa, on some lime land. In 1992, on land which bad been used as a pastl:i e for a number of years, he reports that on the sixmnonths-old inoculated alfalfa. plants were tubercles 31 abundant, while up to that time none had been found on the plots not inoculated. Relative to a similar experiment in 1903, he writes under date of June 13, 1903, as follows "I inoculated all plots except No. 8, which seens to be the poorest of any of them."' In view of Dr. Hopkins' conclusions, we can now r'comeued that earth from an oldmelilotus field be used for inoculating alfalfa, where this is decidedly more convenient than to uses earth from alfalfa bur clover fields or than the pure, culture of the laboratory. or TIE TO SOW. The following is a summary of results of sowing alfalfa on the station farm, during the eight years that work has been under the writer's charge: We have records of fall sowings on ten different dates. In every case when alfalfa was sown broadcast after November, 1, the standwas ruined by cold. In one ca see alfalfa sown as early as October 7, was al- (1901), most completely winterkilled. as early September 13 (1900), and as late as October 29 (1899) survived the winter, although in other, years a considerable proportion of the sowings made- in late October resulted disastrously. We have records of eight dates of sprling sowing of alfalfa on the station farm. These point to the first half of March as better, than a later, date. In our, co-operative as Plants from ,seed sown 1904, arranged experiments with alfalfa in 1903- for, in nearly every county in the State, fall sowing was made unduly late by drought, and cold weather ca nie on unusual ly early, and has been unusually continuous. Moreover, in most cases there wasi sufficient in- moisture to causle the young plants to grow 32 iUnder these conditions, it is estimated from rapidly. reports thus far' received that in considerably more than half the experiments the stand of alfalfa was ruined. These reports afford an interesting comparison of the relative hardiness towards cold of the young plants of alfalfa, crimson clover and hairy vetch. The first two, whcn very young, are almost equally sensitive to cold, while hairy vetch is hardier in this respect than either. Alfalfa been successfully sown in Alabama, both in the early fall and in the early spring. principal advantages,, of fall sowing are the following: munch has The (1.) A larger yield of hay obtainable the first sum- mer; (2.) Less danger of having the alfalfa overtaken and crowded out by crab grass and weeds; (3.) Use of teams in preparation for alfalfa in August and September, when they would not be.employed izi preparing for, the usual crops. The chief advantages of spring sowing are as follows : (1.) Fredomm fronm risk of winter killing, to which fall sown alfalfa, especially that sown late, is liable. (2.) (3.) ber. Each reader must, contract thmese opposing advantages in the light of his own conditions. By far the larger proportion of alfalfa, sown in Alabama on prairie soils is put in after, Christmas, which Opportunity to sow alfalfa ,after' cotton, the best of the 'hoed crops to precede in December it; Usual better condition of the land for plowing and January than in August and Septem-, suggests that this is 33 generally the most convenient time. Some years it is the only practicable time, the ground being too dry and hard in the early fall. Several extensive growers of alfalfa who sow chiefly in the spring, nevertheless express a preference for fall sowing when there is sufficient moisture for thorough preparation and for sowing early in the fall. Fall sowing should occur at a date early enough to permit the roots to penetrate deeply before freezes begin, and thus to anchor the plants against heaving. Not only are young alfalfa plants easily heaved or lifted out of the soil by alternate freezes and thaws, but the very young plants are otherwise and more directly injured by severe cold following mild weather. In Central Alabama we would recommend that fall sowing be done, if practicable, from September 15 to October 15, with the preference for the earlier part of this period. While a date as late as November 1 occasionally gives success, the risk of winter killing is then too great. If alfalfa cannot be sown before October 15 in' central Alabama, we would recommend that sowing be postponed until March. The safest period for spring sowing is from March 1 to 20. Some sow on prairie land as early as February 20, but from February sowing at least one instance of loss of stand from cold has come under our notice. While seed sown in April sometimes succeed, the suecess is less uniform than with March sowing. The more weedy the land the stronger the reason for fall sowing. PREPARATION. There is no field crop that pays better for thorough preparation than alfalfa. The man who is content to prepare land for alfalfa as he would for oats had best 3 34 leave this crop to some one else. The plowing for alfalfa should be deep and thorough and it is highly probable that subsoiling on prairie and other stiff land would be more profitable for alfalfa than for any other field crop. Harrowing must be done, not once, but from two to four or more times, according to the condition of the land. Usually two harrowings with a disc harrow and two. with a tooth harrow (including the one given after sowing the seed) will suffice. Harrowing for fall sowing will be most effective if done within a few hours after plowing. For spring 'sowing this is less imperative. It is important that between the time of plowing and the time of sowing a sufficient interval should elapse for rains to compact or settle the soil. If sufficient rain does not fall to settle the soil, this should be done by repeated use of roller or weighted drag. One of the 'most common causes of failure to secure a satisfactory stand in alfalfa growing consists in having the soil too loose at planting time. For fall sowing plowing should occur at least several weeks before the seed are to be sown. If alfalfa is to be sown about the first of March the plowing may be done in November or December, or January, more satisfactorily than just before planting. Land plowed before Christmas will only need to have the surface layer freshened with the harrow at the time of sowing. While the above statements embody the general experience, success sometimes attends the sowing of the seed immediately after plowing. A farmer in the northeastern part of Texas who has many hundred acres of alfalfa, describes his method of preparation of black prairie for alfalfa as follows: "I use a disc plow with four good mules, run a subsoil plow drawn by six mules eighteen inches deep behind the disc. Then I follow with a disc harrow with four mules, tken float 35 the land with an implement eight or nine feet long and five feet wide, made by 2x6's spiked together; six mules draw this. I can reverse thel float, turn it over and use it to level the land in rough places. I am not yet ready to seed this land prepared in this way. I must have a rain on it that will settle it and take the air cells out. Then, with a light toothed harrow I break the surface, sow the seed with a wheelbarrow seeder and cover with a light harrow followed by a heavy steel roller. Good black land seeded in this way will return $40 or $50 per acre every year, at very little cost for labor." One grower in West Alabama subsoiled his land for alfalfa last fall, but it is too early for the effects of subsoiling to become apparent.. One grower in the same neighborhood harrowed his land seven times, an extreme case. Others relport sa,ti sfaction from one or two harrowings, a number often insufficient. It should be borne in mind that preparation for alfalfa is expected to suffice for from three to twenty years, and should therefore be thorough. SOWING BROADCAST VERSUS IN WIDE DRILLS. It is maintained by some parties that in the Gulf States drilling alfalfa, with such distance between rows as to permit of cultivation, will be more satisfactory than broadcast planting. In three experiments at Auburn and in one at Uniontown, drilling was unsatisfactory. On the station farm at Auburn it was found difficult in planting by hand in drills to avoid covering the seed too deep, and it was found that the amount of cultivation required to keep the grass and weeds subdued in drilled alfalfa was greater than it is practicable to give to a hay field. On the Canebrake experiment farm at Uniontown, 36 where the drills were about 24 inches apart and no cul tivation given, crab grass and weeds crowded the alfalfa more than in the portion of the field sown broadcast. However, for a small patch of alfalfa kept for feeding green, drilling and cultivation may be necessary and feasible, especially on highly fertilized sandy soils filled with the seeds of crab grass and weeds. Planting in very narrow drills by the use of grain drills is a favorite method in alfalfa-growing states. This of course does not permit of cultivation. SOWING. Most of the successful growers of alfalfa in Alabama have used abioutt 20 pounds of seed per acre, and this is the amount that has invariably been used on the station farm at Auburn. Capt. John C. Webb uses 40 pounds The excellent stand obtained in 1903 at the Canebrake station resulted from sowing a little more than 20 pounds per acre. One grower in Alabama reports the use of 30 pounds, or half a bushel of seed. Yet this grower is one who most emphasizes the presence of large amounts of crab grass and fox tail grass, indicating that sowing large amounts of seed is not always effective in crowding out weeds, though it has that tendency. If ten or more acres are to be sown, it is best to use one of the ordinary patterns of seed sowers instead of sowing by hand. The Cahoon is the one used at this station, and this seems to be in most general use in this State. One grower makes use of the seed attachment to the disc grain drill, a method which is common and satisfactory in states where this machine is in general use. When alfalfa seed are sown by hand, the most even distribution is obtained by dividing the seed into two parts and going over the land twice. 37 In Alabama alfalfa should be sown alone and not with grain, which is so much used as a nurse crop for -alfalfa, clover and grasses in the North and West. In covering alfalfa the procedure must necessarily differ according to local conditions, the preparation of the land, and the state of the weather. The most common custom in Alabanma is to cover with a spike tooth harrow, teeth inclined backward. An equally good or better way employed by a few growers is to cover the seed with a weeder, which affords a more shallow covering than any form of harrow. A carefully made brush drag can also be used, but either of the preceding implements is preferable. We have found it advantageous when the land is dry to use the roller immediately after sowing and then to use the harrow or weeder. This order could be reversed, but at the risk of having the rolled surface transformed into a dense crust, should a heavy rain fall occur before the seed germinate. Coburn, an authority on alfalfa, advises that when from any cause a crust has been formed prior to the appearance of young plants, thlat this crust should be, broken with weeder or harrow, even at the risk of bringing some of the sprouting seed to the surface. It pays to buy the best alfalfa seed, even though they should cost several cents more than inferior seed. Imported as well as old should be avoided. So far as this information can be obtained, it is desirable to purchase seed grown in regions where love vine (dodder) is not abundant. In any case it is advisable to buy seed that have been run through a machine that is claimed to be able to remove the seed of dodder. As indicating the need of buying the best alfalfa seed, even at an increased price, one of the farmers who is conducting one of our alfalfa experiments in Wilcox county, under the 38 writer's direction, reports! as follows, under date of January 23, 1904: "All the seed sent from Washington came up,readily to a good stand. * * * The seed we bought did not make a 15 per cent. stand." To test the germinating power of alfalfa, dampen two small pieces of cloth; place 100 seed between the two pieces of cloth. Then put the whole thing in a plate or salcer, cover it, and leave it in a warm room, repeatedly moistening the cloth before it dries. Count the seed that sprout within ten days. BEST CROPS TO PRECEDE ALFALFA. A crop selected to get land in best condition for alfalfa should be one that either leaves the land clean and unusually free from weeds and weed seed, or one that adds vegetable. matter, and hence enriches the soil. Cotton fulfills the first requirement, and cow peas or melillotus the second. The land that is to be sown in alfalfa next fall should be sown thickly in a running variety of cow peas in May, 1 1-2 to 2 bushels per acre. The vines should be cured for hay about a month or more before the time for planting alfalfa. On soil very deficient in vegetable matter it may be profitable to plow under the entire growth of cow peas. If the latter plan is followed, this mass of material should be plowed under in ample time for rotting to occur, or from 40 to 60 days before the date of planting. When green vegetation is plowed under at this season it is desirable to compact the soil with the roller or heavy drag, otherwise this vegetable matter before rotting will injuriously dry out the soil by preventing the rise of capillary moisture from the moist subsoil. On soils deficient in lime the lime necessary for alfalfa can be applied before 39 the green growth of cow peas is turned under, thus hastening rotting and obviating the souring effect that might otherwise occur. Melilotus furnishes vegetable matter and nitrogen for alfalfa, and also by means of the decay of its large and deeply penetrating roots assists in the drainage of prairie soils. It is advisable to let one carefully worked cotton crop, intervene between the turning under of the second years' growth of melilotus and the sowing of alfalfa seed. This interval permits the owner to free the land from any volunteer plants of melilotus and from weeds. JOHNSON GRASS LAND FOR ALFALFA. One of the important advantages of alfalfa is its ability to grow in land too thickly set with Johnson grass for the profitable cultivation of corn or even of cotton. By the introduction of alfalfa or hairy vetch into a Johnson grass meadow, the soil will be to some extent enriched in nitrogen, the nutritive quality of the hay improved, and the total yield of hay ,increased. An effort was made by correspondence with leading growers, to learn whether the successful growth of alfalfa in Johnson grass meadows was conditional such preparation of the land as would kill a large part of the Johnson grass. The general experience is that alfalfa thrives in old Johnson grass meadows., even when the preparation for alfalfa is such as would ordinarily improve the growth of Johnson grass. The verdiet was almost unanihnous that Johnson grass did not crowd out the alfalfa in the second or third year after the alfalfa was sown. Those with the longest experience were as emphatic as others in stating that alfalfa was quite equal to a contest with Johnson grass, fnd some growers even stated that the alfalfa was tending upon 40 to crowd out the Johnson grass. When alfalfa is sown in land stocked with Johnson grass, fall sowing gives A still the alfalfa an advantage over itscompetitor. ascendency to alfalfa confurther means of girving the sists in breaking the Johnson grass land and sowing thickly with cow peas, cutting the cow peas and Johnson grass for hay, and turning under the stubble a month or more before sowing alfalfa seedy PRINCIPAL ENEMIES OF ALFALFA. Among these first rank must be given weeds and weedy grasses, chief among which is crab grass. Crab grass and absence of tubercles have been responsible for the majority of failures that have come under the writer's observation. Other weeds that have given trouble in alfalfa on the station farm are evening primrose, morning glories, pepper grass, and even lespedeza or Japan clover. Among weeds most troublesome in prairie regions are crab grass, Bermuda grass, Sida spinosa, (a rather low branched weed with small yellow flowers and solid leaves), morning glories, fox tail grass, prairie or wire grass, horse nettle, and cow itch vines. The only method known for decreasing injury from weeds is one of prevention rather than cure. The injury from weeds is best prevented by growing just before alfalfa, cotton or some other crop requiring carefu cultivation. The avoidance of manure made from feeding hay abounding in weed seeds is also advisable. Manure from cattle fed on cotton seed meal and hulls is the best kind for alfalfa. Fall sowing is one of the best means of enabling alfalfa to get a start and triumph over its many enemies among the weeds. Judicious use of the disc harrow and even the use of the weeder when crab grass has just appeared is sometimes helpful. 41 Dodder, which is often introduced in alfalfa seed, is a thread-like, yellow vine, fleeding on and destroying alfalfa. Mowing and burning in place is the most convenient of several remedies. The most successful method of combatting weeds .consists in frequent mowing during the first year, even when the alfalfa plants have not attained sufficient height for hay making. Repeated clipping with the mower during the first summer will do much to repress weeds and to thicken the stand of alfalfa by making the plants throw out a greater number of stems. Leaf rust on alfalfa, appearing in the form of small black spots on the leaves, has been very destructive to alfalfa on the station farm, especially during damp weather. When it becomes serious, the best thing to do is to mow the alfalfa, the new growth usually escaping injury for quite a while. A more fatal disease occurring on alfalfa on the station farm is a sclerotial root disease, which, however, the writer has not observed in other alfalfa fields. Indeed this root disease has been the principal cause of failure of our most promising fields of alfalfa, a large proportion of the plants in certain fields being killed by it. CLIPPING AND DISCING ALFALFA. After the :young plants appear the most effective aid that can be given them is to use the mower frequently. Clip young alfalfa whenever weeds crowd it, and whenever it rusts or turns yellow from any cause. If the growth is slight, leave the mown material on the ground as a mulch and fertilizer, provided it is of a kind that will not give trouble when hay is raked after a later cutting. 42 Old alfalfa, whose growth has been arrested ,and which has become unthrifty, is often benefited by prompt mowing, even though the growth be too light for harvesting. The next most important treatment usually recommended for alfalfa more than a year old is to run a disc harrow over it when needed. This is sometimes done after each cutting, but judgment is needed in this matter. The discs are set straightt so as not to cut off the plants. Discing serves as a cultivation and to thicken the stand of old alfalfa. On sandy land at Auburn we have found the weeder useful in young alfalfa in killing very young grass and weeds just germinated. At Auburn crimson clover sown early in October in old drilled alfalfa, was ready for cutting at the same time as the alfalfa, and The combined yield was large. This combination is not advised except) when the stand of alfalfa has become so thin that it is about time for it to be plowed under. TOLERANCE OF ALFALFA TOWARD OVERFLOWS. When excessive rains occur and poorly drained soil remains saturated for a long time, alfalfa sometimes take on a pale yellowish, sickly color. This plant is. classed as among those least able to endure prolonged saturation of the soil. Yet the large yields obtaihed on bottom, lands make it worth while to take some chances of injury from overflows, especially on soils so drained naturally or artificially that the ground soon dries after the waters subside. An overflow does not necessarily mean the destruction of the alfalfa plants. Experience in other states indicates that alfalfa may pass saf ely through a submerg- 43 ence of several days if all conditions are favorable. Its endurance of overflow is greater when the water is moving thai when it is stagnant, and greater during the cooler periods of the year than when the plan't'is in a more active stage of growth. The deposit of much sediment on the plant, and hot, fa.i' weather immediately after the water passes off are conditions unfavorable to recovery. Rains, washing off the sediment, are favorable to recovery. In a bulletin of the Texas Experiment Station are cited two instances in which alfalfa in the Brazos River bottoms was under water for five or six days in summer without the destruction of the stand, except where the deposit of sediment wasi great or on poorly drained areas. These are extreme cases, and refer to soil that was well drained. 'Mr. R. P. McEntire, of Decatur, Ala., gives his experience with overflow as follows: "In the fall of 1901 I sowed 3 acres October 15, and got a good stand. In January we had an overflow from the Tennessee River, which was out over the land for two weeks. In a few days we had a hard freeze. Then on February 15 we had another overflow, which lasted 10 days. As the When spring water went off we had another freeze. It would opened I had something like half a stand." seem that one might raise alfalfa on land naturally well drained and where the overflows occur chiefly in winter, and where it is unusual for the water to remain on the land as long as three or four days in winter or two days in the warmer part of the year. 44 HARVESTING ALFALFA. A discussion of the methods of harvesting alfalfa and of the machinery and devices employed would unduly extend this bulletin. In brief, alfalfa should be cured with the shortest practicable exposure in the swarth to the sun. The leaves are the richest portion of alfalfa, and if the hay is sunned too long the leaves drop off. The preferred time for cutting alfalfa is when about one-fourth in bloom, but this varies with the weather and with the thrift of the plants. SUMMARY. Alfalfa is a perennial leguminous plant, useful for hay;, feeding green, pasturage, and for soil improvetme In nutritive quali'ties alfalfa stands in the front . and when fed to farm teams the ration of corn ean be greatly diminished. On suitable soil the yield of hay exceeds that of any other hay plant. On prairie soils in Alabama yields of more than 3 tons per acre ve; e in two instances obtained within seven months aft:r sowing the seed, and the yield continues to increase for several years. Farmers report 3 to 5 tons per acre as the usual yield of hay per acre on prairie soil in Alabalna, and in a number of instances these yields are greatly exceeded. rank, Alfalfa makes an unrivaled hog pasture, and is also recommended as a pasture plant for horses and mules. Cattle and sheep sometimes bloat when grazing on al- 45 falfa. Pasturing, especially during the first year, injures and sometimes kills alfalfa. Soils for alfalfa should be rich, well drained, well supplied with lime and vegetable matter. Alfalfa has been repeatedly demonstrated to be a success on the best grades of prairie soil on both uplands and lowlands. There is reason to believe that alfalfa will thrive on the lihe soils of the Tennessee Valley region and on other calcareous soil in Alabama, and on fertile, well drained, alluvial soils in nearly every part of the State. A crop of 4 tonsof alfalfa hay contains 176 pounds of nitrogen, 40.8 pounds of phosphoric acid (equal to that in 336 pounds of high grade acid phosphate), 134.4 pounds of potash (equal to that in 1,075 pounds of kainit, or in 269 pounds of muriate of potash, and 280 pounds of lime. To replace only the phosphoric acid and potash by commercial fertilizers an expenditure of about $8.75 would be required. The preparation of the land for alfalfa should be thorough, including plowing as deep as practicable, and repeated use of disc and spike tooth harrow. Generally it is best to plow a number of weeks before the seed are to be sown. A weeder or light harrow is the preferred mode of 'covering the seed, which are sown broadcast at the rate of 20 pounds or more per acre. Fall planting before October 15, when practicable, gives alfalfa a start ahead of weeds, but spring planting (early in March), is usually more convenient. Alfalfa, especially that sown in the spring, requires land as free as possible from seeds of weeds, crab grass, etc. Repeated use of the mower during the first year is the preferred method of combatting weeds in alfalfa. Planting alfa.lfa in drills and cultivating it may be 46 suitable for a small patch kept for feed ag green, but this system was found impracticable for a hay field. Usually the best crop to precede spring sown alfalfa is cotton, especially if cotton follows melilotus (sweet clover). The best crop to prepare the land for fall sown alfalfa is cow peas, sown very thick. Numbers of farmers have found that alfalfa thrives when sown on Johnson grass meadows, holding its own, at least for the first few years, against this aggressive grass. Dodder, a yellow thread-like growth, is a serious enemy of alfalfa. One of the remedies consists in mowing and burning. Seed merchants often pass alfalfa seed through a machine which is claimed to remove the dodder seed. On sandy upland soils at Auburn alfalfa has not afforded very profitable yields. On such soils it requires heavy applications of lime or barnyard manure, and it is believed that more profitable use can be made of manure. At Auburn neither nitrate of soda nor cotton seed meal very greatly increase the yield of alfalfa that was properly stocked with root tubercles. Acid phosphate and potash fertilizers are considered indispensible here, and generally advisable on sandy or other soils not rich in lime. Inoculation with soil from old fields of either alfalfa or bur clover greatly increase the yield of alfalfa growing on sandy land. The germ that causes tubercles to develop on sweet clover (meliltous) also causes tubercles to develop on the roots of alfalfa. Hence artificial inoculation of alfalfa is not necessary when it is grown on prairie land that has recently borne a crop of melilotus. Artificial 47 inoculation of alfalfa is probably advisable even for prairie soils when it is uncertain whether either the melilotus or alfalfa germs are present in great numbers. In regions in Alabama where neither alfalfa, meli'lotus, nor bur clover is extensively grown, inoculation of alfalfa is advisable. For this, purpose one may use soil from old fields of either of these plants or inoculating material prepared in the laboratory. BULLETIN No. 128. ALAB AMA. JUNE, 1904. Agricultural Experinent Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute. AUB URN. Feeding and Grazing Experiments.'with Beef Cattle. J. F. DUGGAR, Director and Agriculturist. MONTGOMERY, ALA.. THE BROWN PRINTING CO., PRIYTRRS AND BINDERS. 1904. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. J. M. CARMICHEAL ........... W. C. DAVIS............................................Jasper. STATION COUNCIL. C. Montgomery. T. D. SAMFORD..........................................Opelika. C. THAcH......................................President. Director and Agriculturist. Chemist. Ross .......... .................................... J. F. DUGGAR ............................ B. B. C. A. CART ............................. Veterinarian. E. M. WILCOX.......................................Biologist. R. S. MACKINTOSH............... ............... Horticulturist. J. T. ANDERSON......................Chemist (Soils and Crops). ASSISTANTS. C. L. HARE .............................. A. RANSON ........................ MoB. First Assistant Chemist. Second Assistant Chemist. Assistant in Animal Industry. Third Assistant Chemist. N. C. REW ........................ T. BRAGG ................................. C. M. FLOYD ............................ W. L. THORNTON .................. H. 0. SARGENT .......................... Superintendent of Farm. Assistant in Veterinary Science. Assistant in Horticulture. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. FEEDING AND GRAZING EXPERIMENTS WITH BEEF CATTLE. By J .F. DUGGAR, R. W. CLARKE, and JESSE M. JONES.* Summary. Using twenty young grade steers of the beef breeds, the following comparisons of foods were made: Cotton seed with cotton seed meal (Lots II and I) ; sorghum hay with a mixture of cowpea and sorghum hay, (Lots III and II); sorghum hay with shredded corn stover (Lots III and IV). The feeding period covered 84 days, in addition to preliminary feeding. In all rations a small proportion of corn chop was used. As much grain was fed as the appetites and health of the steers permitted. As much roughness was fed as the steers would eat. The average daily gain per steer was as follows: With cotton seed and cotton seed meal ...... 2.23 lbs. With cotton seed and mixed cowpea and sorghum hay ............................. 1.93 lbs. With cotton seed and sorghum hay..........1.19 lbs. With cotton seed and shredded corn stover .... 98 lbs. *R. W. Clark was Assistant in Animal Industry from September, 1899, to January, 1903, when he was promoted to a professorship in the Utah A. & M. College. Jesse M. Jones occupied the same position from January, 1903, to April, 1904, when he resigned to engage in farming in Alabama. These gentlemen had immediate charge of the experiments during the periods indicated. The Director is responsible for the plans of the experiments and the preparation of this Bulletin. 52 To produce one pound of increase in live weight there was required of concentrated food, "grain," with the cotton seed meal rations and sorghum hay, 4.82 lbs.; with the mixed hay and cotton seed ration, 5.41 lbs.; with the sorghum hay and cotton seed ration, 8.12 lbs.; with the corn stover and cotton seed ration, 9.41 lbs. The amounts of roughness required to produce one pound of gain were, respectively, 6.56, 6.85, 11.09, and 10.23 pounds. The cotton seed meal ration afforded the largest per cent. of dressed meat. A decline in the price of cattle while the experiment was in progress reduced the margin between the buying and selling p)rices to less than six-tenths of a cent a pound, a margin usually too narrow for profitable feeding. On the basis of the very high prices of foodstuffs prevailing in the winter of 1903-4, there was with all cotton seed lots a profit during the first 56 days of the experiment, but a loss after this time with all lots, if no account be taken of the manure. On the basis of moderate prices of feed, Lot II was fed at a profit for 84 days. With low prices of food, Lots I, II,and III afforded a profit, in addition to the manure. The profit in feeding beef cattle is made, not by producing new growth at less cost per pound than it sells for, but in the increased value of the original weight, due to fattening. A margin of one cent per pound between purchase price and selling price is desirable. About 7 pounds of raw cotton seed was fed in the daily ration without injury to the health of the average steer. Account was kept of the cost of food consumed by three grade or crossbred steers. Up to the average age of 24.3 months the average steer consumed $18.39 worth of skim milk, grain, hay, and pasturage, of which 53 amount the first year's food cost $10.45, and that of the second year $7.94. At 24.3 months, the average weight was 867 pounds, worth at 3 cents per pound, $26.01. The average cost of food per pound of gain up to this age was 2.12 cents. In feeding calves rice meal proved decidedly inferior to corn meal. When inferior shredded corn stover was fed to calves, 37 per cent. of it was refused, and when good shredded corn stover was fed freely to steers, 44 per cent. of it was rejected. The waste in feeding coarse sorghum hay, slightly moulded, to steers, averaged 20 per cent. A Jersey calf, kept stabled until 61/ months old. produced manure (with accompanying bedding) at the rate of 9.4 pounds per day. Yearling steers, kept in a barn, averaged a daily production of 20 pounds of manure per day, exclusive of bedding. Yearling steers on rye pasture alone gained 1.67 lbs. daily per head. Grade calves made on pasture alone an average daily gain of .72 of a pound, or 151 pounds per season. Grade yearling steers made an average daily gain of 1.43 lbs. per day, or 307 pounds per season, on native pasturage alone, or 91 pounds of live weight per acre. This was equivalent to a rental of $2.73 per acre for the land. In a co-operative experiment made on an unimproved sandy-land pasture, in Macon county, Alabama, a study was made of the rate of growth of scrub cattle that received no food, even during winter, subsisting entirely on native pasturage and the winter range, and otherwise managed in the most primitive manner. a pasturage season of 7 months the average gains in live weight and percentage of increase as compared with weight in the spring, were as follows: D)uring 54 Mature cow, nursing calves, 59 lbs., or 8 per cent. Heifers (2 years old, etc.), 172 lbs., or 39 per cent. Yearlings, male and female, 103 lbs., or 38 per cent. Sucking calves, 141 lbs., or 51 per cent. Young steers and bulls, 149 lbs., or 35 per cent. Young steers weighed for two pasturage seasons in succession increased in weight 42 per cent. as yearlings, and 44 per cent. as two-year-olds. On the winter range, cattle of all ages became very thin, and in the opinion of the writers, it would have been highly profitable for the owner to have supplied them with hay and other food during the winter. The principal essentials to the profitable production of beef cattle in Alabama are the use of pure-bred bulls of the beef breeds, the economical production of hay, especially from the leguminous plants, the substitution of this hay for a part of the grain ration, and an increased study of the best methods of handling and marketing cattle. FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH GRADE STEERS. The steers used in this experiment consisted of seventeei head, bought at Starkville, Mississippi; and cf three head raised on the Station Farm at Auburn. The Mississippi steers were sired by a. Shorthorn bull weighinig 1700 :pounds, and were out of native cows, aLbJout one- fourth of the steers showing strong evidence of Jersey blood. These streets were between two and three years old when bought. They reached Auburn November 5, 1903. The three steers raised on the Station Farm consisted of a Red Poll grade, an Angus grade, and a crossbred Holstein-Shorthorn. 55 From November 5 to November 20 the entire lot of twenty steers subsisted on a pasture where frost had killed most of the grass on October 24. November 20 they were placed on a bare lot and the feeding of grain, (chiefly cotton seed), and sorghum hay was begun. For the first week they received only two pounds of grain per This head daily, which was evidently insufficient. amount was gradually increased. Throughout this time as much sorghum hay was fed as they would eat. Our experience with these steers confirms conclusions previously drawn that the feeding of grain to animals intended for slaughter the sane winter should begin earlier in the fall than is usual or as soon as the pastures begin to fail. November and December are months in which cattle on pasture shrink rapidly, and doubtless a little grain at this time, even while the cattle are on pasture, will avoid this source of loss. During the entire time of the experiment each lot of cattle received as much forage as it would consume. The kinds of forage fed to each lot are stated below. An effort was made to make each lot of steers consume approximately the same amount of grain or concentrated food. However, this was found impracticable, but the amounts for the different lots were kept as nearly identical as the appetites and health of the animals would permit. The forage was fed in racks above the grain'i trough and was not cut, nor was any of it mixed with the grain ration except such as dropped into the grain trough from the rack above. It is believed that there would have been an advantage in cutting a small part of the hay and mixing it with the grain. Feeding of both grain and hay was done twice a day. Salt was accessible constantly, and twice a day the steers were driven to a pond for water. The water 56 supply was not satisfactory, and during cold weather the steers would not drink sufficient water. The feeding was done under a rough shed covered with boards and battens, and boarded up on the north side. The south side was left open and each lot of steers had at all times the choice between remaining under shelter or staying in the small lots located on the south side of the feeding .pen. The lots were on a steep, dry, sandy and stony hillside, well drained, and never became deep with mud. Even in wet weather the steers seemed to prefer the lot to the shed. The figures, which are not all on the same scale, show the steers as they appeared at the end of the experiment. The steers were charged with all of the forage put into the rack, and what they failed to eat was used as bedding. The amount of this refused material was determined at several times and the average results are stated elsewhere. RATIONS FED. The object of this experiment was to compare, (1) Cotton seed with cotton seed meal. (Lot III and Lot I.) (2) Sorghum hay with a mixture of cowpea hay and sorghum hay. (Lots III and II.) (3) Sorghum hay with shredded corn stover. (Lots III and IV.) All cotton seed was uncooked. On December 3 the twenty steers were divided into four lots, each containing five steers. In making this division both the weights of the steers and their individual conformation were used as a basis for the division. It is believed that the lots were very much alike in average quality as well as in weight. The weights of Lots I, II, III, and IV on December 9 were respectively, 3878, 3915, 3858, and 3889 pounds. 4. A I" .I I _ I" 1 111iu II : "I din 1I I. i I1 11 rIII)I). a u II >'W - 11111 liar 2 i rlu t c+2 iI~o I x z 1 ' t q ":x.:.....'3^"6.1'. it '' 4 Si r4.*. "j a fb Fy 59 The interval from December 3 to December 9 was considered as a preliminary period, and during this time each lot was fed on the kind of food which it was to receive throughout the experiment. The experiment proper began on December 9, and continued for 84 days, or three periods of 28 days each. During all periods the feed for any given lot was the same in kind and nearly the same in amount, the latter being determined entirely by the health and appetite of the steers. The weight of each steer was determined at the beginning of the experiment by three weighings made on three successive days.. Similarly, the final weight was the average of three daily weighings, March 1, 2, and 3, 1904. The rations fed were as follows: Lot I-Cotton seed meal, two-thirds; corn chop, onethird; sorghum hay. Lot II-Cotton seed, three-fourths; corn chop, onefourth: sorghum hay, one-half; pea vine hay, one-half. Lot III--Cotton seed, three-fourths; corn chop, onefourth: sorghum hay. Lot IV-Cotton seed, three-fourths; corn chops, onefourth: shredded corn stover. As much of each kind of forage was fed as the animals would consume without excessive waste. The average amount of forage wasted was as follows: Lot I-Sorghum, 17.1 per cent. Lot II-Sorghum and cowpea hay, 20.7 per cent. Lot III-Sorghum, 23.5 per cent. Lot IV-Shredded corn stover, 44.2 per cent. It will thus be seen that the waste of hay was about one-fifth of the amount fed, while the waste of shredded corn was more than double that of hay. This wasted food, as well as that consumed, was charged against the steers. 60 A considerable part of the surghum hay had passed througlh a heat in the barn, and was somewhat discolored and slightly moulded. It was all coarse, having been grown in drills and cut after the seed had colored. The cow pea hay, which constituted half of the roughness fed to Lot II, was not pure cow pea hay, but consisted of cow pea hay, 61.5 per cent.; crab grass, 24.7 per cent.; weeds, 7.8 per cent.; dirt, (sand, etc. raked up with hay), 6 per cent. The corn stover was bright and of fairly good quality. The corn chop was too It had never been baled. coarsely ground to serve the principal purpose for which intended, viz., to mix with the cotton seed in order to increase the palatability of the seed. Indeed, the chop used during the last three weeks of the experiment was slightly moulded and not relished, which may partly account for the relatively slow gain made at that time. The foods used were charged at the following prices, which are cost prices for purchased articles, and for homegrown forage a figure somewhat above the cost of production : $14.00 Cotton seed, per ton ........... 22.00 Cotton seed meal, per ton ......... 26.00 Corn chop, per ton ............... 10.00 Cow pea hay, per ton ............ 6.67 Sorghum hay, per ton ............. 4.00 Shredded corn stover, per ton .... The following table gives by periods the average amount of grain and of roughness consumed by the steers in each pen, the average weight per steer at the beginning of each period, the average gain per steer per day and per 28 days, and most important of all, the amount of grain and of roughness required to make one pound of increase in live weight. It also gives a summary of results for the first two periods (56 days) and for the entire experiment (84 days) 61 Average results, of [ceding experiment with steers, 1903-04. Period I-Dec. 9-Jan. 6: Average daily ration per steer.¢, 6 Grain. Roughness. Food per lb. of gain. Chief food. c Lbs.. Lbs. Lbs. I5 10.88 . 13.3 I..C. Mv.& corn5 S. Cotton seed, sorg. & pea. 12.9 H. 10.411 .. ,sorghum. 5 5 5 5 776 83.4 783 63.2 2.971 2.25 Lbs. Lbs. 4.10 5.06 5.15 6.36 6.15 t.... IV I II. II [. S S 9.721....Cotton seed, t5...... 12.8 sorghum. 9.46....... Cotton seed, 9.3 1stover. 1_...I 772 58.2 2.08 1.96 4.66 4.81 778 55.0 ________ 4.71 Period 11-Jan. 6-Feb. 3: 859 65.4 EI2.20 66.4 25.6 2.38 S11.2.... C. S. 14.8 sorghum. 10.4f.. Cotton seed .... 12.9 sorg. and pea.5 . 4.791.6.38 ~10.1'... IV. ...... 12.9 sorghum. 59.3 ...... 9.9 C. Seed .... stover. 11. (..... ,Seed. Periods 1-11-56 days : I ..... 14. C. S. Meal sorghum. 10.4........ C. seed, 129sorg. and peas .91.... C.seed, i...... 1i 833~ 14..6 I S. 846f 4.715.45 .1I 10.99 14.14 17.91 18.90 .91 .52 J(5 148.8 69. 2.51 2.31 4.25 4.49 5.45 5.57 129.6$ 83.8 1.50 1.24 6.60~ 8.59 7.57 7.68 12.9 sorghum. 1v. .38........C. seed, ... 9.6 corn stover. Perio 111-Feb. 3-March 3: I. II. II IV. S9.3 10.4 .. 15.8 C. S. Meal, . sorghum. .C. se-d, ... 13.8 1sorg & cowpea. C. seed, .... 13.9 sorghum C. seed, .... 11.0 stover. i i I i 43.2 9201 913 32.2 16.4 12.8 1.52 1.15 .58 .45 7.19 11.43 9.09 12.02 855 849 15.89 23.74 19.43 24.06 58.9 i 62 Three Periods-84 days: Food per lb. of gain. Average daily rat ion per steer. -~Grain. ° Roughness. Chief food. S. meal, 10.8 14.6 sorgum 1f..C. ily rati1 Lbs. Lbs. . 192. 161.8 0 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 2.23~ 4.82 6.56 1.93 1.19 6.85 5.41 .... 11.09 8.12 .... 10.43....... .... 13.2 1.70....... .... 13.2 9.22....... 10. .... C. seed, sorg. and peas. C. seed, sorghum. C. seed, corn stover 100.2 :. 82.4 10.23, .98~ 9.41 .. the The most important portion of the above tables summary giving the results of 84 days. From this we observe that to produce one pound of increase in live Roughweight required: Grain. ness.. is Lot I, fed cotton seed meal, sorghum hay, :.4.82 ....... ...... ...... etc... ...... Lot II, fed cotton seed, cow pea and sorg5.41 .......... hum hay, etc...... ...... Lot II, fed cotton seed, sorghum hay, etc.8.12 Lot IV, fed cotton seed, corn stover, etc...9.41 6.56 6.85 11.09 10.23 This clearly indicates the superiority of cotton seed meal compared with an equal weight of cotton seed; the superiority of mixed cov pea and sorghum hay over sorghum hay; and the great advantage of the ration containing cow pea hay as compared with those in which roughness consisted of sorghum or corn stover. In rapidity of gains the rations stand in the same rank. The average daily gain per steer was as follows : the Lot Lot Lot Lot 1, cotton seed meal, sorghum, etc........ 2.23 II, cotton seed, cow pea and sorghum, etc .1.93 III, cotton seed, sorghum, etc..........1.19 IV, cotton seed, corn stover, etc.......... .98 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 63 EFFECT OF FEED ON QUALITY OF STEERS. The steers were sold in the lots at Auburn to Phillips lJngermann, Packers, Birmingham, Alabama. Naturally there was considerable individual difference between the steers, so that the differences in the price put upon each by the packers are not entirely chargeable to the food used. The packers' estimate of the value of the steers fed on the different rations is shown by the following table, giving the selling prices. .Prices of steers when sold. Principal foods fed. 0 1 3 2 8 4 2 2 1 Wheu sold Lots 5 .. 2 .. $164.47 .. C. S. meal, sorghum. 83 2 166.25 134.29 189.55 C. seed, pea, and sorg. C. seed, sorghum. C._seed,'stover. equal quality, forded and in this respect far superior to Lots III I and II were judged to be of nearly and IV. The more nitrogenous (narrower) rations af- the more rapid fattening and the higher quality Judged by percentage of dressed shipping from Auburn to as judged by the eye. weight or shrinkage during roughness. Taking the- Birmingham, the steers fed on cotton seed meal (Lot were superior to Lot III, fed on cotton seed and the samie weights at Aubun I) as the live weights, and comparing them with the amount of dress- ed mleat. obtained in Birmingham, we that Lot I, on cotton seed meal and sorohum, netted 54.5pe cent.; Lot find 64 11, cotton seed and mixed hay, netted 01 per cent. Lot III, on cotton seed and sorghum hay netted 50.6 per cent.; Lot Iv, on cotton seed and corn stover, netted 51.3 per cent. In on other words, on this basis alone, the packer could have afforded to pay a premium of one-fourth cent per pound. gross for Lot I, in comparison with Lot Ill. It is but fair to add that if live weights in Birmingham could have been ascertained the percentages of dressed meat would doutbtless have ranged considerably higher. FINANCIAL RETURNS. .For 5 ays.-The cattle cost 2% c per pound in No- velnlber. No charge is here made for freight, since on a fraction of a carload this wa.s a very heavy expense per head, and since, moreover, the few Alabama cattle that could have been had without any freight charges would have cost no more near home than was paid for this larger and more uniform lot of cattle in Mississippi. I) mring the period between the purchase of these cattle, in November. 1.903, and their sale, in March, 1904, to a })ackinig house in Birmingham, Alabama, the prices of cattle fell. The estimated decline in the price of cattle of this grade was about c pound . Hence, under normal conditions with a nmarket neither advancin g nor declining, we should have I 2 c nmore per pound than the cattle actually brought, which would and' per realized have given a fair profit on each of the four lots. The price paid in our lots at Auburn was 31/2 cents per pound. for the best ten steers, 314 cents per pound for the five steers ranking and 3 cents per pound next, for time five poorest steers. Since the gains made by nmost of the steers were quite unsatisfactory during the third period, and since this. is 65 believed to have been largely due to the inferior quality (mouldiness) of the corn chop purchased, we have calculated the financial returns at the end.of.56 days' feed ing, as well as at the end of 84 days' feeding. For the 56 days embra ced in the first two periods of the experiment, the financial results were as follows: Lot I: To 3878 lbs. live weight, at 234c...........$106.64 To 3948 lbs. sorghum hay, at $6.67 per ton 13.16 2054 lbs. cotton seed meal, $22 per ton 22.60 1025 lbs..corn chop, $26 per ton....... 13.33 155.73 By 4602 lbs. live weight, at 31/c and 31/4c Loss on 5 steers in 56 days Lot II: To.3915 lbs. live weight at, 2 c .. .... $107.58 To 1805 lbs. cowpea hay, at $10 per ton 9.02 1805 lbs. sorghum hay, at $6.67 per ton 6.02 1940 lbs. cotton seed, at $14 ton. 10.88 970 lbs. corn chop, at $26 per ton.......12.61 $153.69 18.....14 per By 4563 lbs. live weight at 31/2 c..... 146.11 159.71 Gain on 5 steers in 56 days........ Lot 13.60 $106.10 III: To 3858 lbs. live-weight, at 334c......... To 3608 lbs. sorghum hay, at $6.67 per ton 1844 lbs. cotton seed, at $14 per ton.... 923 lbs. corn chop, at $26 per ton.... By 4277 lbs. live weight, at 314 and 3c Loss on 5 steers in 56 days ....... Lot 12.03 12 91 12.00 143.04 $132.40 10.64 IV: To 3889 lbs. live weight, at 23%c........... $106.95 To 2676 lbs. shredded corn stover, at $4 5.35 1756 lbs. cotton seed, at $14............ 12.29 878 lbs. corn chop, at $26............. 11.41 I,$138.78 2.58 136.20 By 4237 lbs. live wt., at 31/2, 31,4, and 3c Gain on 5 steers in 56 days.......... 66 In this period of 56 days there is a profit of $13.60 from the lot fed on a mixture of cowpea and sorghum hay and cotton seed; a profit of $2.58 from the lot fed on corn stover and cotton seed; a slight loss from Lot III, the lot fed an cotton seed meal; and a considerable loss from the lot fed on cotton seed and sorghum hay. For 84 days.-During the third period of 28 days, the cattle in all lots made very slight gains, largely due, it is believed, to the poor quality of the corn chop fed during the last three weeks of the experiment. Hence the unsatisfactory results of the third period greatly reduce the financial returns for the entire experiment of 84 days. F'inancial retuarns for 5 steers per lot for 84 days- with low,, medium, and. high prices II of foodstuffs. ! 7.50 Cotton seed, per ton . Cotton seed meal per ton . Corn chop, per ton Cowpea hay, per ton .... w. Lo-v $10. .00 18. .00 20. .00 5. 00 II Medium. $12.00 20.00 23.00 5.0 3.25 High. $14.00 22.00 26.00 Sorghum hay, per ton..j Shredded corn stover, toni Lot I.Dr. By 5 steers, selling price. . To 5 steers, bought 4. .00 2. .50 10.00 4.0 To food fed............... at 2% c. 4 Cr. 164 47 106 64 55.5a . 164.47 164.47 106 64 . 1.06 64 ... .... .... 6403 ........ 74.55... I Dr. Cr. Dr. Cr. Profit or Lo'c......... Profit 2.28 6.20) Loss 16.72 Lose Lot II. 166.25 ... By 5 steers. selling price..... 166 25 ... 166.25 107.58 . ... 107.58.. To 5 steers, bought at 2 %c. 107 58 5... 47.94 . ... 60 31.... To food fed. .... 39.81 Profit or Lot III. By 5 steers. selling price . ... 134.29 ... 134.29 134.29 ... To 5 steers, bought at 2%4c. 106. 10 106.10.. .106.10 To food fed .......... ... 44.38........53.24 ... .... 36.56 Profit or 1Toss .......... Lot Loss.. . . . . Profit 19.86 Profit 10.73 16.19 Loss.. 0 64 Loss.. By 5 steers, selling price ....... . 139 55 ... 139 55 ..... 139.55 "To 5 steers, bought at 2%4 c. 106 95 i... 10695 10695.'. To food fed............... 29.50 ... 32.99 ... 41.38... " IV. 8.37 Loss.. 25.05 Loss.. Profit or Loss ......... ,o Profit 3.10 0.39iLoss..I 8.78 Loss.. 67 At the abnormally high prices of feed prevailing during the past winter, there was a financial loss with every lot of steers fed for 84 days. On a basis of medium prices for food stuffs on the farm, Lot II, fed on mixed cowpea and sorghum hay, cotton seed, and corn chop, afforded a profit of $10.73, in addition to the value of the manure, all other lots entailing a loss. With unusually low prices for food, every lot, except Lot III, afforded a profit, Lot II leading. Whateveir the price of feed the ration of mixed cowpea and sorghum hay, cotton seed, and corn chop, was the most profitable. As before stated, the fall in the price of fat cattle between the time of purchase and of sale of these cattle was about half a cent per pound. Had there been a stationary, instead of a declining market, there would have been an additional credit of at least $20 for each lot, or sufficient to make a profit on every lot except Lot III, with food stuffs at the highest rating. The production of beef in the South-should be thought of as two distinct lines of business, which may be combined on one farm or which may be entirely separate. These divisions are: (1) The growing of cattle from the time of conception until the animal has reached sufficient size to be fed or finished for market, which is usually when a grade of the beed breeds is between two and three years of age; (2) Feeding or finishing cattle, usually between two and three years. The first operation to be most highly profitable requires an abundance of good pasturage and the almost exclusive reliance on foods grown on the farm, many of which could not be marketed at all unless first converted into some form of livestock. In feeding operations on the other hand, use can often be made of purchased 68 food, especially of 'cotton seed meal. But even in feeding cattle in winter there will be, as a rule, most clear profit to the farmer who utilizes crops raised on his own land, for example, such foods as were fed in this experiment to Lot III. It is generally recognized in states where immense numbers of beef cattle are fed for market from 4 to 5 months, that the profit consists chiefly in buying cattle at a low price per pound and in selling them when fattened at a considerably higher price per pound. It is a common saying that the difference between the buying and the selling price must be at least one cent per pound if the feeder is to obtain a satisfactory profit in addition to the manure. Readers are cautioned against concluding that a certain feeding operation is unprofitable simply because every pound of increase in live weight has cost more than the same pound will sell for. The'profit lies chiefly in the enhanced value of every pound of the animal's weight when feeding was begun, an increase in value due to the superior quality (or degree of fatness) of the finished steer. The following example of a steer weighing 900 pounds when feeding was begun, may make this important statement clearer: Dr.. To cost of feed, 100 days, at 12c per day..........$12.00 1 By value of 200 lbs. increase in wt., at 3 ........ By increased value of original wt. 900 lbs. at 1c.... Cr. $7.50 9.00 $16.50 Profit .............. ........... ..... ... $4.50 $16.50 /,c Here the feed cost more than the value of the increased weight, or one pound of gain cost 6 cents, but sold for only 31/2c. Yet this transaction was directly profitable, to say nothing of the indirect profit from the manure 69 and from the utilization of food that would otherwise have been wasted. The essentials to the highest profit in producing beef in Alabama are: (1) The use of thoroughbred bulls of the beef breeds, and, as soon as practicable, of dams having some beef blood; (2) Abundance of good pastures; (3) Economical production on the farm of cowpea, sorghum, and other hay, and other foods needed in wintering cattle; (4) Intrusting the care of cattle to men who have studied the business both of crop production and of feeding; (5) Increased attention to marketing, including the raising of such numbers of beeves and of such quality as will be worth shipping in carload lots to the best markets North or South; equitable freight rates; increased appreciation on the part of local butchers of the superior value of well bred and well fattened beeves; and cooperation in selling and shipping. ITEALTH OF THE STEERS. This was good throughout the experiment, with the exception of an occasional case of scouring. The conclusion was drawn that for these particular lots of steers fed the specified kinds of roughness ad libitum it is not safe to feed more than 7.5 pounds of cotton seed meal per day per steer to steers fed as those in Lot I, nor more than 7.8 pounds of raw cotton seed to Lot II, nor more than 7.5 pounds of raw cotton seed to Lot III, nor more than 6.9 pounds of raw cotton seed to Lot IV, which also received corn stover. Although corn stover is considered as constipating, yet cotton a 70 seed, a very laxative food, had to be fed in smaller amounts with the above named roughness than when fed with cow pea hay and sorghum, both of which are considered more laxative than the stover. Our experience that between 7 and 8 pounds is the maximum daily ration of raw cotton seed which can be safely fed to steers, without inducing scouring, agrees closely with results at the Oklahoma Station, where the maximum amount recommended was 8 pounds. (Okla. Sta. Bul. No. 58, p. 37). Manure produced.-As elsewhere stated, the steers spent far more time in the yards than under shelter, and most of the manure dropped in the yards was lost, due to drainage of lots. About a week after the steers were sold, all the manure lying under the sheds and also the thick layer of manure extending out about six feet from the sheds was weighed before being hauled to the fields. The total amount hauled out from the four sheds aggregated 29,600 pounds of excellent manure. Making allowance for that produced during the preliminary period, it is estimated that about 27,000 pounds was produced during the 84 days of the experiment proper. In other words there was saved from the sheltered manure about 161/2 pounds of manure per steer daily, and doubtless the amount wasted was much greater. No bedding was used except the rejected stems of the hay and stover. Bedding should have been used. At $2.00 per ton the manure saved would average an additional credit of $6.75 per lot. COST OF PRODUCING BEEF. To afford final conclusions as to the cost of producing beef, it will be necessary to raise a number of animals in different years and under widely different conditions. However, the following data based on the re- 71 suits with three steers is offered as a preliminary contribution to our knowledge on this subject. An account was kept of the amount of food consumed by each of three calves from the age of two or three weeks until taken from the pasture at the end of the second. grazing season, November 1, 1903, when we were offered 3 cents per pound for them by a local butcher. These animals were Dangus, a steer sired by a registered Angus, and out of a large cow that seemed to be about 12 Jersey; Toom, a steer sired by a registered Red Poll bull, and out of a large native cow, apparently a Shorthorn grade ; Holstein, a cross-bred Shorthorn Holstein. All of these were dropped between Septembr 21 and December 17, 1901. The history of these individuals is as follows: For the one or two weeks after birth the calves, then belonging to private viduals, subsisted on the milk afforded by one teat of the dam. One of these calves, Holstein, dropped on the Station Farm,'was never allowed to suck, but was fed for the first few weeks on whole milk or part whole milk. The account for food stands as follows: Dangus- first indi- Dr. 2009 lbs. skimmed milk, at '/4 c................... $5.02 172 lbs. bran and corn meal, winter, at lc ....... 1.72 214 lbs. leguminous hay, winter, at 1/2~c........... 1.07 Cr. 180 lbs. grain, Eight months' pasturage at 25c.................... 294 lbs. cotton sed second winter, at 5/sc............ 132 lbs. cotton seed meal and wheat bran, second winter, at 1c................................... 399 lbs. hay, second winter, at 1-3c ................. 86 lbs. green rye, at 1/ 8 first spring at 1c .. first first . .... .. .. .. . . . . .1.80 2.00 1.84 1.32 1.33 .11 c .......................... 81/2 months' pasturage, at 30c ..................... 2.55 18.76 26.64 To cost of food up to age of 25 months ............. By weight at 25 months Excess of value over cost of feed.................. Cost of food per pound of live weight, 2.1lic. (Nov. 1, '03) 888 lbs. at 3c.. 7.88 $26.64 $26.64 72 Toown (12 Red Poll)Cr. Dr. 2100 lbs. skim milk, at 14c......................$5.25 131 lbs. wheat bran, first winter, at Ic.............1.31 248 lbs. rice meal, first winter and spring, at 5 1.55 311 lbs. leguminous hay, first winter, at '/20...........1.55 8 months' pasturage, at 25c......................2.00 361 lbs. cotton seed, second winter, at gc...........2.25 180 lbs. wheat bran and cotton seed meal, second winter, at ic ................................. 1.80 484 lbs. sorghum hay, second winter, at 1-3c.........1.61 86 lbs. green rye, at ................. 11 81/2 months' pasturage at 30c.....................2.55 /c 1/8c., To total cost of feed to 25 months ................ 19.98 By -848 lbs. live weight, at 3c....................... Excess of value of steer over cost of feed...........5.46 Cost of food per pound of live weight, 2.35c. $25.44 25.44 $25.44 Holstein-S/orthorn1554 lbs. skim milk, at 'Ac.... ................... 144 lbs. wheat bran and corn meal first winter, at ic 150- lbs. leguminous hay at /2c......................75 3.88 1.44 8 months' pasturage, at 25c.......................2.00 374 lbs. cotton seed, second winter, at 5 /sc...........2.35 200 lbs. wheat bran and corn meal, 2nd winter, at ic.2.00 393 lbs. corn stover, second winter, at 1-Sc ........... 51 lbs. vetch hay, second winter, at '/20.................. .26 84 lbs. green rye, at 1/c........ ................... .11 8/ months' pasturage at 30c...................... 2.55 27 lbs. cotton seed meal at ic..................... .79 .30 25.95 $25.95 Tro total cost of feed to 23 months ................ 16.43 By 865 lbs. live weight at 3c.......................... Excess of value over cost of feed................. 9.52 Cost of food per pound live weight, $25.95 1.9c. From the above statement, it will be seen that at the high prices of recent years, the total average cost of food eaten by each animal from the age of two to four weeks until 24.3 months old, averaged $18.39, and financial 73 that the value of the average steer at this age, weighing 867 pounds, was $26.01. This gives an average difference of $7.62 between cost of food and selling price, and must cover the cost of the calf at 2 to 4 weeks old, and other items of expense. A much more favorable financial showing could have been made had not each of these steers been used in feeding experiments during each of two winters. There was no spcial effort to grow the animals as economically as possible when economy conflicted with experimentation as to the comparative value of foods. It is planned to grow in future a lot of grade beef calves with the primnary object of producing beef as cheaply as the conditions at Auburn permit, and we are confident that with this end in view the cost can be greatly reduced below the figures given above by the following changes in the method of handlng the animals: (1) By decreasing the amount of grain in winter and the substitution for it of leguminous hay and winter pastures. (2) By the use of cheaper grain food, chiefly cotton seed. (3) By causing the calves to be dropped after Christmas and keeping them only two winters if they are ready for market. In order to make it easier for each reader to draw his own conclusions from the data above and to place his own local prices on the foods used, the following summary of the average amounts of food consumed per animial up to the age of 24.3 months, has been prepared. 74 Average anmount of food consiuned grade steers fromi c ge of 2 to .l weeks to age of 24.3 months. by ]Jir.t year1888 pounds skim milk. 258 pounds grain. 225 pounds hay 8 months' pasturage. Second year480 pounds grain, chiefly cotton seed. pounds sorghum hay and corn stover. 81/2 months' pasturage. 1276 From the above detailed data was $10.45; previously noted we learn that the average cost of feed and pasturage a steer up to the age of 24.3 months was $18.39. Of this, for the cost incurred during the first year for calves dropped in the fall the cost of food and pasturage the year was $7.94. second The average cost of food per pound of live weight was 2.12 cents, which cost could have been reduced if the prime object in feeding these animals had continually been the cheapest production of beef. RICE MEAL VERSUS CORN MEAL FOR CALVES. Calves dropped in the fall of 1901 were used in .this experiment. They were grades of the beef breeds. Each was fed a nmoderate ration of skim milk, as much calf lespedeza the (Japan clover) hay as it would eat, and as much of the grain mixture named below as it would eat without waste. The calves were first fed for nearly two months on the ration which each was to receive during eaten was small, and especially during this time the rice meal D ,iri ng these two months the amount of grain experiment. proper. 75 proved decidedly inferior in palatability to the corn meal. Indeed, it was impossible to make the calves eat suficie t of the rice meal, so that it became necessary to use wheat bran as one-third of the weight of the rice meal ration, and of course wheat bran likewise constituted one-third of the corn meal mixture. The experimental period proper extended from January 1 to April 2, 1902, a period of ninety-one days. The detailed records for each calf are given in the table below: Rice neal versus corn meal for calves. Name..Breed. Rice meal lotToorn Foxella . ... ...... a ...... .... ...... Total 1531 237116201 180 15211/2 Red Poll 2521 3001 4171 195 137.3/ Angus 4051 537120371 2891 I I I 3751 corn meal lot--Andrew..... .... Dangus .. .... ........ .......... 1 261 306 475 192 150 3/ Angus J 3991 520120841 3171 350J 138 214 1609 125 200 1/2 Angus Total............. The calves receiving rice meal made an average daily gain per head of 1.6 pounds, while the lot eating corn meal averaged 1.9 pounds per head. To make one pound of increase in live weight, the following amounts of food were needed : Rice meal. Lbs. grain required to make 1 lb. of gain ... 1.40 Lbs. hay required to- make 1 lb. of gain .... 1.85 Lbs. skim milk requiredI to make 1 lb. gain .7.04 Corn meal. 1.24 1.49 5.70 76 From the figures given above it will be seen that corn meal was decidedly superior to rice meal in giving more rapid growth, and in requiring a smaller amount of food per pound of growth. Corn meal is also superior in composition and palatability. The rice meal used evidently consisted partly of ground rice hulls. After an experience of five months in feeding rice meal to calves, we are led to the conclusion that it is not an especially desirable food for calves. However, the gains made by these calves on rice meal indicate that when the price is very much cheaper than that of corn that it may be thus used. A briefer experience in feeding rice polish suggests that it may be found to be a very desirable food for calves, as also we have found it for hogs. SHREDDED CORN STOVER VERSUS SORGHUM HAY. During the winter of 1902-03 an experiment was begun to determine the relative values of shredded corn stover and sorghum hay, using yearling cattle, most of which were grades of the beef breeds. The experiment was interrupted by sickness of two of the animals, which was not due to the feed. In the fifty days before this interruption the rate of daily gain was much greater with the sorghum lot than with those fed the corn stover. The latter was of medium to poor quality and was decidedly unpalatable. Of the corn stover offered, 37 per cent. remained uneaten in the troughs, although this food was fed in such limited quantities as to make the animals consume as large a proportion of it as possible. During a part of the time the stover was sprinkled with brine, but this did not noticeably increase its palatability. The sorghum was eaten clean. At first it was cut into short lengths, but this was found to be unnecessary, the 77 yearlings consuming a bright good grade of sorghum hay fed whole as well as when cut. The grain ration fed in connection with both the stover and the sorghum hay consisted by weight of four parts cotton seed, one part cotton seed meal, and one part wheat bran, a very satisfactory combination. MANURE MADE. Manure from a young calf.-A Jersey heifer calf, dropped October 15, 1901, was kept in a box stall from November 3 to April 30, 1902, except that for one day every two weeks she was allowed to run in a lot, and the Pine leaves were manure for this day was thus lost. freely used as bedding, and in more liberal quantity than is customary. The total amount of mnanure, including bedding, as weighed a week after the close of the experiment was 1645 lbs. produced in 176 days. This is about 9.4 lbs. of manure and bedding per day, which is a larger amount than would be obtained with the usual amount of bedding. During this time this calf consumed 204 lbs. of wheat bran, 323 lbs. hay (chiefly lespedez, and crimson clover), 92 lbs. of whole milk, and 1191 lbs. of skim milk. Assuming 6 lbs. of skim milk as equivalent to 1 lb. of grain, we have a total amount of feed eaten, equivalent to about 740 lbs. of grain and hay. Hence for every pound of air-dry food consumed there was produced about 2.2 lbs. of manure. Manure produced by yearling beef animals.-Beginiing January 17th, 1902, the combined liquid and solid manure dropped by six head of yearling cattle, most of which were grades of the beef breeds, was saved and 78 weighed daily. The arrangement for catching the droppings consisted only of the usual wooden manure gutter and the use of pine leaves as bedding. The floors of the stalls were of clay, and hence there was some loss of the liquid manure from the.four steers. The cattle had to be taken from the barn for a short time twice a day for water, which represented the loss of such manure as was dropped during a daily period of about one-half hour. From these statements it will be seen that the effort was rather to determine the amount of manure that the farmer could expect to save from cattle of this kind, kept under shelter, than to determine from a scientific standpoint the actual and exact weight of the excreta. The results for the twenty-day period were as follows: Lbs. Solid and liquid manure saved from 6 yearlings in 2402 20 days, excluding bedding ................ 179 Bedding used ............................... Total manure per head daily, excluding bedding... 20 Total manure per head daily, including bedding... 21.5 Total cotton seed, cotton seed meal, and' wheat bran ..................... 825 fed ........... Total sorghum hay and corn stover actually con497 sumed.................................. Total food ....... ......................... 1322 Pounds liquid and solid manure saved per pound of 1.8 ...... ............ dry food fed .... ........ At this rate six yearlings in one month would produce 3600 lbs. of manure, or, including bedding, about two tons.. In other words, a beef animal weighing about 500 lbs. would produce a ton of manure in about 3 months. GRAZING YEARLING STEERS ON GREEN RYE. For three weeks, beginning March 11, 1903, four yearling steers, averaging about 500 pounds in weight, were placed on a field of rye, sown on thin upland on the Sta- 79 tion farm at Auburn during the preceding Before being placed on this pasture they had for several days been accustomed to eating green rye and had been all allowed to make the fill that usually occurs when cattle are first placed on green food. The increase in live weight was 1.67 pounds per head per day. The rye was about two feet high when the cattle were turned on it, and although too old and coarse to be as palatable as at a younger stage, yet it was eaten clean. To determine the increase in live weight made by thoroughbred and grade cattle of the beef breeds, weighings were made throughout the pasture season for such beef animals in the Station herd as were kept continuously on pasture. The following table gives first, data for five calves, grades of the beef breeds; and for five mature cows, thoroughbreds and of the beef breeds, for the time that they were kept continuusly on pasture. September. the grades Gains of Station beef cattle on pasture alone. Name. Breed.'W cc c Toom ............... 9 Red Poll.......... Dangus ............ 1/2 Angus..... ........ Holstein ............ Hol. short........... Aubelle............. 1Short horn...... ..... Foxella.............1f3,! Angus...... ...... Dangus 2nd ........ I1/ 345 340 315 455 370 2381 160 152 '1771 951 1351 187j 2141 214 214 214 214 Angus ............. Clementina......... Red Poll ............. Gazelle.............1 Short-horn..... ..... Baroness............ Grade Angus......... 1050 1010 2001 2401 1851 184,1 1831 1831 1831 .74 .71 .82 .44 .63 1.01 1.09 1.31 10451 Fancy.............. Grade Angus.......... 880 Sally............. Angus .. .... 855 145! 245'1 1831 183! 1.01 .78 1.34 80 the above table it will be seen that the average daily gain of calves having from 50 100 per cent. of beef blood, was .72 pound, and that the average daily gain of thoroughbred. and grade beef cows was 1.1 pounds. The pasture was strictly unimproved, or in its natural condition, and consisted chiefly of old poor upland fields, too poor for cultivation, on which the principal growth lespedeza and broom sage. In order to determine the amount of beef which might be produced from an acre of pasture, a portion of the pas ture of the Alabama Experiment Station farm was ed off and four young steers were kept on it from April 1 to November 1, 1903. The following table gives the breeding of the their weight on April 1, and the gain made during the next seven months. From to fenc- animals, Gains made by foutr yearling steers from April 1 to November 1,,1903. , Name. Breed. Toom Dangus.............'1/2, Angus...... ...... .......... .... ;1/ Red Poll .... .... 590 ,535 848 258! 8881 Holstein............ Hoist-shorthorn... Cull ............... JScrub .. .. ..... 44Sf 555 86Sf 7151 2701 3531 310' 1.20 1.64 1.44 1.26 The area in this pasture was 13.11 acres, of which about 3.1 acres was covered by a dense growth of alders and other timber. On this area the total increase in live weight made by the four steers was 1191 pounds, or at the rate of 91 pounds of increase in live weight for each acre, including thickets. At 3 cents per pound, this is equivalent to a rental of $2.73 per acre for the entire tract,__although, cultivated, the rental value of the entire tract would not have exceeded half this amount. if 81 Moreover, in the season of 1903, when rains were so favorably distributed for the growth of pasture grasses the steers were not able to consume the entire growth. We estimated that there was food enough for two more similar steers. For three weeks in November this pasture supported seventeen two-year-old steers, without other food. The average daily gain per head for the three yearling steers with beef blood on pasturage alone was 1.43 lbs. and the average gain for the pasturage season was 307 lbs. per head. GAINS MADE BY SCRUB CATTLE ON PASTURES. Conditions of the experiment.-It seemed a matter of importance to study the gains made by scrub cattle (unimproved natives) during the grazing season. Hence in the spring of 1901, an experiment was begun in cooperation with a farmer living in Macon county, Alabama, who every year pastures a large number of cattle of scrub or Jersey blood. One of the principal objects in view was to ascertain what class of animals, or rather animals of what age, made the most rapid gains, or brought the most profit to the dealer or stockman pasturing cattle. The Station furnished the scales and its representative weighed the cattle several times each year. The pasture is so large and the cattle so wild and the stock so frequently changed by sales and new purchases that only for a few of the several hundred animals weighed are the records in any sense complete. However, by combining the results for the three years, we obtained averages which are believed to have some suggestive value. The pasture on which these cattle grazed consisted of old fields and swampy thickets with a small amount of switch cane, The principal growth relished by cattle 3 82 consisted of lespedeza, broom sage, crab grass, swamp grasses, and switch cane. This is strictly an unimproved pasture, no seed of any kind having been sown in it. It is probably an average native or unimproved pasture on sandy land. Most of it is made up of old fields, some that have been uncultivated for many years, and other areas recently thrown out of cultivation. The soil would rank as poor sandy land, worth, perhaps, if in cultivation, $3 to $6 per acre. Relative gains during the pasturage season in grazing scrub cattle of different ages. By averaging the results for the different years, it was found that during the portion of the pasturage season covered by our weighings the daily gain made by the different classes of stock for periods of 138, 183, and 236 days (these being the respective intervals between weighings during the three years, were as follows: Daily gains made by scrub cattle on native pasturage alone. 9 14 7 4 13 .28 cows averaged per day................. heifers (300 lbs. and above) averaged........82 yearlings, male and female, averaged...... . 49 . 67 sucking calves averaged. .71 steers and bulls (above 300 lbs.) average.. lb. lb. lb. lb. lb. It was impracticable to make weighings early enough in the spring and late enough in the fall to include the entire pasturage season. However, we are confident that the period during which cattle made average gains was at least seven (7) months, or from April 15th to NoHence, in order to make the results vember 15th. clearer we have calculated from the figures above the gains for a pasturage season of 210 days and the results are given below: 83 Gains uade by scrub cattle during a season on pasture. Lbs of 7 months Value of in.crease at 21/24 $1.48 59. Mature cows, sucking calves .... 172.4.30 Heifers above 300 lbs ........... 2.58 Yearlings, up to 300 lbs ......... 103 141.3.52 Sucking calves ................ Young steers and bulls..........1493.73 .It is obviously unfair to compare the mature cows with the other animals, since the slight gains made by they them are due in large measure to the tact nursing calves at their sides. Excluding the cows, We find that the largest gains were made by the heifers that at the beginning of the season weighed more than 300 lbs. It is notable that the heifers should have beaten sucking calves the steers of corresponding weight. made considerably greater gains than did the yearlings, but it cannot of course be said that sucking calves are most profitable stock for grazing, for the reason that the grazing of this class of*animals necessitates supporting the dam, whose gain is slow. more accurate idea of the relative profit of grazing these different classes of animals may be obtained by . that had The A ascertaining what per cent of increase, as compared with the weight in the spring, is made by the average animal. of each class during the season of abundant pasturage. Percent increase during pastuarage season Avg. wt in spring, of 7 months. Per cent. increase. Cows, suckling 8 Heifers ........ .... ....... 440........39 Yearlings, male and female .. 269.......... 38 Sucking calves ............... 272......... 51 Steers and bulls calves..........615.......... ............. 428.........35 According to this showing, if scrub cattle are bought and sold at the same price, the investment should return a gross profit of 39 per cent. with large heifers, 38 per cent with yearlings and 35 per cent. with steers. Since 84 the selling price per pound is considerably above the purchase price, the showing is still more favorable. Of course, front this must be deducted number of exloss from penditures, including interest or rent death. If these figures are representative they indicate that either one of these three classes of scrub cattle may be pastured at practically the, same.profit. However, for cattle to be kept over winter without feed except the range the losses by death are greater with the calves and yearlings than with older animals. To form, a better idea of the weights of these scrub cattle, the reader is referred to the table in the Appendix. Annual growth made by scrub cattle under range ditios.-It would be of interest to ascertain the weights from year to year and the average gains for an entire year under this systemi of maintaining scrub cattle without any food in winter. From causes alluded to above our records on this point are fragmentary, the stock being constantly changed. Ten head of cows averaged an annual increase in live weight of only twenty-four pounds, this poor showing being attributable, of course, to-the calves that they suckled. The history of five young steers, weighed at intervals for two years is of interest as showing the effect of age on the rate of growth of very young cattle. The following table gives the details: young scrub steers in two years. Growth made aand con- by Steer No.0 32 M .;4M 11........... 56 ........... 57....... 67 ............ .... ... ... . 84 ..... .. .. Lbs 218 238 326 304 234 Lbs 120 128 168 88 64 Lbs 170 190 172 170 178 Lbs 2901 318 1 340 258 r I 242 1 .l45i Lbs. 145 159 170 129 121 Average . . .. . .. . . . From. this table we see that the average gain per steer per year was 145 pounds, worth at 2 /c per pound, $3.67.. The increase made by these young steers was 85 during the first year 42 per cent over their weights in the spring. The same steers made during their second year an increase of 44 per cent. over their weights of the second spring. In other words, there was little difference in the profits during the two years, in spite of the difference in. age. the Loss of weight by range cattle during winter.-The management of this herd of cattle included many matters, which in the opinion of the writers, were at fault, or could have been improved; for example, the almost exclusive purchase of scrub or grade Jersep cattle rather than the raising of calves from the owner's cows and sired by a thoroughbred bull of any of the beef breeds. Another great mistake in management, we belive, consisted in requiring the cattle to subsist throughout the entire winter without any food whatsoever except what they could obtain on the range from canebrakes, cotton stalks, corn stalks, etc. Since our weighing was not made until May of each year, when the cattle had been on pasturage for about a month, it is not possible to estimate exactly the amount of decrease in live weight occurring between the time that the fall pasturage failed and that the grasses put out in the spring. Of 22 animals of all ages weighed October 1, 1901, at least a month before pasturage greatly deteriorated, and again weighed May 7, about six weeks after the pastures put out in spring, 64 per cent lost in weight during this period of six and a half months. The losses in weight would have been much greater had our weighings been made about November 15th and April 1st. It is believed that the shrinkage in live weight during the winter, the utter loss of all food-obtained from pasture and range from October to May, and the considerable number of deaths during the winter, more than counterbalance the saving of feed, which is the only point of advantage claimed for this system. Our advice is to winter only so many cattle and those of such quality that it will be feasible and profitable to supply them with hay, if not with both hay and cotton seed, after the pastures or ranges fail in December, January, or February. APPENDIX. Individual weights, gains, and percentages Gain, Name ° or - of dressed weight of grade steers. Principal Food. Concentrate. * Number of Steer. ° d1 I 41C D Roughness. 4 00 00 4 q E0 I Dangus .. I Daddy ........ I 42 ........ I 153 ...... I 308 ...... II Average .. II 18. . . . 1 Lbs. 803 877 832 Lbs. 122 Lbs. 83 88 52 72 1 733 633 785 1 . II 222 .. ...... 795 224 .... ... 780 -II Average .... 783 III III II II II S537075 83.4 56 59 114 70 1 61 90 75 26 55 61.4 40 81 73 Lbs. 47 Lbs. 230 40 44 19 64 1 213 207 1lbs. 3.4 56.6 2 54.3 22.54 .47 % vii 42.8 50 97 191 188 1 -- 31 146 171 60 66.4 39 37 28 11 17 63.2 21 68 71 83 30 13 32.2 13 41 -3 32 224 160. 108 162 1 .15 2 .27 2.23 1.74 2.04 2.67 1.90 1.29 55.4 49.3 54.5 50.9 50.7 51.7 50.6 51.7 55.7 Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Cotton Cotton Cotton Cotton Cotton seed seed seed seedi seen meal. meal. meal. nieal. meal. and and and and cowpea Cotton seed. cowpea Cotton seed. cowpea Cotton seed. cowpea Cotton seed. Cotton Cotton Cotton Cotton seed. seed. seed. seed. Sorghum and cowpea Cotton seed. 1.93 .90 1.74 1.14 1.50 51. 49.1 * III III III III IV IV IV Holstein.......797 Roan...........802 60 .. 735 84........822 I f - 73 146 96 126 237 .. . .. 702 Average..... 772 Toom.......... 746 10. .. ..... 646 26. .... . 882 48 58.21 [ -72- 13 25.6 9 -3 2 -1 16.4 26 13 15 60 100 107 62 88 .71 1.19 1.27 .74 1.04 J 50.6 53.4 49.8 52.6 51.5 51.3 Sorghum Corn stover Corn stover Corn stover Cotton seed. Cotton seed. Cotton seed. Cotton seed. 50.6* 52 71 IV IV IV 217,.... 847 236 .. ...... 768 Average *Returns from packer give only 47.6 per cent. for this steer. Yet he was one of the fattest. in this has caused us to omit this in making up the average for this lot. r.... 778 18 62 551 40 25 " -717 75 80 82 .89 .95 .98 50.3 50.4 51.3 (Corn stover .Corn stover 1Corn. stover Cotton seed. Cotton seed. [Cotton seed. 14.4! 12.8) figure figure The possibility of an error 87 Weights and gains mbade during the pasturage season by scrub cattle in Macon County. i1 1 h biA Cows 4 years and older '68 46 121 . .. .. .62 68 196j 189 29 Average .. . (?) . 10 8 4 4 8 8 4 10 1902 1902 1902 1902 1903 1903 1903 1903 1 . .1 . 238 238 238 238 183 183 183 183 652 536 520 586 666 638 700 626 38 . 821.. 801.. 40.. 64.. 84.. 46.. 36.. 591 .28 .. .. *2 1901 2 1901 11/2 I.. .1361 136 1% 6151 Heifers above 300 lbs.. 71 79 58 8111. 16 22 510j 1901 360] 408 146,1.. 1221. . .. . . . .. . 3101 311901 56.. 472!1 542 1181. 1121. 1461.. 232 . .. 136 3 1902 238 107 . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . 31/2 1902 .187 197 193.. 51 101 107 194 3 /2 1903 21/2. 21/2. 238 183 1902 1903 238 183 418 542 152 .. 21/2 11903 . ... . . .. .. Average .. .. 211903 2'1903 . 183 1831 183 881.. 600 482 128 188 ... 198. 192. 2 /1903 183 183 398 148. 1 1903 342 4401 1 136 136 136 238 2381 2381 176 149'1 .I . .82 76 84 Yearlings, up to 300 lbs . . .. . 81 114 '36.. . . . 18.. .. .. . . . . . 11901 1 1901 1 1901 1 1901 1 19021 1 11902 2 234 256 356 2181 2 . . . ... . . ... . . .. 124 I 11/211902 2741 2721 861. 128. - 68 ...... 881. 941. 118j. Average .. .. .... ... 1 269] 891 .I .49 88 Weights and gains made during the pasturage season by scrub cattle in Macon County. bti n 40 131 12 51! Sucking calves. ...... .......... ......... ..... 1 --- ..... Average .......... / 1901 1902 1 1901 1 19011 1............. 3 1901! 1/ 2.11901 2 11901 2 1901!J 136! 238! 136! 1361 230! 306! 262! 293! 273! ( 98!.. 54!. 1381.. 135!.. 1061 .67 Steers above, 300 lbs. 961 73!J..... 27 ....... 38 136! 136! ...... ..... 136! 136! 41 67 3 1901! 11/2 1901! 136! 63 65 ...... ..... ....... 119!1901! 136! 136! 136! 136 238 238 1361 87 69 11 ..... .. .... 401 82! ... 1 Average, ... ...... !.....1 21/11903! i 2 19011 11/2 1901! 1 /21902 11/2 1902 211901! 183 ..... .... 1......1....1......1 520! 901.. 584! 126!.. 419! 1 671.. 426! 1 1041.. 4861 114!.. 304! 356! 1041.. 1 1111.. 470! 1 1561.. 361! 1391.. 338! 1 941.. 304! 1 541.. 522 1 2001. 428! 1 X121 .. .71 BULLETIN No, 129. ALABA MLA. AUGUST, 1904+ Agricultural Experiment Statio Alabama Polytechnic Institute. AUB URN. The lYlexicall Cottoll Boll Weevi EDWIN MEAD WILCOX, Ph. D. (Harvard). Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. MONTGOMERY, ALA.. I SH; BROWN PRINTING CO., PRINTERS AND BINDERS. 1904. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. J. M. CARMICHAEL................................Montgomery. T. D. SkM!FORD..............................................Opelika. W. C. DAVIS..........................................Jasper. STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH ........................................ President. Director and Agriculturist. and State Chemist. J. F. DUGGAR ........................... B. B. Ross...........................Chemist C. A. CARY.......................................Veterinarian. E. M. WILCOX...................Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. R. }a. MACKINTOSHi............ Horticulturist and State Horticulturist. J. T. ANDERSON.. Chemist in Charge of Soil and Crop Investigations. ASSISTANTS. C. L. HARE....................................First T. BRAGG................................. Assistant Chemist. Assistant Chemist. Second C. M. FLOYD................................ I. S. MCADORY....................... N. C. REW........................ ...................... Superintendent of Farm. Assistant in Veterinary Science. Assistant in Animal Industry. Assistant in Horticulture. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. *To be filled. THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL-WEEVIL, By EDWIN MEAD WILCOX. introd uction.. In twenty years the Mexican cotton boll-weevil (Anthonom us grandis Boh.) has developed from a rather obscure species to one of supreme importance with pect to the production of the world's supply of cotton. The infested regions are taking desperate measures to destroy the pest or to adjust and modify the present methods of cultivation in such manner that cotton may still be grown at a fair profit in the infested regions. The recent appropriation of$250,000.00 by the Congress of the L1nited States for the exhaustive study of the bollweevil problem from all points of view has given to the boll-weevil a. national importance. It seems desirable to present to Alabama cotton growers our present information upon this very res- tant slbject the together with the suggested methods imporof controlling the boll-weevil should it ever becomne established \within the borders of our State,: This bulletin nmay therefore be said result from an application of old adage, for originality is made as to the facts stated, but the "forewarned to is f orearmed." No claim reader is referred to the papers mentioned in the Bibliography at the close of the bulletin for the most recent original investigations of this subject. The facts given in the papers cited have been freely drawn upon in the preparation of this bulletin. INTRODUCTION AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION WEEVIL. 01? THE BOLL The boll-weevil probably crossed the IRio Grande river into Texas about 1.892--at least that is the opin ion of the 0J2 reion. Q !S91 it hadl spr)eadt to a half the Upon1101 Tcx;c, hor)ei) coii niie, in >oH i hll Pio (iranje river mnO the t Tiilf of 1lexico. At this~ time it was bro Wil to lie attll I i of thle 1LitIedl States Departmlent of Agricuilt ure; the D ivisioni of I')tol1ogy commliened%latie do liiig 189 -1 tlie inveest igationi of thu weevil and has umo iniIC( this inivestigation to the ini. of tile I1(1 l~ir[neW of ti'L flT ])leselit timhe. let aislso 1lelieril eflijiuilt T~exas lEXperiie1t atatio 'iulB !-(clut ap))1'IJ1iat ion by aidl iln the i11\ (si t01. u pont the I le it .l1( to (titelh Con-rjess 1has UIiId(I boll-1w eevil tiro h iIh the fitN of'Ia; lame II11ii1)1 of1 pernii IwOe at tenl io01than IW sons and thle w til is mm- lee' planters in tha (iozeni prlobaly anyv ot her inecet pes~t ini the worttld. I the boll wcc, il at interv als since its fiast app))?arance in Texas. 93 The map shown as Fig. I presents graphically the present known distribution of the weevil as well as the advance it has made over the area indicated since its first appearance in 1892. From a study of the insect's means of reaching new territory it has been estimated that the weevil will be at work throughout the entire cotton belt of the South in 15 to 18 years. In Texas during the past ten years the weevil has made an annual advance of about 50 miles. Having this danger in mind and to prevent the accidental or intentional introduction of the pest into the State the last Legislature passed the following law, which is here quoted in full: An act to prevent and prohibit the importation of seed from cotton affected with Texas boll weevil. SECTION 1.-Be it enacted by the Legislature of Alabama, That no person shall import or bring into the State of Alabama any seed from any cotton affected with what is known as the Texas boll weevil, nor the seed from any place where the cotton has been affected with said boll weevil. SEC. 2.-Any person who violates the provisions of Section 1 of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on conviction, shall be fined not less than ten dollars ($10.00) and not more than five hundred dollars ($500.00). [H. 877. No. 559. Approved Oct. 6, 1903.] Legislation can, after all, however, do nothing more in this case than build up public sentiment and arouse interterest in the weevil problem and if cotton planters permit the weevil to become established in this State it will be the result of their own neglect. Planters and others will confer a great benefit upon themselves and upon the State by promptly reporting and sending specimens of any suspected boll-weevil to the Alabama Experiment Station. All such insects should be killed with chloroform or other means before being forwarded through the mails and then be enclosed in tin or wooden boxes. 94 AMOUNT OF DAMAGE DUE TO BOLL-WEEVIL. There is frequently a tendency to greatly exaggerate crop losses, but a very conservative estimate shows that the damage done by boll-weevil in Texas amounts annually to about $15,000,000. The loss in the weevil-infested counties of Texas is certainly fully one-half of the crop. If we assume that the total cotton crop of the United States has a value of $500,000,000 it will be seen that when the boll-weevil is found throughout the whole cotton belt the annual loss will be at least $250,000,000 annually. All these estimates are based upon the failure of t he planters to adopt any measures to check the spread of the pest or particularly to reduce the extent of its damage. We shall see that there is much hope that cotton may be grown at a profit in the infested regions if the planters will adopt the modern methods of planting and cultivation suggested and urged by the Bureau of Entomology of the Department of Agriculture. LIFE HISTORY OF INSECT. EGG. The female weevil deposits the egg in a hole made by eating into either the square or boll. These cavities are made usually between the middle and the tip in the case of squares, but seem to occur at random in the case of bolls. The length of the egg stage in the vast majority of cases varies from 2 to .5 days. It has been observed that but a single egg is usually deposited in a boll if the female is able to find b6lls not punctured. This habit of selecting a fresh boll for the oviposition of each egg accounts for the large number of bolls injured by a single female. It is probable that a single female may deposit as high as 200 eggs during the season. . ,114 1 1IL ) ' him414 L P . ~ IN4 I 1 .... 1 n inch I 4 IuI If 1 4';! I i! 1:144 11141 xil444 I ti 44)4114 1'41 S' . I I14' 14l('14 i.1411! Is 4111' ' 11! I 44 il\\ I. 44' I the ;Il!: '. 111444~ii Il:8 4154 1141141 tl4 t~ l:l tlu i til . 1'l) i 141m 1 1L11, I 114 114 r1111( 11481 1 41 (V II 1:it.14.V 4./i ItrnlrILl'. Iu I1 1441 v 444:I 144I lIt 1444 N 414 I 4'rntl44'1' 44441 ill 1114 ' 1111'4 1144'sI IliX I I1 8I111l~ 4 l 1 4(4484 I 41,4 1441115. 1f 144411 G tlI44V se t el 44)141 14114 ltnu It Lh e Iill II4I114144 rtt in is t in rtt 11(] ' II lLllv. :111441 I Lnl cII 14 !dt) ~ii 1444141 t1144' (4'1114'14(4 441 171 14 81. 96 In the bolls the larval stage last probably much longer and here 6 to 7 weeks is near the length of the larval period. As the boll reaches maturity the mature larva, now 1-4 to 1-3 of an inch long, ceases feeding and becomes surrounded by a sort of cell composed of larval excrement mixed with the lint, etc. Within this cell the pupation and formation of the adult occurs. The cells are shorter and thicker than cotton seeds, with which they are at times confused. PUPA. When the insects enters this stage it has much the. form of the adult, but its color is pure white or cream. (See Fig. 3.) The pupa stage lasts in squares on the average three to four days in warm weather, but may reach a maximum of 15 days in cold weather. The pupal stage is certainly longer in bolls than in squares, but no definite data are at hand on this point. Fig. 3. Larva, to the left, and pupa, to the right. x6. (Farmers' Bull. 189, U. S. Dept. Agr.) The final molt of the pupa requires about a half hour. ADULT. About 2 or 3 days are required for the adult to assume the color typical of the species and to acquire sufficient strength to enable it to walk. The weevils may vary much in size dependent largely upon the question of 97 available food supply . With the proboscis extended they vary from1 -8 to 1-3 of an inch in length and in the miniddle of the body are from 1-25 to 1-8 of an inch broad. (See Fig. 4.) v, t Fig. 4. Mexican cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis). (Bull. 45, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.) x3 The color of the boll weevil varies with the size-the smaller weevils being darker brown and the larger weevils being light yellowish brown. The average color between these two extremes is a gray brown or dark yellow brown. The yellowish color of the larger specimens is due to the presence of numerous yellowish scales that are more conspicuously formed in large than small weevils. These scales, however, often become rubbed off, leaving the dark brown color of the chitin. The sexes, however, cannot be distinguished as is often supposed by any question of either size or color. The average length of life of the adult weevils on squares is about 10 weeks for males and 9 weeks for females. On the bolls it is nearly 3 weeks for males, but only about 2 weeks for females. FEEDING HABITS. Until the females begin to oviposit the feeding habits of both sexes are alike. Bolls and leaves are seldom fed 98 upon so long as squares are available. The puncture from the outside is only large enough to admit the proboscis, to the tip of which the mouth parts are attached. The principal part of the square eaten consists of the anthers and pollen sacs. When these are reached the cavity is broadened out to give to the whole cavity much the shape of a flask. The males are known to make on an average about 3 feeding punctures per day, though during the first few days of adult feeding existence they may make as high as 6 to 9 punctures per day. They average, however, about 3 punctures to a square, and hence really do very little damage. The males, unlike the females, more frequently chose to puncture the square very near the top. After the females begin to oviposit they eat less on one square or from a single puncture than before. Since as we have said that as a rule a female oviposits but once on a square and since most of her eating is done in connection with oviposition, it becomes clear that the amount of damage done by the females is much greater than that due to the males. It has been demonstrated by experiment that the Anmerican upland cottons are much less subject to attack by the weevils than any others, and that the Egyptian (Mit Afififi) cotton is more subject to attacks than any other variety. It is now known also that the boll weevil has no food plant, native or cultivated, other than the various species and varieties of cotton. NUMBER OF GENERATIONS. No hard and fast line can be drawn betwveen the different broods of the weevil-not even between the hibernated weevils and those of the first spring generation. It is probable that in the southern part of Texas five broods occur between 1 May and 1 December-this on the assumption that the average life cycle of a generation from egg to egg is about 42 days. In northern Texas and probably also in this region not more than 4 broods would occur. is 99 HIBERNATION. Even after the cotton has been entirely killed by frost adult weevils may be seen moving about in the fields. In southern Texas the weevil may hibernate as either larva, pupa or adult, but they most commonly hibernate in the adult condition. The majority of weevils that successfully hibernate over winter are those developed latest in the fall-whose vitality was consequently not exhausted by oviposition or otherwise before the approach of winter. The average hibernation period is from 1 December to 1 April, or about 4 months. Given a dry sheltered place and as high as 1-6 of the weevils will live through the winter. DISSEMINATION. The search for food or new squares is the principal agency leading to the migration of the weevils from one place to another. Prevailing winds may assist if these occur when the weevils are naturally most active, as does occur in Texas. Artificial dissemination will take place most commonly along railways and water courses. The shipment of cotton baled or for ginning is nearly certain to mean shipment of the boll weevil. And the same is true of shipments of seed for planting and other purposes. Our State law already quoted (page 93) should receive the support of every person living in the State and having the slightest concern for the welfare of the State. In regard to pests of this and all other types legislative enactment may develop public sentiment, but certainly can never replace it. METHODS OF CONTROL. The methods of control may roughly be divided into two classes (a) natural, and (b) artificial. 100 Among the first group we mention in the first place climatic control. The factors of highest importance in determining the development, distribution and destructiveness of the boll weevil are temperature, precipitation and food supply. We have stated that the weevil has but a single food plant-the cotton-and it is remarkable how thoroughly adjusted to the condition of the food plant the weevil has become. Conditions favoring the growth of the cotton plant are also favorable to the development of the weevil. High temperatures and abundant rainfall are the two climatic factors distinctly favorable to weevil development, and hence it is that at such times their injury is most noticeable. Rains tend to increase formation of squares by the cotton plant and the squares, we have seen, are the feeding places and oviposition structures for the weevils. Rains also indirectly favor weevil development by the injury they do to the natural enemies of the weevil. Too heavy rains'during the winter are very apt to kill many of the hibernating weevils and hence following a comparatively dry winter one would expect to see a larger brood of hibernated adult weevils appear i- the spring than following a rainy winter. Experiments have shown that overflows will not injure enough weevils to be of any great service. Even the larvae and pupae in equares that have been under water for some time were found to be uninjured. Adult wee vils may float several days in the water and yet not be injured. It is very probable that the floating of adult and infested squares by means of high water will prove one of the most important natural agencies for widely distributing the pest. PARASITES, PREDATORY INSECTS, AND DISEASES. The very recent announcement by an officer of the United States Department of Agriculture of the dia very in Guatemala of an ant that preys upon the boll weevil has called forth renewed interest in this subject However, of parasites or rather predatory insects. 101 it seems certain that the ant discovery has already been overworked and its importance much exaggerated. Hunter & Hinds, 1904, say: "There is at present, therefore, no promise of any considerable assistance in the control of the weevil by any parasite now known. * * * Even should one be found which could * * * attack the weevil in some stage, it would probably still fail to be an efficient means of control. " Certain predatory insects other than the Guatemalan ant may serve to check the weevil, but the work of all such insects combined is comparatively of little importance when compared with the cultural methods mentioned below. And there seems to be but little hope of securing a fungus parasite that will be of any service in killing weevils. A study of the history and outcome of the use of the "chinch bug" fungus and later the grasshopper fungus shows how utterly impracticable any such method is certain to be. In connection with the appearance of such an important pest as the boll weevil there is certain to be a host of useless remedial and preventive measures suggested. It would be a waste of space to even mention all these schemes here. Considerable attention has been devoted to devising some method of spraying the cotton plants in hopes of killing the weevils. We may for the present dismiss any spraying scheme with a quotation from Hunter & Hinds, 1904, who say: "Spraying of a field crop has never been a success, and, unless entirely new methods are eventually perfected, never will be of any practical importance." Of course the suggestion made from time to time that some substance may be mixed with the fertilizer which will be distasteful to the weevil when absorbed by the plant is absurd. It has proven impossible to devise a machine that will enable one to collect from the ground the fallen squares. And it is even more absurd to hope to find any sort of cotton that the boll weevil will not care to eat. There is a limit to the profitable variation in the cotton plant to be induced by breeding and selection and there is cer- 102 tainly no hope of securing a strain of upland cotton that will prove resistant to the boll weevil, or to any other insect. CULTURAL METHODS. It has been demonstrated that improved methods of cultivation will enable one and does enable many Texas planters now to grow cotton at a fair profit in weevil infested areas. If the weevil can force cotton planters throughout the cotton belt to adopt more civilized and modern methods of cultivation we may be forced to look upon the weevil as a "blessing in disguise." It is impossible better to present the desirability and certainty of iesults from the cultivation methods recommended by the Division of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, than to quote the recommendations given by W. D. Hunter, the official agent in charge of the cotton boll weevil investigation. "1. Plant early. If possible plant seed of the varieties known to mature early, or at least obtain seed from as far north as possible. It is much better to run the risk of replanting, which is not an expensive operation, than to have the crop delayed. The practice of some planters of making two plantings to avoid having all the work of chopping thrown into a short period is a very bad policy from the weevil standpoint. Under identical conditions early cotton if improved varieties has invariably yielded from two to three times as much as native cotton under the same conditions, and in many cases much more. Planted at the same time the early varieties begin to bloom from twelve to eighteen days sooner than native cotton. Early planted fields of either native or improved varieties have almost invariably yielded twice as much as late planted ones. The early varieties in general, having a small stalk and a short tap root, are adapted only for rich soil. They also fail to grow well in the very light sandy loams of many of the river valleys of Texas which, in long seasons before the advent of the boll-weevil, often produced the largest yields. In these situations early varieties 103 will yield but little more than native cotton. 2. Cultivate the fields thoroughly. The principal benefit in this comes from the influence that such a practice has upon the constant growth and consequent early maturity of the crop. Very few weevils are killed by cultivation. Much of the benefit of early planting is lost unless it is followed by thorough cultivation. In case of unavoidably delayed planting, the best course for the planter to pursue is to cultivate the fields in the most thorough manner possible. Three choppings and five plowings constitute as thorough a system of cultivation as is necessary in cases where the land has previously been kept reasonably clear. 3. Plant the rows as far apart as experience with the land indicates is feasible, and thin out the plants in the rows thoroughly. On land which in normal seasons will produce from 35 to 40 bushels of corn the rows should be 5 feet apart. Even on poor soil it is doubtful if the distance should ever be less than 4 feet. 4. 1 estroy, by plowing up, windrowing, and burning, all the cotton stalks in the fields as soon as the weevils become so numerous that practically all the fruit is being punctured. This will generally not be later than the first week in October. Merely cutting off the stalks by means of the triangular implement used for that purpose throughout the south is by no means as effective as plowing, because the stumps remaining give rise to sprouts which furnish food until late in the season to many weevils that would otherwise starve. The plowing, moreover, serves to place the ground in better condition for early planting the following spring. In some cases turning cattle into the fields is advisable. Aside from amounting to a practical destruction of the plants, grazing of the cotton fields furnishes considerable forage at a time when it is generally much in demand. Nevertheless, cattle should never be turned into cotton fields in which Johnson grass has become started. 5. It is known that at present fertilizers are not used to any considerable extent in cotton producing in Texas. There is, nevertheless, no doubt that they should be; not that the land is poor, but that earlier 104 crops may be procured. At present it is sufficient to call attention to the fact that it has been the uniform experience of experiment stations and planters in the eastern part of the belt that certain fertilizers, especially those involving a large percentage of phosphoric acid, have a strong tendency towards hastening the maturity of the plants." BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mally, F. W. 1901. The Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil. Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. Agr. 130: 30 pp. fig. 1-4. Hunter, W. D. 1903. Methods of Controlling the Boll Weevil (advice based on the work of 1902). Farmers' Bulletin, Ti. S. Dept. Agr. 163: 16 pp. fig. 1-2. Sanderson, E. D. 1903. The Mexican Boll-Weevil. Texas Exp. Stat., D)ept. Circ. 1: 8 pp. 4 figures. Sanderson,. E. D. 1903. How to Combat the Mexicon Cotton-boll Weevil in Summer and Fall. Texas Exp. Stat. Ent. Dept. Circ. 4: 4pp. Morgan, H. A. 1903. The Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil. La. Exp. Station, Circ. 1: 10 pp. fig. 1-3. 1 map. Cook, 0. F. 1904. Report on the habits of the kelep, or Guatemalan cotton' boll weevil ant. Bull. Bureau Entom., U. S. Dept. Agr. 49:15 pp. ilerrick, W. 1904. The Mexican Cotton boll weevil. Miss. Exp.- Ent. G1. Weevil. Stat. Circ. Boll Hunter, W. D. 1904. In formation Concerning the Mexican Cotton :31 pp. 8 -figs. Hunter, W. D. 1904. The Status of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil in the United States in 1903. Yearbook, I.S. Dept. Agr. 1903: 205-214. pl. 17-21. Hunter, WV. D., and Hinds, W. E. 1904. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. Bull. Div.. Entom., 17: 7 pp. 2 figures. 189: Farmers' Bulletin, U.. S. Dept. Agr. U. S. Dept. Agr. 45: 116 pp. 16 pl. 6 figs. BULLETINS OF ALABAMA AgrIcultural Experiment Station AUBURN. INDEX. VOL. XIII. BULLETINS AND 130-134 REPORT 718TH- ANNUAL January to December, 1905. List of Available Bulletins, May, 1906 Opelika, Ala. The Post Publishing Company 1905. CONTENTS. BULLETINS: 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. Tests of Varieties of Cot'on..................January, 1905 Co-Operative Fertilizer Experiments with Cotton in 1901, 1902, 1903 and 1904.................Feburary, 1905 Diseases of The Apple, Cherry, Peach, Pear and Plum; with Methods of Treatment...........April, 1905 The Manufacture of Cane Syrup.............December, 1905 Corn Culture.......... .................... December, 1905 1905 Annual Report, Eighteenth............................... INDEX, Agriculturist, report of ,.................R. 18: Alfalfa, in Alabama .............. ................ R. 1iS: 20-21 culture, inoculation .......................... R. 18:20-21 Analysis of feed stuff......... ...................... R. 12 Anderson, J. T. ................ .... R. 18': 14 Annual report for 1904................ ........ ...... R. 8 Apple trees. ...... ....................... .... R. 22-23 'diseases.......... ................... ,........... .... 84 ,bitter rot........................... ............ 84 black knot........................ ............. 89 9 18: 18: 18: blight............... ........................... 123 canker........................91 fly speck.......................93 hairy root.......... ................................... rust .......................... scab ....................... .............. ................... ......... ................. 94 95 97 22 132: 84 132: 89 sooty blotch .............. ... "....... Beans, varieties of......... .................. Bitter Hof apple...................................B. rot ....... R. B. 18: 102 Black knot of apple ................................. cherry........ .. ........ ...... ...... B. 132: 103 plum ........ ...... ........ .......... B. 132: 103 Blight of apple ...... .. ...... .. .. .... ... ...B. 132: 123 Pear ................................... B. 132: 123 Breeding, corn ................... .......... .......... 18: 20 Brown, Rot of cherry ............................... B. 132: R. 103 peaches............. ............ .... B. 132: 109 plum........... ............. ........ B. 132, 109 Cane, adaptability of South Alabama soils for .... B . 133: 150-151 addresses of firms who manufacture mills for extracting juice 'of............ ......... 133: 152 B. analysis of........ clarification or defecation of juice ...... clarifier............ evaporators ............ ............ ........... ........ ................... ...... ........ B. B. 133: 133: 149 163-167 155-156: 133: 158-159 B. 133: .... B. experiments in syrup making.................B.. extraction of juice.......... ..... ......... methods of handling juice during evaporation B. 133: 1r3-1151 133: 158: 133: 158, 208 removing mechanical impurities,.. B. 133: 152-1b3 small central syrup plants................B. 133: 167-16 sulphuring and liming the juices of...........B 133: 154-155 133: 160-16. sulphuring box............................B B. 132: 91 ......................... Canker of apple .......... plum .......... .......................... B. 132: 131 CGry, C. A. ....................................... H. 18: 1G R. 18: 21 Castor oil bean .................................... Certificates issued to nurserie .................... H. 23-2g R. 18: 16 Chickens, diseasesi of....... ................... Cherry diseases .............................. B. 132: 103_ black knot ................................ B. 132: 103 brown rot................................B. 132: gummosis................. ................ B. 132: 100 leaf spot...................................B. 132: 10 1. 18: 14 Commercial fertilizers, analysis of ................. Co-operation with Bureau of Animal Industry .... B.18: 7 Co-operative fertilizer, experiments with cotton in . 1901-1904 Athens, Limestone County.......................B 131: 53-54 Auburn, Lee County.............................B.131::47-48 B 131: 50-52 Camp Hill, Tallapoosa County .................... Collinsville, DeKalb County ...................... B 131: 30-32 Cuilman, Cullman County....... ............... B. 131: 38 Enterprise, Coffee County ......................... B 131: 59-61 131: 57 Y-\"ergreen, Conecuh County........................B. Florence, Lauderdale County.......................B 131: 52 53 Garland, Butler County..........................B 131: 62-63 B. 131: 64-66 Geneva, Geneva County, ........................... .............. B 131: 61-62 Georgiana, Butler County .......... Gordo, Pickens County .................... .B 131: 39-41 ............... B. 131: 56 Greenville, Butler County ............ B. 131: 74 Greensboro, Union Springs, Carson and Geneva ... Hamilon Marion County,.............................B. 131: 4 18: 109 HanoverCoosa County, Huntsiville, .............................. ments with Madison County, fertilizer co-orperative cotton ........................ experiB. . B... 131: 50 131: 24-28 Long, Perry County ............................. Louisville, Barbour County ........................ Midland City, Dale County ............ ........... Montevallo, Shelby County ........................ Naheola, Choctaw County .... .............. Notasulga, Macon County.... ....... ............ Russellville, Franklin County.........:... ......... B. B. B. B. B. B. B. 131: 131: 131: 131: 131: 131: 131: 34-36 58-59 63-64 32-33 54-56 46-47 45-46 209 Tallassee, Elmore County........................ii1: 45-4S.B. Tidmore, Blount County.........................B. 131: 36-33 Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa County....................B. 131: 41-42 Silver Run, Talladega County....................B. 131: 28-30 Vick, Bibb County ................................ B. 131: 4850 Wetunpka, Elmore County.......................B. 131: 44-45 Wetumpka, Talibassee, Notasulga and Auburn........B. 131: 47 Barbour County, report of cotton lE Itiier experiment..................................B. 131: 58-59 Bibb County, of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 48-50 Blount County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 36-38 Bullock County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment... .................. B. 131: 74 Butler County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 62-63 Butler Cm h!tty, i::port Of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 61-02 Butler Coo' il.y, report of cotton fertilizer experiment. B. 131: Choctaw County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, ................. ......... B. 131: Coffee County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 59-61 Coosa: (County, report of cotton fertilizer experment .... B. 131: 50 Con ecuh County, report cotton fertilizer experiment....B. 131: 57 Cullman County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 38 Dale County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 63-64 DeKaib County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 30-32 Elmore County, report of , cotton fertilizer experiment ....................................... B. 131: 44-46 Elmore, Macon, Lee Counties report of cotton fertilizer ex- report 56 '54-5 periments' ...... ............ ................ B. 131: 47 Frikhlin County, ment .... report of cotton fertilizer ............ exper-i3. ............ Geneva County, report of cotton fertilizer experimeni B. 131: 74 O ne'ia County, elort 'of cu ton fertilizer expcr'ment...................................B. i .......... 131. 33.31 131: 64-66 Hale County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment .... B. 131: 74 Hale, Bullock, Washingon, Geneva 'Counties, report of cotton fertilizer experiments......... ........ B. 131: 74 Lauderdale County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment .......... .......... ................ B. 131: 52-53 Lee County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: Limestone. County, report 'of cotton fertilizer experiment .......... ........ .......... ........ ... B. 131: MN'acon report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: MuOdson County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 47-48 53-54 46.47 County, 24-28 210 Marion County,, report of cotton ferilizer experiment, 131: 43 Perry County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 34-36 Pickens County, report of cotton fertilizer experiment, 131: 39-41 Shelby County, eport of cotton fertilizer experiment, B. 131: 32-33 Talladega County, report of cotton fertilizer B. B. ment ........... experiB. ................... 131: 28-30 Ta.llapoosa County, report of cotton fertilizer experimeat ....... ............ .............. B. 131: 50-52 Tuscaloosa County, report of cotton fertilizerexperiment................................B. 131: 41-42 Washington County, report of cotton fertilizer experi.. ment................................B. 1.3i: 74 Co-operative work with Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. D. A ................ R. 18: 7 Corn, acid phosphate as fertilizer for, grown after velvet beans ........................... 34: 194-195 average yield of best varieties of three .B. 179 types of corn in bushel per acre, B. 134: 179 beggar weed as fertilizer for................B. 134: 194 cotton seed versus cottoi seed meal as fertlizer types... B. 134: for.......................B. 134: 198-200 cowpea stubble versus cow-pea vines.......B. 134: 193-194 culture............ . . 13: 0 culture....... ............................. R. 18: 9 depth of early cultivaton ................... B. 134: 188 discussion of Moseby, Cocke, Henry Grady and San- (9) ders........... . .......... B. early and late varieties.......... ........... 134: 182 fertilizer formulas for........ ............... B. 134: 200 Figure 6, Rainfall chart ini inches for growing season at Auburn, Ala., 1901-1905........... (Appendix) Corn, Figures 1,.2, 3, 4, 5 are cuts showing .ears of different vairieties.......... ........ TIB- 134, (Appe~ndix) fractional applications of fertilizers for... B. 134: 196-198 Lead colored Mexican and its, current crosses ....... .................. 134, (Appendix) leguminous plants as fertilizer for B. 134: 176 June B. ............ methods, of harvesting ......... planting .......... B. 134: B. 134: 192 189-192 in water furrow versus on a level.... B. 134: 188-189 relations of number of ears per plant to the yield per acre..... .................. B. 134: 177 relative yield of all varieties tested at Auburn, B. 134: 175 seed corn from different latitudes ............... 211 ..... ............. B. 134: 183-186, (Appendix 201-2) size of ear in different vairieties..............B.-134:'180 subsoling......... 134: 187-188 top versus bottom ears........................B. 14: 186 varieties classified according to number of ears required to shell a bushel, into large eared varieties, medium eared, and smalleared varieties.............................B. 134: 181 varieties classiled according to the number of ears per plant into prolific, medium prolific and non-prolific...........................B. 134: 178 velvet bean stubble versus vines as fertilizer for, in 1901............................B. 134: 192-193 yield-of varieties in 1901, 1904-1905..........B. 134: 173-4 breeding............... ...................... R. 18: 20 varieties of sweet..............................R. 18: 22 Cotton, addresses of parties from whom seed were obtained in 1904.........................B. 130: 15-16 estimated cost of fertilizers 1901-1904.......B. 131: 22 fertilizer formula used in co-operative experi- ments...................B. 131: 23 fertilizleir for.................................B. 130: 4 list of varieties tested.......................B. 130: 6 list of co-operative experiments..............B. 131: 20 per cent lint.......................... 130: 6, 9, 10 rainfall for 1901-1904........................B. 131: 21 relative earliness of varieties ........ B. 130: 13-15 tests of varieties. at McGehee's Co., in 1904........... gomery Switch, MontB. . ............... 1390 :.' 130: 8 130: 3 130: 6 types of........ ...................... weather conditions 'affecting crop, 1904... yield of varieties .................. B. 132: 113 Crown gall of peaches .............. ..... ......... Culture inoculation of alfalfa .......... ............ R. 18: 20-21 ........ R. 18: 16 Diseases, of chickens........... ............ ...... R. 18: 20 sweet potatoes in Alabama .......... 7 .......... R. .. .. . ... .. .. . Duggar, J.. F ................. with lDiseases of the apple, cherrp, peach, pear and plum* 18: ods of treatment........... .... (R. 18: -8), B. 132: 75 136 lme-sulfur-,salt. wash.......... ................. B. 132: 140 plates .............................. Explanation of Fillers for. fertilizers......... ............ .......... R. 18: 12 212 B. 132: 93 Fly speck of apple.. .............. 132: 133 Fungicides......................................B. 132: 136 lime sulfur-salt wash.....................B. ammoniaal copper carbonate..............B. 132: 136 132: 134 blordeaux mixture........................B. 12 Feed stuff analysis.................................H. Fertilizer analysis................................R. 11 Fertilizers estimated cost of for cotton, 1901-1904 .... B. 131: 22 home mixing..............................R. 11 Glenn, E. T......... ......... ........... Oummosis of cherry...............................B. 132: 106 peaches..................... ....B. 132: 106 plum.......................... .. B. $2: 106 Hairy root of apple....................B. 132: 94 peaches .............................. B. 132: 94 Home mixing fertilizers..............................R. 18: 11 22 Improving peach varieties............................R. Inoculation against tick fever.......................R. 18: 16 In oti't.ute work.....................................R. 19 23 Interest in horticultural work........................H. 133: 145-148 Introductory................................... Introduction.......................................B. 132: 79 132: 106 Leaf spot of cherry..............................B. blight of pear................................B. B. 132: 116 curl of peaches...........'........ 132: 106 spot of plum................................B. 8 H. ........................... Mailing list revised ....... B. 133: 145 Manufacture of cane syrup............. .......... 22 HR. Mackintosh, H. S ............................... HR. 18: 22 Melons, varieties '1of musk and water .................. 18: 18: 18: 18: 18: 18: 132:'129 18 18: Mexican cotton boll weevil ................ .......... R. Musk melons, varieties' of .......................... Nurseries receiving certificates .................... Peach crop H. H. 18: 18: 18: 18: 17 22 23-28 22 ............................. .... ...... ........ ........ R. Peach diseases ................................ brown rot. .......... crown gall........... gummosis ........ .......... ........ ........... B. 132: 109 B. 132: 109 B. 132: 113 B. 132: 106 hairy root...........................B. .. .......... leaf curl ... . ............. .......... rosette. ................. yellows...............................B. 132: 94 B. 132: 116 B. 132: .119 132: 121 213 Pear dieseases. .................................... B. 132: 123 blight.................................B. 132: 123 leaf blight............................B. 132: 127 scab ................. ..............B. 132: 129 Phospharic acid, action cf on decaying organic matter, R. 18: 15 Pilg feeding tests with cotton seed meal and cotton seed, R. 18: 16 Plum diseases....................................B. 132: 131 black knot ............................ B. 132: 103 brown rot ............................. B. 132: 109 canker ............................... B. 132: 131 gummo-sis............... ... B. 132: 106 leaf spot .............................. B. 132: 106 plum pockets ......................... B. 132: 132 Potash requirements ,of soils........................R. 14 Rations fed to steers.................... R. 9 Report of Agriculturist...............................R. 18: 9 Chemist of Soils and Crop Investigation .... 18: 14-15 Director .................................. R. 18: 79 Horticulturist...........................R. 18: 22-28 Plant Physiologilst and Pathologist........R. 20-21 18: 6 Treasurer..................................R. 18: 18: 18: Veterinarian . .. ....... .. R. 18: 16-19, Rosette of peaches.................................B. 132: 119 18: 11 Ross, B. B........................................R. 1143 Report of the Chemist.............................R. Rust of apple......................................B. 132: 95 B. 132: 97 Scab of apple ... .......................... pear .............. ................ ........ B. 132: 129 B. 132: 102 ................ apple.............. Sooty blotch ........... .R.. 18: 14 Soils, potash requirements of ........... Sources of cotton seed for variety test in. 1904 .... .B. 130: 15-16 Corn, summary ........ .......................... B. 134: 171-2 Summary of results of. fertilizer experiments.......... B. 131: 67 18:.20 Sweet potatoes, diseares of in Alabama...............H. ................ R. 18: 12-13 Syrups, from sugar cane .......... 18: of Tests of varieties of cotton in 190O4..................HR. 18: H. 18 Tick fever ............... ......................... Tomatoes........... ............. .................. Tuberculin .............. ..................... Varieties, cotton list of ................ .............. Water melons, varieties of........ .................... 18: 16-17 R. 18: 22 R. 16 BD. 130: 6 R. 18: 22 18: 214 Yellows of peache Wilcox, E. M ................................. . . . . .B. 132: 121 R. 18: 20 LIST OF AVAILABLE BULLETINS MAY, 19064 1.-Report of Agriculturist, new series. 17.-Dry application of Paris, green and London purple for the cotton worm. 18.-Weather report. 22.-Experiments, with cotton. 23.-Report of Alabama weather service. 27.-Black rust of cotton. 28.-Water melons and cantelonpes. 80.-A preliminary list of Alabama fungi. 87.-Sioll inoculation for Legumnious Plants. 89.--Experiments with cotton. 90.-I. The peach tree borer. II. The fruit bark beetle. 91.-Co-operative fertilizer experiments with cotton in 1897. 99.-Cotton rust. 101.-Experiments with cotton, 1898. 102.-Co-operative fertilizer experiments with cotton, 1898. 103.-Experiments, in syrup making. 105.-Winter pa;sturage,, bay, and fertility afforded by hairy vetch. 106.-Orchard notes. 109.-Strawberries. 110.-Grapes. 112-Orchard notes. 113.--Co-operative fertilizer 114.-Feeding experiments with cot-ton, 1899-19000 experiments with dairy cows. 115.-Commercial fertilizers. 116.-=Texas fever. 117.-Orchard notes. methods 118.-Cowpea culture. 128.-Feedng experiments with beef cattle. 129.-Mexican cotton boll weevil. 131.--Cooperative fertilizer experiments with cotton, 1901-2-3-4. 132.-Diseases of apple, cherry, peach, pear, and plum; with of treatment. cultore., 133.-The manufacture of cane syrup. 134.-Corn BULLETInNNo. 130a. ALABAMA JANUARY, 19O5 Agricultural ExerirnentSation OF THEI Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN Tests of Varieties of Co IN 1904 1-v J. F. DUGCAR Director and Agriculturist. The Opelika, .Ala.:- Post Publishing Company, 190-0e COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. J. M. Carmichael ......... T. Motgomery D. Samford.........................................Opelika- W. C. Davis............................................Jasper, STATION COUNCIL. C. C. Thach........................................President. J. F. Duggar..........................Director and Agriculturist. B. B. Ross ............................ Chemist and State Chemist. C. A. Cary........................................Veterinarian E. M. Wilcox..... ............ R. S. Mackintosh ............. J. T. Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. Horticulturist and State Horticulturist. and Crop Anderson...Chemist in Charge of Soil ASSISTANTS. Investigations., C. L. Hare....................... ........ T. Bragg............ .... ............. C. M. First Assistant Chemist.. Second Assistant Chemist. Floyd.... ................... .... Superintendent of Farm. 1. S. 'M cAdory .................. N. C. Rew .......................... C. T. Kin man ........................... Assistant in Veterinary Science. Assistant in Animal Industry Assistant in Horticulture The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of, the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station,. Auburn, Alabama. VARIETY TESTS OF COTTON IN 1904. BY J. F. DUGGAR. The season of 1904 presented some trying conditions for the cotton plant. The rainfall for March was below nor mal. April was exceedingly dry and the drought was not broken until late in May. The total rainfall for March-was 2.80 inches; for April 1.02 inches;. and for the first four in May, less than .75 of an inch. These conditions resulted'in stands by no means as uniform as is desirable in experimental work. k The weather of July and the heavy rains of the early part of August resulted in a vigorous growth of the cotton plant and a promise of a large crop. From the latter part of August until the date of ' the first light frost ther& practically no rain. At Auburn the rainfall for September was only .26 of an inch; for October .02, and for November 2.28 inches. Thie extreme of wet weather in August. followed by very dry weather in September, resulted in shedding of an unusually large proportion of forms. The shedding of forms by different varieties, and under different conditions, has been the subject of a co-operative investigation both at Auburn and in Montgomery county begun jointly 19041 by this station and the TDivision of Vegetable' Pathol-- weeks wet was the "in ogical and Physiological Investigations of the United State: Department of Agriculture. Of course a repetition of- that. ~The writer desires the valuable assistance in these experiments afforded by Dr. J. T.. Anderson, who furnished the rainfall record; Mr. C. 14.: Floyd,. whohad charge of the work at Auburn; Mr. C.G. Billingsley, of the United States Department of Agriculture, who furnished the data for indicating the relative earliness of varieties, and to Mr. C_ ,.Hudson, who is responsible for most of the calculations.. to express here his grateful appreciation of field experiment for several seasons will be needed before conclusive data for publication can be exi cted. light. frost occurred late in October and the first killing frost occurred November 14, the latter killing a number of small bolls. A YIELDS OFVARIETIES IN PLOTS AT AUBURN. The field on 'which these tests were made is known as th, ten-acre field. It has a reddish loam soil with a considerable proportion of flinty stones. It is regarded as upland of somewhat better than average because of the sional growing of a crop of cow peas for hay. Every fifth plot throughout most of the field was planted with the Culpepper variety to ascertain if there were any decided inequal ities in the fertility of the land. The land was plowed broadcast with two-horse plow late in Marc4h, and bedded and fertilized just before planting, quality occa- a which occurred 'April 20th. The -fertilizer per acre consisted of: 64 lbs-.. nitrate of soda. x20 lbs. cotton seed meal. 240 lbs. acid phosphate. Ibs.. muriate of potash. G4 488 lbs,.,. total per acre. For three or four weeks after plantinlg seed sprouted, the ground being loose and very dry. a ,roller was run over the only an occasional Then field to press the seed into closer contact with the soil, and this immuediately followed by the weeder, a light form of harrow, used to check evapor~ation. Within a week, and as a result. this rolling and harrowing, a fairly good stand of cotton was in- sight, al.though the weather continued very dry. The plants were so was of- thinned that they averaged, on the plots with perfect stands 18 1-2 inches apart with rows 3 1-2 feet wide. °wariety, Only one Gold Standard, had such a. poor stand as to sei ously affect its yield and to necessitate its exclusion from the following table. A careful study of the detailed records led to the conclusion that the yields were not materially affected by the slight deficiencies in stand, though it is possible that the varieties Doughty, with 76 per cent. of astand, Texas ,Burr, with 84 per cent., and Truitt, with S6 per cent., might have stood a few points higher if the stand had been perfect. It was concluded that any effort to calculate the probable yields with perfect stands, would, in this case, involve a greater error than is incurred in giving the actual yields without this correction for slight deficiencies in stand. The following table gives the actual yield of seed cotton,. lint, and seed, all these weights being taken at the gin house a number of weeks after the two heaviest pickings had been made, thus permitting all varieties to dry out to a somewhat uniform degree. In the same table are two columnns giving the value of the total product .,of seed and lint per acre, based, in one column, on a price of ten cents per pound for lint, and in the other column, on a. price of seven cents per pound, the seed in both columns being valued at seventy centh per 100 pounds. These may be called high and low prices. Readers who prefer other 1rices can substitute their own figures and make their own calculations. Jfelds of lii and seed 38 zvarie/ies o co//on on S/a/ion Earn;at/ Admh urn iyyx, and value of/lie croi5 }5er acre. i of ¢ Actual yield' per acre of AP, ' O eI 1; - C 1 4 y -er= ,i. -.. .fe ' V 0 r ^ Q. ".--.- t o , 11~ee .. tn . .... .. .. 1 00 0 bs 6 81 Ls 1 24 0* .93$6 .7 1$ 0.. 2 n~p Lytn (j 2116 tpe1001 l1Pttimn Ln 21L4Co i Imprvef............1 IAllnkong....................6100 IiletRd .. f........1 16245 1682 6289906566175$50.13 120 1 269.7j504.47 4 6.51.6442.70 54 07198 7411 :1ACle.Alen...................921 1461 581088655.71 48.32 7.06 42.0 9 41 1401; 502 9801 -lTxa.Brr............ 95 13521003! .80d 1.18 41.0 100E 155, 8754110091 61.6645.23. *CIan'irn Bar.,.............J1 167Sins Long......al.......... 1001 1361484 8106546.423594.1 6 84154244.75 92j1521 4 100 14311411852 60.761 44.72 91'Cook Irapr..................1 134611 52219971 53.81 3.52 °191oughy Hairp..v.d.............76 10094 11 49811121 53.2942.37 li1DAfle Long...............1 101 91486 65088965157.5642.82 ,..............I 212aCulpppe. ..... ........... 94 1361488 528980'52761-2.0. 1hn Tea ur....... 951 1852001461841 52618.41.0 14~a WilletRedPrli-f..........l 1001 188214871-897!54.54 89.93 d............1 lS31Iins....... 18964814218611 54.421 39.90 l41Trig...................10061 54.221.89.7, 4861 .. Pi~.................9213271 251-She ~s 45952774158.961 89.77 910241 ... in;.............. 218Ties 53 89115.1089.5:1 1401 1281 i&Nancy rtI~aa.. ................ 463 71694258.29 89.8 2O1Darae......I..................10091251 171Rulemia)rize.................. 8041- '29lJohson'sx... is...........1.0941861 221Sblne......... *2laMe Woodin Pr.lifi........I '28!JontesI I ...... 100' I1001 12921 4761 7811 453.27!3.43 8601 13481 1 1001 11241 ............. ...... '2Slchley 101225!48 35G{lureRibKin.......ee........6 ....... 361Edufloeorh............... 1001 ter 2431lritta... ....... 28Ga~u 971 14001 448946145.2.768.870 4361839152.73.34 -t 3 421921 52..68186.819 4201 8721 52.301 38.44 45871862514.791 388.025 1 745.791 33.76 ............ 1 128 12881 4011 8121451.713375 -Ribbnr'dbac...d)..I1891 12251 34581:761 50.651 87.05' 34lakr................. 1001 11961 4081 '7851 46.21; .0 .;.-Seed 10 -cents per 100 Tbs. or $14.00 per ton. 7 The largest yield made by Peterkin, closely followed by Layton, Jackson and Alex. Allen. Wise occupies fifth place. together such of the varieties as the writer has up to this time definitely. classified in accordance with the classification outlined by him in Bulletin No. 107 of the Alabama Experiment Station, and neglecting groups of varieties having few "representatives in this test, we have average results that are significant, as below : was Grouping lz'erag;e yields of Classes o/ varieties at Auburuni-10. I .s Semi-Cluster Group i.Lbs. [ Hawkins ............................ Drake.......... .................. 1 487 4671 8391$54.541 942! 53.291 9241 52.76! Woodfln............................463 Garrard............................453 Average............................468 Peterkin Type. Peterkin 7651 50.651 867 $52.81 9931$69.751 78 10 ................ ............ 1 ........ 628! Layton........................:..1 Wise ........... ................. Average.......... ....... 620! 5561 601! 4841 477 4&~5 459 471! 1011 905 69.0'l 61.93 1 936 $66.91 8611$54.42 811 53.27 895 52.761 77 51.311 8351$52.941 KiTp.King............................1 Mascot..........................1 Shine............................1 Grier's King.....................1 Average ............................. 1 78 BEg Boll Type 1 508! 502! 473 462 1 9651$57.561 980! 57.06! Culpepper........................1 Texas Burr......................1 1 ............... Russell ........... Jones Improved..................I 952, 53.96! 927 52.68 1 Truitt ... ........................ 1 ................. Schley .......... Pride of Georgic,..................1 1 Lifter.................. H 1- 1 9051$54.79! 466! Average .......................... Long Staple Group. I 1I 1I 875!$48.12! Floradora ........................... 420! 1 401! 812! '45.78 Sunflower ..................... 813! 45.79 Blue Ribbon (fuzzy seed)............401! ~ 379!1 818) 43.62 Blue Ribbon (black 'seed) .......... Average....................... ... 1 400! 8291$46.081 Mortgage 462! 4571 436! 433! 872! 52.30 862! 51.73! 839 49.47 841 49.18 7 66 From the above table it will be seen that the Peterkin and varieties having similar qualities were decidedly in the lead at Auburn in 1904 in the production of lint. Taking the yield of lint made by the Peterkin group as 100, we find that the average relative yield of the semi-cluster group may be represented by 78; of the King type by 78; of the big boll group by 77;_ and of the long staple group by 66. This throws some light on the question of the difference in productiveness on upland soils of the long staple varieties as compared with the other groups. The varieties Allen long staple and Simms long staple are not included in; this average for the reason that they grew on the lowest, and doubtless the richest, plots in the field. The local markets usually pay little or no premium for the long staple varieties, which, however, command a premium of several cents a pound in the larger southern seaport markets. This year at Auburn for the four long staple varieties to have nearly equaled the Peterkin group in value per acre it would have been necessary for long staple lint to sell for 15 cents per pound when Peterkin was 10 cents, or for 10 1-2 cents when Peterkin was worth 7 cents. If we compare the long staple with either of the other groups a much smaller premium would equalize the values. Long staple cotton should have rich bottom land for its best development. While the Peterkin group is ahead this year, it by no means follows that it will maintain its lead when seasonal conditions and soils are different. PER CENT. OF LINT IN VARIETIES TESTED IN PLOTS AT AUBURN IN 1904. During a study of cotton varieties extending over a number of years a large amount of data have been obtained regarding the proportions of seed and lint of 175 or more varieties which have recently been grown. The following table gives onRly so much of this data as was obtained in 1904, 10 -by ginning the cotton on these plots of which the yields are reported in the first table of this bnlletin. Per centi of lint in Variety )Vlt tests at Auburn in 1904. Per Cent Lint IlCook Improved. 2Gold Standard.........38.911 3Peterkin...............38.711 4Jackson ............... 38.31 .39.11 Per Cent. Line Variety. Parker .................. Doughty.....,........ Pride of Georgia....... . Shine ................. Nancy Ranks ........... Meredith ............... Texas Burr ........... Mortgage Lifter......... Jones Improved......... Sunflower.............. 34.11 34.01 34.01 33.8 33.7 33.733.4 5jWise..............37.61 G6Prize................ 81Garrard ............... 9IGrier's King......36.81 1OIMascot .............. 111 Hawkins.......... 71lWillett Red Leaf. 37.01 37.21 l21Johnson's Excelsior 131King................1 .. 135.3 35.21 lGlPulInot .............. 1 35.211 l7lCameron Early ....... I 35.011 l4IAlex. Allen ........... 15-1Edgeworth ........ '' 35.91. 36.0 36.811 33.21 33.11 33.11 Drake.... Russell.................. Lealand ..... .. 1 181 Schley ............... 191 Culpepper ............ 2olTruitt................13.1 34.311 o4.611 Sa Woodfn Prolific.. 33.0 Blue Ribbon (fuzzy seed) 32.8 32.41 Floradora.............. 32.11 Simms Long Staple.. Blue Ribbon (black seea) 31-.51 Allen Long Staple... ............. 33.11 33.01 30.81 It will be noted that the proportion of lint to seed is unnsnally high. This was also the case in the variety tests recent newsat the Georgia station in 1904, as indicated paper article by Director 11. J. Bedding. This concordance in a of resnlts snggests tof 1904 was favorable to the increase of lint or to the relative decrease of seed. It will be noted that the long staple varieties have much lower percentages of lint than most of the short staple varie, ties. VARIETY TESTS ON -that something- in the climatic conditions PRAIRIE SOIL IN MONTGOMERY 1904. COUNTY IN Throngh co-operation with the United States Department ,,of Agriculture as before stated, we are this year enabled to 11 -print the results of a variety test made on the A. H. Clarke plantation about half a mile northeast of the depot at McGehee's Switch station, Montgomery county. The soil is gray prairie upland of about average quality, not recently fertilized, so far as is known, until the present .year. Planting was done'April 29-30. On June 1, fertilizers as below were applied on the side of the row in the \shallow furrow made by the first cultivation. The fertilizer was then covered by the throwing out of the middles. The fertilizer used consisted of: 200 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 200 lbs. kainit per acre. 100 lbs. nitrate soda per acre. This date of application was doubtless too late for god results for this season and on this soil, as shown not only in variety tests, but in fertilizer tests on another part of the same field. Through a misunderstanding the plots were not -thinned to a uniform stand, but it was found that the yield of three plots of Truitt did not vary greatly with variations in the stand. As it was impracticable to gin the seed cotton of each plot separately at McGehee's, the yield of lint is by multiplying the weight of seed cotton by the of lint found in the variety test at Auburn in 1904. pper cent. -obtained 12 filds ojf varieties aj coton at 'McGehee"s S Yield Switch, AI/a 1n11904. 1 .d ~~~~acre. "VARIE-TY.O per C b "- . O 181 14f 221 11 Schley..............170701 5IToole Lbs jLbs [bsJl$ $ 23.52' 24.3: 801( 2871 543( 32.50) 23.89 2281 360( 31.23 2 Peterkin............ 160901 7501 290( 460(' 31 Drake..............1(65001 690 32.22 23( 171 4lCrossland...........15750( 770 277 493 31.151 22.84 1 211 .............. 164101 Av. 5, 101 6King ............... 71Bancroft Herlong 1(56301 7901 270 520( 30.721 22.62 and 151 .............. 7461 256f 4921 201 9iSimns ............. 176301 7501 2411 5091 16(1 t1Floradora.........161001 7201 2331 4871 11 11Hawkins ........... .2261 3941 (Russell ............. 156701 6501 2151 435 1 '121 13Cook Long Staple .1830j6801 2071 4731 191 14(Doughty Long StapleI69l0l 6001 204 3961 (i15Jaclison ............ 158001 5401 207 333 l6jParker ............. 16000 5601 1901 3701 81Truitt II 730j 2621 4681 29.471 21,(IJ (6800 8001 256( 544 29.41 21.73 ~ 197 1 1 1 29.03'. 21.35; 2j-l2 3i 159101, 6201 27.66' 26.701 25.351 24.541 24.05 23.17 20.43 19.71 18.57 18.09, 17.84 17.05 41I lI 81 23.03 21.59 171 Sunflower .... 5601 1851 375 21.12 15.57 of Georgia ... .155201 5301 1801 3501 20.45 .15.05 191Mortgage Lifter..150001 5001 1671 33 18'Pride 163601 17.8215.89 131 2O1Allen Long Staple . .160401 5001 1541 3461 17.821 13.20. 19.031 14.02' 'Seed valued at 70 cents per 100 pounds or $14.00 per ton. The varieties affording the largest value of seed and were Schiey and Peterkin, closely followed by Drake and Crossland. lint Toole-stands fifth. In this test, as at Aubnrn, 283'1.-2 pounds) of, lint per. acre." age as Big follows: Peterkin group the varieties of the Peterkin type, Peterkin Crossland stand to the front with ani average yield of well namely, and Taking this yield of lint as. 100 per cent., the groups of varieties hitherto classified aver78. (Peterkin and Crossland) ............ 100. boll group (Russell, Schiey, Truitt, Pride of Georgia, Mortgage Tifter...................... and 131J geniicluster group (Hawkins and Drake) .. Long staple group (Floradora, Cook, Long Stapie, Doughty, Sunflower, and Allen long staple;...... EELATIVE EARLINESS OF VARIETIES. 6. 69. Tfhe invasion of the-cotton states by the cotton boll weevil menders more important than ever before careful studies of The early varieties. It has been found that only the earliest varieties can be, profitably grown in infested regions, even when all other known methods of colbatting the weevil are employed. The rapid spread of the weevil eastward in Louisiana during the past season Ilakes it important that the farmers of Alabama should be ready for this invasion as promptly as possible. It, would be well for every neighborhood, and perhaps for every -farm, to have at least a small portion of its crop in one of the very early varieties so that seed of early varieties may be everywhere available when urgently needed. It is easy to determine at a glance that one variety is early rind another l ate, but it less easy to indicate the relative earliness of intermediate is varieties. In the two tables which follow the figures show how many bolls had opened on a given date early in September out of every 100 bolls maturing during the entire season. These figures are based on counts of bolls on five selected plants of each variety made by Mr. C. H. Billingsley, of the United States Department of Agriculture. 14 Relative earliness of varieties at Auburn in 1904, as shover by j5er cent of boils often on- Sep/ember 1 on counted plants. -; L I-C C Vatriety.o Variety. King ................... Mascot ~I L 7711 4211 4611 4611 .................. I 4911 Meredith ................. Garrard.................. I Grier's King ............. . Lealand ................ I Nancy fHanks.. .......... Shine...................I Jackson.................. Hawkins................ . Layton ................ ,..... Johnson Excelsior Edgeworth..............I I Texas Burr .............. Pride of Georgia.........I1 Qarneron Early .......... I Cook Improved .......... Drake........... ........ Wise .................... Prize . Jones Improved....... Schley .................. . Sunflower .............. . Gold Standard .......... . Parker ................. Blue Ribbon (wooly seed) Alex. Allen .............. Woodfln.................. .201, 191 191" 19~ 18~ 167 151 3211Culpepper ............... Blue Ribbon (black 4211 Peterkin ................ 41j Doughty................. seed) 14G1' 141' 15j 3011 3211 Russell.........I Pulinot................. Floradora 13f ................ 131' 121 101 2211 .... ............... I 2111 Mortgage Lifter......... Simms Long Staple ... Allen Long Staple.......I Truitt.................... Cook Long Staple ........ Willett Red Leaf....... . 71 61 Relatizve earliness of v'arieties at AleGe/ee 's as shown by3 5crcent 0f1)0/is oj5en on Sepemnber 7, 1904. Vanety. variety. Toole ........................... King Simrns.................... 3911 Mortgage Lifter........... 3311 Allen Long Staple......... 321 I 27 I Sunflower .... ........... Jackson................1.2711 Parker .................... I iTruitt ................ Crossland ............. .. 1 231 6611 ................... Russell Schley ..... ........... 2511Hawkins .............. Bancroft............. Pride of Georgia ... Cook Long Staple .. Peterkin .............. Floradora ............. Doughty .............. ... 2-31, 181 17i . 15. * .I 141 121 .. . 131 .. :.:..........1.211Drake................. ........ 2411 I1 15 The above tables are based on careful counts made on. five plants of each variety. Since individual peculiarities of:: some of these plants have greatly affected the positions in the table, it is in place to say that judging only by the general appearance of the plots the varieties matured more nearly together than indicated by the table and at Auburn the following varieties especially appeared earlier than is indicated by their positions in the tables: Alex. Allen, Woodfin, and Culpepper. WHERE TO GET SEED. The experiment station is unable to supply seed of any of these varieties. In order to enable farmers to obtain seed of such of these varieties as they desire, addresses are given below of parties from whom our seed were obtained in 1904: Culpepper from J. E. Culpepper, Luthersville, Ga. Drake from R. W. Drake, Laneville, Ala. Cook Improved from J. R. Cook, Schley, Ga. Edgeworth from J. C. Little, Louisville, Ga. Blue Ribbon from S. C. Experiment Station, Clemson College, S. C. Gold Standard from Excelsior Seed Farm, Bennettsville, S. C. Sam Woodfin Prolific from S. V. Woodfin, Marion, Ala. Parker, Sunflower, Russell, Mortgage Lifter, King and Jackson from Unitel States Department of Agriculture, Washington, T. C. Truitt and Peterkin from Harvey Seed Co., Montgomery, Ala. Simms, Allen Long Staple, Willett Red Leaf, Doughty Long Staple, Cook Long Staple, Floradora, Hawkins, Jones Improved and Schley from N. L. Willett Drug Co., Augusta, Ga. Pride of Georgia, Cameron Early, Layton Improved, Meredith, Nancy IIanks, Garrard, Grier's King, Mascot, Shine, 163 Texas Burr, Prize, Wise, Alex. Allen, and Pulluot from the -Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. Leal and from H. P. Jones, lerndon, Ga. Johnson Excelsior from C. R. Baird Co., Chattanooga, Tenn. & OTHEI EXPERIMENTS IN PROGIESS WITHVARIETIES OF COmON. This bulletin relates to only about half of the varieties on the experiment station farm at Auburn in 1904 The space available was not sufficient for the remaining varieties to be grown on areas large enough to afford accurate determinations of the yields. The remaining varieties, grown on very small areas, as well as the varieties here reported, constitute part of an experiment, the main object of which is to obtain accurate descriptions and photographs of every variety obtainable east of the boll weevil region. It will require at least .another year before results can be published:;meantime. this ~experiment will be continued in 1905, and for use in this ,experiment the writer will be glad to obtain by mail from growers or originators small packages of seed of the well ,grown established variety which each is growing. The senders are requested to exercise care in fully labeling the package on the outside, giving the name and -postoffce of the sender and the true establishel name of the variety. Our are hereby extended to all of those who in the past few years have furnished small lots of seed for this thanks experiment. I- would repeal here the statement have made every spring in the circular. letters sent ers. Fromt the nature of which I to growcafl the exrperiment no report ,made by letter as to howr any i5 the intention to is of the bulletin that will b completed.. send to variety be standsL However, it each contributor of seed a copy published when the investigation BULLETIN NO, 131. FEBRUARY, FBUR,1~. 1905,.. ALABAMA . I AricutraI ExperImetStto Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBU RN. 'g oz Co-operative Fertilizer Experimfents Withi Cotton IN1901, 1902, 1903, AND 1904. By J.- F. Director DUGG AR, and Agriculturist. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company. 1905. .J. T. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. M-. CARMICHAIEL................................Montgomery. D. SAMR.RD ....................................... Opelika. Jasper. \W. C. DAVIS........................................... STATION COUNCIL. C.HAS. C.. THACH.....................................President. ,J. F. DUGGAR........................Director )B. B. Ross............. ........... and Agriculturist. . Chemist and State Chemist. 1C. A. CARP.....................................Veterinarian. JE. M. WILCOX............. .... Plant Physiologist ASSISTANTS. and Pathologist. -1R. S. MACKINTOSH........Horticulturist and State Horticulturist. J. T. ANDERSON ............. Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigation. 'C. T. L. HARE ... ........................ .First Assistant Chemist. Second Assistant Chemist. BRAGG ................................. IJ. H. MIrCIELT,........... ........... N. C. Raw....................... C. .. Third Assistant Chemist. . .Assistant ....... in Animal Industry. M. FLOYD........................ .Superintendent of Farm. I. S. MCADORY.................. Assistant in Veterinary Science. C. F. I(INMAN.............................. Assistant in Horticulture. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any' citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama.1 CO-OPERATIVE FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON, IN 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904. AND By J. F. DUGGAR. A brief summary.' the average'results these experi"ents be fomn4 on page.67. For a number of years this station has conducted numer'ous local fertilizer experiments, furnishing material and instructions to farmers agreeing to make the tests. The number of local fertilizer experiments with cotton, In 1901, ,of which reports were received, was as ten; in 1902, thirteen; in 1903, ten, and in 1904, twenty-one. 'This does not iclude a number of experiments that were made, but ,of which the experimenters made no reports may of of follows: or reported accidental loss of results. In all of these years fertilizer experiments were also made on corn and other 'crops, 'the results of which will be published in future years. The chie'f object of these local fertilizer experiments or soil tests 'has been 'to ascertain the best fertilizer or 'comubinalion of femrtilizers for- cotton, growing on each of the principal soils of Alabarna. Sniall lots of careufy weighed and mixed fertilizers were 'supplied 'to each experimienter. Detailed instructions as to 'how conduct 'the 'experiments and blank forms for reailso furnished. rping results, *to 'wer~e 20 The following list gives the name and address of each ex. perimenter who has reported the results of fertilizer experiments made under our direction during the last four years, with page of this bulletin where the results may befound' B NAME DATE. COUNTY. POST OFFICE. rrbour .... Louisville .... J. D. Veal ......... 1904 Bibb..Vick......... W. T. Chism. .1901,'2,'3 PAGE. 58 & 60+ 49+ Blourt...... Tidmore...... Jno. W. Staab .1901 Bullock.....Union Sp'gs.. N. Gachet.........1904 Butler...... Garland......G. L,. McLure ...... 1901 Butler ...... Greenville .... D. H. Rouse . 1901 Butler..... Georgiana... J. 'C. Lee...........1904 36. 74 73 54 60 & 62° 55 & 561 60 & 61 73. Chambers... Chilton. Choctaw ... Fredonia Clanton . . Naheola Coffee....... Conecuh .... W. Smartt..1904 W. A. Chandler .... 1904 W. G. Bev.l .. 1901,'02 Enterprise... C. A. Hatcher..... 1904 Evergreen .... J. W. Stewart..1902 ...... ... .E. ...... 59 & 601 Coosa.......Hanover .... J. M. Logan.......1902,'03 Cullman.... Cullman ... L. A. Fealy........1903 Dale........Midland City.W. H. Simmons.....1904 DeKaib... Collinsville....W. F. Fulton..... 1902,'3 Elmore.. Wetumpka....5th Dist. Agr. School.1901,'2,'3 Elmore ... ,.Tallassee. J... JD. Billingsley ... 1903 Fayette ..... Nwtonville . .. G. W. Gravlee. Franklin.... Russellville... G. R Pass........1904 55 & 57 50,51 & 73. 36 & 3, 631 44,47.& 73; 45 & 47 73, 30. 1904 33 & 36. 64 & 74L Geneva...Geneva... . M. P. Metcalf...1901,'2,'3,'4 W. A. Parish...1904 :..1904 Hale ... Greensboro ... .T. K. Jones.........1902,'4 .Town Creek .. 74. 51 & 52, 73; Lauderdale Florence... Lawrence.. Lee......... Madison .... A. A. Owens Auburn...Ala.. . ... .. .. Expt. Sta.:1902,'4 47. Limestone . . Athens ... Macon .Notasulga Huntsville P. G. Williams .... 1903 J. P. Slaton ........ 1904 C. Davis ........... Dist.Agr. 51 & 53. 461 241 1901 Madison .... Huntsville .... H, D. N. Wales .... .1902,'3,'4 Marion..Hamilton..6th School. 1903 24 & 26. 43, Perry...Long..........L. Long ........... 1902 Pickens..Gordo........ J. W. French .. . 1901 Pickens .... .Gordo........ D. W. Davis........ 1902 Shelby .-.. Montevallo... . J. W. Wyatt....1904 Talladega . Silver Run.... C. L. Jenkins...1902,'3,14 Tallapoosa. Camp Hill. . .. Lyman Ward...1902 Tuscaloosa. Tuscaloosa ... E. J. Daffin........1901 Washi 34 & 36, 394 404 31 & 32~ 28; 50 & 51 .41. noton. Carsn....R. D. Palmer ... 1904. 74, 21 The directions of an acre-in area. 'sent required each plot to be one-eighth Rows were 3 1-2 feet apart, and each ex- perimenter was advised to so thin the cotton as to leave the same nnmber of plants on each plot, preferable at distances of 18 inches between plants. The' directions stated that land employed for this.test 'should be level -and uniform, not mannred in recent years, and not new ground, or'subject to overflow, and that it should be representative of large soil areas in its vicinity. The need of perfect uniformity of treatment for all plots (except as to kinds of fertilizers used) was emphasized. Fertilizers were applied in the usual manner-that is, Edrilled. THE RAINFPALL. The following data are taken from the records of the AlaTbama section of the Weather Bureau and show the average rainfall for the State: INCHES RAINFALL. 1901 January................ 1902 103 1904 4.171. 5.321 .... ........ 3.861 February.......... March ...... .I 4.131 April......... ............. May.......... -June..................... July ........ ............ ............ 6.30 6.521 10.951 8.761 2.341 3.561 5.011 3.801... 3.69... 2.22... 5.081 5.27j August ....... .......... September....... October..... ........... ...... 1 4.191 I I 1 I 2.801 3.401 8.861 1.041 2.341 1.281 2.501 2.721 6.051 3.98 4.881 3.57 1.411 1.821 2.98... 2.94.. 3.481 4.281 November....... ....... 4.22 7.801 5.77 December........ ...... 5.97 49.091 Average........,....I1 Average yearly normal 1............... 1 1.851 3.581 4.801.. 5~s.55.. 1.361.. 0.341.. 2.12 2.93 50.22 ...... 3 .39.24.11.81. 2.981.. .. 51 In the summer of 1902 occurred a drought of unprecedented duration.. This .was general- and in many localities there was little -or no rain from April to August. Hence results of that year should be given less weight than those for the other years. In 1904 there ,was a. deficiency of rain in spring and an injurious drought begin'ning about the middle of August. 22) THE FERTILIZERS USED. The following prices are used, as representing the average cash price in local markets during the. last few years: Per Ton. Acid phosphate (14 per cent. available) $14.00 Cotton seed meal.22.00 mately approxi Kainit......................15.00 Prices naturally vary in different localities. Any one can substitute the cost of fertilizers in his locality for the.price. given above. In each. experiment two pleas were left unfertilized, these being plots 3 and 8. The following table shows: what kinds; and amounts of fertili'ztrs wer~e used on certain plots; the number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphor2c acid, and potash supplied per. acre by each fertilizer mixture ; and the percentage composition and cost per -con of each mixture, the. latter being given in order that these mixtures. may be, readily compared with various brands of prepared, guan~os: Pounds per acre of fertilizers, nit)~ogem; .piosphoricacid, and potash used and composition of each mixture. FERTILIZERS. MIXTURE CONTAINS 0 KIND. , COST OF4 FERTILIZERS U z - o is p- Lbs. 1 200 Cotton seed meal ... 2 4 5 5 6y 240 200 200 240 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 13.58 3.54 6.79 2.88 1:77 In 100 lbs. c. s meal.: Acid phosphate............36.12. In 100 lbs. acid pls. . 15.05. Kainit. .4.60 In 100 lbs. kainil..............1230 Cotton seed meal." 13.58483.54 Acid phosphate. 5.76 S .002.20 14 .00 1.6:< 1 200 Kainit.............S In 100 lbs. above 200 Cotton seed meal.. I 100 lbs. above mnixI Inz 00 lbs. abov~e zix!8.1 200 Kainit. ......... m 3 3.C919....80 13.58 .7 .7 ;2814 17.50 370 3.,3.9i t 9. 1.44 7..03 20Aiphsat..,.j ...... .5 . 445 3 Cotton seed meal . I10lb.aoemx . 8 59200 240 Acid phosphate. 13.584.8E 28.14 200 Kainit .. In 130 lbs. above tix! Z.12 6<54 4.39 20 Ctton seed meal ... 10 240 Aid phosphate ... l12.58 41.88158 10Kinit ..... ... 84 In 100 lbs. above niixr. 2.59 7.75 2.93 16.81 5.38 17.15146 t"Co3.nting all the phosphoric acid in cotton seed meal as- availh able., *Average of many analysis. Those farmers who are more accustomed to, the word am+. monia than to the terrm nitrogen-, can change the figures,'for nitrogen into. their ammonia equivalents by by multiplying.. 13%x, 24 In determining the increase over the unfertilized plots? The yield of the fertilized plots, Nos. 4, 5, 6 and is copared with both unfertilized plots, lying on either side, giv..ing to each unfertilized plot a weight inversely proportional .to its distance from the plot under comparison. This ; method of comparison tends to compensate for variations !n the fertility of the several plots. 7, -rents i PRicIE ASSUMED FoL SEED COTTON. The price assumed is cents per pound for lint and $12.0' per ton for seed. Deduct from this the cost of picking and ginning, 1/2 cent per pound of seed cotton, and we have as the net value per pound of increase of seed cotton; this last figure is used in all calculations of profits in this bulletin. Hu~Intsville experiments with cotton. 8 26% poTS s FERTILIZER. ! cent til as p HUNTSVILLE (Davis\ HUNT TSVILL E (Wale es) HUNTSVILLE (vales) 1903 tE' Hu~ VIL (Wa ccam 1901 o ) a 190 )2 o j 904 ;~ i U a0 ,a44- va) o W $-4 Po 4 g KIND.' { U 4 C C Ll360 r Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.41 Los. Cotton seed meal . 332 -96 416 56 Acid phosphate........ 524 96 384 24 428' 360 20 No fertilizer ... ....... 6........ 78 353 00 12 S200 Cotton seed meal.. 592 154 384 37 1240 Acid phosphate..,y 200 Cotton seed meal . 420 -22 408 67 '>200 Kainit .............. c 240 Acid phosphate . .. 616 169 368 33 200 1 Katnit........ ....... 3 00. No fertilizer......452 328 2 0 0 Cotton seed meal . o. 240 Acid phosphate... 200 Kini.t92 340 416 88 2 0 0 Cotton seed meal ... 24 Acid phosphate .... r 428' 4481 120 1 2 3 Lbs. 200 240 00 01;ainit Lbs. 640 712 424 600 Lbs. Lbs Lbs. 216 416 64 288 472 129 352 192 344 -5 872 712 320 526 3~2 Isi- 656 280 704 552, 192 520 344 648 304 336 696 }1 0 0Kainit.... .... 9 594 25O0 68.E $ 2a I3XPLRIMENT MADE IN 1901 BY CL ARENDON valley. DAVIS, lUNTSVILLU. .Red upland soil and subsoil, characteristic of the Tennessee Ths field'had been incultivation for many years. The crop was wheat, itself preceded by cowpeas. Exshedding of forms, due to continued heavy August, and the occurrence of light but damaging frost September 18th, reduced the yield on'all plots, but more on the plots fertilized heavily and on those receiving cotton seed meal. The early frost and the residual fertilizing effects of the cowpeas probably explain the slight effects of cotton seed meal, to which in combination with acid phosphate, cotton usually responds profitably on this grade of soil. For yield of seed cotton see page 24. That table shows that the increase in seed cotton per acre was as follows: preceding ,cessive rains-in Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton -added: To To To To unfertilized plot ........................ acid phosphate plot.............58 kainit plot.................. ...... acid phosphate and kainit plot ........... seed meal was lbs. lbs. -100 lbs. 171 lbs. 8. lbs. =-9 Average increase with-cotton .. seed meal........ Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfe'rtilized plot . ... 96 lbs. To cotton seed, meal plot.................... 250 lbs. To kainit plot............................... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot .......... 362 91 lbs. lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate ........ 199 lbs. 6)G Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: lbs. 74 lbs. To unfertilized plot........................78 To cotton seed meal plot ....... . .. 73 lbs. To acid phosphate plot ....................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot..186 lbs. Average increase with kainit.................102 lbs. The chief need of cotton on this soil was for acid phos phate. Although there was no rust, the addition of kaint to the phosphate was profitable. The conditions in this; a fair opportunity to test did not give to cotton seed show the favorable effects that I usually be expected of as the most it on this soil. Yet a complete fertilizer c $6.90 per acreprofitable, plot 10 leading with a net after paying for fertilizers and for picking and ginning theincrease, on the basis of lint at 8 cents and cotton seed at cents per hundred pounds. may mal profit 60, T.. EXPERIMENTS MADE IN 1902, 1903, AND,1904 Y H. D. WALES, HUNTSVInILu. Red clay scsii and 8sbsoi The excessively long dry period from April to August dered all fertilizers ineffective in 1902. For yields .anid increase of crop see table on page 24. The 1903 experv mioat was preceded by two corn crops in succession. Thai. year* the largest yield resulte~l from the use of a mixture acid) phosphate and cotton seed meal. Kainit was of ren- little or03 t) o.' use in combination, but on plot 4 it seemed' useful v lien tOinks that used alone. There was no rust. Mr. Wales early frost cut off one-half of the expected yields 9 and 10, and did less injury on other plots. onl plots, In 1904 the experiment was on similar soil, that had borne a crop of cowpeas three years before and then had been uncultivated for two years. The largest yield wasagain obtained from plot 5, fertilized with 2001 ponds of, 27 cotton seed meal and 240 pounds acid phosphate. Mr. Wales added an eleventh plot fertilized with 200 pounds acid phosphate and 100 pounds cotton seed meal, the yield of which was 684 pounds, or practically as good as plots 9 and 10, containing kainit and a larger amount of cotton seed meal. Cotton seed meal was highly profitable when employed in combination, but less useful alone. Kainit was generally useless. In view of results recorded in this, bulletin and in those obtained in previous experiments on typical red upland Tennessee valley soil, I would suggest as a general fertilizer for cotton on that soil 80 to 120 lbs. cotton seed meal per acre. 160 to 240 lbs acid phosphate per acre. 240 to 360 lbs. total per acre. If the cotton stalks grow very small it might be advisable, to increase the proportion of cotton seed meal to onehalf of the mixture. Increase added: To To To To of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was 1904 64 lbs. 405 lbs. 367 lbs. 179 lbs. 253 lbs. 120 462 186 -2 lbs. lbs, lbs. lbs. unfertilized plot .................... 56 acid phosphate plot ................. 13 kainit plot .......................... 67 acil phosphate and kainit plot...... 55 1902 1903 lbs. 216 lbs. lbs. 32 lbs. 88 lbs. lbs. lbs. 112 lbs. 112 Ibs. Average increase with cotton seed meal.. To To To To 47 Ibs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: 24 lbs. 288 lbs. unfertilized plot ................... 19 lbs. 104 lbs. cotton sed meal plot .............0 lbs. 33 lbs. kainit plot .........................21 lbs. 24 lbs. cotton seed meal and kainit pot .... 14 lbs. 104 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate .. 167 lbs, 28 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: uTo To 'To To unfertilized plot.....................0 cotton seed meal plot...............11 acid phosphate plot.............. 9 cotton seed meal and phosphate plot 51 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 192 64 96 16 lbs. -5 lbs. 298 lbs. 61 lbs.-160 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. ,Average increase with kainit...........17 lbs. EXPERIMENTS MADE BY C. L. JENKINS TALLADEGA COUNTY. 92 lbs. 19 lbs.. NEAR SILVER RUN, ,fost of the soil on this farm, six miles south Oxford, is light reddish to yellowish loam, apparently of fairly well supplied with lime. The preceding crop was wheat. No cowpeas The early part of the * jon was very dry. All three fertilizer materials were useful, a complete fertilizer giving the largest yield. In 1903. The largest yield was obtained by the use of a ,;complete fertilizer consisting of ~200 lbs. cotton seed meal per acre. ,240 lbs acid phosphate per acre,. 100 lbs kainit per acre. ,had been grown in recent years. In, 1902. sea- In 1904. Again the largest yield was obtained by the, ,completeformula just mentioned. Plot 5 this year, without kainit, yields almost as much as the plots with complete fertilizers. The first need of this soil' seems to be for phos- phate but nitrogen and potash were added with effect. 29 Silver Run experiments with cotton. FERTILIZER. SILVER RUN 1902 0 Q KIND. SILVER RUN 1903 C) 4 SILVER RuN 1904 U) k0 0 a, ok C) pt -4 r-4 .4-7 P-4~ - o C) C) ) 4-44OC . OC z 1 E~ ibs 2 3 5 .240( 20) Lbs " Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.! Lbs.'+ Cotton seed meal... 144 184 104 240 324 4C 80 129 207 200 -80 576 544 48. 16 37' Acid phosphate.... .....00 No fertilizer........... .......... 4 20Kainit....... Cotton seed meal.. 20Acid phosphate .. 6 200 Cotton seed meal .. . . 6 200 Kainit... 7240 Acid phosphate... 200 200 .480 392 280 672 112 187 366 568 880 345 158 1C7 356 233 568 744 249 aI 696 412 Kainit..........304 175 1 I"" 648 544 880 8 No fertilizer .... 3 10 200 Cotton seed meal ... 240 Acid phosphate.. 200 Kainit............. 200 Cotton seed meal ... 240 14cid phosphate 100 344 356 320 I )arll S 492 . J 776 6 432 336 Jno Kainit ...... 455 92( 05761 944 ....... Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot................ To acid phosphate plot................127 ................... To kainit plot ..... To acid phosphate andkainit plot.. 1904 1903 1902 48 ibs: 80 lbs. ... 40 lbs. 254 lbs. 329 lbs: lbs. 62 lbs. 121 ibs:104 lbs. 181 lbs. 20 lbs. 229 lbs~ 95 lbs. 64 lbs. 181 lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: 16 lbs. 297 lbs. 70 lbs. 178 lbs. 140 lbs. To unfertilized plot....................80 To' cotton seed meal plot.............167 To kainit plot........................46 123 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 112 lbs. 446 lbs. 225 lbs. 183 lbs. 242 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate. .106 30 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot ............... 129 lbs. 187 lbs. 37 TIo cotton seed meal plot 193 lbs. 329 lbs. 110 To acid phosphate plot ................. 95 lbs. 300 lbs. 91 To cotton seed meal and acid phos. plot 149 lbs. 66 lbs. -9 ............ lb5. lbs. lbs. lbs. Average increase with kainit ......... 141 lbs. 221 lbs. 57 lbs EXPERIMENTS MADE BY T/.F. FULToN, ONE MILE SOUTH OF COUNTY. COLLLINSVILLE, DEKALB Soil reddish or mullatto, subsoil red. For table showing yields see page 31. Both in 1902 and in 1903 the largest increase resulted from the use of cotton seed meal and acid phosphate together. Plainly kainit was not needed. Neither was cotton seed meal alone, nor phosphate alone, sufficient. This is the fifth fertilizer experiment with cotton that Mr. Fulton has made on the red soils of Big Wills Valley, the first at Larimore and the later tests at Collinsville. Each year the description of the soil is about the same, reddish valley soil, underlaid by red clay, and all apparently calcareous. These tests all agree in showing: (1) That the chief need of cotton on this soil is for phosphate. (2) That the addition of cotton seed meal to the acid phosphate is profitable. (3) That in the presence of phosphate and meal kainit is useless. The results suggest that the best fertilizer for these valley soils is one containing more phosphate than meal. I suggest 200 pounds acid phosphate and 100 pounds cotton seed meal. Earlier results are recorded in bulletins 102, 10T and 113 of this station. The following analysis shows the increase attributed to fertilizers in 1902 and 1903: 31 In none, of the five experiments made was there any injury by rust. The average increase for the two years -rcceiving phosphate and meal, 348 pounds, profit per acre of $5.77 after paying cost of :ginning and picking the increase. by Mr. Fulton was on plot 5, affording a net fertilizer andof Collinsville and iMlontevalloexperiments. COL~LINS- FERTILIZER. _______ VILLE 1902 COLLINSVILLE 1903 MONTE- VALLO 1904 06 6C _ KIND. 4 o q- N LbS Lbs.; 1 00Cttnsedmel 2 3 4 240 00 200 200 24) , 7 Acid phosphtae.....416 120 550 No fertilizer.......296 328 Kainit ............. 336 30 336 Cotton seed meal 62.077839..7 A~cid 440 Lbs. Lb __ 144 37 ___ s _ Lbs phosphtae643772 232 1000 146 8~64 3 1056 144 1 3910212 8156 192 200, ' 200 240 2(0 8 No fertilizer........... 20Ctton seed meal . 240Aci pespta 200 Kainit........ 20Ctten sered meal 1020Ai (0 Zcotton seed meal ... T(ainit , ,, !acid phosphtae.... ainit 46 348 18 528 185 1208 16283432 352 1104 360 1568 1560 300 46.5861.681.4.2 196~ 712 ' 464 456 ph'es 521 ,ltae512. 164 712 360 100 Kahliit . ae. . Increase df seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was :added: 1902 1903 To unferitfilizd plot............................ 144 lbs. 48 lbs. To acid phosphate plot ................. . lo kalaait plot ................................- 187 lbs. 38 lbs. lbs. ~To acid phosphate and kainit plot ................ increase with cotton seed 158 lbs. 182 lbs. 92 lbs. 120 lbs. 'Average meal ......... 123 32 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: unfertilized plot ................. ....... 120 lbs. 232 lbs.. cotton seed meal plot ....................... 163 lbs. 342 lbs. kainit plot .. ............................. 128 lbs. 265 lbs. cotton seed meal and kainit plot.............175 lbs.. .......... 137 Ibs. 253 Ibs. To To To To Average increase with acid phosphate Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot ......................... 30 lbs. 3 To cotton seed meal plot ...................-137 To acid phosphate plot ................. ..... 38 lbs. 36 To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot . .- 111 lbs. -31 Average increase with kainit ................EXPERIMENT MADE BY J. 14 lbs. lbs.. lbs. lbs. lbs._ 36 lbs. W. WYATT, FIVE MILES EAST OF MifONTEVALLO, SHELBY COUNTY. Dark, reddish, sandy upland with red clay subsoil. This field had been cleared of its second growth of timber for about fifteen years, and for about ten years in succession had been planted in cotton. The original growth is reported to have been oak, hickory, chestnut and dogwood, and the second growth springing up when the land was thrown out of cultivation after the civil war was short leaf pine and sumac. No mention is, made of rust. The complete fertilizer raised the yield to more than a bale per acre, an increase of 464 pounds. The complete fertilizer with 100 pounds of kainit was more profitable thain the one with a larger amount of kainit, the former affording a profit of $7.23 per acre after paying for fertilizer and picking and ginning of the increase. 33 increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot.......................192 lbs. To acid phosphate plot....................-34 lbs. To kainit plot...........................56 lbs. To acid phosphate and kainit plot..........136 lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal. 87 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate To To To To was added unfertilized plot......................146 lbs. cotton seed meal plot................-80lbs. kainit plot..........................184 lbs. cotton seed meal and kainit plot........264 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate.......128 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot......................144 lbs. To cotton seed meal plot.............. .... 8 lbs. To acid phosphate plot...................182 lbs. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot..352 lbs. Average increase with kainit ............... 171 Ibsr added: EXPERIMENT MADE BY G. R. PASS, RUSSEL ,COUNTY. FAN LIN This test was made on darkc reddish clay upland with clay subjsoil. The original growth is described as oak and hickory with somne wild cherry and walnut. Unfortunately for showing the full effects of cotton seed meal, the preceding crop. was cowpeas, the entire growth being plowed under in the fall of 1903. The stand was good. For yields and increase see table on page 36. The largest yield and the greatest profit per acre were obtained on plot 5. where only cotton seed meal and acid phosphate were employed. With this fertilizer the increase was 595 pounds per acre and the net profit, after paying for fertilizer and 34 picking and ginning of increase, was $11.59. Cotton seed meal was highly profitable in spite of the fact that the preceding pea crop had supplied a large amount of nitrogen. KIainit'vwas useless, if not indeed injurious. Increase of seed cotton when cotton*seed meal was added: lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. To To To To, unfertilized plot........................448 acid phosphate plot....................323 kainit plot..............................163 acid phosphate and kainit plot..........142 Average increase with cotton seed meal........244 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To To To To unfertilized cotton seed kainit plot cotton seed lbs. plot......................... lbs. meal plot...................147 lbs. ..... :.........................208 meal and kainit plot..........187 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate........203 lbs. InerceasF of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To To unfertilized plot.........................42 .cotton seed meal plot..................--243 To 22 acid phosphate plot To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot -203 ......................- lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Average decrease with kainit ................ EXPERIMENT MADE BY L. LONG, LONG P. 106 lbs.. 0., PERRY COUNTY., IN 1902. Worn red prairie with some sand. For yields and, increase see table on page 36. This soil had been uncultivated for several years, but borne. two crops of cotton just before the experiment made. With a mixture of cotton, seed meal and phosphate (plot 5) the increase was 360 pounds, affording a net profit had was of $5.48 per acre. Acid, phosphate seems to have been the fertilizer chiefly needed, and the addition of cotton seed iheal to the phosphate was highly profitable. Kainit was lunprofitable. These results suggest that-a suitable fertilizer for this ,soil iuight well contain more phosphate than meal, say two'thirds acid phosphate and one-third cottou seed ieal. Mr. Long added an additional plot fertilized only with four :2-horse loads unweighed stable manure per acre. From this ithe increase over the 'nearest unfertilized plot was 18 ;pounds of seed cotton per acre. -Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed To To 'To 'To meal was added: lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. unfertilized plot ............. 104 acid phosphate plot.........64 kainit plot..... ....................... 144 acid phosphate and kainit plot............112 increase with cotton seed Averaage meal. 106 'increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added To 'unfertilized plot.........................29 lbs. To cotton seed meal plot...................256 To kainit plot ..................... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot........... 268 lbs. 300 lbs. lbs. Average. increase with acid phosphate........278 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added : To unfertilized plot ........................... To cotton seed meal plot..................... 4 lbs. 44 lbs. To acid phosphate plot....................... 8 lbs. 'To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot.. 56 lbs. 'Average increase with kainit .................. 28 lbs. Russellville, Long, Tidmore andt Gnlnan, FERTILIZER. experiments:. RusSEV]lLE TspLONG 1902. ) CULLjMAN MORE 's1904 O4 1901 . 1904 . .O+ . O4 z 0 0 KIND. 44¢ )" >" - t3? 4 A Lbs. 200 Cotton seed meal .. 2 240 Acid. phosphate ... 3 00 No fertilizer .......... 200 Kainit ................ 4 2"0 Cotton seed meal ... 240 Acid phosphate .. 2f0 Cotton seed meal ... 200 Kainit ............. 240 Acid phosphate .. 200 Kainit.............. 00 No fertilizer........ . 200 Cotton seed meal . .. 9S 240 Acid phosphate.. J 95 200 Kainit .............. 200 Cotton seed meal ... 240 Acid phosphate ..... J 100 Kainit .............. EXPERIMENT MADE 1112 936 768 Lbs Lbs. Lbs.lLbs. Lbs 448 296 104 32 32 272 488 296 52 232 192 292 421 192 4 27 1384 1056 595 544 36' 688 43C 256 Lbs1 L&bs. 536 104L 576 144L 432 4152 82; 896 205: 328. 148 488 8161 341" 784 504 2941 1096; 2501 480 9761 13o8i 392 1424 172 588 304 4001 188 192 416 752 5601 8641 3604 448 4681 296 7,96 604 904 40G) BY JNO. W. ST1;AAR; Two 11MILES NORTHi ~OF TIDMlIOREBLOUNT COUNTY.. Light, gray, sandy soil with red loam subsoil 4' below the Surface. to 6 inches: This upland field had been in cultivation; about fifty' years. The original growth is reported as shortleaf pine, gum, mountain oak, persilmmon, and -hickory. All plots: were thinned to the same number of plants. For yields andc increase see table on page 3G. A complete fertilizer contamningi0 pounds of kainit gave the largest increase, and? a net profit of $11.07 per acre. A mixture of cotton sees? mneal and phosphate also highly profitable. was The coinclusions drawn by Mr. Staab from this experb linent and fronm iwrevions experience are here quoted: "L That.50 100 pounds of fertilizer per acre is not to mature a full crop. 2. That even the heavy applications do not pay unless ithe ground contains considerable humus. 3. That phosphatic fertilizers in connection with cotton seed meal or cowpeas,- or weeds turned under green will pay 'better than nine-tenths of the fertilizers commonly 4. That heavy applications help crops into quickgerFmination rand.more rapid growth, lessening expense for "hoeing. 5. That a reduction of acreage and adequate increase of 'manures are advisable. 6. I do not find kainit of nearly the value it is advertised; :in times of drought it shows for itself by the wilting of ?foliage. This is ameliorated by a mixture.of cotton seed imeal and acid phosphate." .sufficient to used. Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot. . ... ...... .... ... ... ..... 32 lbs. lbs. lbs. To acid phosphate plot ...... ,.............204 lbs. 252 lbs. To kainit plot ........................... To acid phosphate and kainit plot Average increase with cotton seed ...........372 meal....... 215 ]Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: lbs. To unfertilized plot.......................232 404 lbs. To cotton seed meal plot.................. :..184. lbs. To kainit plot ......................... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot.........304 lbs., Average increase with acid phosphate.......282 lbs. 38 Increase of seed cotton per acre when, laluit was added:. To unfertilized plot...........................4 lbs.. To cotton seed meal plot...................24.lbs.. To acid' phosphate plot...... ..........44, lbs. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot . .124,lbs.. Average increase with kainit.................77 EXPERIMENT MADE AT CULLMAN. IN. Ibs, 1904.. This experiment was conducted by Mr.. Feirtag for, Mr. L, The land is described as very poor and the test as entirely fair. The soil is not described but was probably the characteristic sandy soil of that region. For yields and increase see table on page 36. The largest increase and the greatest profit were obtained on plot 5 from a mixtur& of acid phosphate and cotton seed meal, the net profit there being per acre. A. Fealy. .7.43 Increase of seed cotton when cotton seed meal was To unfertilized plot.... ...................... To acid phosphate plot.........291 To kainit plot..............................259 To acid phosphate and kainit plot..............06 Average increase with cotton seed meal added: lbs. 104 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. ... 180 .... Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot.............. ..... added,. 144 lbs. To cotton seed meal plot.................... 331 lbs. To kainit plot............. I10 e..................212 lbs. cotton seed meal and kainit plot ............ 19 lbs. Average increase with acid. phosphate,............1,76 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per. acre when kainit was added: 82 lbs. 150 lbs. lbs. To unfertilized plot.......................... To' cotton seed meal plot ......... .......... 237lbs. To acid phosphate plot ....................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate Average increase with, kaini. . plot ...... -75 ... _ ..... 98 Ibs,. 89 E XPERIMENT MADE BY J. W. FRENCH, 312 MILES GORDO, PICKENS COUNTY, IN 1901. uplacl NORTH OF Gray, salddy witih yellow clay subsoil, The original growth is reported as shortleaf pine and sweet gum, which had been removed about twenty years before. On this soil cotton sometimes rnsts, but there was no rust on plots fertilized with kainit in 1901. The sea son was dry. Gordo, Tuscaloosa, and Ilatilton expe-rinents. 1 ) FERTILIZER. GORDOGORDOTUSCAGORDOOOSA HAMIL-- ON 1901 I k 1902 C C e-4) rri o 1901 1903 o Q) 4 K EIND. ) 4 d a .1 o -, 4. O 1 200 Cotton seed meal .. I512 144 2 240 Acid phosphate .... i.448 80 3 X00 No fertilizer. . .368 43.. 87 .2 20Kainit 200 Cotton seed meal 6 240..id phsphat 45F 200 Cotton seed meal ... / 592 2 240 Acid phosphate . . Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Lbs. 656 120 552 104 680 144 592 144 536 448 536 00' 416 -39; 808 Lks. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 745 155. 780 190 590 600 10 870 280 2 2721 1 812 351 200 Kainit.......140 .. .. 241 7 _38 32...... 7 240 Acid phosphate . 8g 9 200 Kainit 0 No fertilizer.....25 240 Acid / 3 1 26.3 616 360 11 80"4 53 48 360 9601 2381j2 2 1 2 1806466 200 Cotton seed meal " phosphate .. " 896 1200 .... ainit...... 200 Cotton seed meal ... 240 Acdpopae608 S100 Kainit........ ..... 480 9801 390 352 l 848 312 792 231 870 280 A complete fertilizer gave the best yield. In a complete fertilizer 100 pounds of kainit was sufficient, plot 10 affording a net profit of $4.52. - ~ 40 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal waf added lbs. To unfertilized pot........................1 lbs. To acid phosphate plot.....................165 lbs. plot...................... To kainit 69 lbs. plot..........:. To acid phosphate and kainit .... 185 Average increase with cotton seed meal........181lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: 80 To unfertilized plot .......................... To cotton seed meal plot....................101 plot .... :...........................204 To To cotton seed meal and hainit plot...........88 lbs. kainit lbs. lbs. lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate........118 lbs. 4ncrease of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: lbs. .. 'To To unfertilized plot...........................87 To cotton seed meal plot.....................121 To acid phosphate plot.....................211 cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot lbs. lbs. 115 lbs. lbs. lAverage increase with kainit................133 4rZXP1EZL .lLTNT MADE BY D. W. DAVIS, 112 MILES NORTHEAST OW COUNTY, IN GORDO, PICKENS 1902. jSiaft colored, santdy clay loam with dark -reddish.clay sub soil. 'This upland field had been in cultivation foie many yeal's, the two preceding crops being corn with a scant growth of original growth was ic I cowpeas between the rows. oak, black jack oak, hickory and pine. The stand was uniyield and increase see table on page 39. form. a not A complete fertilizer gave the .largest yield fertilizers profit on plot 9 of $3.96 per acre. While all three 'The For and' -were beneficial,. the chief need was for phosphate. Prece - ~ng crops of cowpeas obscured the results from cotton seed. 41 aneal. Kainit, though useful,,was less needed than it was lighter soil vthe preceding year on the apparently of Mr. [French's farm. .Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was To To To To unfertilized plot........................120 acid phosphate plot ...................... kainit plot..............................104 acid phosphate and kainit plot.............96 added: lbs. 128 lbs. lbs. lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal. 112 lbs. increase of send cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot ............ To cotton seed meal plot . ..... .......... .... 144 lbs. 152 lbs. lbs. To kainit plot..............................264 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot............256 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate........204lbs. .Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. To To To To unfertilized plot.........................00 cotton seed meal plot...................-16 acid phosphate plot.......................120 cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot.. 88 Average increase with kainit......4 MAEXPERIMENT CONDUCTED BY E. J. DAFFIN, 3 9 MILES SOUTH OF TUSCALOOSA, IN 1901. Gray, sandy soil, 'with yellow subsoil. This field had been cleared about sixty years. The origlinal growth is reported as oak, hickory, shortleaf pine, sweet elm, mulberry, poplar and beech. Black rust was severe on all plots. The season was dry until .gum, August, when excessive rains occurred.. The stands ~were very thin, but uniform on each plot. The -largest yield was made with the complete fertilizer. ~Six hundred and forty pounds of' a complete fertilizer ox plot 9 increased the yield 480 ponnds of seed cotton, affording (at 8. cents for lint) a net profit of $7.10 per acre afterpaying for fertilizers and cost *ofginning and the increase. Cotton seed meal was important, and phosphateequally so; kainit was usefnl,. but-less needed than the other two, and was effective only when combined with one both of the others. The results of the 1901 test are in accord with similarexperiments made by Mr. Daffinr in 1900 on the same (property of Hon. F. S. Moody) and with those obtained by him in 1897 and 1898 on the county Poor-house farm. picking or farm,. Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was To To To To unfertilized plot.........................104 acid phosphate plot..........207 kainit plot.............................292 acid phosphate and kainit plot.............257 added: lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal. 215 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot .......................... To cotton seed meal plot...................247 To kainit plot..............................262 To cotton seed meal and kainit plot...........227 144 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate...........220 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was lbs:. added: 39 lbs._ lbs.. 79 lbs.. . .129 lbs.. 79 To unfertilized plot .......................To cotton seed meal plot....................149 To acid phosphate plot ...................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot Average increase with kainit................. lbs;. - We may safely conclude that on soils of this character phate, considerable cotton seed meal, and less of," near Tuscaloosa cotton requires a large proportion off phos-- kainit than of either meal or phosphate. For yields and increase see table on page 39. 43 EXPERIMENT CONDUCTED BY THK SIXTH DISTRICT AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT HAMILTON, MARION COUNTY, IN 1903. Soil dark loam with light red s4bsoii.. This upland soil had been cleared many years, then thrown out of cultivation, and again taken into cultivation years before the test began. On plots 7, 9 and 10 the stand was imperfect. The was made with the complete fertilizer, but potash was: less needful than either cotton seed meal.or phosphate. The largest net profit, on plot 9',. was.$3.46. five yield largest Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton To unfertilized plot......................155 seed meal was added: lbs. ... To acid phosphate plot ........... To kainit plot.......................... To acidphosphate and kainit plot...........170 240lbs. 163 90lbs. lbs. lbs. Average increase with cottcn seed' meal. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid' phosphate was added~ 190 lbs. To unfertilized plot ....................... .......... lbs. 125 To cotton seed meal plot ...... .. .... lbs. To kainit plot.............................210 To cotton seed meal and kainit p'lot.........140 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate.........166 lbs. Increase of seed cotton, per acre when kainit was added : 10 lbs. To unfertilized plot........... .............. 95 lbs. . . To cotton- seed meal plot..... :.... 30 lbs. To acid phosphate plot ................... To cotton seed meal and acid phs-phate, plot...110 lbs. Average -icrease with~ kai'nit .. .... _........-61. lbs.. 44 WXIERuI~i:Ntr MADE BY FIFTH I)LSm cT AGRICULTURAL oGHOOL, WETUNMPK A, IN 1901. Dark.grtgy loam soil with reddish subsoil. This upland field is reported as having been cleared about Itwenty years b'fore of its:growth of longleaf pines and small -water oaks. For the three years preceding the experiment it was un:;cultivated and grew up in grass and briers. There was little ,or no black rust. The stand was uni- ~Iforn. The average results indicate that the chief need was for phosphate. Neither nor cotton seed meal was of much use the first year after the plowing in of large amounts of vegetable matter,. The need for phosphate is also sug- kainit Bested by the results of the 1903 inconclusive experiment on sthe same farm. See pages 47 and 71. The largest net profit was from plot Increase of seed cotton To unfertilized per',acre When cotton seed meal was added: ......... 64 lbs. plot ............... 116 lbs. 63 lbs. 93 lbs. 37 lbs. 5,.$4.65. To -acid phosphate 'plot ..................... To kainit plot ............................ To acid .phosphate and kainft plot ...........Averagef increase ,with cotton seed meal ...... Increase of seed- cotton per acre when .acid phosphate was adde:. 170 lbs. To unfertilized plot ....................... Tio cotton seed meail plot ................... ..... 222 lbs. ........................... To kainit 'plot To cotton seed meal and klainit plot 234 lbs. 78 lbs. 'Average ;increase ,with acid phosphate.......176 lbs. 45 increase of seed cotton per- acre, wI en Liit;was To unfertilized plot ................ To cotton seed meal plot............... To acid phosphate plot .................. . .. ... ... added: 67 lbs. 66 lbs. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate, plot Average ...- 131 lbs. 78 lbs. increase with kainit................46 lbs. E XPERIMENT MADE BY J. D. BILLINGSLEY, Fwn: MILES OF TALLASSEE, IN ELMORE COUNTY, IN 1903. WEST' Black sandy upland; light colored subsoil. The original growth of longleaf pine and oak had been removed abont thirty years before. There was no rust very little shedding. All plots were thinned to the same, number of plants, namely, 5,760' per acre: The rainfall was favorable. For yields see page 47. The largest yield was obtained from: the complete fertilier which afforded an increase of 552'pound' of seed cotton per acre, or a net profit on plot 6, of $8.97, on plot 10 of $9.67. The principal need was for potash and nitrogen, this. being one of the few soils where, in the absence of rust. kainit was more important than' acid phosphate. and, and Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton. seed' meal was added To unfertilized plot ... ........ ,. .............. 136 lbs. To acid phosphate plot............. 04 lbs. To kainit plot............ ................. 470 lbs. To acid phosphate and kainit plot....... 225 lbs. Average increase with cottoni seed' meal['....258 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid' phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot......... ........ 40 lbs. To cotton seed meal plot..................,..108 lbs. To kainit plot................ .. ,... .301 lbs. To cotton seed meal and kainit plot........,..... 56 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate . ........ 126 lbs. 46 'Increase of seed otton per acre when kainit was added: lbs. To unfertilized plot...........................26 To cotton seed meal plot .................... To acid phosphate plot b.... ..... 360 lbs. ... .. 287 lbs. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot Average incrase with kainit ................. 308 lbs. 245 lbs. EXPERIMENT MADE BY J.. P. SLATON, SEVEN MILES SOUTH OF NOTA.SULA. This test was made eIn gray sandy hillside with stiffer red:dish subsoil. The original g1owth was longleaf pine, oak, cleared eight years before. For two years pre. ,ceding the experiment the land was pastured. Unfortunately the land was ot plowed until May 17th, which delay reAuced the yields. The stand was good on all plots. For yields and increase see table on page 47. The complete fertilizer was most profitable, plot 9 giving :an increase of 544 pounds of seed cotton per acre, equivalent Ito at net profit of $8.76 per acre. .ua, Increase hickory-and of geed cotto~n per acre when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot..........................256 To acid phosphate plot................... To kainit plot.... ...................... To acid phosphate and kainit plot ............. 210 lbs.. .105 lbs. ... 173 lbs. lbs. Avcrage increase with cotton seed meal..... .. 186 lbs. ,Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot .......................... 276 lbs. To cotton seed meal plot ...................... 129lbs. 'Po kainit plot ...... To cotton seed meal ......................... ,and kainit. plot........... 165 128 lbs. lbs. Average iinctnease with acid phosphate .... 174 lbs .47 Iluicreease plot .......................... 'To cotton seed meal -plot .................... To acid phosphate plot.. .............. 'To cotton seed meal and -acid phosphate~ To unfertilized of -seed cotton per 'acre when kainit was added: 20'3 lb:; 1123 lbs. 58 lbs. . plot. 163 lbs. .Average increase with .kainit..............137 lbs. Wtantpka, Tallassee, iTotasulga and Auburn fertilizer ex,perirnments. WEFERTILIZER. TIUMPKA TAI,LASsEE NOTASUL~GA 1901. c3 1903 1904 1902R 10 6 0 KIND. 0 U20 .. 0 Nt t1Z 4-4~ 38 0O0O 0 O0 0 0 4'0 548 60 26 776 200 .1 Lbs. Lbs.I :10 Cotton seed meal . 200 Acid phosphate ... 20 No fertilizer .......... 200Kainit....... ........ 240 Cotton seed meal .. . 200 Acid phosphate...f 240 Cotton seed meal . } Kainit....... ....... 200 Acid phosphate ... 200 Kainit.... ..... 20 No fertilizer......... 240 Cotton. seed meal ... 200 Acid phosphate .. 200 Kainit ..... 240 Cotton seed meal .. Acid phosphate... 9J 100 Kainit....... ....... 424 64 .536 170 360 432 67 656 504 680 384 592 208 664 280 286 60 N4 3N 50 .N4 096 327 50 0 334 68.18 376024) 4750 130 328 301 376 405 81247647263 25 6424206729 201 EXPERIMENT ON STATION FARM AT AUBURN, IN 1902. Light, sandy -soil with porous sandy subsoil. This test -was 'made -on the poorest hilltop on the station 48 farm where no leguminous crop had grown for a number of years. The absence of any considerable rain: betweem April and August ruined the yield. The stand was uniform on all plots. The chiefv need off this sand bank this excessively dry year was for kainity but the largest yield was from complete fertilizer. EXPERIMENT CONDUCTED BY W. T. CHISM, IN 1901, 1902ANmm 1903, AT VICK, BIBB COUNTY. Grayish, sandy, second bottom with yellow subsoil. This land has been long in cultivation. On adjacent, similar land the forest growth consists of shortleaf pine, white and red oaks, gum, cucumber tree, dogwood, hickory and beech. For yields and increase see table on page 49. In 1901. All plots were reduced to the same number of plants, 6,400 per acre. The two preceding crops had been cotton. The largest increase, 388 pounds of" seed' cotton per acre, or a net profit of $5.31 per acre,. was obtained where a complete fertilizer was used. This year nitrogem was apparently the plant food chiefly needed but' both phos-phoric acid and potash were advantageous. There was practically no rust on any plot. In 1902. Dry weather, almost continuous from April till August, made the yields on all plots low and all fertilizers' practically useless. In 1903. The two preceding crops had been cotton. The, spring was late and cold.' No rust occurred: As' in 1901' cotton seed meal greatly increased the yield while phosphate , and kainit were less important, but advantageous. Plot 10' afforded the largest increase, 446 pounds, or a net' profit of" $6.19 per acre. The results suggest that the phosphiate in the completefertilizer might have been much reduced' without' injury toe the crop. 49 :made similar experiments in 1899 and In those years cotton seed meal the only ferItilizer that was of material advantage. The, results as a whole indicate that on this second bottom a fertilizer of unusual composition is required and that it should conItain more of cotton seed meal than of any other fertilizer. 1900. Ir. iCism also Was Ewperiientes at Vick, Bibb county. FRIIR.VICK FETLIE.1901 VIC K 1902 6 VICK 1903 0t all c 6 KIND. f . . o(- 4 O _ . . a. Lbs 200 -2 240 00 .mo 200 200 240 200 200 240 'Acid 200, Kainit ........... 8 9t 10 Tbs. Lbs. ILbs.l Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Cotton seed meal . 676 122 352 48 864 242 Acid phosphate........ 128 360 612 56 572 -50 No fertilizer........... 484 622 304 Kainit ............. 156 36o4 57 7 00 Cotton seed meal 732 102 256 412 970 .?48 Acid phosphate .. 740 1Cotton seed meal 268 400 86 940 310 1Kainit............ 70 85 852. 728 phosphate.. 00 No fertilizer ........... 200 Cotton seed meal . 1 240 Acid phosphate.. 716 " "464 248 388 432 320 432 428 108 752)I 416 115 1C2 119 1631 112110241 181 5 2001 Kainit . 200 Cotton seed meal ... 240j Acid phosphate....... Kainit....... ...... 1 388 1 J0 264 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was ad dd 1901 1903 -?42 lbs. 398 lbs. 235 To unfertilized plot.................... To acid phosphate plot....................128 To kainit plot :...............11lbs. ... .. 192 lbs. lbs. .. 140 lbs. s. To -acid'phosphat 'Average increa, and kainit plot....... 262 lbs. 284 lbs. with cotton seedmeal.........143. lbs. 5. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphiate- was lbs. unfertilized plot.................128 lbs. cotton seed meal plot..........64 9.2 lbs. kainit plot................................ .............. 120 lbs. cotton seed meal and kainit plt lbs. added. To To To To 106lbs. 50 lbs.« 44-;lbs4. 84 lbs. 46. lbs_ Average increase with acid'phosphate........:101 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kaift. was added,: 7.5,Th. To unfertilized plot........... ... To cotton seed meal plot To acid phosphate plot ........................ To cotton seed meal and -acid, . . .. 156 lbs. ..... .... phosphate- plot 76 lbs. 120 lbs. 132 lbs.. 68 lbs 189lbs. 40 lbs. 88 Average increase with kainit...................121 EXPERIMENT MADE BY THE SOUTHERN lbs. lbs. INDUSTRIALINSTITUTE,, 1902. CAMP HILL, TALLAPOOSA COUNTY, IN Gray, sandy soil, with sandy subsoil. A protracted drought made all fertilizers practically less, the average increase from cotton seed mueal being only 18 pounds, from phosphate 31 ponds, and from kainit plot 7, entailed a pounds. The most favorable result, account of fertilizers of 94 cents. per acre. loss on use- oa 17 EXPERIMENTS MADE 2 / MIEs SOUTH J. M. OF IN COUNTY, BY LOGAN, H'ANOVER, CoosA\ 1902. Dark gray sandy soil with some rock; yellowish saubsoil:_ The original growth, removed about 40 years before, consisted of longleaf pine, hickory and oak. Recent crops. have. all been cotton. The largest increase, 392* pounds of seed' cotton per acre, was obtained from the use, of" a complete fertilizer, affording a net profit of* $5.56 per acre. Phoslittle value, but phate used alone or with kainit, was combined with both it was highly advantageous. of' 51 C'Jamp Hill, Hanover, Florence and Athens experiments. CAMP HANFLOR- FERTILIZER. HILL 1902 OVER 1903 19( 4 . NCF ATHENS 4-1 V a> 9) V N eQ ; 1, o o 0 4 a KIND. ca m c O c O e'r a; , c O )M 6N F~O Vc, OC 0 C 4 -4 _) 4 1 2 Lbs. 200 Cotton seed meal 240 Acid phosphate ...... 00 No fertilizer ........... 200 4 Lbs. lLbs. Lbs. Lbs / bs Lbs.Lbs. Lbs. 576 32 360 732 284 560 208 536 3 4 200 Cotton cit ,Kainit.528 seed meal . ... 5141 584 -8 120( 264 240, 352 244144 448 696 15 376 43 137(784 600 352 248 334 965 656 295 728357 1161416 2)0Cotton seed meal 230 Kainit................ 71240 Acid phosphate.OK llt1 7 - 240 Acid phosphate 200 Kainit.863 8 00 Nofriie........... 536 2 00 Cotton seed meal 240 Acid phosphate ..... 200Kanit..............576 20Kii........200 Cotton seed nmeal 536 10 240 Acid phosphate .. -:1 0'Kainit ... .. . .... 656 64 624 27 8 368 132 1024; 571 38 232 536 .304 006432.2(.74 0 2 9 40 7 60 379 456 1492 1036 400 1416 S1641 r 207482 7 7 7 _1_ Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal-was added: To To To To unfertilized plot.........................120 acid phosphate plot ...................... kainit plot.............................. acid phosphate and kainit plot ............ lbs. 92 lbs. 4 lbs. 153 lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal........ 90 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To. unfertilized To cotton seed added: plot........... meal plot ..... :......... 24 lbs. 4 lbs. ............- To kainit plot............................... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ......... 11 lbs. 171 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate.......... 50 lbs.. increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was To unfertilized plot.........................136 To cotton seed meal plot.................... 13 To acid phosphate plot......................127 To cotton seed meal-and acid phosphate plot ... 188 Average increase with kainit................113 added: lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. EXPERDIENT MADE BY FLORENCE, W. A. PARISH, LAUDERDALE TEN MILES WEST OP COUNTY. iht, ;gray soil with pale rcldish subsoil. This field had been cleared 40 or 50 years. The orginal growth is reported as postoak and black jack oak. The experimenter reports that there no black rust. but that "red rus"' was present, bnt did little damage. The season was dry. The stand was good and uniforni Thle complete fertilizer more than trebled the yield of the unfertilized plots, raising the yield to about a bale was acre. This is increase of 1,036 ponnds of seed cotton. equal to a net profit of $21 .5G )p acre after paying for fertilizer and picking and an per izer, whether applied by twos, or all three together, profitably increased the yield. Tile fertilizer most needed was phosphate. The one least needed was kainit which, however, was profitable. Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot ginning -singly, of increase. Every fertil- ..........................284 269 lbs. lbs. To acid phosphate plot...................... To kainit plot..............................237 To acid phosphate and kainit plot ............. lbs. 208 lbs. lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal...249 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was addedTo To To To unfertilized plot.........................696 lbs. cotton seed meal plot.....................681 lbs. kainit plot..............................494 lbs. cotton seed meal and kainit plot..........465 lbs. lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate........584 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: lbs. To'unfertilized plot.........................334 To cotton seed meal plot............287 To acid phosphate plot .................. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate Average increase with kainitl....s. lbs. plot.. 132=lbs. 71 lbs. XPEI MEP1 MADE .NTT 'BY P. S G. WILLIAMS, 112 MILES 'WrTE OF ATHE,, IMTSTONE COUNTY. brown loa or clay with re EDarbsoi ls l. This field had cleared manyyears The original growth is reported as oak, black jack oak, gum and popuar. There was no rust, bnt drought and early frost cnt short *been the yield. The most profitable fertilizer, was the complete With one containing 1100 pounds of kainit. ing a net profit above the cost of this. the inpicking and crease was 1472- pounds of seed cotton per acre, thus afford- fertilizer-and ginning of increase of $1.64 per acre. However, all fertilizers whether applied igly, by twos, or by threes, profitably increased the yield. Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added : To unfertilized. plot..... ................ To acid phosphate plot..................:...109 To kainit plot........ ............... ........ .... 208- lbs. lbs. 84 lbs. To acid phosphate and kainit plot........... 215 lbs.. .. . .. Average increase with cotton seed meal .154 tbs. i4 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added To.unfertilized plot ... ................ To cotton seed meal plot....................149 kainit plot.............................4 'To cotton seed meal and kainit plot............37 2S4 Tbs. lbs To lbs. lbs lbs. Avcrage increase with acid phosphate..........85 .Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: lbs. To unfertilized plot..........................295 To cotton seed meal plot ................. To acid phosphate plot......................-47 'To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate Average. 171 lbs. lbs. plot.. 59 lbs. lbs. increase with. kainit.................119 EXPERIMENTS BY W. G. IN BEVILL, NAHEOLA, CHOCTAW COUNTY, 1901 AND 1902. utplnd with clay subsoil. "iCllatto" The land had been long in cultivation. The original growth was reported as both long and shortleaf pine. iinmediately preceding crops were cotton. For yields see table on page Rust was worst on plot 5, but there was little of it on the The Dry weather from June to August, fobe lowed by a violent storm , greatly reduced the yield. The kainit plots. stand was good. Ia 1901. The largest increase. 448 pounds of seed cotton per acre, was from a complete fertilizer. However, in complete fertilizer, 100 pounds, of kainit was plot 9 afforded a net profit of per acre. $8.13 sufficient; a In 1902. In spite of the drought from April till August, cotton seed meal and acid phosphate profitably increase~d the yield.' Plot 5 afforded an increase of 247 pounds,.or a a' few cents less than plot 10 and a net' profit of $2.54,' few cents less than plot- 9. 'or Na/icola, riee nvifie, adt Evergreen NAOLA experiments. GR'nNVILLE NAHEOLA EVwRGREEN FERTILfZIR. 1901 r~ U.C) o 1902 a) o 1901 a) o 1902 . i k 0 C, O N) 4-4 C) Qa r.4 C)0 a 'r0-4 n ~0 -4- f Lbs .2 .3 .4 ..... 200 Kainit........ -2001 Cotton seed meal 2401 Acid phosphate ... 200, Cotton seed. meal . 240' Acid phosphate . 00' No fertilizer .......... .. . Lbs'Lbs Lbs, Lbs Lbs Lbs Lbs Lb5s 648 664 528 664 760 120 400 32 632 304 136 504 616 288 432 ?28 130 296. 141 352 24 220 688 247 696 .268 72 384 384 3041 224 -64 672 400 696 440 688 448 224 800 592 80 80) '8 200~ Cotton seed meal . 200. Kainit .............. 40Acid phosphate .... 200 Kainit ........ } 856 696 560 1008 310 616 .170 1431 600 664 326 001 No fertilizer......... 200 Cotton seed meal '9) 149 528 200 -240 Acid phosphate.:: +50 Kainit............ 100' IIR \~ To 'To To To 200; Kainit... ...... 200 Cotton seed meal.. 2401 Acid phosphate 448 744 288 632 304 .. . 1000 fI 4 40 744 288 784 456 768 576 ~1~1~1 Increase of seed cotton per acre whencotton seed meal was added: 175 lbs. unfertilized plot ........................... acid phosphate plot ............... ........... 1901 1902 120 lbs. lbs. -32' 84 lbs. kainit plot...............................180 lbs. acid phosphate and kaiit plot...............305 lbs. increase, with (eotton 311 lbs. 139 lbs. 145 lbs. Average seed meal.......... 172 lbs. Increase of. seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To unfertilized plot...........................136 lbs. added: 72 lbs. *To cotton seed meal.plot......................100 lbs. 'To kainitplot.............................. 13 lbs. 'To cotton seed' meal and'kainit plot............138 lbs. 'Average increase With acid 'phosphate...........96 lbs. 279 lbs. 290 lbs. 118 lbs. 189 lbs. 56 Increase of seed cotton per acre when VainUwas ddpd: urfertilized plot...........................t.30 l.-141 lbs. To cotton seed .meal plot......................190 lbs. 202 lbs. To acid phosphate plot. . .............. 7 lbs. 75 lbs. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate ........ 228 lbs..41 lbs. T Average increase with kainit................13$lbs.'44 lbs,. EXPERIMENT BY D' H. ROUSE, GREENVILTE, IN 1901. 'ort, red land. The average increase is,.the greatest with cotton seed: meal, 172 pounds of seed cotton per acre, and next with aei4j, )mlphate. Iainit was ineffective. test is not entirely conclusive. For i l]c of see page 55. This yields Increase of seed cotton' per 'acre when cotton seed meal was added:: To To To To 304 lbs. 26 lbs. kainit plot..........................302 lbs. acid phosphate and kainit plot...........104 lbs. acid .phosphate plot ....................increase with cotton seed unfertilized plot........... ........ Average meal ... 172 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added::, To unfertilized plot.........................288 lbs.. cotton seed meal plot......... .........36 lbs. o To kainit plot ......... . ... 176 lbs.. To(, cotton seed meal and kainit plot .........-Average increase with acid phosphate ........ 22 lbs.. 101 lbs. Increase of seed cotton. per acre when kainit was added: To To To To unfertlized plot......................... cotton seed meal plot ....... :............22, acid phosphate plot ....................cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot 24 lbs. lbs.. 88 lbs. .. , 36 lbs.. 1 lbs.. Average decrease with kainit................. 57 ExPERaIMENT BY, J. W. STUART, AT EVEIGREEN, IN 1902.. Gray sandy uplanc with cddlsA ssbsoi. '5elds :ee-page 55. There was no rust. The stand was uniform. Inspite of the severe drought every- combination of fertilizers ef -fected a higlly, profitable increase in the crop. However,. when used separately, no fertilizer material exerted its full, effect. The, largest increase, 592 .pounds ofseed cotton per.acre,. a complete fertilizer, but in the yesulted from the use.-. nearly complete . fertilizer.. 100 pounds of kainit effective asa larger amount.. -Plot 10 afforded a net of $10.34 per acre after paying. for fertilizer and for.picking and ginning the increase. For of was profitr as Increase of-' seedcotton per acre when cottonl seed nmealwas added :: .80 lbr ::. ...... To unfertilized plot .......... 320lbs. ... :. To acid phosphate plot ... lbs. To kainit plot............................504 To acid phosphate and kainit plot.............144 lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal ... 264 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when .acid p1osphate was To added:. unfertilized plot.................... To cotton seed meal plot ..... To kainit plot...........................512 .............. . .80 lbs.. 320 lbs.. lbs.~ To cotton seed meal and kainit plot.......... 152 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate........266 Increase. of seed cotton per acre when kainit was ...............To unfertilized plot....... To cotton seed meal plot .................... .......... To acid phosphate plot ...... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate lbs.. added: 04 lbs. 360 s. 368 lbs., lbs. plot. .192 ..... Average increase with. kainit .. . 24bsb,.,. 58 'EXPERIMENT CONDUCTED oi BY J. D. VEAL, THREE MILES NORTE LOUISVILLE, BARBOUR COUNTY. Gray, sandy soil, with stiffer gray subsoil. This upland field had been cleared of its growth of oak hickory and longleaf pine about thirty years before. For the two years preceding this experiment corn on this land, but whether cowpeas were grown be'.tween the corn rows was not stated. The stand on all plots was good. A complete' fertilizer afforded the largest increase in yield, 474 pounds of seed 'cotton per acre, a net profit of $6.94 per acre. The com plete fertilizer with 200 pounds of kainit was a little more profitable than the one containing 100 pounds of kainit, This is a case in which the increased yield from kainit wassnot due to its influence on rust, for Mr. Veal reports that lhe,,e was no rust on any plot. See table page 66. The combination of acid phosphate and cotton seed meal washighly profitable, but less so than the complete fertil- ,and grown was iizers. Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was. added: To unfertlized plot ....... ... ...... :........ 48 lbs. To acid phosphate plot....................253 lbs. ................. 301 lbs. To kainit plot ......... 242 lbs. To acid phosphate and kainit plot ............ 'Increase To Average increase with cotton seed meal of 211 ... 120 325 lbs. seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added.: lbs. lbs. unfertilized- plot.......................... To cotton seed-meal plot.................. To kainit plot ........................... To cotton seed meal and kainit plot....... 268 lbs. 209 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate.......230 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was To To To To unfertilized plot.........................-34 cotton seed meal plot...................219 acid phosphate plot.....................114 cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot with kainit.......... added: lbs. lbs. lbs. .. 103 lbs. lbs. Averageincrease EI;XPERIMENT MADE BY C. A. HATCHER, Two COFFEE MILES SOUTHEAST OF ENTERPRISE, COUNTY. Gray, sandy loam, with stiff gray subsoil. The longleaf pines had been. cut on this field abont 18 before. There were 7,360 plants per acre on all plots. For yields and increase see table on page 60. The crop preceding tile experiment was corn with cowpeas in the drill and peannts between the corn rows. It is not whether tie peannts were consumed as usnal by hogs on the land, or removed. In spite of these preceding leguminous crops and of the fact that the corn had been fertilized with eight bushels of cotton seed per acre, the application of cotton seed meal to cotton was decidedly profitable. material most needed was acid phosphate. The greatest increase in yield, 616 j orUnd of seed cotton worth $16.01 net, resulted from -the. use of 640 pounds of a complete fertilizer, and this complete fertilizer afforded net profit of $10.63 per acre. Kainit was distinctly advantageous and profitable when- years stated 'The a ,ever' combined with acid phosphate. The complete fertilizer~ 'combining 200 ,pounds of kainit was more profitable than the one with 100 pounds. No mention is made of rust. 60, iis rule, Enterprise, Georgiana,anidd Gartan4 experiuuents. LouisENTERGEORGAR- FERTILIZER. VILIJ PRISE GIANA LAND 1901 1904_1904_1904_ KIND. 4-44.4 4- 2,24 S,0 oo A~i;.phspae e m lQ .... Q r"31.E1 56 0 C) 5112 20.90 4 2 205 otn edma.....41,34 240 Acid phosphate .. ,.....3210 (804552 3 612{ 296 64 0 8082964 6 4 9 * 2 0 0 Kainit ..... ; :..... ..... 1846 347 304.2419764 240 phosphate. t.200 Cotton :seed .meal 33604016 8 200Kaiit 0O~I\~ S ferilizr.....32 . . 5 280 880 200 Cotton seed meal 536 240 Acid. 70960131 6 5 4 49 40 1 24,0 Acid phosphate17 4 8 6 24 200 Rainit...... 0 ..... { :200 Cotton .seed meal: 240 Acid phiosphate ..... 100 Kainit . ... : .. ,I 724 404 800 520 240 360 1016,520 I ............. 272 lbs. lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot..... ....... To ' acid phosphate plot................... To.kainit plot .............................. 224 lbs. To 'acid phosphate and kainit plot......:......128 lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal. 192 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot.....................:...56 lbs. To cotton seed meal plot...................128 lbs. To kainit plot.................. ....... 464 lbs. To cotton seed meal and kainit plot...........368 lbs. ... Average increase with acid phtosphate........304, bs. .61 _lncre:.se of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: lbs. 24 lbs. lbs. .. To To To To unfertilized plot.........................24 cotton seed nieal plot ..................acid phosphate plot......................232 cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot increase 216 lbs. Average with kainit...............112 lbs. :EXPERtIl-MENT'S MADE BY J.. C. LEE, 1904, 1 1-4 MILES NORTH F GEORGIAN, (hay "pincy wood s" upland with red clay ubsoil. Ilwood. The land had been cleared about ten years. The original growth was longleaf pine with some oak, hickory, and dogThere had been no cowpeas on this land in recent years. There was no rust, but shedding was severe. The stand was good and uniform. For yields see page 60. The most profitable increase, 364 pounds of seed cotton per acre, resulted from the use of cotton seed meal and acid phos- phate. TrIe:1 This -mixture addition of kainit gave a net profit of $5.58 per acre. to this mixture was not notably help- ful.. The chief need of this soil was for phosphate and not l.The chief need of this soil was for phosphate and next Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added: To unfertilized plot................... .64 lbs. To acid phosphate 'pl~t................. .164 lbs. To kainit 'plot...... .... .................... 221 lbs. To acid phosphate and lkatiit plot...........174 lbs. Average increase--With (ettoen seed meal...155' lbs. 62 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added.: To To To To unfertilized cotton seed kainit plot cotton seed 200 lbs. plot ........................ lbs. meal plot...................300 lbs. .... .............. meal and kainit plot..........193 lbs. lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate........208 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was '1o added: lbs. unfertilized plot.70 To cotton seed meal plot .................... To acid phosphate plot ...................... To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot Average increase with kainit ................. .. 227 lbs. 10 lbs. 20 lbs. 81 lbs. EXPERIMENT MADE IN 1901, BY G. L. McLuRE, Two MILES: EAST OF GARLAND, BUTLER COUNTY. This gray upland pine soil.had been cleared about ten years. The-original growth was longleaf pine and black aek oak. The preceding crop was oats. Acid phosphate- was highly profitable and cotton seed meal effective. Kainit was effective only when combined with the other two. Thelargest increase, 560 pounds of seed cotton per acre, obtained from the use of a complete fertilizer. This, on, plot 9, gave a net profit of $9.46 per acre. For yield see" table on page 60. Two experiments previously made by Mr. McLure and' two made near by at Lumber Mills, accord with the results: here recorded in showing that the pineywoods- soils of was, region are highly responsive to a and cotton seed meal, and that only when rust is severe. that mixture of acid phosphate" kainit is highly beneficial 63 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added To unfertilized plot.....................296 lbs. To acid phosphate plot. ............ -2 lbs. .... 86 lbs. .............. To kainit plot. To acid phosphate and kainit plot..........123 lbs. Average increase with cotton seed meal. 125 lbs. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added lbs. To unfertilized plot.....................448 To cotton seed meal plot.................150lbs. "386 lbs. .......................... To kainit plot To cotton seed meal and kainit plot.........423 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate.......351 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was lbs. added: To To To To unfertilized plot.......................51 cotton.seed meal-plot...............-159 lbs. lbs. acid phosphate plot....................-11 cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot .. 114 lbs. .. 1 lbs. lbs. Average decrease with kainit ... ...... EXPERIMENT MADE BY WV.H. SIMMONS, MIDLAND CITY,- DALE COUNTY. Alone none of the fertilizers was very advantageous, but a coniplete fertilizer all three were decidedly beileficiaL. The largest increase,. 296 pounds of seed cotton per acre, in sulted fro m' the use of the complete fertilizer on plot 9.. re- This afforded a net profit of $2.32 per acre, which is nearly nine cents more than the profit on plot 10, where less kainitway; use~d. See table on page 04. Increase of seedl cotton per acre when cotton seed un e t z d p t . ... . . . .. . . meal88w as s . . b To acid phosphate plot ............... To kainit plot .............................. To acid phosphate and kainit plot ........... 127 lbs. 86- lbs. 139 lbs. addedTo Average increase with cotton seed meal. .. .... ... ..'1.Q lbs~. 634 h crease of seed cotton p'er -acre when acid phosphate was added: To To To To unfertilized plot..........................56 lbs. cotton seed meal plot....................95 lbs. kainit plot.............................113 lbs. cotton seed meal and kainit plot..........166 lbs. increase with acid phosphate.......107 lbs. Average Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit wasadded: To unfertilized plot ......................... 44 lbs. To cotton seed meal. plot......................42 lbs. To acid phosphate plot.....................101 lbs. To cotton seed meal and acid phosphate plot .. 113 lbs. Average' increase with kainit...............75 lbs. i dlatfld City and Genev~a experiment8. MIDFERTILIZER.C Ga GE1902 G E1903 NAN 1904 1901 KIND,. -e O w~ dj Cc~4-I c Lbs. 16;. Lbs Lb.% Lbs. Lbs.Lbs Lb 712 88 488 1121 76S -8 672 291 880 120 768 2 240 Acid phosphate 48 720 768 376 3 00. No fertilizer...... .. .. 224 20.Kaini t.........264 41 .424 48,108839 856 1 66 51200 Cotton seed meal ... 2401 Acid phosphate400 183 600 224 1000 784 1: 25 6200 1 Cotton seed meal 200 Kainit "...........344 130 448 72 108 -7963: 48 240 Acid phosphate .... /200 Kainit .. .......... " ... 368 157 608 2321016 423 8402 42 8 00 No fertilizer .. """"208 200 Cotton seed meal ... 376 568 1 Lb 200 . eotton seed meal..3121 280 56 3213 9. 240 Acid phosphate ... 552 1 200 200 240 100 206 640 264 1040 (c Kainit....... ....... Cotton seed meal . 472 264 600 224 912 Acid phosphat Kainit....... ... ,. ,.I 504 488.1096 5;i28 360 928 3560 65 EXPERIMENTS BY P. M. METCALF, GENEVA. 41 MILES NORTH OF" Gray or light sandy upland with stiffer red subsoil, eight, inches fron surface. For yields see table on pages 64 and 74. In 1901. This was the fourth crop after clearing, all previous crops being corn with cowpeas and peanuts betweeit. No mention is made of rust. On this fresh land where leguminous crops had grown for several years, phosphate was the only material of marked value. Phosphate alone increased the yield 296 pounds of seed cotton per acre, affording a net profit of $6.02 per acre, after paying cost of fertilizer and picking and ginning of increase. In 1902. The immediately preceding crop was oats, which in turn had been preceded by two crops of corn, probably with cowpeas or peanuts between, as is customary in that locality. The time since clearing is not stated. Protracted drought and abundance of cotton caterpillars in October reduced the yields. No mention is made of black rust, but Mr. Metcalf writes that "Plots 1, 2, 3, 4 and 8 hadc much of what we know as red rust." In this unfavorable, year kainit was by far the most effective single fertilizer, increasing the yield when used alone 369 pounds. The comlplete fertilizer containing a full ration of kainit increased) the yield 488 pounds of seed cotton, affording a net profit of $6.31 per acre. Mr. Metcalf writes: "I learn from this experiment that it pays to use lots of guano and of high quality." In 1903. This was the sixth year since the clearing of this land. The crops in 1902 were oats, followed by Spanish peanuts. There was no rust. This experiment is rendered inconclusive by the wide variation in the yields of 66 the two unfertilized plots and by the contradictory results on plots 9 and 10, hence it is recorded in the table on page 74, In 1904. Cotton in this experiment constituted the fourth The two preceding crops had been corn crop since clearing. and peanuts, the peanuts not picked, The summer was dry.. The largest increase, 528 pounds of seed cotton per acre, was made by the complete fertilizer, affording a net piofit above cost of fertilizer, ginning and picking of $9.38 per, acre. Again the 'chief need seems to have been for kainit, acid phosphate being almost as important, and cotton seed meal, somewhat less important by reason of recent crops of pea nuts. Increase of seed cotton per acre when cotton seed meal was added: 1901 1902 1904 To unfertilized plot....................112 lbs. 8 lbs.- 8 lbs. To acid phosphate plot ...............72 lbs. 203 lbs. 77 lbs. .... 24 lbs. 4 lbs. 182 lbs. To kainit plot .................... lbs. 65 lbs. 286 lbs., To acid phosphate and kainit plot ,.......32 Average increase with cotton seed meal 24 lbs. 70 lbs. 136 lbs ,. Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: STo unfertilized plot.. .................. 296 lbs. 120 lbs. 48 lbs, To cotton seed meal plot .............. 112 lbs. 315 lbs. 133 lbsa. To kainit plot ........................ 184 lbs. 54 lbs. 76 lbs. To cotton seed meal and kainit plot ..... 192 lbs. 25 lbs. 180 lbs. Average increase with acid phosphate 196 'lbs. 128 lbs. 109; Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added:: To unfertilized plot .................... 48 lbs. 369 lbs. 166 To cotton seed meal plot ............. -40 lbs. 365 lbs. 356 To acid phosphate plot ...............64 lbs. 303 lbs., 194 To cotton seed meal and acid phos. plot 40 lbs. 165 lbs. 402 Average increase with kainit ............ 4 lbs. 300 lbs. l'bs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 270 lbs. Do FE, irP!YzERS PAY? Let the answer. The following table gives the. average of all the 41 conclusive experiments recordedin this bulletin. It shows the average increase in seed cotton, due to fertilizers, throughout Alabama and the due to fertilizers, after paying liberal prices for fertilizer and after paying 50 cents per hundred pounds of seed cotton for picking and ginning the increasedyields. figures net-profit -Average increase in 41 experimnents in seed cotton per acre and net profit per acre from fertilizers, after dedueting cost of fertilizer and cost of picking and ginning increase. the FERTILIZER. l Net profit per acre from fertilizers with seed at 60c per 100 lbs. and u. 0 Q,_ ~ a 4-4 o KIND. Lbs. ?. 5 240 Acid phosphate......... 200 Cotton seed meal.. 24{cdphsht~ Cotton seed meal . - Lbs. 55 302 91 365 1.26 1.85 2.04 $ 2.35 3.97 4.78 r . 4.86 $- 3.36 5.87 7.25 7.26 $ )200 10 2)0 210 40 Aiphsht . ......... Kainit ..... Cotton seed meal ... Acid phosphate... 100 Kainit ...... ....... -2.30 calculated The above table deserves careful study. Even with cottowr at six cents per pound, fertilizers were profita- ble, the average net profit per acre ranging from .$1.26 to $2.30. With eight-cent cotton the average net profits from fertilizers assume important proportions, ranging from $2.35 and $4.86 per acre. VAS With ten cent cotton the average profits range between and $7.26 per acre. W Thether cotton be priced at six, eight, or ten cents per ponnd, the average profit per acre was greater with a mixture of cotton seed meal and phosphate than with phosphate alone, and still greater when.100 pounds of kainit was added mixtnre, thns .making a complete fertilizer. x3'.36 tothis CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. .Tzese, arse based on these experiments and results published in former bulletins of this station. on In all soil belts, except perhaps on certain grades prairie soil, where tests have been made with cotton 'under the directionof this station acid phosphate has been almost universally beneficial. 2. Kainit is lessfrequently needed than either acid phospphate or cotton seed meal, and a considerable proportion of ithe soils on -which it has been most advantageous lie in the .southern part of the State. On soils where cotton is espei ially liable to "black rust" and in all parts of the State in seasons when that disease especially injurious, kainit rich 1. of is ISs at its best. On most soils, containing much clay, it can with. Where needed, an application be profitably- dispensed .of 100 pounds per acre is usually sufficient for cotton. ::3. Cotton seed meal- is highly beneficial to cotton on a :l!arge proportion of the cultivated area of every soil belt in .Alabama. Apparently it is universally needed on uplands =except on (1). new grounds ald .(2) on soils containing {considerable vegetable matter. f or 4. On old soils, as a rule, it is more profitable to employ cotton a mixture of acid phosphate and cotton than to use an equal money mpeal or of these two and ralue of any one of them alone. kainit, seed' a. The usual basis for a fertilizer formula for cotton 69 in regions where commercial fertilizers are generally em'ployed should be acid phosphate, of which 100 to 240 pounds should be used per acre, in addition to cotton seed meal or Pother nitrogenous fertilizer as necessary. 6.. The proper proportion of cotton seed meal to acid phosphate in a fertilizer formula for cotton depends largely the:recent cropping and manuring of the field. (a) Small stalks, (if not due to climatic influences, poor cultivation, etc.) are usually an indication that nitrogen (as in cotton seed meal), is needed. (b) Excessive stalk or "weed growth" of cotton is an indication that nitrogen can be dispensed with wholly or partially. (c) Phosphate hastens maturity. (d) The fresher the land the less the need for nitrogen. (e) A luxuriant growth of cowpeas just preceding cotton dispenses with the necessity for cotton seed meal, as -does a recent heavy dressing with stable manure or cotton seed. 7. Nitrogen costs about three times as much as phosphoric acid or potash and hence most of it should be produced on the farm by growing. soil-improving plants, (as cowpeas, velvet beans, vetch, crimson clover, etc.) and bincreasing the number of livestock and the amount of stable 'manure saved. 8. In response to requests for recommendations of definite fertilizer formulas for cotton on different soils, the writer would tentatively suggest the following to be modisomewhat when the facts mentioned in paararaph 6 seem to require it: (a) For red lime lands in North Alabama; for the red clay lands occupying a triangular area in the central per. tion of East Alabama-for the most part north of the West ern Railway and east of the Coosa River and for the stiffer non-calcareous soils of the northwestern and western part of the State: ,on fied 70 '80 to 120 lbs. cotton seed meal per acre. 160 to 240 _bs. acid phosphate per acre. 240 to 360 lbs. total per acre. (b) For sandy soils in the eastern and central parts of the State: 80 to 120 lbs. cotton seed meal per acre. 160 to 240 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 40 to 60 lbs. kainit per acre. 280 to 420 lbs. total per acre. (c) -Region: 60 to 120 lbs. cotton seed meal per acre. 120 to 240 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 60 to 80 lbs. kainit per acre. 240 to 440 lbs. total per acre. For the level lands of the southern Longleaf Pine (d) rust: For any well drained soil in any part of the State on which cotton is known to be especially liable to black 120 to 160 lbs. cotton seed meal per acre. 80 to 120 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 80 to 120 lbs. kainit per acre. 280 to 400 lbs. total per acre. 9. The formulas suggested above contain approximately the following percentages of nitrogen (and its larger equivalent in ammonia), available phosphoric acid, and potash, using phosphate containing 12 1-2 per cent. of available phos- phoric acid. A phosphate of higher grade is advisable. 71 FORMULA. . " . . (a) For (b) For (c) For (d) For certain red lands .......... certain sandy lands ........ j low longleaf pine lands .... "rusting" soils ............ . 1 2.3 2.0 1.9 3.0 I 2.8 2.4 2.3 3.6 9.3 8.0 7.6 4.8 0.6 2.3. 2.8 4.3 10. On the lime soils of the Central Prairie Region commercial fertilizers are not generally used. Prairie soils are often in poor mechanical condition and need vegetable matter and drainage more than commercial fertilizers. The poorer soils often need both cotton seed meal and phosphate. INCONCLUSIVE EXPERIMENTS. These sometimes afford suggestions or hints which may serve to strengthen the conclusions derived from the more positive experiments previously recorded. At Town Creek, one-quarter of a mile southeast of the town, Mr. A. A. Owens made the test on what he describes as white sandy land with yellowish subsoil. There was no rust, but drought. This experiment was undertaken by Mr. R. R. Reed, who turned the fertilizers over to Mr. Owens. The test is inconclusive for the reason of the tearing of one 4 of the fertilizer sacks, probably that for plot 9. The Newtonville experiment in Fayette county was made by G. W. Gravlee, but was vitiated by late germination and irregular stands. The experiment at Hanover, Coosa county, was made by J. M. Logan on gray gravelly or rocky land with red clay subsoil. The results suggest that kainit was not needed. The test one mile east of Fredonia, Chambers county, was made by E. W. Smart on dark upland with red subsoil. Inequalities in stand, due, he reports, to disease of the young 72 plants, vitiated the experiment. The results suggest that a, mixture of cotton seed meal and acid phosphate was sufficient. Cowpeas in corn .or after oats, and grazed, grew on the land in each of two years preceding the experiment. Mr. W. A. Candler, Clanton, Chilton county, made the experiment on land where the preceding winter he had plowed in a very rank growth of cowpea vines, affording conditions unsuitable for a test of commercial fertilizers. At Wetumpka, the test was made on the farm of the District Agricultural Schools with conflicting results both. in 1902 and 1903. At Greensboro the tests were made by T. K. Jones, 1 1-2 miles south of town on poor red upland, originally covered with hardwood. In 1902 manure was accidentally added to certain plots, and in 1904 the growth of grass ruined the experiment. Four miles north of Union Springs Mr. N. Gachet made a test on light, reddish loam with red clay subsoil, where, the original growth had been hardwoods. Variations in the stand destroyed the value of the experiment. The test at Carson, Washington county, was consigned to. Mr. R. D. Palmer. It was made on gray upland, pine land with yellow clay subsoil, two miles north of Carson. The results are somewhat conflicting. For the Geneva experiment, see page 66. Credit is due Mr. C. R. Hudson for making or checking all calculations in this bulletin. TULLvTIN NO. 132. ALABAMA APRIL, 1945. Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBU RN. Diseases of the Apple, Cherry, Peach, Pear aMdP1um;. With Methods of Treatment. By -E. MEAD -Plnt WCILCOX, PH. D. (Harvard) Ehysiologist and Pathologist. C:pelikia, The Ala,: Post Publishing Company. 1911 . COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION4. J. T. W. M. CARMICHAEL....................................... Montgomery.,. .Opelika,. ,............. D. SAMFORD.............................................. C. DAVIS ................................. Jasper;, STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH ....................................... ......... Presi'dent.. 3. F. DLJGGAR.................... ....... Director and Agriculturist.. B. B. Ross.. .. ,,. ............ C. A. CARY.............................. ......... Chemist and State Chemist. ............... Veterinarian.. E. M. WILCOX............... ... Plant Physiologist and Pathologist.. R. S. MACKINTOSH.......... Horticulturist and State Horticulturist,. J. T. ANDERSON.............. Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations.. ASSISTANTS. C. L, HARE............. ..................... T. BRAGG ................................ .1. H. MITCHELL..........................Third First Assistant Chemist.. Second Assistant Chemist. Assistant Chemist. N. C. REW ... ......... .... Assistant in' Animal Industry.. C. M. FLOYD....................... ........ .......... ,........... .Superintendent of Farm.. I. S. MC ADoRv ........ C. F. KINMAN................... Assistant in Veterinary Science.. Assistant in Horticulture. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen the State on application to the Agricultural E perimnt Station,, of Auburn, Alabama. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION.............................. APPLE Diseases........................................a Bitter Rot........................................ ......... Par& 7i x 4 Black Blight ........................................... Canker .......................................... Fly Spek ....................................... Hairy Root.................................. Rust ... Scab Knot...................................... 89.. 12'3 91. 3 .94L, 95~. 97. 84~. ....... ..................................... ............................................... .. .................... Sooty Blotch........ .............................. CHERRY Diseases................. BlaK-: 102-. -not ........................................ ......................................... Brown Rot ........................................ 10 3. 1oi3. 109-. 100.. 100.. Guninosis......................................... Leaf Spot PEACH Diseases......................................... Brown Rot........................................ Crown Gall .......... ................... Gumniosis ........................................ Hairy Root............. ................... Leaf Curl ........................................ r..a 109n. 100. 113. 100:. 94.. 1 Rosette.............. ......................... Yellows........................................... PEAR Diseases..........................................a 119. 121. 12". 12_. 127. 129'. 131.0. . ...... .o... Blight..................... ....................... Leaf Blight ....................................... Scab .............................................. PLUM Diseases .................. ......... Black Knot ....................................... Brown Rot ................. ............ 103 .............. Canker.................................... Gumnrnsis ...- . 109 1 1. .......................................... .. w. . .... 10'.n. Leaf Spot............................. Plum Pockets......:............................... FUNGICIDES........................... _.. ... o-- 1004_. 13k2. .Ie3.. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonat ................... Bordeaux Mixture........................ Lime-Sulfur-Salt Wash............................ EXPLANATION ........ o1L Plates..,.................. 134,. 1.3g.. .............. 10 INTRODUCTION. The rapid increase in the fruit growing industry in this State within recent years has made it necessary that more and more attention should be given to the diseases of these plants by the Experiment Staation and the fruit-growers themselves. A large number of letters reach this department during the year asking for information regarding these diseases and the best method of controlling them and these letters cannot in most cases be properly replied to by letter alone. They indicate also a growing interest in these matters and seem to indicate that the time has arrived to place before our people such information as is now available regarding these matters. To supply this evident need this Bulletin has been prepared. We have thought it best to depart somewhat from the common method of presenting such matters and have made the attempt to arrange the facts and suggestions under such definite headings as will best serve to indicate what sort of information must be had before one can hope to successfully control diseases of cultivated plants. More than this we have looked upon the diseases from the standpoint of the diseased plant and have included, therefore, no statements regarding the organism causing the diseases where this would not conduce to a clearer understanding of the disease itself and particularly of the methods of treatment suggested. The science of plant pathology owes much to mycology but its future advance and recognition depends upon its rather more sharp differentiation from "economic mycology." The plants are arranged in alphabetical order by their common names and under each are given, also in alphabetical order, the most important diseases of these so Pilants in our region. W e have introduced uo flew common -names for any of these diseases, but have employed the cornnames, nOw in most common use or that are sanctiond Jy the calin ug authorities upou this subject. In cases where disease is known on more than of the plants -ieationed reference to the disease will be made uuder each, niut its full description will be presented under the first mentioned or in connection with the plant in which mliL= ,thee ,iU:ease is liere best known, If the disease shows specific li eivuces in tie different plants attacked mention of the it-t will he r i-cl(de( unler s plant concerned. Meth v-ls of treatiien are discussed under each disease and no '_spray calendar" is given. It is believed the plan here adapted has several and peculiar advantages over the other jnethiod. Te have placed at the close of the discussion of each disease a bibliography of the disease. This bibliography is in no case complete, but is simply a select list of the more srwiginal and recent literature dealing with this subject. The majority of these references are to the literature of the Iate Experiment Stations and the Department of AgriculTo these and other sources I am indebted for infor nation here presented the references to this literature rre here included to show readers of this Bulletin that efuther reading and study of this matter of plant diseases -,noii -vhfie same one each , .re. and in may .. readily be made may the publications mentioned that in. cases be had for the asking. most One of- the' principal purposes of thiis Bulletin is to enable tfrait growers to 'recognize some of the common diseases of the plants mentioned in order that they may assist this :cand severity -; tate. diepartmuent in securing data each year of the distribution of the diseases in the various counties of the The method employed here in recording this infor-nlation well shown by the figures on pages 82 and 83. The first one shows the front and the last one the back of a rjecord .form so made as to be employed in a regular loose 'is 81 tleaf holder. We wish specimens and information regarding ,each disease from every county of the State where it is to ,be found and shall be glad to afford any who care to assist 'us in gathering this information any special directions they may desire. Specimens of diseased conditions of any plant are at all times desired and these and letters regardsing such subjects should be directed to the Department of 'Plant Physiology and Pathology of the Experiment Station. DISEASE YEAR NOT9Sd O OO REPORTED BY COUNTY POSTOFFICE DATE FILE and COPY APPLE. BITTER ROT. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION The bitter rot of apples, known also as the ripe rot or aunthracnose of the fruit, certainly made its appearance in America previous to 1867 and has attracted much attention from that time to date. In the United States the disease is found in practically every State east of and including Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas; the most serious outbreaks of the disease have occurred in Oklahoma, Indian Territory; southern Illinois, Ohio and Indiana; Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, eastern North Carolina, western New York; Delaware, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey and Alabama. The fungus causing this disease may be fairly said to be found the world over wherever the apple is grown and, in addition to the apple, has been found on the following hosts: pear, tomato, grape, peach, nectarine, apricot, pepper, egg plant and squash. It remains to be determined whether the fungus occurring on these various hosts is identical. SYMPTOMs. The bitter rot or ripe rot of apples is a fungus disease of the ripening fruit producing in another form a canker of the smaller limbs of the apple tree. The'first sign of the disease is to be found in the form of a small discoloration just beneath the skin of the apple. This spot, as it enlarges, becomes more and more sunken and the rotting of the apple proceeds towards the core. When the spots reach a size of about a half inch in diameter small blackish bodies appear in a circular arrangement beneath ,the skin of the apple (Plate I, Fig. 1.). These blackish :bodies are :the fruiting bodies of the fungus and soon pro._ject ifrom the surface of the diseased spot. As these fruiting bodies break through the surface of the apple the spores produced in them are allowed to escape. The spores are held together in the form of stringy pinkish masses which are quite conspicuous, particularly on dry quiet nights when the spore masses are oozing out. As the disease progresses other rings of fruiting bodies will appear outside of the one first formed and in time there may be a half dozen or more of these concentric rings. If the climatic conditions are unfavorable to the rapid development of the fungus the rings of the fruiting bodies will not be so definite or may be absent entirely. From the .original point of infection the fungus may grow out until the whole apple is rotted-though there is at all times a rather sharp line of separation between the healthy and diseased portions of the fruit. If infection occurs at more than one point the rings of fruiting bodies from the several infections will ultimately unite with one another. The general effect of the fungus is to hasten the maturity of the apple and lead to the well known falling of the apples. This falling may occur at any stage in the development of the disease. In fact the premature falling of the fruit is one of the most conspicuous symptoms of this disease. During the summer of 1902 a Mr. Simpson, of Illinois, a large fruit grower of that State, noticed that in many cases was to be found a canker on the limb that he suspected of being the source of infection from the fact that thle canker was often found at the top of an inverted cone 'formed by the diseased apples on the tree. A careful investigation of this matter by Blair and Burrill and by Von Schrenk and Spaulding has established this suspicion of Mr. Simpson as a fact. They were able to produce the typical bitter rot by inoculation of healthy apples with spores produced in these limb cankers and also to produce the limb ,canker through inoculation with spores obtained from dis- __here eased apples. This very important discovery introducedE into the treatment of the disease a new factor of immenseimportance. These cankers appear most generally on the smaller limbs, and their general, appearance is well shown in Fig. 2 on Plate II. are other cankers of apple trees and of other trees due to various causes, but whenever the bitter rot of apples is found on trees on which cankers like those shown in the above figure occur the removal of the cankers would be advisable even in advance of a demonstration of the connection between the two troubles. 'There RELATIONSHIP OF DISEASE TO CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. The first appearance of the trouble on the apple may be expected during July in this latitude, though in the northern apple growing districts this is generally delayed until August. The exact time depends much upon the climatic conditions that prevail at the time and during the spring. The green fruit is generally quite immune, a fact that may be due to the larger amount of malic acid in immature fruits as compared with ripe fruits. And it is this rapid destruction of the ripe fruit just when the owner is about ready to gather in the crop that makes the trouble so much dreaded ! Warm and sultry weather affords the best chance for the rapid development of the fungus and the appearance of a regular bitter rot epidemic. On the contrary in cool dry summers the trouble need not be much feared. Nights with much dew alternating with hot days will greatly promote the development of the fungus. The time of first appearance of the trouble on the fruits. may also be much influenced by the condition of the spores, as to ripeness, in the cankers and the mummies, to be described later. If a cold spring has delayed the formation of these spores then the rot will' be late, appearing on thefruit itself. 87 ECOTOMIC IMPORTANCE ,disease cannot do better to emphasize the importance of this than to iention the statement of the President of .ihe National Apple Shippers' Association who said, "the damage to .the apple crop of the United States in 1900 from hitter rot was $0,000,000.00."'The destrnction of 75 per cent. of the crop by this disease is not very nnsnal and in many cases the owners of apple orchards have preferred to lease the orchard for a mere trifle than to mn the risk Schrenk and Spanlding ~of getting no returns at all. say, in speaking of this disease, that "It has probably done -more to discourage apple growing in many regions than all other tronbles, inclnding both fnngns and insect diseases combined." In onr State the disease has cansed great losses in many places, but so far no very systematic attempt has been made to control the disease or to determine its exact d istribution. We Von AETIOLOGY. The bitter rot of apples and the associated canker of apple limbs are prodnced by the fnngus now known as Glomntrella 'iafo maculans (Berk.) Spaulding and Von Schrenk. REMEDIAL MEASURES. .our The treatment against this disease nmay, in the light of present knowledge, be grouped nnder three (1) removal and destrnction of all diseased app'sM from the tree and from the gronnd, (2). removal of the ca.nkered headings: limbs, and (3) spraying with the regnlar Bordeanx mixture during ,s- directed below. The spores formed on the apples that fall to ;the gronnd the season and those on the apples that dry up to, form mummies on the tree may live over the winter and thns constitnte sources of new infection dnring the following spring. If only ,a few trees are infected it will cer- tainly pay well to watch the spread of.the, disease and'inn mediately pick and destroy by burning or burying in the ground every apple as soon as the disease appears upon In this way the further spread of the disease to other trees the orchard will be largely prevented. And then rotten apples on the ground should be gathered up and stroyed. The limb cankers should be removed during the late fal or winter as they can then be seen ure readily than they can when the trees are in leaf. If cankers are found on the smaller limbs as is generally the case, these limbs may be removed entire, but if found on the trunk or very large limbs it may.be best to carefully cut out the cankered and paint over the wound carefully with white lead paint of tar. It seems certain now that the removal of all these cankers will do much to lessen the spread of the dis ease in the orchard by removiig one of the sources of new infection. In addition to the two above named precautions the should be carefully sprayed with Bordeaux mixture at least once before the buds open and then at intervals of ten days unti.l_ the fruit is about ripe. in it all tion por- trees BIBLIOGRAPHY,. Alwood, W B. 1894. Ripe rot, or bitter rot, of'apples;. Bull. Va. Exp;:_ Stat. 40 :57-82. p1. 1-2.. 1904.0 Orchard Studies-XV. The, bitter. rot of ap7 ples. Bull. Va. Exp. Stat. 142 :249 1-4._ 279. p1. Burrill, T. J., and Blair, J. C. 1902. Prevention of Bitter~ Rot.. Cire. Ill. .Exp. Stat.. 56:1-3.- 1902. Bitter Rot of Apples. 77:51 66.fig.. 1-12'.,pl.. C. Ill. Bull. Exp. Stal-73136 within contains the s'ateinerit *This Bulletin buars the date Nw)ember,, 1902, on its cover,. "Issued Febtunary 20, 1904." buts 89 Garman, H. 1890. The bitter rot fungus of apples. (Gloeosporiiuw cersicotor. B. & C.) Rept. Ky. Exp. Stat. 2-1889; 43-45. fig. 13-15. Haisted, B. D. 1892. Apple Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot. Bull. N. J. Exp.. Stat. 86:16i. Longyear, B. O. 1904. Bitter rot, ripe rot, anthracnose. (Glomerella ruforaculans (Berk.) Spaulding&Von fig 4 5., Special Bull. Mich. Exp. Stat.'25 Stinson, J. T. 1894. Bitter Rot, Bull. Ark. Exp. Schrenk.) :9-10. Stat. 26 :33-35. Preliminary report on bitter rot or ripe rot of apples. Bull. Mo. Fruit- Stat. 1 :21 pp. Von Schrenk, H., and Spaulding, P. 1903-The Bitter Rot of Apples. Bull. Bureau Plant 1901. Ind. U. S. Dept.' Agr. 44:54 pp. pl. 1-9. fig. 1-9.. BLACK ROT. This disease has been known for some time being reported' from Illinois for example as early as 1878. It probably oc curs in every apple orchard and is often confused with the bitter rot. SYMIPTo1MS. Brownish decayed spots appear on the apple generallynear the stem and often near the flower end.: This rotted area soon turns, black and the rotting proceeds towards, the center of the apple. There is no such sharp deinarkation between the rotten and healthy portions of the apple as exists in the case of the bitter rot and this is one method ;surface of distinguishing the two diseases from each other. the "decayed spot becomes someWhat, depressed'. of The,. 90 -Finally the apple shrivels up more or less and becomes a small and hard "mummy." This disease does not occur as a rule on green apples ex-cept in cases of injury to the apple by wounds or insects. It is often abundant on "windfalls." It is also one of the chief causes of rotting of apples in the market. On the leaves the same fungus often causes rather serious damage through the formation of rather large and irregular brownish spots. The old dead twigs on unpruned trees may often become breeding places for this fungus from which spores may be scattered by the wind. The fungus was once thought to live on the twigs merely as a saprophyte but is now known to cause a serious canker of apple twigs. (See Canker of Apple on page 91.) AETIOLOGY. It is produced by the fungus Sphaeropsis malorum, Berk. The fruiting stage consists of numerous rather small black pustules that develop on the surface of the diseased apple. The pustules develop as a rule only after the rotting is fairly well advanced. These pustules are roundish conceptacles, with black or purplish walls, containing the spores. The spores ooze out as small white threads. The spores are at first white, but soon become deeply colored. TREATMENT. The disease may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, making the first application before the leaves appear and subsequent ones at intervals of about two weeks. (See Fig. 6 on Plate II.) Decayed fruit should be removed from the trees and the ground and destroyed and "mummy" fruits should not be allowed to remain on the tree over viniter. Since the fungus causing this disease. is also shown to 91 The 1902. tGarmuan, the cause of:a canker, care should be taken to remove or ltreat cankered limb as suggested under the bitter rot. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 'Clinton, G. P. Black Rot. Sphaeropsis malorum Berk. I11. Exp. Stat. 69 :192-193. fig. 2 on p1. Bull. B. H. Spraying Experiments in 1895. Bull. Exp. Stat. 59 :111 129. fig. 501-508. .Scribner, F. L. 1890. Black rot of the apple. Fungus diseases of the grape and other plants and their treatment. 81--83. fig. 1606. CANKER. HISTORY AND 1)IsmIBuTION. This disease was first reported from New York State, but is now knowfn to have a much wider distribution. The fact of its being caused by the fungus producing the well known 'black rot of the apple, pear and quince fruits would naturally lead one suspect that the distribution of the canwould coextensive with the black rot. SY1IiPTOMS. In general a canker may be said to be the result of any "injury that destroys the bark and lays bare portions of wood." (Bull. 170 Y.) This particular canker is due the action of aaitcfnu that attacks principally the 1.895. Ky. 'ker "be to N. to larger limbs. Tile'trouble may 'be detected- from the swollen appearance of. the limbs and the rough dark colored bark. (Plate VII. Fig. 19.) Frequently in severe cases of canker the wood itself may be exposed and thus decay of the wood itself begins.. The extent to which the canker af- but fects the varies apparently with various conditions,. muay be several feet. bark The effect upon the tree is due tothe-interference witl the circulation of the sap and the amout of injury willoQ course be in proportion to the surfacearea of the cankers. The tree may be simply weakened or may he killed outright.. AETIOLOGY. This canker is caused by the fungus-Spaveopsi&nalorlh. .Pk. TREATMENT. Cankered limbs should, if possible; be/removed'and burned. Where the cankers are found on the trunk or very large limbs it may be advisable to cut out the, diseased spotand paint over the wound with some sort of paint or wash.. When spraying with Bordeaux mixture for other apple diseases if canker be present it would be advisable to thor-t oughly cover the limbs with the spray mixture. BIBLIOGRAPHY.. Beach, S. A., Lowe, V. 1899. Chester, J. D. ., and Stewart, J. C. Apple tree canker. (ppae-opsismalorun Pk.) Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 170:382 383. Canker inapple and pear.. Rept. Del. Dlxp. Stat. 1900 :43--46. fig. I 1901. 1902. 4-T. Canker in Apples. Bull'. Del.. Exp Stat. 57 :1011. fig. 6. Hall, F. H., and Paddock, W.. 1899. Canker : an enemy of- the apple. Bull. N. Y.. Geneva Exp. Stat. Pop. Edit. 1900. Apple-tree cankers. Stat,. Pop. Bull. IN.-.V'Geneva 1-3. 163 :t-6,. pl. 1-2,. Exp. Edit., 185:1-2-. p1. Paddock, W. 1899. The New York apple-tree canker. Buill. N. V. Geneva Exp. Stat. V-O. pl.. 1 1.63:179% Q. 93 1900. The New York apple tree canker. (Second Report.) Bull. N. Y. Geneva Sxp. Stat. 185:205213. pl 1-4. The New York apple-tree canker. (Second Report.) Rept. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 19-1900342-350. pl. 53 55. FLY SPECK. 1901. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. This disease, aften referred to as "flies" and "blackbirds," was first reported in scientific literature in 1896 from DelaF ware. It is at present no doubt to be found practically wherever the apple is cultivated. SYMPTOMS. of This fruit disease is marked by the appearance upon the fruit of a number of small spots of specks (Plate II. Fig. 5.) in areas that may be 1-4 of an inch or more in diameter. The skin of the apple around this area may becolne rather cloudy in color and if many of the areas unite with each other the whole surface of the apple may become sooty in appearance. The effects of the fungus do not extend below the surface of the apple, but in the most severe cases the apple may become somewhat shrivelled owing to the action the fungus causing the disease. The claim is made that the disease will spread upon apples in storage. AETIOLOGY. The disease is due to the fungus known as Leptothlyriun~ pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc. 94 RESISTAN CE OP \ AMETIES. This disease appears in ordinary seasons most severely upon the fruit of trees planted in low damp situations. During a very wet:sea.son, 1wever, all sorts of trees will be apt to be affected without to their situation or resistance. Rhode Island Greening, Rome Beauty and Pleasant are very frequently badly injured by this reference Peck's disease.. TREATMENT. One thorough spraying with the ordinary Bordeaux nuxture when, the -apples are half grown or less will prevent the injury fromn this disease. In the case of smooth skinned apples this spraying should be done somewhat earlier to prevent thee so-called "russetting"' of the apples caused by the 'fungicide itself. See also treatment for sooty blotch. Halsted, B.. D. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Decays of Mature Apples. Rept. N. J. Exp. 1893 :367 377. fig. 35-41. Powell, G. H. 1S90. A Fungus Disease of the Apple. Garden and Forest. 1894.. Stat. 9 :474-17 5. Selby, A. D. 1897. my in a wet season. -9. Sooty fungus and fly-speck fungus-an old eneBull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 79: 1900. 133-134. fig. S Sooty Fungus and Fly-speck Fungus. Bull. 'Ohio Exp. Stat. 121 :13--14. fig. 12. / HAIRY ROOT. AND DISTRIBUTION. HISTORY This disease was first reported by Stewart, Rolfs and Hall from Western New York in 1900, but is no doubt much more 95 widely distributed than our records in the literature show. We have here in Alabama a very similar if not identical disease of apple and peach. SYMPTOMS. The affectedtrees have few or no large branch roots. The root system of the tree instead consists of a number of groups of hair-like fine roots springing from the main tap root. Fig. 16 on Plate VI shows one of the common forms of the disease. AETIOLOGY. The cause of the disease is at present unknown. It may be associated with attacks of wooly aphis or with the crown gall, but may occur independent of both of these troubles. It does not seem with us to be found associated with any type of soil. Specimens of this disease are much wanted. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Stewart, F. C., Rolfs, F. M., and Hall, F. H. 1900. "Hairy Root." Bull. N. Y. Geneva 191:300-301. p]. 2. 1901. "Hairy Root." Rept. N. Y. Geneva 19-1900:177-178. pl. 23. (A reprint 191.) RUST. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. " Exp. Stat. Exp. Stat. from Bull. Apple rust is widely distributed and may be expected wherever apples and cedar trees are growing in close proximity to each other. In Alabama the rust is in many sections one of our most serious apple troubles. SYMPTOMS. The disease may readily be detected by the circular yellowish spots (see Fig. 4 on Plate II.) that appear on the 96 leaves in May or June. Similar spotsimay also appear o, ..he fruit. t ,.pring (-kase. apple rust here is produced by one stage of Gym nosporang--tiu utacrop ts, the other stage of which lives on the red cedar causing there the so-called "cedar apples, shown in Fig. 3 on Plate II. The spores produced in the gelatinous out growths from these galils in early are the- source of infection of apple leaves. 'The AETIOLOGY. "Spraying TREATMENT. seems to be of no value in controlling this dis- Since cedar trees harber one stage of the fungus " causing this disease it is of course advisable to remove the _"cedar appless" or if possible the cedar trees themselves, A little attention to this will dispose of he rust ,problem in apple orchards. matter BIBLIOGRAPHY. Wrhester, J. J). 1896. Apple Rust. Rept. Del. Exp. Stat. 8-189-6 63-69. fig. 6-10-. IGalloway, B. T. 1889. Apple Rust. Rept. Secy. 1889:413-414. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1- J aaisted, B.D. Apple Rusts. Rept. U. S. Comm. Agr. 1888 :37381. p1. 1889. 11-1-2. Bull. N. J. Exp., Stat. 86 :15. and cedar apples. 1892. Apple Rust. Jones, L. R. 1891. "Wilcox, Apple rust Stat. Rept. Vt. Exp. 10-1901: 4-1890 :139-140. E. M. Apple leaf rust. Rept. Okla. Exp. Stat. 1901. 116-117. SCAB. H ISTORY AND DISTRIBUTIN. It has been known as a serious apple disease since the early part of the 19th century. For example Curtis recorded it as common on apples in North Carolina in 1867. In this country its greatest injury seems to be in the Mississippi Valley. In this State no definite attempt has ever been made to the writer's knowledge to control it by spraying and in fact it has never attracted any great attention. SYMPTOMIs. Scab first makes its appearance early in the spring soon -after the first leaves begin to unfold. It is during this time that the greatest amount of infection occurs, though there is a second period of infection in the fall which is largely responsible for the production of the mature winter stage. The scab may often be seen on the leaves and fruit of the lower branches showing that the probable source of infection was to be found in the leaves on the ground on which the fungus had wintered over. The first spots on the leaves -are often on the lower side near the midrib-this being the irst part of the leaf to be exposed while the leaf is unfoldlng. ON THE LEAVES. The scab here is found in the form of roundish spots 1-4 inch in diameter. Frequently several of these ,spots may unite with one another-particularly if they are near a large vein or the midrib where the fungus seems te grow more rapidly than elsewhere on the leaf. The spots Ihave an olive green color. :about 98 ON THE FRUIT.. The scab spots are roundish 1-8 to, 1-2 inch in, diameter and of an olive green color-frequently with a lighter colored margin. These spots may coalesce to some extent it conditions are such as to favor the growth of the fungus. The scab fungus grows more rapidly on young fruits than on older ones-due no doubt to the fact that the cuticle of the younger apples is more delicate. Old fruits for the same reason are not very apt to become infected. The cuticle over the "scab" may later in the season become, broken and flaked off, exposing the dead tissues of the apple and giving the scabbed area a reddish brown color. The fungus also frequently causes the formation of a considerable amount of corky tissue-which in turn protects the apple from becoming infected at the scab spot by other, fungi. WVINTER STAGE.I When the diseased leaves fall to the ground in the fall the mycelium that during the summer was confined to the space just beneath the cuticle, grows down into the tissues of the leaf. The deeper penetration into the leaf is made possible by the death of the leaf and the consequent partial decay of its tissues. These hyphae take on a reddish olive color and the cells composing them are larger than those formed during the summer. The fruiting bodies, perethecia, of the fungus are, formed within the leaf. The spores are ripe by April or May and ready to produce the spring nf, ~ton. Per ,hecia are often formed near the small spots on leaves produced by the autumn infection. The pustules are scattered or more generally gathered together in groups on a grayish spot that may mark the spot of the summer's scab. This stage of the fungus is not found elsewhere but on the, leaves. 99 TREATMIIENT. be prevented by spraying with Borden The scab mixture as follows: (1.) Spray with Bordeaux mixture just before the how erbuds open. (2.) Spray again just after the blossoms fall. 10 (3.) Spray 1, 2 or 3 more times at interv ils of days. The following results secured by JcnIes & Orton mont, show the immense profits in spraying for the scab. They spraed as follow~s: 1. April 27. Buds not oeri;with solution of copper, may about inVer- apple, sulfat 1 lb. to 20 gallons. 2. May 118. Leaves out--flowvers not openl; Bordeaux "1 -10" to which was added 1-3 lb. paris green. 3. June .15. Blossoms fallen. 4. July 18. 5. August 3. Comparison' was made of trees sprayed five times and those sprayed three timges (the last two sprayings being here omitted) and trees not sprayed at all. table shows the results clearly : ing The follow- Total value Sprayed 5 Sprayed times Per cent. on the tree. . .. 60 51 Per cent. fallen. 40 49 of crop per tree.. $15.44. Not 3 times 7.382.15; sprayed......... .33 67 ing the disease When account is taken of the fact that the fungus may winter over on the fallen leav'as caus- pears advisable to rake up and burn fallen leaves at they close of the season. The gain from spraying may fall into the following classes : 100 (1.) Actual gain in yield per tree. (2.) An increased percentage of "selects" and No. 1." .apples. (3.) Prevention of falling due to scab. (4.) Increase in vigor of the tree itself. (5.) Reduction of the loss, often very serious, resulting from the attacks of various fungi causing a,rotting about -the scab spots of storred apples. INFLUENCE OF WEATHER. The greatest injury from the scab may be expected during seasons having a cold damp spring. The amount of ~he injury in any given season is also no doubt in a measure .dependent upon the amount of the mature Venturia stage produced on the fallen apple leaves-this in turn being in*fluenced by the climatic conditions prevailing during the preceding fall and winter. AETIOLOGY. Apple scab, a disease affecting the leaves and fruits of the apple, is caused by the parasitic, summer stage, Fusiclcdium dendriticuunt, of the fungus Venturia inaequalis. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Beach, S. A. 1897. Wood ashes and apple scab. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 140:665-690. IBlair, J. C. 1899. Spraying apple trees, with special reference to apple scab fungus. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. 54:181 -204. fig. 1-27. 'Chester, F. D. 1895. Experiment ih the treatment of apple scab at S. H. Derby's, Woodside, 1895. Bull. Del. Exp. Stat. 29:18-24. fig. 1. 101 Experiment in the treatment of apple scab upon the farm of S.:IH. Derby, Woodside. Bull. Del Exp. Stat. 34 :14-19. fig. 3-4. ;Clinton, G. P. 1901. Apple Scab. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. p1. 1-4. fig. 1-34. -Detmers, F. 1891. Apple Scab. (Eitsicladium dendriticmn, Fckl.) Bull. Ohio. Exp. Stat. ii-Vol. 4. No. p1. 5-7. D. G. lendriticat(Wallr.) 1894. Apple Scab. (Fusicladiumc Fuckl.) Bull. Div. Veg. Path. U. S. Dept, 1897. 67 :109-153. 9:187-192. Fairchild, Agr. 6:43 44. ilenderson, L. F. 1899. Apple Scab in the Potlatch. Bull. Idaho Exp. Stat. 20 :77 -95. pl. 1-3. Jones, TL.R. 1891. Black scab of apple. Rept. Vt. Exp. Stat. 4 1890 :142. 1892. Apple and Pear Scab. Bull. Vt. Exp. Stat. 28:30-34. 1892. The prevention of apple and pear scab by spray. ing, 1893. Rept. Vt. Exp. Stat. 5-1891:132- 133. Vt. Exp. Apple Scab. Rept. Vt. Exp. Stat. 6-1892:82-83. Stat. 1894. Apple and Pear Scab. Bull. 44 :83-93. fig. 1-4, 8-9. Jones, L. R., and Orton, W. A. 1898. Spraying for the prevention of apple scab in 1897. Rept. Vt. Exp. Stat. 11-1898:195- 193. illust. 1899. Spraying for the prevention of apple scab. Rept. Vt. Exp. 'Stat. 12-1899 :.156-159. ~Lawrence, W. HI. 1904. The Apple Scabh in western Washington. Bull. Wash. Exp. 4Stat. 64 :1-24 pl. 1. 2 fig. 1-5. 102: Powell, G. II. 1894, The Apple Scab. Gardens and'IMrest. 7:297.. Scribner, F. L. 1888. Apple Scab. Rept...S. Comm.. Agr.1887 :341347. p1. 2. Selby, A. 1). 1899. Apple Scab. Bull.. OhioExp..-Stat.111:95-115. fig. 1-7. Trelease, 1884. W. The apple scab and leaf" blight.. (Fidsicladim dendriticum. Wallroth.) Rept. Wisc. Exp. Stat.. l.45 56. fig. 6-8 . SOOTY BLOTCH.. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. This was first reported by Sturgis' in Connecticut in on Rhode Island Greenings and Newton Pippins. It is now the'fly-speck disvery widely distributed and together ease, with which often associated, causes'luch damage to. apples particularly during wet seasons'or where trees areplanted in low damp soil. 1898" with SY-M PTOM's~. The disease appears as irregular blotches- (Plate II. Fig._ 5.) upon the surface of the apple-these blotches are at first pale, but soon become sooty black color and- under a lens show a radiating appearance due to the manner ofgrowth of the fungus causing the disease. No, rotting ofthe fruit occurs since the fungus works entirely upon thesurface of the fruit. It may with the fly-speck diseasegreatly reduce the market value. of the fruit. in, TREATMENT. both fly-speck and sooty blotch will be controlled' by tlhe- 103 spraying against the scab. It mlay be necessary, however, to give one or two sprayings later in the season, say in July. AETIOLOGY. The fungus causing this disease is geuerally referred to a..P"hyllachora pomigenza, though this matter demands further Ytu dy. BIBLIOGRAPIY. -given (In addition to the following consult the Bibliography under Fly Speck.) each, S. A., Lowe, V. H., and Stewart, F. C 1899. Sooty Blotch. (Phylachora pomigena. (Schw.) Sacc.) Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat.'170.388. :Stnrgis ,W. C. 1898. On the cause and prevention of a fungoons disease of the apple. Rept Conn. Exp. Stat. -11897:1171-175. 21- CHERRY. BLACK KNOT. ISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. Black 'knot has long been known and the extent of its injuries has frequently brought home to and cherry growers in no uncertain ]manner. The plum industry of the famous Hudson river valley (N. Y.) was practically wiped out by this disease. Farlow, 1876, was the 'first to deternmine its exact cause concerning which the most 'various opinions had previously been entertained. 'been plum. 'chierries are by nio means 'exempt. Its most serious injury has frequently been to plums, but DeSchweinitz mentions 104 an epidemic of this disease that destroyed the cherry trees; about Bethlehem, Pa., in 1790. SYMPTOMS. wart-like outgrowth twigs of bark the 18,)' from Fig. (Plate VII. and branches in severe cases extending along thetrunk for several feet. The first symptom is the -swelling of the tissue just beneath the bark. This enlargement increases during the fall or growing season until the bark is ruptured. This exposed portion of the twig is soon covered with an olive green velvety coating composed of thereproductive hyphae of the fungus. A microscopical examination of the diseased portion at this time would show numerous erect hyphae bearing spores-the so-called summer spores. These are readily carried about by thewind and other agencies and serve to spread the disease during the growing season. Later in the season the production of summer spores. ceases and the velvety covering gradually disappears. The surface of the wart gradually becomes hardened and altered in color to a dark brown and finally to a dead black. Pimples may be seen late in the fall covering the wart. In these are developed the winter spores called ascospores. These ascospores only develop during the winter and arecapable of germination in February and March. AETIOLOGY. The black knot is a rough The disease is due to the fungus Plowrightia morbosa. TREATMENT. The diseased twigs should be removed after leaf-fall orbefore the winter spores are formed. Twigs that show in the spring or early summer the beginning of a "knot" should be removed and burned to prevent the formation of the summer spores. If such knots are simply cut off and allowed' 105 ripen audt to remain on the ground the summer spores then be scattered to other trees. Co-operation of entire neighborhoods must be secured tot render the campaign against the black knot effective. Leg islation has been resorted to in several States, but a healthy and intelligent public opinion is necessary in this as im many cases. may BIBLIOGRAPHY. Anon. Black knot of plum and cherry. Plowrightiai. morbosa, (Schw.) Sacc. Bull. N. Y. Geneva, Exp. Stat. 40 :25-34. fig. Bailey, L. H. 1892. The black knot of plum and cherry. The NewYork Law. Bull. N. Y. Cone1 Uxp. Star. 49 -a.)> -454. Beach, S. A. 1894. Some observations on the if- bistor; of Jlow-. rightia ($chw.) Sacc. Rept. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 1893 :686-688. Beach, S.. A., Lowe, V. HI., and Stewart, F. C. 1899. Black knot. (Plowrightia iniorbosa. (Schw.> Sacc. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 170 :431432. Farlow,- W. G. 1876. The Black Knot. Bull. Bussey Inst. 1 :440-454, 1892. 4-10. morbosa pl. 4-6. Humphrey, J. E. 1891. The Black Knot of the Plum. Plowrightia bosa (Schw.) Sacc. Rept. Mass. State. Exp. Stat. )nork, 1890 :200-210. 1893. p1. 1. The. Black Knot of the Plum. Plowrightia maork bosa. (Sz.) Sacc. Rept. Mlass. State Exp. Stat., 1892:235-247. 1)1. 5. 106 iLodeman, E. G. Cherries, and Methods 1894. Black Knot of Plums of.Treatment. Bull. N. Y. Cornell Exp. Stat. 81:633-656. fig. 1-(3. and GUMMOSIS. ,.a Among the stone fruits such as cherry, peach and plum become a "gum-flow" or guimoss.11 is frequent and serious menace to the life of the trees affected. This disintegration of the tissues of the affected plant may be brought about by' a variety of causes. Hence gummosis is 'a generic term applied to the condition here described what,ever be the cause. Massee has described a gummosis of the common flowering almond (Pranus japonica) due to the action of a parasitic fungus, and this seems to be the only case of guminosis so far demonstrated to be due to a parasitic fungus. Excessive gum flow frequently leads to the formation of a canker. (See plum canker, page .) Reports of outbreaks of gummosis in any of the trees mentioned will be gladly received. BIBLIOGRAPHY. MMassee, G. may 1903. Gummlosis of Prunuts japonica (Cladlosporium epiphyllami, Fr.) A Text-Book of Plant IDiseases. 306-310. fig. 82. LEAF SPOT. HISTORY AND DISTRICT. This disease occurs widely distributed on the leaves of ,.cherry, plul and apricot and is frequently referred to as 'leaf blight. 10 SYIIPTOMIS. leaves MIlintie spots at first appear soon after the often oniy 1-6 ncl or less .tre full grown and these are in diameter. On cherry and.plul leaves the spots may have a reddish margin. The spots enlarge to 1-8 inch or more in diameter, (See Fig. 21 on Plate VIII,) becoming at the same time dark and with a pale center. Often the diseased spots fall out of the leaf causing a shot-hole effect and then called "shot hole" disease. (See Plate VIII.) The tree may become defoliated through the action of -this disease and in that case may be much weakened so that it is more apt to be injured during the following winter. The damage in this direction is much greater if the defoliation occurs, as it is apt to in the plum, when the -tree is in fruit. AETIOLOGY. first -This disease is caused by Theleaf spot may be. wxith Bordeaux mixture, -application of the spray ~best time to control time Cyltindrosporiunpadi. TEATM ENT. controlled by the proper spraying but in the case of the cherry the at the time the tree is in fruit, the disease, may cause the fruit to be stained with the spraying mixture so as to reduce its market value. However, it is well apply Bordeaux just before the blossoms open and again just after they fall to partially- control the leaf spot and fruit rot. to ]BIBLIOGRAPHY. iBeacli, S. A. 1894. TPeventing Leaf Blight of Plum and Cherry Nursery Stock. Rept. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 12189'3:688 693. ph. 5 6. K108 ' Preventing Leaf Blight of Plum and Cherry Nursery Stock. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat.72 :339-346. fig. 1896. Plum Leaf Spot. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 98:5-14. p1. 1-5. 1896. Cherry Leaf Spot and Fruit Rot. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 98:15-17. pl. 1-5. 1897. Plum Leaf Spot. Rept. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat.. 15-1896:384-401. pl. 25-29. 1897. Prevention of Fungous Diseases in Cherry chards. Rept. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 15-1896 402 407. Duggar, B. M. 1899. Notes on the Shot-hole. Effect of Peaches and Plums. Bull. N. Y. Cornell Exp. Stat. 388. fig. 71-72. Fairchild, D. G. 1892. Treatment of plum leaf blight in nursery., rows. Bull. Div. Veg. Path. U. S. Dept. Agro. 3:63 65. 1892. Treatment of plum leaf blight in the orchard. Bull. Div. Veg. Path. U. S. Dept. Agr. G-M3.. 1893. Plum leaf-blight. (Cylindrosporium padi' 1894. 1-2. Or- 164:385- 3:62' Karsten.) Journ. Mycol. Journ. Mycol. leaf-blight. p1. 7:253-255. pl. 28-29., padk' 1893. 1893. Cherry- leaf- blight. Karsten.) Plum (Cylindrosporiumn 7:249-252. p1. 26-27.. (Gylindrosporiunt pads' (Gylindrosporimmn padi' Karsten.) Rept. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 11-- 1892:659-662. 1893. Cherry Karsten.) Rept. 27-28. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. Leaf-Blight. N. 1892 :654-659. pl. 25-26. 11- 1894. Plum' Leaf Blight. (Gytindrosporium2 padh' Karst.) Bull. Div. Veg. Path. U.. S.. Dept. Agri, 6:39-40. 109 Green, W. J. 1891. The "shot hole" fungus of the plum. Bull. OhioExp. Stat. ii-Vol. 4. No. 9:216 217. Thaxter, R. 1891. Leaf Spot of Plums and Cherries Causing Defoliation. Rept. Conn. State Exp. Stat. 1890:102. PEACH. BROWN ROT. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. It has been known as a serious enemy of the peach in the United States for over 20 years and in Europe for even longer. Whenever peaches, plums or cherries are grown in this country the brown rot is a most serious pest. During certain years the loss is made most noticeable by favorable weather conditions. Thus in 1900 the loss to the peach crop, in Georgia was estimated to be 40 per cent. or from $500, 00 to $700,000. Similar losses are reported from otherplaces. In Kentucky it has been reported as a rather serious disease of apples, but with us it seems to be confined to the peach, plum and cherry. It has also been reported on the pear; quince and apricot in addition to the above.. SYMPTOMS. ON THE FLOWERS. Under favorable climatic conditions the disease may attack the flowers before or after the petals have fallen. At first a slight discoloration will appear onsome part of the flower and soon this spreads so as to givethe whole flower a brown and withered appearance. In Alabama during 1897 an epidemic of this disease of thepeach flower appeared that practically destroyed the peach 110 crop for that season. Foggy, rainy and very warm weather were the conditions then prevailing that made possible the germination of an unusual number of the spores, derived, as usual, from the old diseased "nmummy" fruits adhering to the trees. The spores formed on the diseased flowers were then sources of infection for any fruit that was later developed. ON THE TWIGS. On the peach and plum, particularly the peach, the mycelium of the fungus may grow down into the twigs from flowers or fruits that are infested. This condition of affairs is often referred to as the "twig-blight" of the peach. ,(See also canker of plum on page 131.) If only one or two peaches are found on a twig the twig is apt to become infected at only one point and thus be girdled by the fungus, resulting in the death of the uninfested terminal portion of the twig. If several infested fruits occur on the twig it anay become infested throughout its entire length. the ON ''TIE FR.UTT. Small brown spots appear-these rapidly enlarge and whitish tufts of spore-bearing hyphae may appear. The peach may fall to the ground or simply shrivel up and remain attached to the tree. (See Plate III.) In the case of the plum the fruit may be infected for some time before any external evidence appears. As the plum begins to ripen, however, the ash grey tufts of sporebearing threads appear. This difficulty of distinguishing between infested and healthy plums leads in many cases to serious losses in shipping these fruits. Peaches also often suffer en route to market from this rot particularly if the refrigeration is not properly attended to. 111 TREATM ENT. The brown rot can be effectually controlled by two lines of treatment: (1) spraying with Bordeaux mixture as explained below and (2) removal and destruction of all affected fruit from both the tree and the ground. The trees should be sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture as follows: 1. 2. 3. Just before the buds open. Just after the blossoms fall. Ten days to two weeks later. 4. Keep the fruit covered with the Bordeaux mixture until ripening begins and then employ either the ammoniacal copper carbonat or a solution of dibasic copper acetat made by dissolving six ounces of the salt in fifty gallons of water. These two mixtures will not injure the fruit. Too much stress cannot be placed upon the absolute necessity of removing from the tree all the diseased fruits since these are sources of infection and their presence upon the tree may lead to most severe attacks of the twig disease produced by this same fnngus. The fruits that are allowed to fall to the ground after rotting may serve as the home of the perfect stage of the fungus and act as sources of infection during the next spring. Mummy fruits (Fig. 8 on Plate III.) should not be allowed to remain om the tree. AETIOLOGY. The brown rot is caused by the fungus now.r known as Sclerotinia fractigena-the conidial or imperfect form of the fungus, however, known as Monilia fructigena, being the direct cause of the disease. The perfect form of the fungus has been found on old fallen peaches in Maryland and Georgia. Its discovery emphasizes the necessity of removing and destroying all fallen and mummy fruits. 112 J_ ester, 1892. . (Thin . Peach Rot be Controlled by Spraying? preliminary report. Bull. Del. Exp. Stat. 1-16.l1fig. 189:3. 19 A Can peach rot be controlled by spraying A prelilinary report. Rept..Del. Exp. Stat. 53-613. 1 fig. 189 7 . Experiment in the Treatment of Peach Rot Upon the Farm of J. W. Killen, Felton. Bull. Del. Exp. Stat. 34:4-1.3. fig. 1-2. :d-Cordl~ev, A. B. 1899. Brown Rot. Bull. Oregon Exp. Stat. 57 :1-i. lpl.fig.l1 7. Galloway, B. T. 1889. Brown Rot of the Cherry. Monilia frictigena. P'ers. Rept. U. S. Commn. Agr. 1888:349-352. p1. 5 6. Garman, 11. 1890. The brown rot fungus of plums, peaches, ples and cherries. (Motiia fractigcna. Pers.) Inept. Kcy. Exp. Stat. 2-1889:31-42. fig 9-12. 1893. An experiment on plum rot. Bull. Kyi. Stat. 47 :53-.551. fig. 15. Also Rept. Ky. 15xjp. 1892: ap- Exp. Newman. 1902. Slat C. C. 6--1893 :130 131. fig. 15-1894. Brown Rot of Peaches and Plums. Bull. S. Gar. Exp. Stat. 69 :1-12. p1. 1-3. Qtnaintance, A. 1L. 1.900. The Brown Rot of Peaches, Plums and Other Fruits. Bull. Ga. Exp. Stat. 50 :233-2,69. fig. 1 -9 ~mith, E.F. 1892. " Peach Rot Journ. Mvcol. 7 :92. .Townsend, C. 0., and Gould, H. P. 1901. Notes on Spraying Peaches and Plums in 1909. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 71:115-127. 113 CROWN GALL. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. "Crownn gall is a contagious disease affecting a considerable number of the smaller and larger fruit trees and plants. "The disease has been reported upon the following plants: peach, almond, apricot, prune, plum, pear, apple, English walnut, raspberry, blackberry, cherry, poplar and chest,nut. It is, however, not at all certain that the galls on all the above plants, though very similar in general appearance, caused by one and the same organism. -are SYMPTOMS. The gall generally behaves as an annual growth-those 'that begin in the spring mature the same fall. But in this 'climate the galls that start in late summer or fall continue their growth through the winter season. It is strictly a !nursery disease-seedlings 1 to 6 months old being most likely to become infected. The first gall in such cases genterally appears on one side of the main root a few inches 'below the surface or near the "crown" of the seedling. On larger trees the galls genrally appear on the lateral roots though the crown is also commonly attacked in the case of large trees. (Plate V.) The wart at first is a light colored clear or translucent mass of succulent tissue frequently attached to the plant by means of a slender stalk or neck. The galls grow very rapidly and the outer surface soon takes on a warty appearance and a reddish brown color. The parts of a gall that become dark colored have lost their power of growth the discoloration being due perhaps to the action of various fungi attacking the gall. From the surface of such a discorored gall many new smaller outgrowths may appear. Toward the end of the season the gall becomes badly de,cayed and may readily be broken away from the plant leav- 114 ing an ugly deep wound. 1)uring the following spring new lot of gall growth may take place around the margin of the old scar. And if the gall be removed new growth may begin even in the center of, the wound thus formed. (Fig.. on Plate V.) This process, may continue u til the resulting wound is so. deep that the tree falls of its own, weight. If a section of rapidly growing gall be examined there will frequently be found through it numerous darker col ored irregular spots that are centers of more rapid growth. These centers frequently become beautifully twist ed nodules of woody tissue after the gal matures and be gins to decay many of thes curious nodules may readily b& removed from the outer portion of the gall. a 14 SPREAD OF TH DISEASE. The disease has been widely scattered over the countryby shipments of stock from infested nurseries. Locally it is known that a single diseased tree may in a few years suffice to infect most of the trees in the orchard.. The spores of the parasite are mna1l and may be carried by the air and it is likely that the diseasenmay be munnicated com- from old decayed galls. in the The careless wounding of the crown of a tree or the bark produced by escaping "suckers" both make a. break pathway for the parasite to gain entrance into the tree.. Care should in all cases be' taken to see that all removed galls and uprooted diseased trees be burned on the, spotand not hauled through the orchard all. at AETIOLOGY. Tfoune~y in Arizona gave special attention gall on the almond described as the cause of this dis ease a new species of slime mould which he called Devd'ro-. phagats and -to thet crown globosus. As has been said it has never been demon-_ strated that this organism1 is the cause of- the widely dis=~ li5 tribnted crown gall on the various plants that were men. tioned above, Tourney was able to communicate the mond disease to the peach and apricot, but failed to do so to the apple. Selby believes that the gall may be corn, municated from the raspberry to the peach, bnt ialsted came to the opposite conclusion. Much work remains to be done on this very important disease. al- TREATMENT. The best advice that can be given fruit growers relative. never plant trees from a nursery known to be infested with the disease and never plant trees showing the disease. if a diseased tree is planted it is practically certain that the tree will never amount to anything. And what is even iuore important one is thereby very likely to introduce the disease into the soil of the orchard. If a bundle of nursery stock has a single crown gall on any of the trees the whole lot of trees should be destroyed. it is possible that some good may be done by inspecting the orchards annually and removing all galls that have formed at the crown of the trees. After carefully cutting away the gall the wound surface should be covered with a paste made of lime and blue vitriol. But it inust be remembered that, though the galls at the crown do the most danm age, the smaller galls on the roots, which cannot be removed after planting, will reduce the vitality of the tree to the crown gall is this It is therefore certaint hat no amount of after treatment of any sort will make a diseased tree give as large a yield as a healthy one. BIBLIOGRAPHY, Alwood, W. B. i903.* Some observations on Crown Gall Trees. Bull. Va. Exp. Stat. 27--37. 140 :185-2i2. of Appt;l e fig. 0 This Bulletin is marked "September. 1902," on the front covert but on the last page are the xv)rds '1ssue&1 September 15, 1903." 116 Ii addock, W. 1903. Crown gall. Bull. Col. Exp. Stat. 1-3. #Selby, A. D. 1898. Crown Gall of the Peach. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 92:208-217. ph. 5-6. 1899. Communicability of crown gall. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 104 :211. 1900. Crown Gall. (Apple.) Bull. Ohio. Exp. Stat 1.21 :13. fig. 11. 1900. Crown Gall. (Peacl.) Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta. 121:43. fig. 35-36. 1900. Crown Gall. (Pear.) Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 121: 48. fig. 41. 1900. Crown Gall. (Plum.) Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 121 :48. zSmith, E. F. 86 :1,-8.-ph 1894. Stem and -root tumors. Journ.Mycol. 7 :376 -377. pl.. 38. "Toumley, J. XV'. 1900. An Inquiry into the Cause and Nature of Crown Gall. Bull. Arizona Exp. Stat. 33 :1 64. _f-g. 1-31. 1 plate. LEAF CURL. HISTORY AND DIsTRIBUTIoN. The leaf curl of the peach is found practically wherever the peach is cultivated is one of the most serious of 'all peach enemies. The total losses from curl in the whole United States have been estimated by Pierce to be as high ~a3000,000.00 in a,single year. and SYMPTOMS. As soon as the young leaf buds begin to open the leaves 117 the characteristic roughened surface and deeper green color. This "curling" of the leaves progresses rapidly as the leaves grow (Fig. 9 on Plate IV). A part only or all of the leaf blade may become affected. A mature leaf, affected with curl, may have a reddish color, but generally the diseased leaves become simply discolored. The fungus also grows inside the terminal portion of the young twigs and causes these to become swollen and to take on a lighter, paler color. These swollen terminal portions the twigs constitute the only home of the perennial portion of the fungus. The spring infection seems to take place largely from spores formed from the mycelium present in these swollen twigs. The leaves soon become covered with a greyish mealy coating-composed of the fruiting bodies of the fungus. The spores are produced in small sacs arranged parallel to each other and at right angles to the surface of the leaf. These asci are produced on the ends of hyphae that grow out through the epidermis of the leaf. Defoliation occurs soon after spore-formation. Gummosis of affected twigs is frequently to be seen as a result of the action of this fungus. The tree attempts to make up for the loss of leaf surface by forcing some of its dormant buds to grow-these buds mnay grow to give a healthy twig but at the base will be left the swollen fungus-infested portion-constituting a dangerous source of infection for another spring. fhow ,of RELATIONSHIP TO THE WEATHER. The epidemic character of leaf curl has been frequently noticed and attempts made to connect the sporadic char- acter of the disease with some climatic factor. No very definite statements can be made further than the suggestion that the phenomenon referred to can perhaps best be explained as due to the influence of certain climatic factors upon the spores either at the time (a) they are being scattered or (b) during germination and infection of the tree. 118 TRAm1ENT:'. Leaf curl may be prevented by (1.) Spraying with Bordeaux just previous to the open ing of the buds in the spring. (2). Spraying 'again with weaker Bordeaux as soon as the petals of flowers have fallen; this is to prevent late infection from the ground or neighboring trees. (3.) Spraying again with weak Bordeaux when the first leaves are full grown or when the spores of the fungus developing. This is to prevut summer infection and cover places where spores lodge to pass over the winter. Where inter spraying against San Jose Scale with the lime-sulfur-salt wash is conducted this treatment may suf. fce of itself to hold the curl in check. are may BIBLIOGRAPHY, Atkinson, G. F. 1894. Leaf Curl and. Plum Pockets. Contribution to of the. knowledge of the Prunicolous United States. Bull. Cornell Exp. Stat. 73. Exoasceae Duggar, B. M. Peach Leaf Curl and Notes on the Shot-hole Effect of Peaches and Plums. Bull. Cornell Exp.. Stat. 164 :367-388, fig. 64- 72. Murrill, NV. A. 1900. The Prevention of Peach Leaf-Curl. Bull.. N. Cornell Exp. Stat. 180 :319 -334. Pierce, N. B. 1899. Y. 1900. Peach Leaf Curl: Its Nature and Treatment. Bull. Div. Veg. Phyvs. and Path. U.. S. Dept. Agr.. fig. 20 :1-204. pl. 1-30. 1-to. Bull. Ohio 1Pip. Siat.. Selby, A.. D. 1898. Leaf curl of the peach. 2:~226-231. p1. 84 119 1899. Further studies upon spraying peach trees and upon diseases of the peach. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 1041:199-216. p1. 1-3. 1899. Variations in the amount of leaf curl of the peach (Exoascas dfo noccfls) in the light of weather conditions. Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci. 1899 :98-104. 1904. Peach Diseases iii. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 148 53 67. p1. 1 7. ROSETTE, HIsTORY AND DIsTRIBUTION. ,but The rosette is known from a few stations in the west, is principally known from Georgia and a part of South Carolina. - It is found in peaches and almonds and perhaps also in plums. It seems not to have attracted much atten tion in Georgia until about ten years ago, but is now known to be present in many counties in budded and seeduing orchards and also in seedlings growing in out of the 'wvay places. SYMIPTOMIS. The rosette is in some respects closely related to the 'lows. It may attack only parts of the tree at first, but may appear suddenly in the spring attacking nearly the whole tree at once. In such cases all the leaf buds grow out into compact tufts of leaves or rosettes, whence th'e name. Fig, 10 on Plate IV shows some of these characteristic rosettes. If a tree is attacked all over it will die the following au,tumnn, but if only one or more branches are attacked then only the diseased branches will die after a period of about six months. The leaves in these rosettes are gem. erally of a peculiar yellowish color. The lower leaves in the rosette are frequently much larger thali the normal yet. first 120 leaves and have inrolled margins and are stiffer than the asual leaves of the peach. These outer larger leaves turn yellow and fall early in the season while the inner leaves are still green. If a tree is attacked in all parts it bears no fruit, but otherwise the fruit born will generally be apt to shrivel up while still green and fall off or it may ripen naturally. The disease may be spread through budding or root grafting as has been demonstrated by many experiments. How ever, it is known that mere contact of diseased with healthy tissue is not sufficient to introduce the disease, but there must be a real union of the two tissues. AETIOLOGY. Like the yellows the exact cause of rosette is yet unknown. TREATMENT. All trees which show the rosette in the spring should be at once dug up and burned. If any of the diseased leaves have fallen these should be gathered also and burned as. they may serve as sources of infection. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Johnson, W. G. 1896. Peach Rosette. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 42:160162. fig. 7-8. Selby, A. D. 1898. Rosette. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 92:199. Smith, E. F. 1891. Additional Evidence on the Communicability of Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. Bull. Dept. Agr. Veg. Path. 1:1-65. pl. 1-38. 1894. Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. Farmers, Bull. 17:1 20. fig. 1 7. 121 YELLOWS. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. This distinctly American disease is known to affect, int addition to the peach, the almond, nectarine, apricot and plum. It seems to be widely distributed in the United States. SYMPTOMS. "Prematurely ripe, red-spotted fruits, and premature unfolding of the leaf buds into slender, pale shoots, or into.. branched, broom-like growths, are the most characteristic symptoms of yellows." The reddish spots in the fruit extend from the skin to the stone and their presence is oneof the best tests for the disease. During the first season that the disease is present in any given tree it may confine its attacks to one or a few only of the branches, but in later years other symptoms may appear and these are principally the premature opening of the winter buds. This is most plainly seen in the fall after the tree has lost all its leaves. The shoots may at this tinie be produced from these prematurely opened buds and are then very conspicuous. Very feeble shoots may also appearon the larger branches of the tree and these also are rather conspicuous on account of their broom like appearance. In the later stages of the disease or when the disease has been present in a tree for several years the yellowing of theleaves may become apparent and this condition has given rise to the common name, but this is not the most conspicuous symptom and has led many to confuse the disease, with leaf curl and other diseases. AETIOLOGY. The exact cause of the disease is not yet known, though it is generally looked upon as a so-called "physiological dis_ 122 ease." As to its spread and its infectious nature we are certain. It may be present in a dormant condition in buds employed in the nursery for budding and the disease is often introduced into a new region in just this manner. The disease is also known to be spread from living and dead trees affected with the disease to healthy trees in the same orchard. Soil and climatic conditions certainly cannot be charged with the cause of a disease which possesses such an infee-tious or contagious nature and there is no good evidence to show that the disease is caused by bacteria or other vegetable organisms. TREATMENT. The only line of treatment that promises to control the disease is to dig and burn the roots and entire tree as soon as it-shows certain symptoms of this disease. Spraying is of no value and special fertilization of the soil seems to be of no value in its control. "Pits" or seeds from disjeased trees should never be employed in a nursery or elsewhere. BIBLIOGRAPI Y. Bailey, L. II 1890. The Peach Yellows. Bull. N. Y. (Cornell) Stat. 25:178-180. 1894. Peach Yellows. Bull. N. Y. (Cornell) Stat. 75:389-408. 8 figs. Beckwith, M. H. 1894. Are Seedling Peach Trees Exempt From lows? Rept. Del. Exp. Stat. 6-1893:152. Chester, F. ). 1890. Peach Yellows. Culture Tests. Rept. Del. Exp. Exp. Yel- Exp. Stat. 2-1889 :9g-94. Johnson, W. G. 1896. Peach Yellows. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 42:157160. fig. 5-6. I2 1890. Some observal ions on peach yellow-s. Mass. Hatch Exp. Stat. 8 :6 12. fig. Powell, G. H. 1897. Peach Yellows in Nursery Stock. Rept. 1)ll. Exp. Stat. 9- 1897 :168 173. fig. 1-5. 'Selby, A. D. 1896. Peach Yellows. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 72 :193-. 206. fig. 1-5. pl. 1. Ohio Exp. Stat. 92:190 1898. Peach Yellows. 199. fig. 4-5. p. 1 2. Smith ,E. F. 3u1., a Preliminary Report. 1888. Peach 9:1-254. ph. 1-37.. Div. Bot. IT. S.Agr. 1-6. Huit. Bull. Yellows: 1891. Additional evidence on the connnunicability of peach yellows and peach rosette. Bull. Div. Veg. Path. U. S. Dept. Agr. 1 :11 65. pl. 1-38. 1893. Experiments with fertilizers for the prevention and cure of peach yellows, 1889-92. Bull. Div. pl. Veg. Path. Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr. 4 :1-197. Rosette. 1-33, -1894. Peach Yellows and Peach fig. Farmers' 17:1-20. L) -C II /\ 1-7. PEAR~. BLIGHT. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. Pear blight, called also twig blight, and fire blight,- is a centagious bacterial disease of pear, apple, quince and other pomaceous fruit trees. It is of very wide distribution and may be found practically throughout the United States east of the Mississippi river. It has been ascribed to the most 12. various causes, but the complete demonstration of its bac terial nature was made by Dr. Burrill, of Illinois, in 1879,. SYMPTOMS. This disease attacks the flowers, young fruits and the young twigs and shoots, frequently working its way down through the bark to the larger limbs or even to the trunk itself. The disease has its most prominent symptom in the blackish discoloration of the leaves on the attacked twigs, but the bacteria do not as a rule find their way into the leaves except into the petiole and the larger veins. This discoloration of the leaves occurs in a week or more afterthe death of the branch on which they are found. (See Fig. 15 on Plate VI.) There is much variation in the manner the attacked plant behaves or rather in the way the disease works. In some cases the affected twig is simply girdled and in that case the damage is not so great as when the whole twig or branch is killed. The very sudden death and rapid discoloration of the leaves has led many to suppose that the disease spreads in the tree more rapidly than it actually does. As a matter of fact the disease does not spread more than 2 to,10 inches per day in the twigs. In the spring the blight first makes its appearance in th& blossoms causing there the so-called "blossom blight." The most rapid distribution of the disease in the orchard takes place while the tree is in bloom. It is now known that the principle agency in this work is the various bees that visit these flowers for the nectar there found. In this nectar. the bacteria causing the blight find a most suitable situation for rapid development. Bees going from flowers whose nectar contain even a few of these bacteria to healthy flow, ers on the same or other trees are very apt to carry some of the germs and thus rapidly spread the infection. The disease also gains entrance to the plant through the tips of young shoots or twigs. This form of blight is often referred to as twig blight. In the case of nursery stock 125i not in flower the disease is more often carried about in this manner. AETIOLOGY. Pear blight is now known or us, one of the bacteria. 1879 by Dr. T. J. Burrill. Lion experiments this has been demonstrated beyond-a shadow of doubt. There can never be any blight in the absence of this species of bacteria, no matter how very favora ble soil and climatic conditions may be. It was once supposed that the germ might live over winter in tie ground, but that is now known to be false. As a ruleh the blight ceases at the close of the growing season, but some cases, particularly where new infection has taken place late in the season, the germs may live over winter in. the twigs and slowly push out into the healthy bark during the winter. The blighted twigs hold their moisture longer than healthy twigs and this is naturally very favorable to the germ and besides it is known that the germ may be exposed to a freezing temperature without injury. to be due to Bacillusam yto_ This discovery was made By means of the usual inocula- inf in In the spring the rapid accumulation of sap in the twigs sets up a flow of gum from the twigs in many cases and if,( the germs are alive in any of the twigs they are naturally carried out by this gums flow. Bees and other insect s- are attracted to this guns and by this means the germs are carPied to at which poimnt they rapidly multiply in the Y nectar and enter the twig. flowers INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT U PON .TIE DISEASE. warm moist The pear blight makes best 'headway during weather and is more or less weather. old, dead and dry twigs the germs will dlead. cold, dry and sunny The germ is very sensitive t4 dryness in the retarded by 1l be and found to be 126 J)isea se resistant sorts- Such sorts the and Duchess resist the bIight the IIartlett and some others and general the apple is much less injured by the disease than are the pear and quince. There seems to be no need of attempting to breed special resistant sorts when we considel the positive reiiedial measures mention below. more than as Keifter in 1.'uti vtion anlld soil ferlilit- v 11n general may state that a well cultivated, highly -fertilized and rapidly growing tree is most to be attacked by the blight. Trhe use of too much barnyard manure is particularly dangerous if the soil is already rich in nitrovenous matter. In some cases it may be well to avoid too excessive cultivation. In general measure that will tend to check the too rapid growth of the tree will tend at the same time to protect the tree against the blight. Heavy pruning in the winter time, since it promotes rapid of much new wood in the spring, also be at timies with good results. we apt any tion may avoided forma- Treatmenct The absolute (lestruc ion of every blight germ should be aimledlat and may lbe secured by the pinning away and de- t structioii of each and every blighted twig as soon as detected. These may be. renmovedl during the growing season, bult it is best to do this very thoroughly at the close of th-e :*groving season, but before the leaves have fallen. blighted leaves will then serve as a guide. Most careful inns pection of the trees must be made during the winter and again early in the spring before new growth starts to make The sure that no cases of living blight are allowed to remain ini the orchard. that are This is important since these cases of blight allowed to live over winter are the only starting i-points for new infection in the following spring. 127 BIBLIOGRAPHY . Alwood, W. B. 1903."* On the Occurrence and Treatment of Fire Blight in the Pear Orchard. Bull. Va. Exp. Stat. -66. fig. 1.6-20. Chester, F. 1). 1901. Notes on Pear Blight. Rept. Del. Exp. Stat. 12-1900 :3-43. fig. 1-3. 1901. Pear blight and pear canker.. Bull. Del. Exp. Stat. 52:1-S. fig. -T. 7 Butt, W. N. 1908. Pear Blight. Bull. Utah Ex. Stat. Waite, M. B. The cause and prevention of pear blight. Yearbook IT.S. Dept. 1895295300.. 135:49 85:45-0 1896. Agr. within containS the statement, "Issued June 3D. 1903." *This Bulletin bears on the outside the date, April,.190?,.but LEAF BLIGHT.. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION:.. This disease has long beeni known to lhorticulturists as thea "leaf blight" or of pear anid as- the "cracking" of fruit. It occurs practically wherever the pear is cultivated. It. was mentioned in this country early in sixties. "scald" the the, SYMAPTOMS, Time prominent quent symptoms are the premature, discoloraThis leaf faill may be sudden lion of the leaves and their fallinig off together with the fre- cracking of the fruit. or imore gradual, extending in thme latter case throughout the, growing season. Often tlhe leaf fall is accompanied with aZ second blossoming both together making a rallher Severe dra in upon the food sup~plies of thme free. 1 28 Small reddish spots are first seen upon the leaves; these spots as they increase in size take upon themselves a more definite circular shape. At nlatrity the spots are provided .with-a whi te to reddish brown ((ter and a darker raised border. The spots may unite with each other and thus the whole leaf may become affected. The spots may come to be seated upon a reddish brown discolored leaf or the leaf .may turn yellow. In any case the leaves fall from the tree. In many cases there is also a so-called "cracking of the pear" produced by the same fungus. Small reddish spots .appear upon the fruit and these spots rapidly increase in number and coalesce with one another to give the fruit a very much blotched appearance that will greatly reduce its market value. the same time the growth of 'the spots may be accompanied by a cracking of the fruit 'and of course this cracking may make an entrance for the spores of the rot fungi that may cause much damage. The same fungus often attacks the young twig of the pear. T1 e 'spots upon the green bark of these twigs are somewhatelon .gated, sunken and of a black color. In each of the spots referred to above on either the leaves, fruits or twigs one may see oie or more blackish spots just beneath the surface. Thmese spots the spore productung bodies of the fungus. The petioles and leaf scales are also frequently attacked. finally may At are AETI OLOGY. This disease is produced by the fungus Emtomospor-ii Sl? (1cu lat Ufl. TREATMENT. Fallen leaves should be gathered together and burned. The disease may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux 'm-ixture, as follows: (i_.) 'When leaves are half grown. 12 '(2.) Three subsequent sprayings at intefyals of two weeks. The sprayings after the second should be made with amTuoniacal copper carbonat to avoid the "russetting" injury to the fruit often produced by the Bordeaux mixture. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Chester, F. I). 1891. Experiments in the Treatment Quince Leaf Blight. Rept. Del. Exp. of Pear Stat. and 3- 1890:69-77. fig. 3-6. 1891. The treatment of the leaf blight of the pear and quince. 1892. Entomiosporiumbmacmultai, Lev. Bull. Del. Exp. Stat. 13 :4--16. fig. 1-3. 2 plates. Present status of knowledge on the treatment of pear leaf blight. Rept. Del. Exp. Stat. 4 1891 :44 47. ~Duggar, B. M. Some Important Pear Diseases. Bull. N. Y. Cornell Exp. Stat. 145 :6t1 615. 'Galloway, B. T. 1892. Experiments in the treatment of pear leaf blight, cracking, and scab. Bull. Div. Veg. Path. 1898. fig. 166-167. Southlworth, E. A. 1889. Leaf Blight and Cracking of the Pear. En tomtosporiunt ,niaculatuqn, Lev. iRept. U. S. 864. p1. 1888:357' 8-9. Comm. Agr. Waite, M. B. 1894. Treatment of pear leaf blight in the orchard. Journ. Mvcol. 7 :333-338. SCAB. pl. 3.2-33. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. The scab of pear is, like the similar disease of apple, ver-y 130 widespread and well known. It is known from practically every region where pears are grown, SYMPTOMS . The symnptoms are practicallv the same as for the applek scab. (See page 97.) AETIOLOGY., This disease is due to the fungus called Fasicladaiw AT TPTI M U'NT. The diseased leaves should be plowed-under or else gath ered together and burned during the fall. Two sprayings with Bordeaux mixture of the 1-10 formula should be made while the pear leaves are opening. Considerable good in controlling pear scab will result from a ing with the lime-sulphur-salt mixture as late in the winter, spray- as possible. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Beach, S .A. 1894. Experiments in preventing pear scab. Rept. N., Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 12-1893 :694 717. pl., 7-8. 1894. Experiments in preventing pear scab in 1893x4. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 67:183 204. fig. 1-2. Galloway, B. T. 1892. Experiments in the U. S. Dept. Agr. 3 treatment of pear leaf- blight, cracking, and scab. Bull. Div. Veg. Path., :36-47. Sturgis, W. C. 1894. Spraying for "~Scab" of Apple and Pear. Ilept". (Conn. Exp. Stat. 17-1893 :72 7 3. 131 1895.. Experiments -on the treatment of pear scab.. Fasicladiuin pirinn im. Lib. (Fckl.) Rept. Conn. Exp. Stat. 18-1894 :135-137. Smith, R. E. .1905. Pear Scab. Bull'. Calif. Exp. Stat. 163:1-18., fig. 1-9. PLUM CANKER. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. This disease is one of the most serious plum diseases we have to contend with in 'this State. Its distribution is some what uncertain. SYMrPTOM S. The real canker may be preceded by a gummosis. (See Gummosis under Cherry on page 106.) And this gummosis may be due to one of several causes. But when through gummlosis or any other cause wounds of plum trees remain for a long~ time unhealed a cankerma form on the twig. It is probable that aside rot fungus. from wounding the most fre- quent source of the trouble is to be found in the attacks of the brown (Sclcrotinia fractigenat.) This fun- gus, as has been explained, works in the tissues of the, twigs, particularly the fruiting spures, and finally kill such parts. Then gunimosis sets in to be followed soon by the canker. The canker may also follow severe attack,. of plum pockets. The Japan plums, being very subject to brown rot, au d having soft coarse grained wood, are very apt to succumb to_ this canker. 'may 132 TREATM ENT. rrhe only treatment to be recommended consists a thoroughi spraying to prevent the brown rot and pockets; and then the removal and bnrning of the cankered 'limbs. BIBLIOGRAPHY. plnm in 'Selby, A. D. 1897. A twig disease with gnm flow. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. 79 :121-122. fig. 4. Waugh, F. A. 1901. Plnm Tree Canker. Dept. Vt. Exp. Stat. 13 1900:370---373. 1 fig PLUM POCKETS. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. This disease on account of its very characteristic and striking symptoms has long been'known to horticnhtnrists and others. It is very widely distribnted thronghont the United States and has freqnently been forwarded to mne from varions parts of this State. SYMIPTOMIS. The vegetative portion or mycelinm lives over. winter in the younger twigs and grows ont into the developing ovaries in the spring. All or most all of the parts of the ovary are affected and the action of the fnngns is to greatly stimnhate the tissnes of the ovary so that a very rapid growth takes p~lace. The resnht is a mnch swollen, somewhat Irregnlar and spongy body of light yellowish or white color (Fig. 17 on Plate VII.) No stone is developed in this "plumpocket" bnt the- center is hollow or frequently traversed by ]oose threads of torn tissue. 1133 The leaf buds and young twigsiuay also become modifl ed by the action of this fungus to form very;rregu !a 8pongy swollen objects. In this case the resulting hypertrphy varies with the stage at which the fungus begins its work. If the leaves are not far developed when attacked t heir normal form may never be attained, but the hypertrophy may affect only a portion of the leaf if its attack is 'made upon the leaf when partly grown. disease is produced by the fungus Exoascus pruai a species somewhat closelyrelated to the one causing the deaf curl of the peach. TREATMENT. '-This AETIOLOGY. No special spraying treatment can be reconmended, though the use of Bordeaux mixture would no doubt reduce the chance of infection. Diseased fruits, buds, leaves and Iwigs should be removed and burned. BIBLIOGRAPHY. .Atkinson, G. F. 1894. Leaf curl and plum pockets. Contribution to the knowledge of the prunicolous Exoasceae of the United States. Bull. N. Y. Cornell Exp. Stat. 73-:329 330. "Galloway, B. T. 1889. Plum Pockets. Taphrina pruni, IRept. U. S. Dept. Agr. (Fckl.) p-. -10. Tul. 1888 :366-369. -. Halsted, B. D. 1892. Plum Pockets. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 86 :18. FUNGICIDES. Spraying is now looked upon by progressive and sue'Cessful fruit growers as a necessary operation to be per. 134formed if a full crop of' friit of ao good quality In the case of a large and increasig number of diseasesspraying has been demonstrated ona' large scale to be' value. The ga'in' fron' intelligent-spraying depends solely upon the number of trees and the di'. eases prevalent in your orchards. S2praying is plant insurance and, likeb/ins ance, shold' ?e attended to before the disease-hasgaineda foothold ie the orchard. All trees should be'sprayed everyyear-whether the diseases nsmjtlly presen2t mtake their' appearance not.. A large number of formulas. have-been proposed by various investigators for special purposes. We give below directions in some detail for preparation of the fungicides now must widely employed in connectionwith.diseases mentioned in this Bulletin. "isdesired. of immense financial or- the, BORDETAUX MIXTURE. Bordeaux mixture consists of two essential ingredients; freshly slaked limle and copper sulfat, dissolved in water.. Phe fungicidal action is entirely dependent upon the copper sulfat. The lime is added for the following reasons: (1.) To prevent injury to the foliage. (2.) To render the mixture more adhesive. (3.) To render the mixture more readily seen after be,ing applied. STANDARD W %e FORMULA FOR "1.-10" BORDEAUX. give here the mixture so-called Quick Water in formula of thef common "I-1 0" Bordeau~x: because it contains' 1 pound' of" coppe sulfat to 10 gallons of water; Copper sulfat- 5 pounds.. lime (not slaked) A. gallons. Dissolve the J pounds of copper sulfait water a wooden vessel.. I )ilt~e- 50 3 1-2 to +pounds. the, solutions thus. se}- ini hot or cold' cured to 25 gallons.. Slake the lime carefully and thoroughly. Dilute this milk of lime to 25 gallons. ;C. Pour the two -solutions thu-ts obtained through strainers, The mixture in at the same timne, ito thespray the spray barrel should he stirred while the two solutions rare being poured together. ID. Never attempt to mix the two solutions until they have 'been diluted as suggested-above. barrel. SrECIAL A. T1. DT 'cTroNs. C. D. 112. The copper sulfat may best be dissolved in cold'water by suspending it in a ecarse sack near the top of the water. In slaking the lime addat first a small amount of water, )referably hot water, and then, as slaking begins, tinue to add amounts of cold water as needed. add much at ailZne and never allow the lime to become dry, For the more tender foliage of peaches and plums employ the "1-25" Bordeaux mixture, i. e., one containing 2 lpounds of copper sulfat to 50 gallons of water. In all cases use at least 2 pnunds of lime to pounds of copper sulfat. A small amount of yellow prussiate of potash potassinum ferrocranrid dissolved _ii about ,ten times its. bulk of water is often used as the so-called "ferrocvJ anid" test to determine whether or no the Bordeaux, is properlv made. few drops of this solution are added to the Bordeaux. If brown discoloration at once am~ pears not enough lime has been used. Continue to add Never small con- -Nwater or A a lime solution and stir until no discoloration aplpears F' upon adding a few drops of the ferrocyanid solution. The )flost import cuil preeaution to wnlite the cold dlilulte solutions li/me anrd copper, snifat quickly. and of is then to stir the 4b,1_taN'c thoroayhl I le IX.) y. (ice ig. 22 on, 136 AMMONIACAL SOLUTION OF COPPER CARBONAT. This mixture, designed for use when the Bordeaux might by adhering to to fruit injure its market value, is made ac the cording to the following formula: Copper Carbonat-6 ounces. Ammonia-3 pints. Water 50 gallons. The copper carbonat is to be dissolved in the ammonia,, just as much ammonia being used as is required to dissolve the copper carbonat. This solution is then thoroughly stirred into the water. LIME-SULFUR-SALT WASH. This wash, long used along the Pacific coast to control the San Jose Scale, has recently sprung into favor for the same purpose in the East. We mention it here since its use seems to reduce various plant diseases, particularly apple scab and peach leaf curl. It is in a sense therefore both an insesticide and a fungicide. We give but one of the several formulas suggested: Stone or lump lime-15 lbs. "Flowers of sulfur"-15 lbs. Salt 15 lbs. Water 50 gallons. "Place the lime in a kettle, or in a vat if steam is used, and slake it with hot water so that it forms an even white paste. Now add enough water to reduce the lime paste to a thin whitewash. The sulphur and salt are then added and should be thoroughly stirred in. If the mixture is not already boiling, bring it to this point and allow it to boil for one hour." Stir the mixture frequently and at the end of the hour di lute the resulting mixture with hot water to make the re quired amount. Apply the wash, while hot, with any good nozzle to the trees. This mixture is very caustic and must be applied to none. 137 but dormant trees and should' not be allowed to come into, contact with the hands or face. SPRAYING MACHINERY. The type of spraying outfit to be employed and its size depends upon the size of the orchard in which it is to be employed. We can only briefly consider the matter here and refer to the two essential parts of any spray outfit: (1) the nozzle and (2) the pump and its accessory parts. No nozzle of the multitude of forms upon the market is superior td those constructed on the principle of the Vermorel nozzle. These nozzles will give fairly good results even when the pump gives a very low pressure, though best results are secured with pressures of 100 pounds or higher. The "mistry" nozzle (Fig. 24 on Plate IX) made by the Goulds Mfg. Co., is of the Vermorel type and throws a finer spray with low pressures than do the Vermorel nozzles. A good spray pump should have all working parts exposed to the spraying mixtures made of brass or some sort of bronze. And in addition neither rubber nor leather valves should be used. Assuming these two characteristics to be present the spray outfit is to be selected to fit the local conditions, particularly the number of trees to be sprayed. Fig. 23 on Plate IX, shows a well known type of pump to, be attached to a barrel. For further information on the subject of spraying outfits, consult the references in the Bibliography following and the catalogues to be secured from the following firms, -well known as makers of spray outfits: Deming Co., Salem, Ohio. Field Force Pump Co., Elmira, N. Y. Goulds Mfg. Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y. I3 IBLIOGrAPII JY. -Anon. 1904. Spray Calendar. Bull. N. Y. Cornell-Exp.,Stat. 217:123-133. ,.A1iwood, W. B. 1903*. Orchard Studies-XIV. The Lime-Sulphur Wash. Bull. Va. Exp. Stat. 141:213-246. fig. 38-54. Beach, S. A., and Bailey ,L. H. 1900. Spraying in Blooni. Bull. N. Y. Geneva-Exp. Stat. 196 :399-460. pl. 1-3. fig. 1-6. Beach, S. A., Clark, V. A., and Taylor, 0. M. 1903. Spraying Mixtures and Spray Machinery. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 243:315-373. pl. 9-15. Booth, N .0. 1900. A Test of Spray Nozzles. Bull. Mo. Exp. Stat. 50:87-115. fig. 1-1-0. Corbett, L. C. 1896. Why, When, What and How to Spray. Bull W. Va. Exp. Stat. 43:227-244. fig. 1-6. °Cordley, A. B. 1903. insecticides and IFugicides. Brief directions for their preparation and use, including spray Stat. 75.27.-43. Fairchild, D. G. 1894. Bordeaux Mixture as a Fungicide. Veg. Path. Bull. Div., (Galloway, B. 1896. Spraying for fruit diseases. T. U. S. Dept. Agr. 6 :1-00. Farmers' Bull. 1-196. 38: fig. 1-6. Gossard, H. A., and flume, H. H. 1904. Insecticides Fungicides. and Stat. 76 :200 243. pl. 1-8. Bull. Fla. Exp. :.This Bulletin bears on title page the date, October, wy thin contains statement, "Issued Noxetnbz-r 30, 1903." 1902, but 139 Green, W. J., and Selby, A. D. 1904. Calendar for treatment plant diseases and insect pests. Bull. Ohio Exp. Stat. Lodeman, E. G. 1896. The Spraying of Plants. pp. xvii, 399. 92 figures. Mac~illan Co., N. Y. City. Parrott, P. J., Beach, S. A.,-and Woodworth, I. 0. 1904. The lime-sulphur-soda wash for orchard Treatment. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. of 147:41-53. & 247: 59-81. pl. 1-4.' Johnson, T. C. 1904t. Mixtures and Appliances for Spraying. Bull. W. Va. Exp. Stat. 93:67-'118. pl. 1-12. pl. Lowe, V. H., and Parrott, P. J. 1902. San Jose Scale Investigations IV. Bull. N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat. 228 :389-456. 1-7. Penny, C. IL. The Preparation of Aininonical per Carbonate. fig. Bull. Solution of Cop. Del. Exp. Stat. 22:1-16. 1-2. Orton, W. A. 1896. Smith, J. 1892. 'Stone, G. 1904. Methods of preparing Bordeaux mixture. 'Rept. Exp. Stat. 9-1895 :88-92.p1. 4, fig. 13. B., and Halsted, B. D. Spraying for Insect and Fungous Pests of the Orchard and Vineyard. Bull. N. J.i Stat. 86:1-2.. E., Fernald, H. T., and Waugh, P. A. Fungicides, Insecticides, and Spraying Calendar. Vt. Bull. Mass. Exp. Stat. 96 :1-16. 1 fig. Stubeubranch, A. V. 1902. trgis, 1898. Important Details of Spraying. Bull. Ill. Exp. Stat. A. 68 :157188. p1 . 1-9. fig. 1-3. C. Preparation and application of fungicides. Bull. Conn. State Exp.- Stat. 125 :1-16. 10 figures. 140 Swingle, W. T. ix. An improved method of making Bordeaux ture. Journ. Mycol. 7 :365371. Its chemistry, physical 1.896. Bordeaux properties, and toxic effects on fungi and vlgae. Bull. l)iv. Veg. Phys. and Path. U. S. Dept. Agr. 9:1-37. Tillinghast, J. A., and Adams, 0. E. 1899. Suggestions as to spraying. Bull. R. Is. Exp, Stat. 52 :1-48. 1 fig. Troop, J. 1898. Fornulas for making insecticides and fungb cides, and directions for spraying.,Bnll..nd, Exp. Stat. 69 :35-40. Undernwood, L. M., and Earle, F. S. 1896. Treatment of some fungous diseases. Bull, Ala. Exp. Stat. 69 :243-272. 1894. Mixture: EXPLANATION OF PLATES., PLATE I[. Fig. 1. Bitter r~ot of apples showing both isolated and -con- fluent diseased areas and the concentric circles formed by the 'fruiting bodies' of the fungus 'causing the disease. dustry, IT. (From Bull. 44, Bureau of Plant InS. Dept. Agr.) Fig, 2. Limb cankers produced by the funigus causing the~ bitter rot. (From Bull. 44, Bureau of Plant In dustry,_ U. S. D)ept. Agr.) PLATE II. Fig. 3, Twig of the red cedar showing one of the galls called "cedar-apples." This gall is produced one stage of the same fungus that causes the rustof apple leaves. (Original. ) by 141 The lower surface of an apple leaf showing the peculiar elongated horn-like fruiting bodies of the fungus causing the apple leaf rust. (FrontRept.. U. S. Dept. Agr. for 1888.) Fig. 5. Fly speck, and sooty blotch of the apple. (From, Bull. 79, Ohio Exp. Stat.) Fig. 6. The upper pile of apples is'from the sprayed tree, the lower pile from the unsprayed tree both together show the advantage in spraying against Exp. Stat.) apple black rot. (From Bull. 59, Fig. 4. Ky. the PLATE III. Fig. 7. Brown rot of peaches. (From Bull. 50, Ga. Exp. Stat.) Fig. 8. "Mummy" peaches, killed by the brown rot diseases,, -adhering to the tree and thus constituting a very fruitful source of new infection.'(From Bull. 50,, Ga. Exp. Stat.) PLATE IV. Fig. 9. Leaf curl of peach. (From Bull. 20, Div. Veg.. Phys. & Path. U. S. j)ept. Agr.) Fig. 10. Rosette of peach. (From Journ. Mycol. Vol. 6.) PLATE V. Fig. 11. Longitudinal section of a root affected with crown. gall. (From Bull. 33, Arizona Exp. Stat.) Fig. 12.. Crown gall ; the upper left hand figure shows gall, on Lombardy poplar,, the upper right hand figure on pear and the two lower figures on peach. (Fromt Journ. MNycol. Vol. Crown gall on apple ; this gall appeared :1t the, F'ig. point where the graft was inserted shown at "' Exp. Stat.) in the figure._ (From Bull. 93; Fig. 14.' Crown, gall showing the growth of new gall tissue 13. 7.) Ky. after the removal of the old gall. Arizona Exp. Stat.) (From. Bull. 33, 14.2 PLATE VI. Pig. 15. -Fi g. 16. blight. (Original.) root of peach. (From Rept. Exp. Stat. for 1900.) Pear Hairy Geneva N. Y. "Fig. PLATE VII. 17. Plum pockets. (From Rept. U. S. Dept. Agr.1888.) -Fig. 18. Black knot on plum. (From Prof. Farlow's paper in Bull.'-Bussey Institution, Fig. 19. Apple canker. (From Bull. 163, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Stat.) 1876.) PLATE VIII. PLig. 20. "Shot-hole" affect produced on Japan plumlleaves by improper spraying. (From Bull. 164,N.. Cornell Exp. Stat.) 'Fig. 21. Cherry leaf-spot disease. (From Report N. Y. Geneva Exp.. Stat., 1896.) PLATE IX., Fig. 22. Jars showing, after one hour's standing, the amount of settling of the precipitate in Bordeaux mixture mnade in tbe following ways. The lower light cob ,ored part in each figure is the A. Dilute limle poured into dilute sulfat slowly. B. Dilute sulfat poured into dilute limle slowly. C. Made as in E, but uising hot lime milk. D. Made as in E, but less thoroughly stirred. E. Properly made from dilute solutions, quickly united thoroughly stirred. F. -Made as in E, but with concentrated solutions. precipitate: and G. II. Properly made mixture, one day old. Old B~ordeaux mixture, two weeks old. I. "Bordeaux Powder" mixed with water. Fi. 23. One example of the barrel-type of' spraying apparatus. (Fromt Bull. 243, N. V. Geneva Exp. Fig. 24. "M istry" spray nozzle. (Cut loaned by the Goulds Mfg. Co., Seneca Falls, N. Y.) Stat.) Fig 1, I., l ' : i t~ pt/v Fig. 4. 14 Fig 3. Fig vi 'I N / ~ 7t Pr I Fig. 7. 4 PL I' Figi. 9. AL - . p. f, Y .. ' III \ 'I': I t. E Fig 11. Fig 12. f,~ IF r g. . 11 I 'll \ I .\ / Fig. 18. Fig. 17. PLr. II Fig.'2C. I'l\ II1. ix Fiy 2 ' a Fig. 24. Fig. 23. BULLETIN NO.1I336 ALABAMA DECEMBER, 1905. Agricultural ExperIment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBURN The Manufacture of Cane Syrup. By B. B. ROSS Chemist. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company. 1905. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. J. M. CARMICHAEL......................Montgomery. ........ T. D. SAMFORD........ ................... ... ... .. Opelika. :Jasper. W. C. D xVIs ............. ..... STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH.......................... J. Pq.esklent' Director and Agriculturist. F. DUGGAR......................... B. B. Ross .. .................... :..Chemist and State rChemist. C A. CARP............................Veterinarian. E. I\. R. S. WILCOX ... ....... Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. and MACKINTOSH.... .... Horticulturist ASSISTANTS.. State Horticulturist. J. T. ANDERSON ............ Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigatior s. C. L. HARE..... A. .... ......... :_........First Assistant .. Chemist McB. RANSOM......... .Second Assistant Chemist T. BRAGG ................. ................. ....... Third Assistant Chemist Assistant in Animal Industry D. T. GRAY .. ... C. M. FLOYD,.........................Superin I. S. Mc ADORY ............... Assistant in . . .-.. tend ont of Veterinary Farm Scierce C. F. KIN MAN . Assistant in Horticulture The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State onr pplication to the Agricultural E.xjperimeat Station, Auburn, Alabama. THE MANUFACTURE OF CANE SYRUP. BY B. B. Ross. The Chemical Department of the Experiment Station has, within the past few years, issued two bulletins of the regular series, and at least one press bulletin, upon the subject of syrup making, but owing to the extent to which this industry has progressed in this State and on account of the numerous inquiries which have reached this office with regard to methods of clarification and of manufacture of syrups, it is deemed advisable to issue the present bulletin, which is designed to furnish fuller and more detailed information upon his subject than has been supplied by previous publications of this department. The official reports of the twelfth census of the United States revealed the fact that sugar cane was grown and cane syrup manufactured in forty-four out of the sixty-six counties of the State and while these statistics indicate a wider distribution of this crop throughout the State than has been generally supposed, the area of profitable and satisfactory cultivation of sugar cane would have to be restricted to a considerably smaller number of counties, although it can be produced with greater or less success throughout the whole of Southern and Middle Alabama. In many of these counties patches of no larger area than from one-half to one acre are to be found in cultivation, while in the Southernmost tier of counties of the state some tracts of from ten to fifty acres are being devoted to cane growing for syrup production. As regards the date of the introduction of sugar cane culture in Alabama, no definite or authentic information can be secured and there is even some difference of opinion as to how and where this important saccharine plant reached this continent. Dr. Stubbs, formerly Director of the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station, who has investigated quite -. ....... .. 146 caireflilly and critically the history of the sugar cane, is inclined to the opinion that Cochin China or Bengal was its original habitat, the cane plant being introduced successively into Arabia, Nubia, Ethiopia and Egypt, while, after the crusades, it found its way to Syria, Cyprus and Sicily. Some four centuries ago it was introduced intc Madeira and the Canary Islands, and, until the beginning of the Nineteenth century, practically the whole of the sugar consumption of Europe was obtained from these islands. Soon after the discovery of San Domingo, sugar cane culture was inaugurated in that island, and later, sugar cane was carried from there to South and Central America, to Mexico, to other islands of the West Indies, and finally in 1751 to Louisiana. Although attempts were made at that early period to grow cane and produce sugar in the vicinity of New Orleans, it appears that the first efforts were entirely unsuccessful, and it was not until about 1794 that Etienne de Bore, operating at a plantation and sugar house almost on the site of Audubon Park in that city, succeeded in demonstrating the practicability of the production of cane sugar upon a commercial scale. This was virtually the beginning of the cane sugar industry in Lousiana, and the successful termination of the experiments of de Bore marked an important epoch in the development of the industrial and agricultural activity of that rich commonwealth. Soon after the introduction of the sugar cane plant into Louisiana, it is claimed that cane culture was commenced upon a small scale on the East Florida coast and later along the Georgia coast south of Savannah, sugar-making upon a not inconsiderable scale for that period being carried on in the latter state during the early part of the last century. As to whether sugar cane was brought from Louisiana to this state or carried west to Alabama from the Georgia coast, is a question whose solution I have been unable to accomplish, and it is even possible that it might have been introduced direct from some of the West Indian islands. 147 Suffice it to say, sugar cane culture has been carried on in Southern and Middle Alabama upon a small scale at least almost from the date of the admission of the state into the Union, and while this cane has been grown chiefly for use in the production of syrup, nevertheless, ip years gone by, crude and low grade sugar was produced in small quantities upon many plantations by processes still more crude. As is well known to those residing in Middle and Southern Alabama, nearly all of the villages and towns of those sections of the state, are supplied with home made cane syrup during the fall and winter months, and there has been a steady increase in the production of domestic syrup for a number of years past, although during the remainder of the year the local product does not meet the requirements of the local consumption. The cane syrup production of this State in the last census year, according to the figures given in the twelfth census reports, was much larger than many of our own people would imagine, aggregating a total of 2,672,438 gallons of syrup upon 32,871 acres, although no allowance was made for the acreage of cane reserved for planting. -The value assigned this product was $1,003,922, and though no information is given with regard to the marketing of this syrup there is no little doubt but that domestic consumption absorbed practically the whole output at that time. The writer has called attention in a number of papers to the fact that at certain seasons of the year even in our local narkets, it is well nigh impossible to secure pure cane syrups and the demand is largely supplied by syrup from outside markets. These imported syrups are often adulterated with corn glucose, or else are the product of reboiling syrups and molasses which have undergone partial fermentation, while in still other cases it has been found that the syrups consist in part of low grade or dark colored molasses or syrups which have been bleached or brightened by treatment with 14S such chemical agents as bi-sulphite of soda and pulverized zinc. It is gratifying to note, however, that within the pas two or three years there has been a marked increase in the production and consumption of the domestic article in this State, and already" some little attention is being given to securing outside markets for a portion of the yearly output of cane syrup. .There has also been a noteworthy increase in the number of syrup producers, and some of these newest accessions to the ranks of producers are amog the most progressive in the employment of rational and improved methods of cultivation and fertilization, as well as in the utilization of advanced and intelligent methods of manufacture. In some of the border counties of South Alabama where a few years since cane patches of only from one to five acres were to be found, there can now be seen tracts of from twenty-five to fifty acres in cane, some of hict vies in luxuriance and rankness of growth with the cane grown on the rich alluvial lands of Louisiana, while the sugar content is as a rule well in excess of that of the average Louisiana product. In a previous bulletin the writer stated that as a result of observations and investigations made by him during a residence of several years in the sugar regions of Louisiana the conclusion was reached that the lighter and more easily drained uplands in the lower Mississippi valley yielded from season to season a cane much richer in sugar and total solid matters than the rich alluvial 'lands of the valley, although a much heavier tonnage was produced on the latter. The results of experiments and investigations extending throughout a still longer period in this state have shown that the cane grown on the light loamy and sandy lands in the Southern part of this state exhibits a like superiority over the product of the heavy bottom lands of Louisiana, while a good tonnage can be readily secured where a judic- 149 ious system of fertilization is resorted to. Much of the South Alabama cane wil'l show a cane sugar content of 15 per cent. and upwards, while samples containing more than 18 per cent. sucrose have been analyzed in the laboratory at Auburn. The co-efficient of purity of the juices is also almost uniformly high, and with a high content of total solids the yield of syrup per ton of cane is correspondingly large. The following analysis of. three sampies of cane selected at random while on a visit to Baldwin county may serve to illustrate the excellence of much of the cane grown in that section of the State. Sample Sample Sample No. 2 No. 3 No.1 19.3 19.2 19.0 Total solids ... . ....... Sucrose ........................ 17.0 15.1 16.9 Reducing sugars ................... 1.31 1.92 1.15 Solids not sugars..................99 2.18 .95 Co-efficient of purity............... 88.1 78.7 88.9 When the fact is noted that much of the Louisiana cane does not show a total solid content in the juice of more than 14 per cent. and a cane sugar content frequently not exceeding 12 per cent., the good quaiity of such canes as the above is rendered more apparent, and as the syrup producing capacity of a cane is practically in direct proportion to the amount of total solids in the juice, the superiority of these canes for syrup making is at once evident. Notwithstanding the fact that cane of such high sugar content can be produced upon many of the soils of Middle and Southern Alabama, it must be admitted that prior to the last three or four years the syrup industry had made but little progress from year to year and the production of this commodity commercially had not attained very large proportions. Among the causes and conditions that have so far contributed to the slow progress and growth of the syrup in- 150 dustry may be mentioned; the employment of crude and unprogressive methods in the manufacture of the syrup from the cane; the production of syrup of poor keeping quality and lacking in uniformity of composition, character andt flavor, and, finally, the failure to build up a market for the product, by reason of the uncertainty of its quality and of its variable composition. In most cases throughout the cane growing region of Alabama, small bottoms are selected for the growing of cane, and, too often, comparatively little attention is paid to fertilization. The crop is grown for several successive years upon the same plot and when the land commences to fall off in prcdctur i eness the (ne patch is transferred to another bottom which, in turn, becomes the seat of cane growing operations for a number of years, to be later abandoned like its predecessor, when the limit of its producing capacity has been reached. Fortunately, some of the more intelligent and progressivecane growers in the. southern portion of Alabama have demonstrated that the flat, slightly elevated, sandy uplards, with a clay sub-soil can, with proper cultivation and fertilization, be made to produce crops of large tonnage, accompanied by a high sugar content. In that section the best results have been secured by the growing of preparatory green crops, such as cow peas, or velvet beans, which supply the soil with a good proportion of humus forming material and nitrogen, together with no inconsiderable. amounts of phosphoric acid and potash brought up from the lower soil. These fertilizing materials furnish nutrition to the cane crop which is to follow, while the humus which. has been added to the soil makes the latter more retentive of moisture and better enables it to withstand the droughts which may come sooner or later during the cane growing season. This preliminary treatment of the soil to be devoted to cane culture is followed up by heavy applications of a mixed fertilizer furnishing a moderate supply of phos- 151 phoric acid and relatively large proportions of nitrogen and potash. A number of years ago the writer conducted a series of investigations with regard to the composition of the cane il!ant at different stages of growth, and also made complete analyses of the fully matured plant, including both tops, As a result of these experiments it or blades. and stalks was ascertained that a crop of twenty tons per acre required for its production 68 pounds of nitrogen, 44 pounds of potash and 30 pounds of phosphoric acid. As the juice from the cane contains only a very small amount of these constituents, it would seem that nearly the whole amount of these materials could be restored to the soil by turning under the bagasse from the cane mill, as well as the leaves stripped from the cane, but in practice the disintegration, and the incorporation of the tough and fibrous bagasse in the soil is found to be an extremely difficult problem and in Louisiana this material is used as fuel under the sugar house boilers, while the cane leaves are burned in the field with a view to checking or preventing the ravages of the cane borer. A glance at the proportions in which these elements occur in the cane will show at once that the cane plant has a strong predilection for nitrogen, and will enable one better to understand the good results secured from the growing of cane upon lands containing abundant natural supplies of this valuable element, or upon which liberal applications o. nitrogenous manures have been made. If the employment of progressive and rational methods is necessary in the cultivation and fertilization of the crop, the use of intelligence and skill in the manufacture of the -yrup is doubly "essential. Indeed, it is quite surprising that the industry in some portions of this and of the adjacent States has been conducted with any profit, whatever, in view of the crude and uneconomic methods which have obtained to a greater or less extent in the manufacture of , 152 this commodity. In the first place the extraction of the juice from the cane i often effected most imperfectly, and even where a mill is normally capable of extracting 65 of the 90 per cent. of the juice contained in the cane, its maximum efficiency is seldom realized for the reason that the rolls are not screwed up tightly for fear that the feeding of the mill will be rendered more difficult. On this account, many mills only give an extraction of from 55 to 60 per cent., leaving from 30 to 35 per cent. in the half crushed cane, and, even where the maximum extractive capacity of the average three roller horse mill is attained, there is still a very heavy loss sustained by reason of the unexpressed juice left in the bagasse. As an illustration of the advantage of the employment of a modern mill of high extractive power, it might be stated that Mr. E. Smith, of Fairhope, Ala., one of the most successful syrup producers in the State, was able to secure as high an extraction as nearly 75 per cent. of juice by the use of' a five roller mill purchased by him from George L. Squiers & CO., Buffalo, New York. This mill consisted of two crusher rollers together with a three roller mill of the usual type, and by its employment the yield of juice from the cane was increased more than one fourth. A mill of similar construction is in operation at the plant of the Southern States Lumber Co., at Magnolia Hill plantation, in Baldwin county. The question of the satisfactory extraction of the juice having been solved, the next problem which presents itself is the proper clarification and evaporation of the juice, and it is in this part of the process that our present or commonly followed methods of procedure have proved most unsatisfactory and unscientific. The removal of mechanical impurities is often effected by passing the juice through an old burlap bag, while the clarification and evaporation are conducted in a single woodenframe evaporater, the bottom of which is covered with sheet 153 copper or galvanized iron, while transverse partitions, supplied with gates or openings, are designed to ,regulate the flow of juice or of partially cooked syrup from end of the evaporater to the other. As a rule, no clarifying agents are employed, and the juice ning in at one end of the evaporator is hastily brought -to a boil, hurriedly skimmed, and, before full opportunity -Bas been had for the formation or removal of the blanket impurities, the liquid is pushed rapidly along from com. :partment to compartment, the impurities in solution and those still left in suspension being rapidly cooked down with thesyrup, giving a product dark in color, lacking in delica.cy of flavor, and more readily susceptible to fermentation 'y reason of the presence of an undue proportion of albbuminoids '.nd other organic impurities. As the finished product is commonly allowed to flow out in a slow, continuous stream, with no means of determining its dei.sity except by the application of the "rule of thumb," the syrup is greatly lacking in uniformity of density and quality. If, on the one hand, the syrup boiler fails to cook t-e syrup to a proper density, fermentation is all the more "likely to ensue, while if the desirable density is exceeded the product is sure to crystalize, or "sugar," sooner or later. In addition to all of these defects and disadvantages of the ordinary evaporator, the regulation of the heat is quite a ~diffcult matter. A slow fire will not permit the evaporation to keep pace with the mill, while a too rapid fire may ,scorch the syrup or cause loss by boiling over, the usual remedy being to rake out some of the fire, or else lift the evaporator off of the. furnace, while operations are always tesumed after some delay with the possibility or probability of the recurrence of the same trouble after a short interval. In order to secure the best results in clarification and evaporation, the heat should be easily and quickly controll'ed, so that evaporation can be accelerated or retarded at ,one tu ,of 154 will, or, if necessary, suspended instantaneously. The employment of steam for heating purposes is the only sure means of attaining these ends, and' while it may not be practicable to utilize the steam evaporator where only a crop of 200 or 300 gailons of syrup is produced, or where the only use of the boiler employed is in the working up of a small crop of cane, still, steam evaporation can be employed advantageously upon a comparatively small crop upon farms where a boiler and engine can be used to good purpose in other departments of the farm economy. With somewhat larger crops the employment of steam evaporation will be highly desirable without regard to any other possibie use of' the boiler and engine, as the superiority and uniformity in the quality of the product secured fully justifies the increased initial cost of the steam plant. As regards the clarification of the juice, a number of different methods of procedure have been adopted in various portions of the cane producing belt of the Southern States and there is naturally some difference of opinion as to the relative merits of the several processes employed. Where a s.nip of higher grade and purity, as x el'i as of a briglerl color, is desired, sulphuring and liming of the juice is resorted to, and a much more thorough removal of impurities is affected by this process. With a juice slightly acid in its normal condition the acid reaction is largely increased as a result of the sulplhuring process, and a portion of this acidity is overcome by the use of a high grade slaked to a thin paste. Especial care must be taken to avoid the, employment of an excess of lime, and the juice should be left distinctly acid to litmus test paper, as inversion, the "bete noir" of the sugar maker, should have no terror to the syrup producer, who should delight in the presence of a large proportion of non-crystalizable sugar in his syrup. If an excess of lime has been inadvertently added, this excess can be easily removed by the use of a small amount of high grade "acid phosphate" of lime, such as is sold un- iiime, 155 der the trade name of "Clariphos." This latter agent is also employed as a clarifying agent instead of sulphur fumes, and bi-sulphite of lime is also employed to no little extent as a substitute for the suiphur and lime process of clarification. With the simplest form of sulphuring apparatus ordinarily used in small syrup plants, the juice fresh from the mill is allowed to run slowly through a sulphuring box containing a number of inclined shelves, and, as the juice tricites slowly down from shelf to shelf, it meets with an ascending current of sulphur Fumes, which are produced by burning brimstone or roll sulphur in a roughly constructed brick furnace. In this way the juice is at once rendered lighter in color and when heated in the evaporator, after careful liming, the separation of albuminous matters and other impurities is affected more readily and rapidly. To show the adaptability of even crudely constructed steam evaporators to syrup making on a small scale, experiments have been conducted at the Alabama experiment station at intervals for a number of years with the employment of two small evaporators especially devised for experimental purposes, the smaller of the two being improvised from an ordinary open-fire evaporator already on hand. The sides of the evaporators were of wood, as usual, and the bottoms were constructed of sheet copper, but no partitions were employed as in the ordinary evaporators. A series of pipes, connected at the end by return bends were placed in the bottom of each evaporator, almost the whole surface of the bottom being thus covered, with the exception of a space about four or five inches in width, which was reserved for the collection of the scums from the boiling juice. This unoccupied space should be on the side of the evaporator opposite to the point at which the steam is admitted, and this side should be slightly lower than the other in order to facilitate the removal of the scums. The piping employed was galvanized iron, from three-fourths to one inch inside 156 ,diameter, and valves were provided for the proper regulation of the steam nsed in the evaporation, while another of valves enabled the operator to prevent the too rapid escape of waste steam from the coil. The juice, after suiphuring, is run into the small evaporator or clarifier, milk of lime is added, and the contents of the evaporator brought gradually to a temperatnre slightly ~under the boiling point, The scums and impurities come the surface qnite rapidly, the greater portion of them eolecting over the space not occnpied by the pipes, where they can be easily removed. clarifier is somewhat more elevated than the evaporator,. -and when the. jnice has been well skimmed it is at -once run into the large evaporator, and the steam is immediatey turned on. Fresh quantities of the juice are now run into the clarifier, boiled, skimmed and then run into the evaporator, the evaporation of the juice being conducted the while. Any scums which form in the evaporator can be removed in the usual way, and when the syrup has density the steam is shut off and the evaptread1ed the orator is en- pted through the usual outlet. By the s bstitution of copper coils for the galvanized Iron pipe, a very much greater evaporative effect can be eeured from the same heating surface and from the same steam pressure-an :advantage which will, in most cases, set to The .al proper outweigh the increased first cost of the evaporating appar- v-411 perit Many of our cane planters and small syrup in drawing off the syrup at -random, andi without producers preference to its density, notwithstanding the fact that tb', Beume hydrometer or saccharometer can be employed to good advantage in determining the point at which the syrup becomnes suffciently dense to be drawn off, and when the ~pindle immersed in the hot liquid reads 33 to 34 degrees. the liquid can then he run out of the evaporator. Farmers Alabama who have used the Beaume spindle report good- an 167 results from its employment, and state that by means of its use no difficulty is experienced in boiling the syrup to, a uniform density. While the flavor of a syrup is a prime consideration iu the production of marketable article, the relative clearness and color of the product is an important factor in deter mining the price it will bring upon the market, and this fact should not be lost sight of in the clarification and defecation of the juice and syrup, though it also must be borne in mind that the employment of undue proportions of clarifying agents is liable to affect the flavor or taste to an o-jectionable extent. Whether the syrup is to be marketed in.)arrels, cans or hottles, the receptacles in which the product is put up should' be wel' cleaned and thoroughly scalded out or steamed anl every precaution taken to exclude ferments from contact with the contents of the vessels. As is well known, a large part if the cane syrup found on the markets after the first warm weather of the spring sets in is that which has been put up in sealed cans or bottIes, and almost invariably in the former. Moreover, a syrup put up hot in a clean vessel, and securely sealed while still hot,. may be preserved almost indefinitely without danger of fermentation or of crystilization of sugar. Samples of syrup in sealed jars or bottles have been preserved at the laboratory of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute for from four to five years without any indication whatever of fermentation or separation of sugar being observed and analyses of the syrups before and ,after the completion of the period of the tests, showed no appreciable variations in the composition of the article. With the exercise of proper care in the clarification and~ preservation of the genuine cane syrup, the imported, or at least the adulterated article, should soon be excluded from the market, and the consumer can then be assured of the purity and good quality of the goods which he purchases. 158 Moreover, when it is once known that syrup of good quality and high purity and possessing the fresh taste of the original article, can be obtained in any month in the year, it will be quite easy to build up a market for such goods and the home demand will necessitate an increase in the supply of the home manufactured product, while outside markets will readily take care of the surplus production of an article whose reputation for purity and excellence of quality has become well established. EXPERIMENTS IN SYRUP MAKING. In addition to experiments described in previous bulletins (Nos. 66 and 103,) a large amount of experimental work in methods of syrup making has been done both at the Station and at various syrup plants in the Southern part of the State, facilities for this work having been afforded at Mr. E. Smith's place, near Fairhope, and at the syrup plant of the Southern Industrial Association near Gateswood, Ala., while visits were paid to a number of other plants during the syrup making season. EXTRACTION OF JUICE. A number of extraction tests were made at various steam and horse mills, and it was found that in most cases the proportion of juice extracted by the two roller and three roller mills ranged from 55 to 60 per cent. The highest extraction noted was that secured upon the five roller mill of Mr. E. Smith, to which previous reference was made, and upon some trial runs approximately 75 per cent. extraction of juice was obtained. When the fact is noted that the employment of one of the poorer grades of mills would involve a loss equivalent to five tons of cane per acre upon a crop of twenty tons per acre, the importance of securing a good yield of juice should be readily recognized. DEFECATION OR CLARIFICATION OF JUICE. Allusion has been previously made to the common employ- 159 ment of burlap strainers for filtering the juice as it cones from the mill, but a strainer of fine sheet metal gauze can be used to much better advantage and can be easily kept clean. This gauze is, of course, chiefly of value in removing particles of trash, small fragments of bagasse, etc. At some syrup plants in the southern part of the State it was noted that the juice from the mill was conducted through filters of Spanish moss, but so far as the observation of the writer has extended, the utility of this material is solely dependent upon the removal by it of mechanically suspended impurities which are found in the juice. In bulletin No. 66, a form of sulphuring apparatus which has been much employed in Louisiana was described in detail and illustrated by a cut, this apparatus being constructed substantially as described on a preceeding page in this bulletin. For the information of the readers of the present bulletin this cut is .reproduced herewith. 160 This sulphuring box has been used to good advantage at the Experiment Station and upon some nearby farms, but as some syrup producers have experienced trouble in constructing this particular form of apparatus, it was deemed desirable to devise a somewhat simpler appliance for use in sulphuring juices, and it was soon found that a satisfactory apparatus could be improvised from a large syrup barrel' of 50 or 60 gallons capacity. Several of the upper hoops of the barrel were removed and the head was carefully taken out, in order that a couple of false bottoms might be inserted in the barrel at about one-third and two-thirds of its height, these false bottoms. 161 being held in position by small cleats nailed to the sides of the barrel. A half inch pipe was inserted in the bottom of the barrel to provide for the outflow of juice, while a two inch pipe passing through the side of the barrel about three inches above the bottom was used to convey the sulphur fumes from the small sulphur furnace. A pipe of like dimensions fastened through the top of the barrel was employed as an exit for the fumes, while numerous perforations in the top provided for the inflow of the juice. Straw was loosely packed between the bottom, the false bottoms and the top of the barrel, before replacing the top, this material being used to cause the juice to break up into a number of fine streams in order that it might expose a Targer surface and absorb the sulphur fumes more readily. It was found that instead of perforated false bobtoms a framework of small strips could be used to good advantage as a support for the straw. The sulphur furnace to be employed in connection with the above described sulphuring apparatus can be contstructed of a few brick or else a small box of sheet iron can be used. A cone of thick sheet asbestos, with the apex of the cone inserted in the end of the pipe designed to convey the fumes can also be used as a furnace in case a large volume of fumes is not required. Brimstone or roll sulphur is the form of sulphur employed and is burned in a small iron dish or in the inverted top of a tin can, comparatively free access of air being permitted. It is desirable that the barrel be well filled with fumes before the juice is allowed to run through it and it will be noted that the escaping juice is much brighter in color, while it has been found that in many cases a sufficient absorption of sulphurous acid is affected to admit of the sulphured juice being mixed with an equal volume of the raw juice. This department has also found that it is possible to employ liquified sulphurous acid in the sulphuring of juice, this product being obtained by condensing sulphur fumes under 162 pressure in steel cylinders. A valve is attached to the cylinder and upon opening it shightly a flow of gas takes place, it being possible to conduct this gas through a tube to the bottom of a tall juice vat and as the gas bubbles up through the liquid it will sulphur it quite thoroughly. When purchased in small quantities the liquid sulphurous acid is somewhat expensive for use as a clarifying agent, but if a considerable demand for it were created in a given section, it could no doubt be secured at much lower figures. If a settling tank is at hand the sulphured juice can be transferred directly thereto and within an hour or two it will be found that a considerable proportion of the impurities of the juice have separated from the main body of the liquid, rendering its subsequent clarification more eisy. The juice is next transferred to the clarifier or small evaporator previously described, and heated up slowly to the boiling point, milk of lime (in the form of a whitewash, free from lumps,) being added until the juice is left only slightly acid as indicated by litmus test paper. The juice is then brought to a brisk boil, so that the blanket or coating of scums rises and shows a number of crachls and seams on its surface, after which the heat is partly cut off and the scums are removed. A deep form of clarifier is more effective than a shallow one and as before suggested it is desirable that a space unoccupied by the coil of steam pipe be left either at the side or end of the clarifiers and evyaporators. It will also be found advantageous to have one end of the clarifier inclined at an angle of about 40 or 45 degrees to the horizontal, the scum trough being attached to the inclined end of the evaporator. The following cut shows the side elevation of such a clarifier and also the position of the scum trough. 163 SIDE ELEVATION OF CLARIFIER. In a clarifier of this character the scums can be pushed along easily by a broad wooden skimmer from one end of the vat to the other, being easily brushed over the inclined end of the clarifier into the scum trough. Although the use of lime as a clarifying agent is recommended in connection with the employment of sulphur, it is quite possible to secure good results from the use of sulphur, even where lime is omitted, though the sulphur fumes in the absence of lime would give the juice quite a perceptibly'acid re-action. Instead of the employment of sulphur fumes for brightening or bleaching the juice, bi-sulphite of lime may be used in the proportion of one quart to 50 gallons of juice, although it does not usually yield quite so bright a syrup as does the juice treated with sulphur fumes. This chemical can be purchased from I. L. Lyons & Co., New Orleans, La., and is prepared by the action of sulphurous acid or sulphur fumes upon milk of lime. In conjunction with sulphur, or in the entire absence of sulphur, acid phosphate of lime may be used as a clarifying agent and in many cases with most excellent results. The preparation of acid phosphate used by this department was sold under the trade name of "Clariphos," and was purchased from J. Watts Kearny & Sons., New Orleans. This is simply a strong solution of acid phosphate of lime, which is free from any objectionable impurities and has been prepared especially for use as a clarifying agent in sugar factories. Prior to the application of this agent the juice must be treated with lime until the original acidity of the juice has 164 been neutralized and the manufacturers of this preparation even recommended that lime be added in slight excess, or until red litmus test paper changes to a slight blue. At this point the clariphos is added in the proportion of one half gallon to 1000 gallons of juice it being diluted somewhat with water before adding it. Experiments made by th writer indicate that for syrup making it may be used advantageously in as large a proportion as one gallon of clariphos to 1000 gallons of juice. After addition of this agent, the juice is boiled gently fora moment or two, the heat is turned off and the juice allowed to settle in the clarifier, or else it is run off in a settling tank. The lime which was added previous to the clariphos combines with the free acid of the latter, forming a bulky precipitate which settles rapidly, carrying down with it a large amount of organic impurities and suspended matter and leaving a clear, bright juice, which can easily be drawn off from the sediment. In this connection, it must be noted that the juice should be thoroughly skimmed or brushed after the addition of the lime and before the additi )n of the "Clariphos," and especial care should be taken to see that the milk of lime is free from lumps or granular particles. Where agents other than clariphos are employed in clarification and in case considerable suspended matter is still present in the clarified juice, bag filters may be used to some advantage in the removal of much of this suspended matter. The form of bag filter best adapted to this purpose is a long slender bag of closely woven texture which is supported by an outer bag of coarse netting, the two being suspended from the top of a tall wooden box or chamber which can be closed tightly, so that the interior of the compartment may be well heated by a jet of steam. The juice is allowed to enter the filter through an opening in the top of the chamber, and is drawn off from the bottom into a set-.. tling tank or into an evaporator. 165 By admitting steam to the filtering chamber, the filter and the juice being filtered are both kept hot and the filtration, in consequence, can be effected more rapidly. This department is under obligations to Mr. West Livandais, New Orleans, La., for filter bags kindly donated for =se in experiments conducted during the past season. In case the syrup plant is supplied with a sufficient number of deep clarifiers, the juice may be advantageously evap:orated down to semi-syrup in them before being transferred to the final evaporator or an intermediate evaporator may be between the clarifiers and the finishing pans. Where this plan is adopted, the semi-syrup is generally allowed to attain a density of from 20 to 25 degrees Beaume, rhot, before being transferred to the last evaporator of the -series. Experiments were made during the past season in connec-tion with the employment of sand filters for the removal of -suspended matters from the semi-syrup, and where sand of pure quality was employed, some fairly good results were -secured. It was found necessary to wash even the best sand for some little time in order to remove clay and finely divided matter, whose Dresence rendered the wash water turbid, and when the sand finally permitted the water to pass through ·lear, it was found that the syrup would also pass through the sand filter comparatively clear and practically free from suspended matter. The sand filter was arranged by employing a tray or shallow box, the bottom of which was constructed of coarse wire gauze, covered by a coarse cloth, up-n which a layer of sand of one and a half to two inches thick was placed. Unless very pure sand, requiring very little washing be used, the employment of sand filters may be found troublesome, however, and the sand will, of course, have to be re-ewed frequently. Filters of this kind, nevertheless, would s~erve quite a good purpose in case some special lot of semi- emptoyed 166 syrup contained an excessive amount of suspended matter, which previous treatmeint in he efe ator;s ., fail d to re. move. The concentration the syrup in the final evaporators is continued until the Beaume hydrometer registers about 34 degrees in the hot syrup, and where there is only a thin layer of syrup left in the evaporator, it may be advisable to shut off steam when the instrument registers 33 and one half degrees, as the hot syrup in contact with the hot pipes which may still contain a little steam, wilit probably evaporate a little further before it can be drawn off. For the removal of finely divided suspended particles from the hot syrup, the employment of cotton batting which was suggested and tried last season by Mr. A. F. Cory, at the syrup plant of the Southern Industrial Association, Gateswood, Ala., appears to be quite advantageous and good results were secured both by Mr. Cory and also by the writer in some experiments conducted at Auburn. The kind of cotton batting employed in the syrup filters was the same as that used by the turpentine distillers, one surface of the goods being glazed, while the other surface was rough. The batting was placed upon coarse wire gauze in a shallow box or tray and the syrup was allowed to flow on the filter in such a way as to obviate the possibility of washing a hole through the cotton filter, the liquid being diffused over the whole surface of the material. Previous allusion has been made to the importance of thoroughly scalding out and steaming the containers in which the syrup is to be put up, and too much care and caution cannot be given to the matter of excluding ferments or bacteria from the packages if an article capable of long preservation is desired. As regards the arrangement of the settling tanks, vats, clarifiers, evaporators, etc., in the syrup factory, the writer would say that the plan adopted by the Southern States Lumber Co. at their plant at Magnolia Hill plantation in -f 167 Baldwin county is a most excellent and convenient one. The juice from the mlil is pumped to settling or storage tanks placed on the highest floor in the building, the juice from these tanks being allowed to flow by gravitytotheclarifiers or defecators, of which there was one for each storage tank on the next lower floor. The juice or semi-syrup from the defecators was also conducted by gravity to settling tanks on the next lower level, and from there to the large evaporator or finishing pan on a still lower level. The packing of the syrup was carried out on the ground floor of the plant, the naturai slope of the ground having favored the arrangement of the interior of the establishment in the maner described .- an arrangement which greatly facilitated the operations of the factory. SMALL CENTRAL SYRUP PLANTS. 'seasons. Several years since the writer advocated the idea of the operation of small central syrup-making plants in connection with steam gins which are found occurring in such close proximity to each other throughout much of the cane growing territory in this State and practical demonstrations of the feasibility of thctplan were made during the past two Since many of these neighborhood gins suspend operations before any destructive freezes occur, the motive and steam power of these establishments can be utilized to good advantage in making syrup. During the present season an experiment along this line was made at the place of Mr. J. C. Moore, near Auburn, only a few hours being required to install the clarifiers and evaporators and to make the necessary connections with the boiler, while all the apparatus worked satisfactorily from the beginning of the experiments and quite a good article of syrup was produced. As before stated, wherever a boiler of sufficient capacity is in use for ginning, milling or other purposes, it is quite a simple matter to instal a syrup making outfit, and where 168 new steam gins are established in cane growing regions, sufficient steam power can be provided to meet the combined requirements of a syrup plant and steam ginnery. By the adoption of such a plan, small central syrup factories could easily be put in operation throughout a large portion of Southern and Middle Alabama, and the introduction of improved methods of manufacture would quickly follow upon the inauguration of such a system. BULLETII NO, 134. DEGEfiIBER, 1905. ALA BAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBURN. Corn Culture. By J. r. DUGGAR, Director and Agriculturist. Opelika, Ala. The Post Publishing Company, 1905. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. J. T. M. CARMICHAEI D. SAMrORD.... . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Montgomery. .......................... ............................. ............. . Opelika. Jasper. W. C. DAVIS ....................... STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH .......... ................................ President. J. F. DUGGAR........................Director B. B. Ross.. .......... C. A. CARY... and Agriculturist. State Chemist. ........... ........................................ Chemist and Veterinarian. E. M. WILCox......... ... Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. R. S. MACKINTOSH........... Horticulturist and State Horticulturist. J. T. ANDICRSON...............Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations. ASSISTALNTS. C. L. HARE................................... A. McB. RANSOM................... First Assistant Chemist. Second ....... ........... ............ Assistant Chemist T. BRAGG ................................ I). T. GRAY.... . ..... Third Assistant Chemist. Assistant in Animal Industry. Superintendent of Farm. C. M. FLOYD.......... ........ I. S. Mc ADORY..... .............. C. F., KINMAN....................... Assistant in Veterinary Science. ....... Assistant in Horticulture. L~. N. DUNCAN........................... .. Assistant in Agriculture The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. CORN CULTURE By J. F. DUGGAR. SUMMARY. During the past ten years 52 varieties f corn have been tested at Auburn, Alabama. Among these the most produc tive varieties were Mosby, Cocke, Henry Grady and Sanders. Varieties of the prolific type, "two-eared varieties," afforded larger average yields than did the type in which the number of ears was smaller but the size larger. Early varieties were relatively unproductive. Repeated tests of seed corn grown in different latitudes indicated that with certain varieties seed from Virginia and Tennesee proved superior to that from Delaware, Illinois, Alabama and Georgia. It is impossible to determine whether this result was due chiefly to climate or to more careful selection of the seed corn obtained from Virginia. and Tennessee. It is generally advisable that seed corn for Alabama be obtained either from this latitude or from some other region south of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. Many early varieties from northern grown seed afforded a large proportion of unsound corn. In six tests seed corn from the bottom ear afforded a slightly larger yield than from the top ear and in two tests seed from the top ear gave the larger yield. Subsoiling did not increase the yield of corn sufficiently to be profitabl. The yield was not materially influenced by the depth of the first cultivation. Planting corn in water furrows did not increase the yield. The yield of grain was slightly decreased by. pulling fod der, by topping and by cutting and shocking the plant. The average yield of dry fodder or blades was 515 pounds, of 172 cured tops 473 pounds and of cured stover 1,799 pounds per acre. The increase in the yield of corn due to the use of velvet bean stubble as a fertilizer was 4.3 bushels per acre. Where the entire growth of velvet beans was plowed under the increase in the first corn crop was 12.3 bushels and the increase in the second corn crop was 4.4 bushels. The increase in the two corn crops was 16.7 bushels greater where the entire growth of velvet beans was plowed under than where only the roots and stubble were plowed under. The yield of corn was 8.9 bushels per acre greater when cow pea vines were plowed under than when only the stubble was used as fertilizer. The increase from plowing rinder beggar weed, which grew after the corn was laid by, averaged 5.4 bushels per acre. unWhen velvet bean vines or cow pea vines were der the addition of acid phosphate profitably increased the yield of corn. Applying a part of the fertilizer before planting and a part at the second cultivation did not increase the yield as compared with using all of it before planting., Nitrate of soda afforded a larger increase than did cotton seed meal, cotton seed or barnyard manure. It is recommended that a fertilizer for corn contain a relatively large proportion of nitrogen. ,lowed TESTS OF VARIETIES OF CORN IN 1901, 1904 AND 1905. For ten years in succession tests of varieties of corn have been made on the Experiment Station farm at Auburn under the present management. Bulletins Number 76, 88 and 111 of this Station, now out of print, give the results of variety tests at Auburn from 1896 to 1900 inclusive. In 1902 an unprecedented drought, from April to August, ruined our variety test, and in 1902 rogues vitiated the results. The results obtained in 1901, 1904 and 1905 are presented in this bulletin. 173 All of our tests were made on upland soil characteristic this region, and naturally poor. Only commercial fertilizers were employed, except in 1905, when in addition to commercial fertilizers, barnyard manure, chiefly from catlie, was used at the estimated rate of ten tons per acre. Planting was done at the usual time or a few days later the distance between rows was usually 4 feet 8 inches, between plants about three feet. The distance between ;plants was the same for all varieties. Every precaution was taken to secure and stand, but when this was impaired by bud worms, no correction of yields was attempted. if* andd atn maintain a Yield of varieties of corn in 1901. Variety ________________________ Per et. of stand Yield per acre Rank in yield Mosby .... ............... Sha. ....................... . .... Cocke ... .... .................. Arnold's Cross Bred.................. Per ct. 93 91 100 100 Bus. 35 2 31.9 31 Tennessee White ... ............ 91 Tennessee Yellow .................. 10.) Red Cob, Tennessee ............. 93 Experiment Station Yellow............ 98 Blount........... ..... .... .......... 95 Jones Pearl .................. 99 H ickorv IKi no... 10() .3o.1 8 1 2 3 4 29 9 28 8 27 7 27.1 21 19 6 18.9 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 174 Yield of varieties of corai in 1904. Variety Per ct. of stand Per ct. 88 100 93 96 95 100 87 92 88 92 91 Sanders..... .................... Mosby............................. Cocke...............................91 ........... Henry Grady ... Cocke (Ga.).......................... McMackin's Gourd Seed............. Experiment Station Yellow....... Boone County White (Tenn.)......... Boone County White (Ind.)........... Boone County Special Reid's Yellow Dent.. .... Riley's Favorite......................91 No. 77 U. S. Dept. Agr............. Silver Mine (Iowa) ..................... Leaning Yellow .................. Snow Flake...........1 Yield per acre Bus. 35.5 32.3 29.6 29.6 26.8 25 8 24.2 23.5 22.1 19.6 19.1 18.2 12.9 Rank in yield 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 35.5 33 5 81 94 '19.4 14 15 16 Yield of Variety varieties of corn in 1905. Per ct. of stand Per ct. 97 99 .. 99 97 Yield per acre Bus. Rank in yield Henry Grady ...... .... Sanders................... Mosby ... :..................... Marlboro ... ....... ....... .. .. ....................... 40.6 39.4 38.9 34.9 1 2 3 4 ..... Local White Cob ..... ... McMackin's Gourd Seed......... ..... No. 77 U. S. Dept. Agr............... Cocke (Tenn.)........ Experiment Station Yellow........... ............ Albemarle . .... ....... ... .......... Shaw Boone County ,Special........ .... .... Red Cob (Tenn.)...................... Cocke (Ala. Hickory King.......... ....... ....... Boone County White (Tenn.) ..... ...... .... Reid's Yellow Dent ............. Boone County White (Ind.)............ Boone County White (Ill.)............. Silver Mine (Iowa).................... Learning Yellow............... ...... ...... Riley's Favorite... Exp't 91 95 99 92 96 81 81 94 84 92 34.3 33.1 32 6 30.9 30.7 303 29.7 29.4 28.9 28.6 .5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Sta.) .............. 96 88 85 87 i6 93 94 80 28 26.3 25.7 24.6 22 22 18.9 17.1 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 175 Relative yield of varieties of corn at Auburn, takingythe yield of Experinent Station Yellow as 100. Aver 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1904 1905 age 8 years Mosby............... ................... 91 138 109 92 115 130 132 130 117 Exp't Sta. Yellow.......100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1QA Tested'7 years Hickory ...... 122 72 73 73 80 70 91 83 Tested 6 years Tested King...... ................ Cocke...... Shaw....... ................ ....... Blount .................. 132 Tested 5 years St. Charles.. ....................... l148 7ested years Red Cob (Tenn.) .......... ........ 99 Jones Pearl.......... Champion Vhite Pearl..._-. 126 Tested3 years Sanders Farmer's Pride.............. Early Mastodon.........134 Iowa Silver Learning Yellow ......... Tested 2 years Henry Grady.. _...... 129 87 117 81 99 103 108 95 117 118 118 97 97 109 101 72 83 81 82 98 96 99 80 95 105 90 104 97 79 101 60 48 102 72 96 95 93 74 94 70 104 96 91 57 90 87 132 128 121 97 95 71 55 121 Mine................. 72 61 132 108 64 58 127 Arnold ......................... 113 112 110 112 109 107 103 Gourd Seed...... Renfro........ ........... 86 128 Higgins ................. 72 Boone County Special.. No. 77 U. S. Dept. Agr....... Boone County White..........3 McMakin's '134 88 89 8 96 79 92 90 86 84 83 65 73 106 Golden Beauty . Evans ................... ...... i 836........ 86 81 82 7 Reid's Yellow Dent_...Riley's Favorite76. ............ Tested s year Golden Gianl............... 12512 Cade Prolific................-----124 84 124 Yellow Dent ............. _._117 Marlboro.... ...--......... _. Baden - -------.. . ----. . 117 114 114 ..----- . . . . 113 113 Local White Cob .......... Bra dbu ,y -.---------.-. .--..----. 112 112 112 112 Tennessee White ............ Peabody _. .. ..... ..... 108 TennesseYellow ....... Albemarle . Cary Klondike...-..-...... 110 106 97 97 Strawberry._... Giant Broad 110 108 106 99 99 97 97 94 ......... Grain ........ 92 Chester County Manmo h.. 93 Golden Poor Man ..... ......................... 941 89 Dent....................... 87 79 .......... '93 92 89 Welborn's Conscience... Cuban Sheep Tooth White . Creole ...... ...... _....... Snow Giant 87 79 .... ......... Flake .... 75 74 III I A. - 75 74 4 176 Mosby is one of the most productive of the prolific varieties. Comparing its record with that of other prolific varieties we find that in each of,six years Mosby yielded more than Cocke; in comparison with Blount, Mosby led in five out of six tests. Comparing Mosby with some of the most productive nonprolific varieties, we find that it stood ahead of Sanders in 2 out of 3 tests, and equaled Sanders in the third test; once Mosby stood above Henry Grady and once slightly below. Compared with Shaw, Mosby was the more productive in 5 out of 6 tests. Compared with all varieties tested, Mosbyoccupied first place in 2 tests, second place in 2 tests, third place in 2 tests, fourth place in 1 test and twelfth place in 1896, when weather conditions injured all late varieties. Cocke, though averaging less than Mosby, proved to be one of the most productive varieties when all of our tests, made during the last ten years are considered. In six tests its relative position was second in 2 tests, fourth in 2 tests, and seventh and tenth in the other two years. Henry Grady has been tested only two years, but has taken high rank, namely first in 1905 and third in 1904. Sanders has been tested only two years, but in both has taken high rank. It was first in 1904 (equaling Mosby), and third in 1905. Other promising varieties as regards yield, but which have not been often tested here, are: Bradberry, Marlboro, Arnold, Local White Cob, Tennessee White and McMackin's Gourd Seed. For illustrations of ears of certain varieties, see Appendix. RELATION OF NUMBER OF EARS PER PLANT TO YIELD OF GRAIN PER ACRE. The following table gives the number of ears and nubbins of each variety per plant. It will be noted that even most 177 of the prolific varieties average less than two ears and nubins per plant and that several varieties average less than one grain-bearing shoot per plant. The number of grain-bearing shoots varies greatly for the same variety in different seasons, but, nevertheless, this number is largely a variety characteristic. Number of ears and nubbins per plant. 1900 Sz 1901 10C04 1( 90 z Variety Albemarle..... Arnold...... .......... Blount ... ........ .......... .................... .91 1.86 22 .94 1 1.00 10 ........ ... 9 ... Boone County White .. 1.40 Bradbury........ ..... 1.00 Cory Kiondike ......... Champion White Pearl 1.55 Cocke..... ........... 1.39 Creole .... ............ 1.04 Early Mastodon ........ Evans .................. 92 Experiment Sta. Yellow 1.17 Farmers' Pride......... .99 Giant Broad Grain .1.03 .99 5 ....... 1.11 4 ........ ... ... .. 16 .... .... ;.,. ..... ,. .. . 17 .... . . . . :..... ....... 2.( 02 12.02 ... .. .93 . . .1.43 .... .1.11 .... .1.40 .. .1.39 . 5 ........ .... .... .. . .. .1.04 10 .... .... .... ...... ...... 21 .... .... .... ...... 71.32 7 1.36 3.........1. 3 .. .. 17..... .. ..... .. ,......................... .99 12 ........ .... .... .. ......................... 1.03 1.03 Beauty ......... 1.03 12....... .... .... .. ......................... Henry Grady ........... .. .... .... .... 1.15 37 911.25 381 811.20 Hickory King......... 1.31 6 11 ........ 11.18 .... ... 1.18 ...... . ............................ Jones' Pearl ........... Learning....... ....... .991 171.... ..I 1ll... ......................... .88 :101 1411.10 Local White Cob......... ............ .... ..... 86 211.86 Marlboro ............ .. .. ' .. .. 21 1211.16 McMackin's Gourd Seed ........... 1..1.11 Mosby..... .......... 1.021141.60 2+1.36 31.' 74 311.43 No. 77 U. S. Dept. Agri. . .... j...... 24 1111.05 Poor Man ............ 11.15 8 .... ~.......... 13 11 1.07 Red Cob, Ten........11.011 1511.041 8.... .... 11.: .. Reid's Yellow Dent....... ............ 1.05 711. 68 511.37 21.85 11.49 21.( . .. 1..00 .. . .99 60 611.65 .0. .92 44 Golden .91 1 51 1.771 1....1 51.1 .85 911.1 .98 811.108 111.' 74 411.1 11.; 015 1511.03 Sanders ........ Shaw .............. Riley's Favorite......... ... ... ... ...... 1.45 3.... ..... 11.61 .... 96 10 1 ...... 7......1 .... .. 'Sheep Tooth, White .... 1.04j 201.12 .... Silver Mine, Iowa ...... .... I.. 85 9 St. Charles ... 1.12 9 ..... 1 .... . Tennessee White ...... .... .... 1.221 4........... Tennessee Yellow 11.161 61......... 271 1011.12 .. .. ... 1.04 ................... 99 16 .92 1.12 .......................... .......................... 11.16 311.60 ... .. .. 178 Dividing the varieties tested according to nnmber of ears and nnbbins per plant, we have the following classification: Prolific varieties. Sanders Albeimarle Marlboro Cocke 111 edimn~ B3lount Mosby Hickory King Jones' Pearl McMackin's Gonrd Seed Tennessee Yellow Poor Man Bradbnry prolific varieties. Creole Reid's Yellow Dent Experiment Sta. Yellow Henry Grady Tennessee White varieties. Shaw St. Charles Boone Connty White Local White Cob 7T onproliflc Golden Beanty Ri')ey's Favorite Cary Klondike Farmers' Pride Champion White Pearl Arnold Silver Mine, Iowa Evans Leamning Yellow Tennessee Red Cob No. 77, U. S. Dept. Agr Early. Mastodon Sheep Tooth White Giant Broad Grain The above classification has been made as a means' of secnring an answer to the qnestion, "What type of corn been most prodnctive in recent tests at the Alabama periment has Ex- Station ?" An examination of the yields gives the following table of averages : 179 Aixrage yields 1900-Average 1905-Average of types of 37.4 corn in bushels per acre. Medium. Non-prolific. Prolific. Bus. yield......... Bis. 27.8 24.7 26.6 31.6 27.7 Bus. 1901-Average yield.,........29.5 1904--Average yield..... .... 34.2 yield......... 4 years, average of 34.0 averages. .33.8 31.6 29.9 20.2 26.6 27.0 In three. out of four years the prolific varieties gave decidedly the highest;average yield. It must be stated, however, that the averages for the medium and nou-prolific varieties are low largely because these lists embrace so many early non-productive northern varieties. In the following table all early or otherwise unproductive varieties have beeneliminated and a comparison made between the average yields of the best prolific, the best medium' and, the best non-prolific varieties. Average yields YEAR .PROIFIC of best varieties MEDIUM of three types. INON-PROUF IC VARS VARS. VARS.. Bus. 1900 39. Mosby Bus. Bus. Locke 37. 5 Bradbury i L T 1 l Expt. St. Yel. T7 1 35.9 - Shaw Red Cob Arnold Shaw Red Cob Arnold 1901 33. 5 .h Mosby Cocke 286 Expt. St. Yel. 28. Ten n. White, 29.9 Tenn. Yel. 29.6 (Expt. St. Yel. Henry Grady McMackin St. Yel. 1904 34.2 Mosby Cocke Sanders ( Mosby 1905 36.9 SCocke(Expt. Sanders 34.5 Henry Grady SAlbemarle McMackin - LcWh.Cob 31.6 RdCob e Marlboro Av. 35.9 32.4 32.4 180 The above figures show that the best prolific varieties each year averaged higher than the best varieties bearing a smaller number of ears. SIZE OF EAR IN DIFFERENT VARETESn. Num,'ber of ea-. and nubtins requir#'i to shell ''6 povund. o f grain. 1900 1901 1904 -1905 a Css CD S - Albemarle.............. Arnold.............. Blount .................. Boone County White .... Bradbury......... Cary 78 1221 .. 189 1 15 11....,........ 18...... 1 .. .. 5 ... S141.... f 97 Kiondike ..... ......... ........ ... 141 122 139 Champion White Pearl.. Cocke.............. Creole......... ........ Early Mastodon ........ Evans .............. .... Experiment Sta. Yellow. Farmers' Pride ........ Giant Broad Grain.. Golden Beauty ......... Henry Grady .......... Hickory King .......... Jones' Pearl ........... Leaming .............. Local White Cob... ........ 209 133 14 172 109 1111 120 23 ...... 6.... ... 8............ 10 161 10 .. sit.:.. 12 167 " 10 1541 166 ... ... .......... ... ...... 7 ..... .... .130. .......... ... 1l101, 9 .... . .' 148 . 172 109 11 137 99 113 4 ......... 9................ 184 99 113 21 114 22 .1.126 19 21 220 147 . 20.... . 11 ..... 135 . Ill 160 ....... . .!141 3 . .. Marlboro...... .. . .... McMackin's Gourd Seed Mosby ................ No. 77 U. S. Dept. Agri. Poor Man............. Red Cob, 143 126 93 136 Tenn......... 19 156 6 151 .. . 159 13..... ....... 3 137 4 .... .... .165 Reid's Yellow Dent .. Riley's Favorite ....... Sanders. .. .. . . ..... .. . .... 17...... Shaw......... ......... 97 ... 2 121 171 145 90! ... 90 11 .. 141 161 2 S134 106! 4 120 7 137 10 .147 8 117 6 138 .... 126 102 3 111 9 .. 151 lrk157! 13! 164 S 1161j 172 169 140 6 2.....:.108 135! 9 8 Sheep Tooth, White.. Silver Mine, Iowa.. St. Charles ............ Tennessee White.. Tennessee Yellow.. 5 109 134 41 S136 131 I1361 .....1491 3I..K..I.....:1136 5f..f.. .f..149 181 By means of this table we are able to make three groups of varieties according to the average size of ears and nubbins, that is according to the number of ears and nubbins required to shell one bushel of 56 pounds of grain. A much better showing would, of course, be made for each variety if we should give a table showing the number of well grown ears required to shell a bushel. The figures in the above table are not intended to show the average weight of typical, well grown ears, but to indicate how many ears and nubbins a farmer must handle to obtain one bushel of grain. This, of course, varies widely with the season, as well as with the variety. Large-eared varieties. Arnold Local White Cob Cary Klondike McMackin's Gourd Seed Early Mastodon Red Cob Evans Renfro Farmers' Pride Shaw Giant Broad Grain St. Charles Henry Grady Strawberry Higgins Medium-eared varieties. Bradberry Poor Man's Experiment Station Yelloi Sheep Tooth White Silver Mine Tennessee White Welborn's Conscience Small-eared varieties. Champion White Pearl Hickory King Sanders Marlboro Leaming Riley's Favorite Boone County White Cocke's Prolific Mosby Albemarle Tennessee Yellow Reid's Yel'low Dent Blount Creole Golden Beauty Jones Pearl Prolific No. 77 U. S. Dept. Agri 182 EARLY AND LATE VARIETIES. Grouping the varieties according to earliness when grown in the South, we have the following groups: Early varieties. Blount Boone County White Champion White Pearl Early Mastodon Golden Beauty Golden Dent Hickory King Leamrning No. 77 U. S. Dept. Agr. Reid's Yellow Dent Riley's Favorite Silver Mine Snowflake Saint Charles Late varieties. Albemarle Arnold Marlboro McMackin's Gourd Seed Mexican June Mosby Poor Man's Red Cob Renfro Sanders Shaw Strawberry Tennessee White Tennessee Yellow Welborn's Conscience Bradbury Cade's Prolific Cocke's Prolific Creole Experiment Sta. Yellow Evans Farmers Pride Henry Grady Higgins Jones Pearl Prolific Local White Cob Of course still further sub-division of each class is possible. For example, we might place St. Charles in a medium early group, and probably include Blount in the same. Subdividing the second group, we should have as medium to late. Albemarle, Marlboro, Evans; and as very late, Creole, Poor Man's and Mexican June. The yields of the late and medium late varieties are very much greater than the yields of the early varieties. 183 The large-eared group consists of late varieties, except Early Mastodon and St. Charles. The' medium-eared group includes both early and late varieties, the late prodominating. The small-eared group is made up chiefly of the early northern varieties and the prolific or many-eared kinds; it thus includes both the most unproductive and the most productive varieties. SEED CORN FROM DIFFERENT LATITUDES. This series of experiments has been under way for nine years under the present management. The plots for this experiment have always been located on upland soil, naturally poor, on the Station farm at Auburn. The northern or western seed corn used in all of these eight years has come from the same grower, J. C. Suffern, Voorhees Post Office, in the central part of Illinois, in latitude 39 degrees and 50 minutes, or about one degree north of St. Louis. This northen seed corn has been compared with, (1) seed corn of the same varieties grown in Georgia and Alabama and, (2) with seed corn from Virginia, Delaware and Knoxville, Tennessee. Tests of this character are beset with difficulties and results are not easy to interpret, for the reason that other factors besides climate enter into the problem. The soil in which each strain has recently grown, the carefulness of different growers in maintaining the purity and excellence of -their strains of corn, and other factors complicate the results. Nevertheless, the average of a number of experiments extending over nine years and made with four different varieties should afford reliable indications. For detailed tabulated results the reader is referred to the Appendix to this bulletin. In sixteen separate tests, in which seed from Alabama or Georgia was compared with the same variety from Illinois, the yields were in eight cases in favor of seed corn from 184 Alabama and Georgia and in eight cases in favor of seed corn from Illinois. The average difference in yield was only thirty five one-hundredths of a bushel per acre, in favor of northern seed. Thus the seed from the two soirce proved to be of practically equal value so far as regards the average f results with Hickory King, Blount and St. Charles. These varieties may be ranked as early or medium early varieties as compared with southern varieties. Our variety tests show that they are relatively unproductive here, like all other early varieties of corn. It seems that while northern seed corn has afforded as large yields as southern in the case of early varieties, it is advisable for the southern farmer to give the preference to southern seed corn, for the reason that he cannot, in the North, obtain seed of the varieties that are most productive in the South, the season there being too short for our best southern varieties. Comparing seed corn from Illinois and Delaware we find that each led in one test, the difference in their average yields being very slight. In each of three tests seed grown in Virginia proved decidedly more productive than seed of the same varieties, (Hickory King and Blount), grown in Illinois. The average difference in favor of Virginia seed was 8.5 bushels per acre. In three out of four tests, using the varieties Hickory King, Blount and Cocke the yields decidedly favored the Virginia seed, as compared with seed from Alabama and Georgia, the average difference for the four tests being 4.9 bushelis per acre in favor of the seed corn from Virginia. Using the same three varie i1s just mentioned and comparing seed grown at Knoxvi Tennessee, with seed from Alabama and Georgia, we. finci ti tt in each of four tests the advantage was with the Tennessee seed, the average difference being 2.3 bushels per acre. Thus on the whole there was some advantage in using seed' from Virginia and from the more elevated region of Tennes- 185 see, as compared with seed of Cocke, Hickory King and Blount grown in Georgia and Alabama. Are these differences due to climate, or are they due to more careful selection and greater purity of the seed from certain regions ? A positive answer cannot be given. The writer's own opinion is that the difference is chiefly due to selection. If this be the correct view, it follows that the only thing needed to make Alabama seed corn the equal or superior to that from any other part of the country is to improve it by careful selection. Methods of thus improving corn will be dealt with in a later publication from this Station. In view of results here recorded and of observations made elsewhere, the writer's conclusions relative to the source from which we, of the Gulf States, may advantageously draw our seed corn may be stated as follows: Varieties of corn from north of the Ohio river usually give smaller yields in Alabama than corn grown further south. Seed corn from the northern corn belt is sometimes useful in the Gulf States as a means of securing a field of early maturing corn, especially when the local corn crop of the preceding year has been poor. On such early ripening patches we need not expect as large yields as are obtained from corn maturing at the usual time. Corn from the northern corn belt has often given, in Alabama, a very poor quality of grain, which has often been too poor for marketing or for making meal. For planting in Alabam.,. seed corn of late and prolific varieties may safely be ob ned from any locality south of the Ohio and Potomac ri rs, and perhaps slightly above this line.1 Seed corn from about the same latitude as that in which it is to be grown appears to be as good as that from further north, provided it is as well selected and maintained as pure as the imported strain. Local seed corn, when pure 186 and well improved, has the advantage of permitting the grower to select it in the ear, the condition in which it is desirable that all seed corn, whether local or from a disance, should be received by the farmer. Corn brought south from higher latitudes becomes later and later each year for several years after its introduction, the plant grows taller, and generally thq proportion of grain betrashy, weevil-eaten or otherwise unmarketab comes less than during the first year of growth in the South. e TOP VERSUS BOTTOM EARS. To ascertain whether there is any difference for seed purposes between the lower and the upper ear on plants bearing two ears, tests were made in 1903 and in 1905. The results in 1903 with St. Charles White corn were as follows, in bushels per acre: From upper ear.................25.0 bushels per acre. From lower ear.................22.8 bushels per acre. In, 1905 five pairs of plots were used, planting seed corn from five different plants of the variety Experiment Station Yellow. Plots 1 and 2 were planted with upper and lower ears respectively from the same plant, plot 3 with corn from the same plant as plot 4, and so on for each pair of plots. Yields in 1905 fromz planting upper and lower ears from the same plant. Plot Seed-corn ftrom Top ear....................... Yield per acre from Top ears Bottom ears. No. 1. 26.3 BuS.Bus 27.7 29.4 2. Bottom ear..... ...... 3. Top ear.......................30.0 4. Bottom ear 5. Top ear....................... 32.9 ...... 6. 7. Bottom ear ..... 33.1 Top ear....................... 28.5 29.4 S. 9. Bottom ear ........... Top ear..................... .27.1 28.6 29.6 .7 10. Bottom ear ............ Average 5 plots top ears..............28.9 Average 5 plots bottom ears..........Increase from bottom ears over top ears 187 Viewing the six tests made in the two years we note that the yield was greater with seed from bottom ears in four cases and with seed from the upper ears in two cases. In 1900 the average number of ears and nubbins combined and their average size or weight were almost identical from planting upper and lower ears. This evidence is not sufficient to justify the conclusion that the bottom ear is better than a well developed upper ear, or the reverse. SUBSOILING. A tract of level rather poor upland has, for ten years, been devoted to continuous experiments in subsoiling, using different crops each year. The surface soil is made up of flinty stones and of rather stiff reddish loam. The subsoil is a very compact yellowish sandy clay, which in winter is usually too wet for the subsoil plow to do effective work. A regular subsoil plow drawn by two mules is run in the furrow made by a one-horse turn plow, giving a total depth of from 10 to 12 inches of loosened soil. Subsoiling is not done every year. but every second or third year. The following table shows that when the land for corn was subsoiled only about six weeks before corn was planted, the yield was slightly less on the subsoiled plots than on those not soiled. When sub- subsoiling was done two years before plant- ing, this operation resulted in a slight increase in hant ediate and. third year effects n subs-)iled 0 0 yield. ~ q of subsoiling. o 'r q Yield -, per acre When 1901-Never subsoiled........... 1901--Subsoiled Feb. 13.8........ ........ 1903--Never subsoiled.......... 14.5 .... 1903-Subsoiled Feb. 1901 ................ Average loss from subsoiling :......... 1901.............. 13.1........ ........ "11.2 B!.I Bus. II Bus. IBus. ........ ........ .7 1.9........ 61.... 188 Subsoiling should not be condemned simply on this showing. The figures, together with slightly better results on the same land with some other crops, should emphasize the fact that subsoiling done within two months of the time of planting may have an injurious effect. It is believed that land of this character would be helped by using the subsoil plow during long dry periods in the fall when the subsoil is dry enough to crumble. DEPTH OF EARLY CULTIVATION. In 1900 on rather stiff reddish soil, with flinty stones, there was no injury from making the first cultivation deep with two scooter furrows per row, all subsequent cultivations being shallow. In 1901 on gray sandy upland the yield was 23.6 bushels on the three plots cultivated shallow and 23.4 bushels on those given an early deep cultivation with two scooter furrows per row, the subsequent cultivation being shallow. Thus in both experiments there was no marked advantage in favor of making the first cultivation deep. However, it should be noted that in both tests the first cultivation or "running around" was given when the plants were only a few inches high. If cultivation had been delayed as late as sometimes occurs, the injury from early deep cultivation would doubtless have been appreciable. When land is in good condition there seems to be no need for deep early cultivation. Possibly when clay land has been plowed early and has become badly compacted there may be some justification of "running around" the young plants with a scooter. But in general the danger of injury to roots, of excessive drying of the soil if dry weather follows, and the slowness of this process, are against this primitive method of cultivation. PLANTING CORN IN WATER FURROW VERSUS ON A LEVEL. On light sandy lands farmers frequently plant corn below the general level, or in the water furrow. This method was 189 compared with planting on the level flushed field, both in 1900 and in 1901. In preparing to plant corn in the water furrow the land was thrown into beds with a one-horse turn plow, leaving unbroken until planting time a narrow balk where the corn was to be planted. When ready to plant, this balk was thrown out with a shovel plow and seed and fertilizer placed in this freshly-stirred soil. Likewise seed and complete commercial fertilizer were applied on the same day in the furrow on the plot that was planted on the level. In both cases the fertilizer was mixed with the soil before the seed were put into the ground. The yields in bushels per acre were as follows: 1900 1901 22.2 16.5 Planted on the level .................... 16.5 Planted in water furrow.................19.0 In 1900, in which April and June were wet months, there was a loss even on this porous soil, from planting in the water furrow. In 1901 when there was abundant rain from time of planting until June 15, but a drought from the middle of June to the middle of July, the yields by the two methods were identical. METHODS OF HARVESTING CORN. The ordinary method of harvesting corn in the Gulf States 4consists in stripping the blades while they are still green, a practice that is expensive in labor and in the decreased yield of grain that frequently results. In recent years in many southern localities a number of farmers have cut and shocked the plants when the shucks have colored, afterwards passing the plants through a shredder to remove and shuck the ears, and better to prepare the stalk for food and bedding. Rarely the tops are cut, bound into bundles, and cured. An experiment covering this point was made in 1904, to secure data additional to that obtained in our earlier ex- 190 periments in 1896, 1897 and 1900. as follows: Yield per acre The yields in 1904 were of corn and forage from harvesting in 1904. different methods of Corn Forage per acre. CO lbs. 360 lbs. Method of harvesting per acre Only ears harvested.......................25.7 bus. 26.1 bus. Tops cut and ears harvested .............. Entire stalk cut and ears afterwards harvested............................25.4 bus. Blades stripped and ears harvested........25.5 bus. 1980 lbs. 415 lbs. In 1904 there were practically no differences in yield at- tributable to the method of harvesting. The table below sunmmarizes the yield of corn in four experiments made at Auburn, the results of the earlier years having been published in Bulletins Nos. 88 and 111 of this station. harvesting. Yield per acre of corn from different methods of Corn per acre Methods of harvesting (C C 1896 1897 1900 1904 m (D C Bus. Only ears harvested...... ..... 34.41 31.0 IBUS.1Bats.I Bus. IBits. Tops cut and ears harvested . Entire plant cut and shocked .... 30.2 29.2 26.1 32.5 2.0) 29.2 29.5 44.3 25.4 32.1~ 2.4 45.9 25.5 .... C 46.91 44.31 Bus. 25.7 34.5... Blades stripped and ears harv't'dI ......... .Seth** This table shows that the average loss of grain. per acre where the tops only were saved for forage was bushels, or where the plant was cut and shocked, 2.4 bushels per acre. Both losses were greater than in most of the experiments. at other stations. As to the effects of pulling fodder, we have data for only two years. The average of all experiments at all stations show that generally stripping the blades reduces the yield by several bushels per acre, but. that under some conditions (probably when the stripping is late), no material reduction in yield occurs. 2 191 The following table shows the amount of forage d,,tLived from "fodder pulling," from topping, and from shocking. Yields of cured corn tops, stover and blades. Yield of for age per acre 1897 i1900 1904 Avg. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. ra 1896 Bus. Lbs. Only ears harvested Tops cut and ears harvested Entire stalk cut and ears afterwards harvested Blades stripped and 34.5 ..... 32.5 32.1 312 2103 ........ ..... .. ... .. .. . 509 1355 711 1759 615 360 1980 415 473 Tops 1799Stover 515 Blades ears harvested ............. It should be noted that the average amount of cured blades per acre was 515, of cured tops 473 and of cured stover (leaver and staks) 1799 pounds. It is evident that (leaves we can expect less than a ton of stover per acre on southern uplands when the yield is thirty-five bushels or less per acre. When only the ears are harvested, partial utilization may be made of the weather-worn blades, and of 'leaf sheaths and tips of stalks, by pulling the ears early and turning cattle into the field. Where labor is scarce, other winter forage abundant, and a shredder not at hand, this may prove to be the most practicable method. Considering the cost and usual injurious effects of fodder pulling, this method of obtaining forage must be condemned. This Station is accumulating data relative to the feeding value of shredded corn stover, which may throw further light on the advisability of shocking and shredding corn, the method that is usually regarded as the best. Assuming-in the absence of a sufficient number of exact experiments in feeding tops and stalks,-that tops are worth 40 cents, stover 30 cents per 100, and corn blades 60 cents, we find that one acre gives a value of $1.80 in corn 192 tops; or of $3.09 in corn blades or "fodder," and of $5.40 in stover. Cutting and shocking can be done before cotton picking begins, a merit that will be generally recognized. Moreover, the cutting of the stalks leaves the land in better condition for plowing, and enables the farmer to begin the plowing for small grain at an earlier date than is practicable when the ears are allowed to cure slowly on the living plants. The removal of the stalks is somewhat more exhaustive to the land than is burying them with the plow, but this on most soils is probably counterbalanced by the greater convenience of preparing and cultivati-ng land that is free from stalks. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS FERTILIZERS FOR CORN. Velvet beanv stubble vs. vines as fertilizer for corn in 1901. In 1900 velvet beans were planted after oats in feet rows on certain plots of light sandy upland adjacent to the land on which for a long period our fertilizer experiments with cotton and corn were conducted. On certain other plots corn was grown in 1900.The velvet bean vines were cut for hay on a part of the area, yielding 3332 pounds of hay per -1 acre. In 1901 corn was grown on all plots, using on all acid phosphate at the rate of 100 pounds per acre. The object was to note the comparative values as fertilizer of (1) the entire velvet bean plants plowed under late in winter, (2) the stubbie of velvet beans, plowed in at the same time, and (3) as a check, corn stalks of the preceding corn crop. acre Bus. Corn following corn ........................ 13.6... Corn following velvet bean stubble..........17.9 Corn following velvet beans, entire growth plowed in ............................... 25.9 Yield per Increase per acre Bus. 4.3 12.3 The increase attributable to the plowing in of the entire growth of velvet beans, grown as a catch crop after oats, 193 was 12.3. bushels per acre, this increase being worth; at 70 cents per bushel, $8.61 per acre. Doubtless there was also a considerable residue of humus and nitrogen left in the soil to increase the crop of 1902. The cost of growing the velvet beans consisted chiefly of expenditures for 200 pounds of acid phosphate per acre, for the seed, and for a small amount of cultivation. By using the' entire crop of velvet beans as fertilizer the yield of the first crop of corn was nearly doubled. The plot on which only the stubble of velvet beans was used for hay afforded an increase of 4.3 bushels per acre, and lacked 8 bushels of giving as large a crop as the plot on which the entire growth was plowed under. Hence in deciding which was the more profitable use of the velvet bean vines we have on one side 8 bushels of corn and the saving of labor from not harvesting the hay and on the other hand the value of more than one and a half tons of hay. As recorded in Bulletin 111 of this Station, (the issue of which is now exhausted), in 1900 on a similar and adjacent soil, the increase in yield of corn after plowing in the entire vines of velvet beans of 1899, as compared with plowing in only the velvet bean stubble, was 11.9 bushels per acre. That year the yield of velvet bean hay was 2800 pounds. On the same plots in 1901 on all of which corn was the preceding crop, the residual fertilizing effect of the 1899 crop of velvet beans was 4.4 bushels greater where the entire growth of vines had been plowed under than where only the stubble had been plowed under. Here we have in two years a total superiority of vines over stubble of 16.3 bushels of corn per acre, which may be weighed against 2800 pounds of velvet bean hay, less the cost of harvesting the hay. Cowpea stubble versus cowpea vines as fertilizer for corn. On a poor reddish loam upland soil cowpeas were sown in drills June 13, 1900, following oats, and fertilized with 150 pounds of acid phosphate per acre. 194 A part of the cowpea area was cut, yielding 1648 pounds of hay per acre. On another part of the area the peas were neither cut nor picked, but the entire growth turned under. In 1901 corn was grown on both areas, and was fertilized with 100 pounds of high grade acid phosphate per acre. The yields of corn in bushels per acre were as follows: After drilled cowpea stubble.................11.4 bushels After drilled cowpeas, all plowed in..........20.3 bushels Excess from entire growth of cowpeas as compared with cowpea stubble............ 8.9 bushels Beggar weed as a fertilizer for corn. On June 24, 1899, beggar weed seed were sown on certain plots on a poor hilltop, where the soil is a light gray sandy loam. The growth that year was only medium and the stand poor, but some of the plants matured and shed seed. The entire growth of beggar weed was plowed under during the winter, as was also the stubble of drilled velvet beans on adjacent plots, and all plots planted in corn in 1900 and again in 1901. After cultivation of the corn ceased in 1900 beggar weeds sprang up , reseeded the land, and this volunteer crop was plowed under as a fertilizer for the corn crop of 1901. As compared with the plot where velvet bean stubble was left in 1899, the increase on the plots where beggar weeds were plowed in immediately preceding each corn crop was 3.1 bushels in 1890 and 7.6 bushels in 1901, an average annual increase of 5.4 bushels per acre. Doubtless this increase, especially in 1900, would have been considerably greater could the comparison have been made with some plot on which no legume had recently been grown. Acid phosphate as a fertilizer for corn grown after velvet beans. In 1901 acid phosphate containing 14 per cent. available phosphoric acid was applied to corn on poor gray sandy up- 195 land. No other fertilizer was used, but on both plots the entire growth of velvet bean vines had been plowed under late in the winter. The yield without any phosphate was 21.5 bushels per acre; with 100 pounds of phosphate 25.9 bushels. This difference of 4.4 bushels of corn per acre represents the effect of 100 pounds of high grade acid phosphate when applied in the presence of abundance of vegetable matter. Likewise in 1905 a test was made to determine whether, after plowing under a luxuriant growth of velvet bean vines, it would pay to apply commercial fertilizers in addition. On level sandy land in good condition a very heavy growth of velvet bean vines was plowed under with a disc plow February 27, 1905. On the adjacent plots on either side there was plowed under at the same time and in the same way the stubble of drilled sorghum which had been cut for hay. Two of the velvet bean plots received no other fertilizer than the vines and two of them, besides the vines of velvet beans, were also fertilized with 40 pounds of muriate of potash and 240 pounds of acid phosphate per acre. Average results for two plots in each test are given below: Yield of corn per acre fertilized with velvet bean vines alone......................21.3 bushels. Fertilized with velvet bean vines, potash and phosphate ........................... 27.3 bushels. Increase fromn potash and phosphate.......... 6.0 bushels. In this experiment it was profitable to employ as fertilizer for corn, muriate of potash and phosphate, in addition to a mass of velvet bean vines. The gain from this mineral fertilizer, when used in the presence of an abundance of vegetable matter, was 6 bushels per acre. A crop of velvet bean vines turned under gave practically the same yield of corn as did a very heavy applicatioQ of the best grade of barnyard manure, applied on adjoining plots, at the estimated rate of about ten tons per acre. 196 FRACTIONAL APPLICATIONS OF FERTILIZER. It is a favorite plan of some farmers to apply only a part of the fertilizer to cotton or corn before planting, and to apply the remainder after growth has well begun. After the publication of Bulletin No. 111, in which it was shown that corn had not responded very freely to large applications of commercial fertilizers, the writer received several letters suggesting that the results with fertilizers would have been much better if a part of the fertilizer had been withheld until the plants were one or two feet high. To test this matter again eight plots were employed in 1905, located on fairly good upland, where the soil is a reddish loam, containing many flint stones. The fertilizer applied before planting was drilled in the planting furrows and mixed with the soil March 7, and planting was done March 29. The portion of fertilizer withheld was applied on certain plots May 15, in the siding furrows of the second cufivation. 197 Fractional application of fertilizer for corn in 1905. CD~ 'ERTL1ZER CD seed meal .... K00iCotton 11200Acid phosphate ..... ll at T plantin 51... 1 40 JMuiate of potash .... I 200 Cotton seed meal .... V2 of fert. atpnig 2D200cid 40Mr~uriate phosphate of potash .0 .... 1/ of fert. at2ncut 31 OOJNo 4j200JAcid 200 meal .... (I phosphate......All at planting.........20.1. 4olMuriate of potash .... 200 Cotton seed meal .... x/ of fert. at planting 2 seed Acidphsat, 200QCotton fertilizer ......... ........ . .. . . . . :.(.. 610ooJNo fertilizer....... .......... J200JCotton seed meal ... ffr.atpatn f fert. at 5 l2001Cotton seed meal .... 2001Acid phosphate .. .f.....pani........22..... ......... 4 200 Acid phosphate ....... All atpln j4olMuriate of potash ... .12offr.a2ncut of potash.. fet.a 40OMuriate Sphosphate............................2.. of potash .... I!'/2 of fert. at 2nd cult. . 1 . 40Muriate ______ 240... 19... .1 . 6100JNo fertilizer ............ ................. I Av 200 Cotton seed meal .... . ff.. atplanting. 7,, 200(Acid phosphate.......... latig.........24.0 ..... ___4ojMuriate of potash .... o et t2dcl AvI200JCotton seed meal .... 11/Allft planting...251 at 8I,7200lAcid phosphate .. .. ...... I40 Muriate of potash . .. . 1/-_o______t_ 35 .zr ndcut Wherev~o ertilieriie19semlye at__therate of20po omltefri prace wsusd Teavrg s results show a difference of three-tenths of one bushel per acre in favor of applying the entire amount before planting. 198 In favor of this method is also the greater convenience and saving of labor. The corn receiving the entire amount of fertilizer before planting made a much better start than did the other plots, but the difference nearly disappeared late in the season. The increase due to 240 pounds of a complete fertilizer was only 4.1 bushels when all was applied before planting, and only 3.8 bushels when applied in two doses. COTTON SEED VERSUS COTTON SEED MEAL AS FERTERLIZER. In 1901, 200 pounds of cotton seed meal was compared with 434 pounds of cotton seed, these amounts containing equal quantities of nitrogen. The cotton seed was scalded to prevent germination and all fertilizers were applied in the drill April 8. Acid phosphate at the rate of 160 pounds per acre was used on all plots. Increase from 200 pounds cotton seed meal. 2.8 bushels Increase from 434 pounds cotton seed........2.3 bushels This shows a slight superiority the first year for cotton seed meal. An experiment made in 1897 on similar soil, comparing 200 pounds of cotton seed meal with 434 pounds of cotton seed, all applied when corn was planted, April 7, also resulted in a slight advantage for cotton seed meal. In 1904 and a in in 1905 on the same plots a comparison was made between the following nitrogenous fertilizers: Cotton seed meal, 200 pounds per acre; cotton seed, 434 pounds; manure (unleached) from feeding steers on cotton seed meal and sorhulmn hay, 4800 pounds; 100 pounds of nitrate of soda; and a mixture of nitrate of soda and cotton seed meal. To prevent germination the cotton seed were scalded in 1904 and ground in 19095. 199 Cotton- seed meal cersus cotton seed, nitrate stable mnanure. FERTILIZERS PER ACRE. YIELD PER ACRE. of soda per and acre from tncrease nitrogenous fertilizers. Am't. per acre. LLbs. I KIND 1904 190'5 Bus. 1 irs. I 22.9 18.9{ Av. Bis. 20.91 1904 1905 Av. 200JCotton seed meal1....... I 24OlAcid phosphate ........ 48 Muriate of potash ...... f 434ICotton seed .............. 240lAcid phosphate........1 481Muriate Bus. 1.8 Bus. Bit. 2.21 2.0 1 I{1 {1 24Acid 48JMuriate of potash ...... I 20.21 17.11 18.71.............. 100litrate of soda, 2nd cult.( I{ ( ( 240jAcid phosphate........1 27.3 21.1 24.21 7.11 4.015.6 of potash ...... phosphate ........ I 0178! .8 21.0 19.11 ___ .81 I .71 .8 (_ I _ 48l(Muriate of potash ....... 100{Cotton seed meal ...... 1 50lNitrate or soca ........ I 48,4uriate of potash ...... 1 25.21 21.21 23.2 240jAcid phosphate ........ I I( 33iNitrate of soda (at plantgl r I ( 240O(Acid phosphate.......... 29.31 24.41 48lMuriate of potash ............ 48001Manure from steers fedII cotton seed meal and 1 24.2 22.3 hulls or sorghum fodder { 67lNitrate of soda, { 5.0 {I 9.11 4.0 (I 4.11 4.6 2nd cult { {I 26.8! 23.5 (I I 7.31 8.2 5.21 4.6 This soil did not respond very generously to any of the fert ilizers in either year, although had been rather exhaustively cropped with silage corn, wheat and sorghum, and had borne no leguminous plant f or at least two years before the beginning of this experiment. it It is obvious that cotton seed' meal was more effective than cotton seed ; that a mixture of cotton seed meal and 200 nitrate of soda was still more useful; and that nitrate of soda was more beneficial than any other fertilizer. One pound of nitrate of soda afforded a greater average increase than 48 pounds of manure made under shelter by feeding steers on cotton seed meal and coarse sorghum fodder. Unexpectedly there seems to have been but little cumulative or second-year effect from either cotton seed or manure. This experiment is being continued on the same plots, using wheat as the crop, and we may reasonably expect that as this experiment is continued we shall obtain some cumulative effect from the manure. There was an advantage both years in applying one-third of the nitrate of soda with the other fertilizers before planting, instead of reserving all this for use at the second culltivation. Nitrate of soda is believed to be the only fertilizer which can be applied to corn with as much advantage after growth begins as before planting. A number of fertilizer experiments have been made with corn. But these will not be published until some of these tests have been further repeated. In general they point to the conclusion that corn, growing on average upland soil in Alabama, usually requires a fertilizer rich in nitrogen, and that the application of very large amounts of commercial fertilizers for corn is not very profitable. The following fertilizer formulas for corn are suggested: (A) 100 lbs. acid phosphate, 50 lbs. nitrate of soda, (both just before planting). 50 Ibs. nitrate of soda, at second cultivation. (B) 100 lbs. acid phosphate 200 lbs. cotton seed meal, (both before planting). Credit is due to the following for participation in the experiments detailed in this bulletin: T. U. Culver, formerly superintendent of the farm; C. M. Floyd, superintendent of the farm during 1904 and 1905; and L. N. Duncan, assistant in agricultur.e, who has prepared most of the tables in this bulletin. 201 APPENDIX Seed corn fron different latitudes. Increase Yield per acre Variety Seed from acre from per 0 Seed S e1 s from SGulf - Region. Bus. Bus. 2.8. 15.6-3.7 Bus. 1896 Hickory King Alabama do do do do Illinois 19.3. 16.5 ... Delaware..- 1896 Blount Prolif Ga. (South) do Illinois 14.2 ...... _ 1897 Hickory King Alabama .. , dI _do Illinois 14.3 ... 12.1 ....... -2.2..... 897 Blount Prolif Ga. (South) ddo H ickory do do 18.9 11.4 -- --. 2 1.0 ... K ing~ G a. n(N orth) Il i Illinois. 911898 10.4.... . 1898 Blount Prolif. Ga. (North) do doIllinois .10 . ... ... 11.0 _..._ .... .5 ~ut~l,* 1,99 1899 Blount Prolifi. Georgia Illinois do do 17.1 152 1899 St. Charles.. Alabama........15.3 Ilinois .... 16.1 do do 1900 St. Charles.. do do do do do do Ala.(1 year). 33.1 Illinois .. 34.2 32.2 190Blount Prolif. Ga. (South) IllinoisVirginia 341 I ( 32 6 38.4 38.6.)38. I 368 2.7 -4.6 - 5.2 .. 1900 Cocke ProlifG.(Suh;J Ga. (South; A.) ---do do do do Ga. (INorth) do do Virginia.-.... . -- 41.7 l900Kiug Hickory Virginia ....... Delaware do do I 29.8 3'?0 4 202. Seed.corn from dilferent latitudes. (Continued). - ~ -Yield per acre inJcrease per acre. VARIETY O' t. o0 v0 , 005 (D o 0s c P 1901 Blount ................... do. Blount.... 19Ol1JSt. do. 19O3JHickory do. (Hickory do.I Hickory ISt. King Georgia Illinois. Alabama .. .22.6 27.3. .... .... .... 18.9.... f....J.... ... 471..I.. .1.. _.I._.._ Charles White........ Charles White ... ............ Illinois King............ King.......Illinois Tenn. .. Georgias..20.7 24.6... ..... I -5.71l.. ... ... . ....... .. 20.1 . 61...... 24.3 .... -3.6 4.2 4l... .1. ... .... 7.2 ..... . 19031ISt. Charles White ........ Illinois do.I St. Charles White.......Alabama 1904 St. Charles White....... Illinois do. 1904 do. do. 1904 St. Charles White ... Cocke......... ... "....... Cocke .. .......... Cocke......... ... :...... Hickory King ............ . 23.5... ..... .... 23.9 .... I 20.5.......... .... . .. Alabama, .... 27.7 . . do. Hickory King............ Illinois . 19.9 do. Hickory King............ Delaware ..... do. Hickory King............ do. Hickory King North North Ga .... Virginia . ... Tenn. .......... Virginia I..... ~ .31.2(.... 31.7 ............. .8j... 130.4 .133.41J.. 2.2j.... ... . .... .... ....... .... ... .1 -10.7 11.8 2. 22.0 -1.7 2.8 -1.01 2.1 do. 1Blount Ga..21.0.... Tn. en........... ... . .. .... 1.1 .... .. ........ ........... Vrii 14.3.. ...... .d.IlutIllinois l9OSICocke ................... do. ICocke .......... Alabama ... .... 1.... 11.9 .128.61....1........... Tenn.............30.91... .f-2.S1.... Y" S - " .4F'° . F F'ir;. 1. 0. 1 an(on II G;, Icid hUI ii (JnIIrtij WIitc 3, B.Joonu' ( omitiq Yellow a-Irt 7, No. lotca kSflrir .Niue; Th Iickofl 1, 77 1' SN* /Ihpt .]gr.; 8, King. Iij III,i.I&ilex/ Eu corit(; 11, I]Ip6'rinl nt Station 1 fll'HC 12. Sandrs; 1:1, illJakIau Uurd Nt'ed; 14. l~ocal Go ~11, i C ob ; fi, 11ru rl (Grady' 16,. 1Isbi/; 17, 7)! iIfi/ SI(I iv, rlor , 8 .ll~lMO PI.oq'ockf_ 1 F'ig. 111. 20, CGoo'H'x; 21, Shan; 22. A lbe- sA I z t''I j';~ 4rI' 1__ IIf I ." II- I I /I fI II IIf i 'l 1f If',' fI ff, If I a ' A> R liIi,. I I ll,/, f'ill I,, I/I ff ~I fflnl f' ' i IIf I Pig. V7I. Rainfall chart in inches' for growing seaso~n, A uburn, Ala., 1901-1 905. BULLETINS OF ALABAMA. Agricultural Experiment Station AUBURN. IN DEX. VOL. XIV. BULLETINS 135-138 AND -19TH ANNUAL REPORT AND CIROULAR NO. 1. January to December, 1906. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1908 CONTENTS BULLETINS: Diseases of Sweet Potatoes in Alabama - - - - - - - -June, Chicken Pox or Sorehead in Poultry - - - - - - - - - - August, Experiment with Oats-------------------September, Variety tests with Cotton and Corn -------- December, No. 1. Two Important Scale Insects and their Control ------------------------------- October, Annual Report, Nineteenth -------------------------------135. 136. 137. 138. Circ. 1906 1906 1906 1906 1906 1906 INDEX Alabama, oat crop of ------------------Anatomy of sorehead----------..------Animals, coccidia in------------------B. --137: 62 B. 136: 38 Anderson, J. T., report of------------------------R. 19, 21-22 ----B. 136: 25 Agriculturist, report of--------------------------R. 19: 7-17 Bacteria obtained from sorehead cases--------------B. 136: 31 64 Barley csus oats versus wheat for hay and for grain B. BarnyaA-tl manure for oats-----------------------B. 137: 79-81 Botanist, report of ---------------------------- R. 19: 26-27 ----------B..135: 5 Black rot of sweet potato --------------A. ----------------------------------- R..19: 23-24 Cary, Causes of Chicken pox, sorehead or contagious:epitheliomia in poultry forms of-----------B. 136: 22-25 Chicken pox, sorehead or contagious epithelionia in poultry forms of--------------------B. 136: 21-22 ---------------------------- R. 19: 18-20 Chemist; report of Chickea mites ------------------------------- B. 136: 53-56 ------------------------------ B. 136: 52 Chickens, runs for --------------------------- B. 126: 51-52 houses for Chicken pox, sorehead or contagious epithelioma in B..136: 22-25 poultry, causes of ----------------Clarke, W. T., report of --------- ---------------- R. 19: 34-36 B. 136: 27 Coccidia, life history of --------------------------- 137: (.. CoccidUn, animals--------------------------------- B. 136-25 Corn, -%rieties of----------------------------B. 138: 101-102 Williamson method of culture---------B. 138: 102-104 Cotton varieties-------------------------------- B. 138: 98-99 Cotton seed meal versus cotton seed as a fertilizer for oats--------------------------------B. Directv:°, report of----------------------. -------B.R.137: 81-82 19: 135: 12-16 Diseases of sweet potatoes, literature on- -- -- -- -B. of Dry rot of sweet potato----------------------------B. 135: 7 7-17 Dissemination and transmission sorehead --- ----- 136: 3 B.136: 55-56 Duggar, J. F., report of -------------------------- R. 19: 7-17 Drugs for poultry ------------------------------ Entonvolegist, report of ------------------------- B.- 19:34-36 B. 136: 50 Explanation of plates ----------------------------Feed fr, poultry------------ -- ------------------- =B. -136-51 110 ----B. 137: 76-79 ----------------------------- B. 137: 76-79 Hay, oats for -- :---------------------. B. 137: 92-94 Horticulturist, report of-----------------------R. 19: 28-33 House- i or chickens--------------------------B. 136: 51-52 Inoculation tests of sorehead--------------------B. 136: 33-35 Incubaticn, period of sorehead---------------------B. 136: 41 ImmiuniLy of sorehead---------------------------B. 136: 41 Kerosine oil emulsion----------------------------B. 136: 54 Laws regulating nurseries in Alabama-----------Circ. 1: 7-8 Leguminous plants as a fertilizer for oats---------B. Life history of coccidia--------------------------B. 136: 2. Lime salt wash ------------------------------1: 7-8 Literature on diseases of sweet potatoes----------B. 135: 12-16 Literature on sorehead-------------------------B. 136: 46-49 Mackintosh, R. S., report of----------------------R. 19: 28-33 Methods of sowing oats------------------------B. 137: 74-76 Mites, chicken ------------------------------- B. 136: 53-56 Mosquites as carriers of the virus-------------B. 136: 36-37 Nitrate of soda for oats------------------------B. 137: 82-88 Nursery regulations of Alabama-----------------Circ.' 1: 2-3 Oat crop of Alabama --------------------------- B. 137: 62 Oats, nitrate of soda for---------------------B. 137: 82-88 Cotton seed versus cotton seed meal as izer for -------------------------- B. 137: 81-82 Oats, versus wheat versus barley for hay and for grain -B.137: 64 yield of, compared with corn--------------B. 137: 63 varieties-------------------------------B. 137: 64-70 time to sow----------------------------B. 137: 72-74 Fertili-se a for oats -------------- Hardiness of oats 137:.88-92 fertil- winter killing of hardiness of ------------- B. 137: 70-72 137: 76-78 methods of sowing---------------------BB. 137: 74-76 --------------------------- B. fertilizers for-----------------------------B. barnyard manure for prevention of winter Oil, emulsion of kerosine -------------------- 137: 79 B. 137: 79-81 137: 60 leguminous plants as a fertilizer for- -- -- B. 137: 88-92 killing----------------B. as a hay crop --------------------------- ----------------------------------- B. B. 137: 92-94 B. 136: 54 Pathological anatomy of sorehead------------------B. 136: 38 Peach scale ------------------------------------Circ. 5-7 1: Pigeons~, inoculation tests with sorehead Plates, explanation of Poultry, drugs for --------------------------------------------------------- 136: B. 136: 50 B.- 136:' 55-56 35-36 111 B. 136: 51 feed for -------------------------------B. 136:51 water supply for ------------------------Chicken pox, sorehead or contagious epitheB .136:22-25 lioma, causes of -------------------B. 137:78-79 Prevention of smut in oats --------------------------- B. 136:43 Prevention of sorehead --------------------------------------------- R. 19: 1&-20 Report of chemist --------- R. 19: 18-20 Ross, B. B., report of --------------136:52 Runs for chickens------------------------------------B. Circ. 1: 3-5 -------------------------------San Jose scale ------------------------------- Circ. 1: 5-7 Scale, peach--San Jose ------------------------------ Circ. 1: 3-5 ----------- B. 135: 7 sweet potato ----------------Scurf ----------- B. 135: 8 Soft rot of sweet potatoes ----------------------- B. 135: 9 Soil rot of sweet potato ----------------Soil and. crop investigations, report on------------R. 19: 21-22 B. 137:78-79 Smut, prevention or in oats -------------------------- B. 136:46-49 Sorehead, literature on ----------------B. 136: 41-44-46 treatment of------------------------------- B. 136:43 prevention of ----------------B. 136: 41 ---------------------------immunity of B. 136: 41 period of incubation --------------------B. 136:39 symptoms of ---------------------------B. 136: 38 pathological anatomy of------------------B. 136:38 transmission and dissemination of ----------B. 136:33-35 inoculation tests of -------------------B. 136: 31 bacteria obtained from-------------------Sweet potatoes, yields ot ----------------------------- B. 135: 3 B. 135: 5 black rot of -----------------------------dry rot of ---------------------------------- B. 135: 7 B. 135: 7 scurf of -----------------------------------soft rot of ----------------------------------- B. 135: 9 B. 135: 9 soil rot of ----------------------------------stem rot of --------------------------------- B. 135: 11 B. 135: 12 --white rot of B. 135: 12-16 Diseases of ------------------------------B. 125: 12-12 literature on -----------------------------Stem rot of sweet potato ----------------------------- B. 135: 11 B. 136: 39 Symptoms of sorehead -------------------------------Time to sow oats --------------------------------- B. 137: 72-74 Transmission and dessemination of sorehead --------- B. 136: 38 B. 139: 11-12 Trap crops for insects ---------------------------B. 136: 44-46 Treatment of soreheaa --------------------------- ef 112 Varieties of corn --------------------------- B. 138: 101-102 Varieties of cotton---------------------------B 138: 98-99 ----------------------------- B. 137: 64-70 Varieties of oats 19: 23-25 Veterinarian, report of-------------------------R. Wash, lime, sulphur, salt------------------------Circ. 1: 7-8 Water supply for poultry ------------ ------------- B. 136: 57 R. 19: 26-27 Wilcox, E. M., report of ------------------------B. 137: 70-72 Winter killing of oats ------------------------Williamson method of corn culture- -- -- -- -- -- -- -B. 138: _102-106 Wheat versus oats versus barley for hay and for grain - B. 137: 64 B. 135: 12 White rot of sweet potatoes ------------------ BULLETIN NO. 135. JUNE, 1906. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AU BURN. Diseases of Sweet Potatoes inAlabama. (A Preliminary Report.) By E. MEAD WiLCOX, Ph. D., Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. The Post Publishing 1906. Opelika, Ala.: Company, COMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. J. M. CARMICHAEIL....................................Montgomery. T. D. SAMrORD ............................. Opelika. .......................... asper. W. C. DAVIS................ STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACHI.......................................President. J. F. DUGGAR......................... Director and Agriculturist. Chemist and State Chemist. ........ .. B. B. Ross......... ................ .. C. A. CARY........... E. R. Veterinarian. M. Wicox ................ S. Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. and State Horticulturist. MACKINTOSH.........Horticulturist ASSISTANTS. J. T. ANDERSON............Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations. C. L,. HAREt.... .... A. Ti. .................... McB. T. First Assistant Chemist Second Assistant. Chemist. RANSOM .................... BRAGG............. ... ... ......... Third Assistant Chemist. D. GRAY.. ... ............ ...... ........ ............. Assistant in Animal Industry. C. M. FL OYD............ .................. 4 I. S. MC ADORY C. F. KINMAN........... Superintendent of Farm. Assistant in Veterinary Science. ... Assistant in Horticulture. LI. N.. DUNCAN.... ....................... Assistant in Agriculture. The Bulletins of this Station will b2 sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Ag ricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. DISEASES OF SWEET POTATOES IN ALABAMA E. MEAD WILCOX, PH. D. INTRODUCTION. The sweet-potato crop in Alabama is one of importance and one that, no doubt, will increase in value from year to year. At present Alabama stands fourth in order among the sweet-potato growing states. According to the census report for 1900, covering the year 1899, Alabama produced 3,457,386 bushels of sweet potatoes on 50,865 acres. Assuming the average value of the crop as $0.49 cents per bushel, as done in this report, the average value of this crop per acre during 1899 was $33.17. The following counties produced over 100,000 bushels: Dallas, Henry, Jefferson, Montgomery and Wilcox; and Montgomery county produced 163,832 bushels. The value of the crop is much enhanced if it is possible to hold it until it can command the much higher prices that prevail during the winter and early spring. Methods of storage, therefore, deserve attention and it is our plan to make a thorough investigation of the subject in connection with some of the growers who now try to hold over a part or all of their crop. Some of the diseases which are mentioned in this bulletin are most serious obstacles to the storage of sweet-potatoes, and it is here largely, rather than during the growing season, that sweet-potato diseases cause the greatest losses. It has seemed wise in advance of the publication of our study of storage methods to publish here a summary of our present knowledge of sweet-potato diseases to include the work upon the subject done here and elsewhere. It is hoped and urgently requested that all who grow sweet potatoes will assist us in this investigation by reporting all sweet potato diseases to this office promptly, accompanied by specimens of the diseased plants. In this manner a. 9 .I Figure 1. we can become acquainted with the distribution and peculiarities of each of these and other diseases in this State. We shall be glad to learn also of the methods of storage now being employed in various parts of the State, and correspondence upon this matter is invited. The present bulletin has been prepared largely from the notes submitted by W. M. Lewallen and H. F. MeElderry as a thesis for the bachelor's degree June, 1906. To these gentlemen my thanks are due for the assistance rendered in this work and in the working out of the life histories of the various organisms, all of which will be published at a later date. Thanks are due Dr. B. D. Halsted of the New Jersey Experiment Station for the loan of the cuts. BLACK ROT. This disease may bd recognized by the formation on the root of olive-brown or greenish spots. See Fig. 1. A. At first these diseased spots may be very small but as the dis ease progresses they become larger and extend deeper inte the tissues of the potato until finally the entire root may turn black. Potatoes affected with this disease acquire a very characteristic bitter taste and are utterly unfit for eating. The troublesome feature about this disease is the fact that it may escape notice at the time of harvest but, if storage conditions are favorable to the growth of the fungus, much damage to the crop may result during storage. This, unlike the soft rot, is a dry rot. This same disease attacks also the young sprouts, and in this case is at times called "black shank." See Fig. 1. B. Dark colored spots or lines are formed and these in extreme cases may completely girdle the stem. In that case the plant will be killed outright, but in any case it is apt to be very much injured and rendered of very little value. It must be kept in mind that if diseased roots are used to secure the "sets" that these sets are very apt to have the disease en their stems. And more than this, the disease may be carried over for several years in the soil, the fungus causing the trouble being able to live for somne time in this manner. The disease is caused by the fungus known to scientists as Ceratocystis fimbriata.. This fungus produces three distinct sorts of spores and is therefore well provided with reproductive bodies: In addition to these methods of reproduction the fungus produces hard dark colored roundish bodies inside of the root known as sclerotia. See Fig. 2. these are simply compact masses of the vegetative filaments of the fungus, but each one of these masses is capable of developing the other stages and spores of the fungus. These black spots within a root in which the disease has made considerable progress are certain indications of the presence of the black rot. Figure 2. The most important remedial measures to be suggested against this disease are the following: 1. Never employ diseased roots to secure sets. 2. Destroy by burning all diseased roots and sets and do not feed the diseased roots to animals if the resulting manure is to be placed upon the field where the potatoes are to be grown. 3. In general, commercial fertilizers are preferable in sweet potato culture on the above account and particularly in the beds employed for the growing of the sets. 4. As you select your sets it may be well to lift the root and discard sets coming from roots showing the rot. 5. Do not place diseased potatoes in storage as the loss may be very great. 6. The young sets if diseased may be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. 7. If the disease has proven serious during the past year it would be well to mix a tablespoonful of sulphur with the soil about each set as.it is planted. 8. Practice rotation of fields if one field becomes too badly infected with the fungus. 9. Collect and burn all diseased roots and stems! DRY ROT. This disease appears only on the underground portions of the plant. The whole upper end of the root becomes much wrinkled and covered with small pimples, and this condition rapidly progresses downwards until the whole of the root is diseased., The interior of the rot is converted into a dry powdery mass with very little change of color. The dry rot is caused by the fungus known as Phoma batatae. The spores of this fungus are produced in small flask-shaped cavities just beneath the surface of the potato root these cavities give- to the diseased potato the pimply appearance referred to above. The only remedy to be applied in this case consists in taking care to collect and burn all roots showing this dis ease, so that the numerous small spores formed in the cavities described may not become scattered over the entire field. SCURF. This disease attacks the root only and on it first makes its appearance as a small brownish speck. This enlarges and large areas of the root may become affected, assuming a dark color and rough character and at times shrivelling to a considerable extent. The disease does not affect the interior of the root but is confined to the surface. This also is a fungus disease and is -caused by the fungus called Monilochaetes infuscans. So far we have not met this disease in Alabama. The most, practical method of treat- 8 ment, where it is found, is simply to discard and burn all affected roots to avoid scattering the spores about the field. SOFT ROT This disease is rarely found at harvest time and never appears upon the stem or leaves of the plant. It is confined strictly to the roots and there even is largely a storage trouble. In Alabama it appears to be by far the most important of the diseases affecting the roots during storage. As a rule the fungus gains entrance to the root near the top at the point where it was separated from the stem at harvest time. As the disease extends throughout the root the latter becomes somewhat shrivelled. But the most characteristic indication of the presence of this disease is the fact that a diseased potato when, broken open is found to consist of a black mass, the color being due to the spores ·which are formed in great quantities. If the skin of the potato is not broken no spores are formed and the fungus in that case simply grows throughout the interior of root. But in all cases the root soon acquires a very disagreeable and characteristic odor. The spores form only when the potato is broken or injured but the growth of the vegetative portion of the fungus destroys the value of the potato. This trouble is due to the cosmopolitan fungus Rhizopus nigricans. The spores are born inside of globular sacs produced one at the end of threads that grow upright from the injured surface of the potato. These sacs are large enough to be seen readily with the unaided eye and if one is in doubt as to which fungus is causing trouble in any particular case it is only necessary to place a broken potato under a jelly glass and keep it moist for a few days. It will be found to be covered with a whitish coating composed of the interwoven vegetative threads of the fungus and with these many of the erect spore-bearing threads, the older of which have turned black due to the color of the contained spores. The treatment to be applied against this rot may best be indicated by the following outline: 1. Since the fungus gains entrance to the roots through injury of the root great care should be taken in digging and storing to injure as few roots as possible and to store none that are broken or badly bruised. 2. During the sweating period just after the roots are stored care should be taken to see that proper ventilation is provided and that the temperature be kept at about 70 degrees. The temperature, in case enough roots are stored to make the erection of a regular storage house profitable, may best be secured by means of a small stove. 3. Where the roots are stored in the usual dirt covered piles it is important not to let water get on them whenever they are opened to remove any potatoes. The fungus requires a certain amount of moisture for its most rapid development, and this is too often furnished by carelessness in opening these piles. 4. Do not store any potatoes affected with the soft rot; and remove and burn any that may be found in the storage bins during the winter. SOIL ROT. This unlike the preceding diseases is a strict field disease and no damage from it may be expected after harvest time. Its principal damage is done early in the season. It is characterized by the fact that the affected parts of the root cease to grow while the adjacent portions not only continue growing but remain perfectly healthy and edible. See Fig. 3. The first indication of the disease will be found generally about the base of one of the small rootlets and it seems that the fungus can gain entrance to the main root only through these young delicate rootlets. This disease is caused by the fungus Acrocystis batatas. The spores in this case are so small that when they escape from the diseased portions of an affected potato they may be carried about in the field or to other fields in the air. In this manner fields become infested that have never grown a crop of potatees. Halsted has shown that kainit and sulphur sown broadcast in the field before planting will greatly reduce the amount of the soil rot even when the soil is known to be C Figure 3 . 11 badly infested with the spores of the fungus. He suggests three or four hundred pounds of each per acre. It is remarkable that this disease is most serius during dry seasons and this may be due to the fact that the plants are at such times unable to overcome the injury of the fungus and put out new roots. STEM ROT. This disease first appears in that portion of the stem at the surface of the ground and grows from there in both directions. See Fig. 4. And generally the entire vine dies FiguTre 4. 12 as a result of this injury to the base of the stem. In the meantime the rot extends downward into the roots and the whole hill may be rendered of no value. This is also a field disease and does no damage during storage of the roots. This disease is caused by the fungus Nectria ipomoeae. The spores of this fungus also retain their vitality for some time in the soil. No method of treatment is known except that of long rotation periods between potato crops to starve the fungus out. WHITE ROT. This is one of the most serious troubles with us in Alabama, and during the past three years roots affected with this trouble could be found inany of the local markets. The fungus attacks the roots only and changes the tissues of the root into a granular whitish substance. No odor is generated and hence the trouble is generally overlooked but cultures of the fungus have often been male to establish the identity of the decay. The fungus is a species similar to the mold that often appears upon decaying bread or other organic materials. The spores are produced in immense numbers and are greenish-blue in color. They live in the soil for some time and this determines the proper method of treatment to be followed. Care should be taken not to plant sets coming from roots infected with this disease and none of the diseased roots should be placed in the storage bins. No other method of treatment is at present known. BLACK ROT. Burnette, F. H. 1894 Black Rot. (Geratocystis fimbriata, E. & Hals.) Bull. La. Exp. Stat. ii-30: 1086-1089. fig. B-C. Chester, F. D. 1891 The Black Rot of the Sweet Potato. Ceratocystis fiabriata. Rept. Del. Exp. Stat. 3-1890: 90-91. 13 1897 Experiment on the use of sulphur as a preventive of black rot of sweet potatoes. Bull. Del. Exp. Stat. 34: 21-22. Duggar, J. F. 1895 Black Rot (Ceratocystis fimbriata) Farmers" Bulletin 26: 21-22. fig. 2. Halsted, B. D. 1890 Some.Fungous Diseases of the Sweet Potato. The Black Rot. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 76: 7-14. fig. 3-10. 1891 Black Rot. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 339. 1891 Field work of the season. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 341-344. 1891 Field Experiments with Soil and Black Rots of Sweet Potatoes. Special Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat M: 1-19. 1892 Field Experiments with Soil and Black Rots of Sweet Potatoes. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1891: 260-266. fig. 15. This is a reprint of Special Bulletin M. 1895 Some of the MoreInjurious Fungi Upon Market-Garden Crops. Sweet Potato. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1894: 359. Halsted, B. D. and Fairchild, D. G. 1891 Sweet-Potato Black Rot. (Ceratocystis briata, Ell. & Hals.) Journ. Mycol. 1-9. p1. 1-3. 1892 Sweet-potato black rot. Cleratocystis fimbriata, Ell. & ilals. Rept. Secy. Agr. U. 5. 1891: 376-378. pl. 1-3. McCarthy, G. 1892 Some enemies of truck and garden crops. Sweet Potato. Bull. N. Car. Exp. Stat. 84: 19-20. Townsend, C. 0. 1899 Some Diseases of the Sweet Potato and How to Treat Them. Black Rot.- Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 7: fim- 60: 149-154, 167. fig. 44-51. 14 DRY ROT. Duggar, J. F. 1895 Dry Rot (Phoma batatae) Farmers' Bulletin 26: 22. Halsted, B. D. 1890 Some Fungous Diseases of the Sweet Potato. The Dry Rot. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 76: 23-25, 32. fig. 16. 1891 Dry Rot. -Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 340. Townsend, C. O. 1899 Some Diseases of the Sweet Potato and How to Treat Them. Dry Rot. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 60: 163-164, 167-168. fig. 58. SCURF. Duggar, J. F. 1895 Sweet-Potato Scurf. (Monitochaetes. in[ascans) Farmers' Bulletin llalsted, B. D. 1890 Some Fungous Diseases of the Sweet Potato. The Sweet Potato Scurf. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 76': 25-27, 32. fig. 17. 1891 Scurf. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 340-341. Townsend, C. 0. 1899 Some Diseases of -the Sweet Potato and How to Treat, Them.: Scurf. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 60: 164-165, 168. fig. 59. SOFT ROT. Burnette, F. H. (Rhizous niyricans, Ehr.) Bull. La. Exp. Stat. ii-30: 1085-1086. fig. A. Duggar, J. F. 1895 Soft Rot. (Rhizopus nigricans) Farmers' Bull. 22. fig. 3. Halsted, B. D. 1890 Some Fungous Diseases of the Sweet Potato. The Soft Rot. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 76: 4-7. 30-31. fig. 1-2. 26: 23. 1894 Soft- Rot. 26: 1891 -SoftRot. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 339. 15 Quaintance, A. L. 1900 The Soft Rot of Sweet Potatoes (Rhizopus nigricans, Ehr.) Rept. Ga. Exp. Stat. 140-141. Townsend, .C. O. 1899 Some Diseases of the Sweet Potato and How to Treat Them. Soft Rot. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat..60: 158-160, 167. fig. 54-55. SOIL ROT. Duggar, J. F. 1895 Soil Rot. (Acrocystis batatas) Farmers' Bull. 26: 22. Ilalsted, B. D. 1890 Some Fungous Diseases of the Sweet Potato. The Soil Rot. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 76: 14-20, 31. fig. 11-13. 1891 Soil Rot. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 339-340. 1891 Field work of the season. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 341-344. 1891 Field Experiments with Soil and Black Rots of Sweet Potatoes. Special Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. M: 1-19. 1892 Field' Experiments with Soil and Black Rots of Sweet Potatoes. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1891: 260-266. fig. 15. A reprint of Special Bulle. tin M. 1894 Field Experiments with Sweet Potatoes. Rapt. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1893: 345-346. 1899: 1895 Some of the More Injurious Fungi Upon ket-Garden MarJ. Crops. Sweet potato. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1894: 359. 1895 Experiments with Sweet Potatoes. Bull.. N. Exp. Stat. 112: 13-20. fig. 4-6. 1896 Experiments with Sweet Potatoes. Rept. N. Exp.. Stat. -1895: 276-280, 282-283. fig. 24-27. 1897 Experiments with sweet potatoes. Rept. N. Exp. Stat. 1896: 319-327. fig. 23-24. 1898 Experiments with sweet potatoes. Rept. N. Exp. Stat. 1897:.362-372. fig.. 38-40. J. J. J. 16 1899 Experiments with sweet potatoes. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1898: 348-351. fig. 18. 1900 Experiments with soil rot of sweet potatoes. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1899: 345-354. fig. 5. Townsend, C. O. 1899 Some Diseases of the Sweet Potato and How to Treat Them. Soil Rot. Bull. Md Exp. Stat. 60: 154-158, 167. fig. 52-53. STEM ROT. Duggar, J. F. 1895 Stem Rot. Farmers' Bulletin 26: 23. Halsted, B. D. 1890 Some Fungous Diseases of the Sweet Potato. The Stem Rot. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 76: 20-22, 31-32. fig. 14. 1891 Stem Rot. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 340. 1892 The egg-plant stem rot. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1891: 281-283. fig. 20-22. 1895 Some of the More Injurious Fungi Upon Market-Garden Crops. Sweet Potato. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1894: 359-360. fig. 41. 1897 The Stem Rot of Sweet Potatoes. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1895: 327. fig. 25. Townsend, C. O. 1899 Some Diseases of the Sweet Potato and How to Treat Them. Stem Rot. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 60: 160-162, 167. fig. 56. WHITE ROT. Duggar, J. F. 1895 White Rot. Farmers' Bulletin 26: 22. Halsted, B. D. 1890 Some Fungous Diseases of the Sweet Potato. The White Rot. Bull. N. J. Exp. Stat. 76: 22-23, 32. fig. 15. 1891 White Rot. Rept. N. J. Exp. Stat. 1890: 340. Townsend, C. O. 1899 Some Diseases of the Sweet Potato and How to Treat Them. White Rot. Bull. Md. Exp. Stat. 60: 162-163, 167. fig. 57. BULLETIN NO. 136 AUGUST, 19O6 ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBURN. Chicken-Pox or Sore-iead inPoultry BY C. A. GARY Opelika, Ala.:. The Post Publishing Company, 1906. COMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. J. M. C ARMICHAEI,................................Montgomery. T. D. SAMFORD .............. ..................... Opelika.. W. C. DAVIS..........................................Tasper. STATION COUNCIL. C. C.- THACH.. ..... .......... President. J. F. DUGGAR.......................Director B. B. Ross................... C. A. CARY.... E. M. WILcox R. J. S. and Agriculturist. ..... Chemist and State Chemist. .Veterinarian arid Director of Farmers' Institutes. .............. Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. MACKINTOSH.........Horticulturist and State. Horticulturist. T. ANDERSON............Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations. ASSISTANTS. C. A.. L. HARTS .. .................. .. First Assistant Chemist. Second Assistant Chemist. McB. RANSOM .................... T. BRAGG....... ... h. T. GRAY............ ....... ......... ....... Third Assistant. Chemist. Assistant in Animal Industry. Superintendent of C. C. M. FLOYD .... ..... .............. ....... ........... Farm. 1. 5. MCADORY..... Assistant in .. Veterinary Science. in Horticulture. F. KINMAN............. ... Assistant .... L. N. DUNCAN..... ............... Assistant in Agriculture. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free, to' any. citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Aubni.rim, Alabama. CONTENTS Introduction........................ Coccidia: (a) (b) Ostertag....... ...... ............. ........... Page 21 Neumann........................... ................ ................ e. 23 22 (c) Johne .... ...................... 27 (d) Friedherger :and Frohner ....... ........... ........ 23 Occurrance of Coccidia in Animals .......... .............. 25 Occurrance of Coccidia in Man....... ....................... 27 Reports of Occurrance of Bacteria in Avian Diptheria, Roup. and Sore-Head .. ........ ... ... ...... :...........28 B~acteria Obtained by Writer from Sore-Head Cases......... 31 (noculation4 with Various Sore-Head Germs and Materials made by the writer .. .... ....... ............... 33 Tests with Mosquitoes as carriers of Sore-Head Virus,..........3 Cause or Causes of Sore-Head, Avian lDiphtberia I r Roup...37 'Transmission and Dissemination of Sore-Head.... .......... ... 38 Pathological Anatomy.......................... .... ... 38 Clinical Symptoms ............. .... ... ... ................ .3 Period of Incubation Susceptibility and Course..................41 Mortality................ ... :.................. Immunity............... ..................... Treatment.. ................................ :... ... .......... ................ ...... ........ ...... ......... 41 41 41 Report of Cases Treated................. References ............ ... Explanation of Plates ......... ... ............... .......... ............ ..... .. ..... .... .44 46 50 Plates .... .................................. .Apppendix: .............. ....... ........ 51 51 Sanitation:. .. ................ Water Supply.... .. ..................... t~eed.. .................. Houses......,......... Yards and Runs .............. ........... ....... .......................... .. ................... .......................... 51 5252 Mixtures for Desinfecting Houses, etc........... ... ... .......... List of Drugs .......... .. '..... ........ 54 55 CF-IICK NPOX, SOREHEAD OR CONTAGIOUS 'EPITHELIOMA IN. POULTRY BY C. A. CARY. INTRODUCTION. This disease occurs in nearly every county in Alabama during the spring summer or fall of every year. It is more prevalent among young chickens, from broilers to maturity; yet younger and older chickens may have this disease. It is a common poultry disease and very probably more deaths occur from sore-head than from any other poultry disease in Alabama. Such a high mortality can be avoided with proper care and treatment. The poultry industry in ,Alabama is not as extensive and as carefully and thoroughly worked as it should be. The extensive home markets in the mining and manufacturing regions of the South will take care of a much larger supply The conditions of chickens, ducks, turkeys and pigeons. in the South are ideal if the poultry business is conducted with that care and knowledge which are required in ay place to bring success. With a small capital, plenty of regular work applied intelligently, it will bring as good returns as any line of the live-stock industry. FORMS OF THIS DISEASE. There are no positive differences between the various forms of diphtheria, roup and chicken pox or' "sore-head" other- than the locality in which the lesions occur; and possibly the per cent. of mortality in the different forms of the disease. Usually when the mouth, throat, air passages or alimentary .canal in one or more places is peculiarly inflamed so that an organized or solid exudate is formed on the surface of the inflamed mcous membrane and that mem- 22 brane bleeds rather freely when the diphtheritic exudate is torn away-such a diseased condition is called fowl (avian) diphtheria. If the nasal passages and the cavities connected therepith have their mucous membrane inflamed producing a catarrhal (mucous) exudate, or solid, dried pus-like exudate in the nasal cavities, and sometimes pushing outward the tissues around the eyes-such a diseased condition is. called "roup." If the skin of the wattles, comb, ear lobes, eyelids or of' the head and sometimes the conjunctiva (the mucous membrane lining, the eye-lids and reflected over the front part of the eye-ball) becomes inflamed in such a way as to produce crusts or scabs or an exudate of dried pus, broken down epithelical cells, etc-such a condition is called' chicken-pox or "sore-head" or epithelioma contagiosum. CAUSES. The causes of these diseases, or this disease, have been attributed to coccidia (one-celled protozoa) to various bacteria and to ultra-microscopical organisms. Neumann (11) gives the following: "Coccidia or Psorospermiae oviformes constitute, in theclass of sporozoa, an order in which the majority of the species belonging to it live as parasites in the interior of epithelial cells of the liver, intestine, skin, etc. At the commencement of their development these coccidia form small protoplasmic regularly rounded masses, which are usually nucleated. Gradually each of these masses increases in volume and becomes surrounded by a transparent membrane-the cyst or shell-and rupturing the cell into which it had penetrated, it falls into the biliary ducts, the intestine, the epidermic layers, etc. Thus" liberated, the encysted coccidium passes through a phase of segmentation-its protoplasm -becoming condensed, then dividing into several spheres or spores, Each spore in its turn subdivides into a number of corpuscles--falciform corpuscles-which, meeting with favorable conditions each becomes a new amebod individual that invades an epithelial or epidermic cell, grows there and recommences the cycle of its progenitor." O(3lertag (9) says:, "Coccidia are parasites of epithelia. They are small, spherical or oval structures which destroy the epithelial cells by their rapid growth and then divide into a number of parts. These penetrate into the intact epithelia of the infested organ (merozoites) or become changed into microgametes and macrogametes (male and female sexual cells). By the copulation of these forms sporoblasts are produced and, finally, permanent forms with shells (sporozoites) arise. The latter cause infestation of new hosts." The sporoblasts (a) are elongated, oval and surrounded by a double capsule, at first the protoplasm entirely fills the capsule as a coarsely granular mass, but soon becomes contracted into a sphere from which four sporozoits arise. In the rabbits' liver infested with coccidia, round, white, abscess-like foci are formed. Friedberger and Frohner (13) give the following: Coccidia "are at first naked inhabitants of epithelial cells. By penetrating into the cells of the mucous membrane and by filling up these cells (in many cases completely, so that the enclosed coccidia assume the appearance of large nuclei), they produce grave disturbance of nutrition and this tends to induce necrosis of the parts attacked." "Gregarinous croupy diphtheritis is distinguished by the ease with which the disease extends from the mouth to the skin of the head. It can be readily transmited artificially, and is generally not difficult to cure, especially when it is confined to the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx, upper part of larynx and skin." "The clinical phenomena of avian gregarinous (coccidian) diphtheritis agrees in all particulars with those of bacterial 24 diphtheritis when these respective complaints affect the mucous membrane of the head. Here, also, the symptoms are essentially those of croupy diphtheritis of the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharnyx, air passages of the head, larynx, conjunctiva, etc., with secondary intestinal affections. Gregarines may also give rise to primary and independent enteritis (Zurn)." "In gregarinous diphtheritis, the skin is much more frequently implicated than in diphtheritis caused by bacteria. The cutaneous affection consists of hypertrophied nodules on the skin, which are known as gerarinous epitheliomata (epithelioma gregarinosumn of Bollinger, and are identical with miolluscum contagiosum of man.). Their favorite seats are those parts of the head that are not covered with feathers; root of the beak, neighborhoood of the nostrils, angles of the mouth, lobes of the ear, parts adjacent to the auditory meatus, wattles, surface of the face, edges of the eyelids, intermaxillary space, and especially the comb. They sometimes spread over the feathered parts of the head, throat and neck, and may occur on the outer surface of the thighs, abdomen, under the wings and in the vicinity of the cloaca. At first these epitheliomata appear in the skin, as flat uodules, which soon become prominent, and which vary in size from a poppy seed to a millet seed. Later on, they usually attain the size of a hemp seed. They are of a reddish-grey or yelllowish-grey color, often show distinctly in their earlier stages of development a peculiar greasy, nacreous lustre; and are rather firm to the touch. Their surface soon becomes covered with a dirty-grey, yellow-brown or red-brown crust. They are discrete and disseminated in considerable numbers on the erectile tissues, etc. They vary in size according to their age; and frequently lie rather close to one another, so that the affected parts looks as if coarsely granulated; or they are crowded together in such a manner as to give the appearance of large warts with divisions through them, or mulberry-like hypertrophies. Even single 25 nodules, to say nothing of groups, may attain the size of a lentil, pea, cherry-stones broad bean or larger object. The older they become the rougher, and more covered with knobs will be their incrusted surface." "If the edges of the eye-lids be affected by these tumors, the lids will become nodular, swollen and closed. The conjunctiva in this case also suffers; it projects outward; be; conies catarrhally inflamed; assumes a yellowish color at the seat of eruption; a d t:~s c bfecrmsecvered vw: crusts. Purulent conjunctivitis may appear;and the.inflammation may spread to the sclerotic andIcornea, with keratits and panophthalmia as the r esi 1; I". as happens with pigeons, the eruptiio nodules extends over the whole of the skin of the eye-lids and its neighborhood, the entire eye will become covered with mulberry-like proliferations of various sizes. of "O)etimse COCCIDIA IN ANIMALS. Coccidia (C. oviforme and perforans) have been reported as occuring in the following places in animals. I. Leuckart (7) and many others have found coccidia in the bile ducts of rabbits there attacking the epithelium of the ducts, and in many cases causing the death the rabbits. 2. Johne (8) and Ostertag (9) report coccidia in the liver of swine. 3. Birch-llirschfeld (10) states that coccidia have been found "in the respiratory passages of rabbits, dogs, cats, calves, sheep, and birds, producing circumscribed ,or diffuse inflammation of the mucosa and submucosa, even superficial -ulceration, which in many instances appears as infectious and results in numerous fatalities. He calls especial attention to the diphtheritic inflammation in the mucosa of fowl: its extension to the intestinal mucosa and. the mesen- of taric lymph glands. 4. Ostertag (9) says C, perforans is found in the intestinal epithelia of rabbits producing a desquamative catarrh 26 of the entire intestinal tract and in consequence profuse diarrhea. 5. Ostertag (9) also reports that in some of the Swiss cantons there is a disease called "dysenteria hamorrhagica coccidiosa." The coccidia are found in the longitudinal folds of the mucous membrane of the colon and were oval or spherical and contained nuclei three times as large as those of epitheial cells. One observer says these are C. ovifome. 6. Ostertag (9) also reports Coccidium tenellum as an opizootic, croupous, diphtheritic enteritis in poultry and during the progresss of the disease or infestation the coccidia invade the mesenteric lymph glands producing disintegration foci. 7. Friedberger and Frohner (13) state that coceidia are very widely distributed as parasites in the animal kingdom and are found in birds, rabbits, rats, dogs, fish, snails, and earthworms. The diphtheritic products contain cast-off epithelial cells which contain in their interior a rounded body which fills up half or more of the cell-space and looks like a greatly enlarged nucleus. These bodies are highly refractive and have a greasy, glassy lustre, and swollen homogenous appearance. These spherical formations are also found free and in varying numbers in the croupy diphtheritic excretions of skin nodules in cocccidian diphtheria of chickens. 8. Moussu and Marotel (15) report coccidia in the intestines of sheep prducing hyperaemia and necrotic lesions in the mucosa. 9. Eckardt (16) found Coccidiumn tennulum in great numbers in the intestines of chickens, producing diarrhoea, great emaciation and intensely blue comb and wattles. 10. According to Nocard and Leclainche, (14) Rivolta, in 1869 found coccidia in the false membranes of diphtheria. 11. Thoma (18) says C. perforans has been reported as occurring in man, dogs, cats, rabbits and mice. 27 Coccidia (Coccidium oviforme) has been reported as oecurring in the following diseases or conditions in man: 1. In the intestinal canal in two instances (2). 2. In contagious epithelioma (molluscum contagiosum) (1) a skin disease in man. 3. According to Leuckart (3) numerous cases of coccidia in the liver of man have been reported by Virchow. Dressier, Sattler, Peris, etc. 4. Padwyssozki (4) reports a case of extensive infestation of the liver of a man. 5. Peters (5) reports "ingekapselta gregarinen"-coecidia-in the diphtheritic membrane of six cases of diphtheria in man. 6. Leuckart (3) reports the records of Lindemann who found coccidia in the human kidney and also in one instance on the hair of the head of a young girl, where it was supposed to cause considerable irritation. 7. L. Pfeifer (6) reports coccidia in small-pox lymph. The life history of coccidia has not been completely worked out. Johne, in Birch-Hirschfeld's book, (10) gives the characters and life history of coccidium oviforme as studied in rabbits, He says it is 0.03 to 0.037 Mm. long and 0.015 to 0.02 Mm. broad. The mature form consists at first, of the finely granular protoplasm which occupies the entire space in the cell (a fig. 5). In this stage the shell or wall of the cell may be quite thin but later it becomes thicker and apparently double contoured. In the next stage the protoplasm becomes contracted into a spherical granular mass (b fig. 5). In about four weeks (?) the proplasm is divided into 4 round granular spore-like bodies (c fig. 5) which later become the C-shaped bodies as observed in d. e. and f. in fig. 5. When these are taken into the stomach of a rabbit, the old capsule is dissolved and the spores or embryonic masses are set free and have amoebe-like movements and characters; in this condition they pass 28 from the intestine into the bile ducts where they penetrate the epithelial cells and develop into the stage (a) in fig. 5. In doing this they destroy the epithelial cells. The following bacteria have been found in diphtheria, roup and sore-head in fowls: Loeffiler (26) in 1884 found a bacterium in diphtheria of pigeons and claimed that he produced the disease by inoculation with pure cultures of the germ. Loir and Ducloux (27), Haushalter (23) and Quaranta (29) have found a bacillus or motile germ in the diphtheritic exudate of fowls. Moore (25) in 1895 isolated from chicken diphtheria a bacterium belonging to the haemorrhagic septicaemia group. In later years he failed to find this germ in other outbreaks. Moore states that the real cause of diphtheria, roup and chicken-pox has not been discovered. Cornil and Megin (30) in 1885 found a germ similar to Loeffler's bacterium in lesions of the mucous membrane and of the skin of fowls. Von Krajewski (31) discovered the bacterium of Loeffler in the lesions of poultry and transmitted the disease to pigeons and young chickens by inoculation on the mucous membrane. Babes e Puscarin (32) found the Loeffler germ in the diphtheria of pigeons and described its mode of action in the tissues. Eberlein (33) in 1894 found a bacillus in the diphtheria of the partridge. Harrison and Streit (21) discovered in the blood under the diphtheritic exudate of roup or diphtheria in chickens and pigeons a short motile germ (Bacillus cacosmus) ; and after passing the pure culture through pigeons to intensify its virulency, produced the disease in healthy chickens by inoculation. They also isolated the green pus germ (Pseudomonas pyocyanae) from the lesions in chickens and produced the disease by inoculation. Moreover they found 29 bodies in and among the epithelial cells of the exudates and tissues; these bodies may represent stages in coccidial life. They also found yeast cells in the diphtheritic exudates. Gallez (34) isolated from the lesions in nasal mucuous membrane of chickens having contagious coryza (roup) a germ that he claimed was identical with the Klebs-Loeffler germ of human diphtheria. Ferre (35) reports that he found the human diphtheria germ in the lesions of chicken diphtheria and he also found the germ on the muoous membranes of healthy chickens. Gratia and Lienaux (36) isolated from diphtheritic pigeons a germ that closely resembles the human diphtheria microbe. Harrison (23) made a number of tests with human diphtheria antitoxine and for the human diphtheria germ in chickens and pigeons and could not produce diphtheria in chickens by inoculating them with the human diphtheria germ. He also failed to find the germ of human diphtheria by examining over two hundred chickens affected with roup or diphtheria. He concludes that there is no relation 'between human and fowl diphtheria. Guerin (37) makes a positive statement that there is no relation between human and avian diphtheria. Moore, in his Pathology of Infectious Diseases of Animals gives the following records: "The non-identity of these diseases (human and avian diphtheria) has been clearly pointed out by Menard (43). Although these maladies are shown by several observations to be unlike in their etiology and character of the lesions, the transmission of fowl diphtheria to the human species, and vice versa, is affirmed by several writers." "Gerhardt (38) reports four cases of diptheria in Wesselhausen, Baden, among six workmen who had charge of several thousand fowls, many of which died of diphtheria. There were no other cases of diphtheria in the neighbor- hood and the evidence was quit conclusive that the disease was contracted from the affected fowls." "Debrie (39) reports briefly the transmission of human diphtheria to fowls. He is inclined to believe that human diphtheria is transmissible to fowls and fowl diphtheria to man. Cole (42) reports a case of supposed transmission of the disease from a fowl to a child." "The diphtheritic disease of fowls reported by Loir and Ducloux (27) in Tunis, in 1894, spread to the people of that place, resulting in an epidemic of serious proportions. Menard (41) refers to the fact that men employed to feed young squabs contracted diphtheria by blowing the masticated food into the mouth and crop of squabs suffering with that disease. Schrevens (40) reports several cases of diphtheria in children in which he traces the sources of infection to certain poultry." "Guerin (37) has pointed out with emphasis that there is no relation between diphtheria in man and in fowls." Moore further states that until the relation between human and fowl diphtheria is positively determined it is wise to handle diseased fowls with care and especially keep all susceptible children away from diphtheritic chickens and pigeons. M. Juliusberg (Deut. Med. Wochenschr, 30 (1904), No. 43, pp. 1576-1577), study of contagious epithelioma of pigeons and chickens is reviewed by Wilcox in the Experimnent Station Record, for April, 1905, as follows: "As a result of the study of the cause and symptoms of diseases as well as the virus, it is found that the virus of pigeon-pox may be filtered in the same manner as the virus of chicken pox. The incubation period of both pigeon and chicken pox after inoculation with filtered virus is about twice as long as after direct inoculation with the substance of the tumors (nodules or crusts). It was found that the repeated passage of the virus of pigeon-pox through animals -these 31 attenuated it to such an extent that it finally became nonvirulent. The adddition of erythrosin in 1 per cent. solu" tion destroyed the virus. None of the pure cultures of yeasts, cocci, or bacilli obtained from contagious epithelioma were found to be pathogenic for pigeons or chickens. BACTERIA OBTAINED FROM SORE-HEAD CASES. (a) Dec. 2 1903. Obtained following germ from crust of naturally infected chicken: Long, round end bacillus, usually in filaments forms spores: 1.6 to 2.8 long and 0.5 micro-millimeters wide; slightly motile, flagella peritrichic; takes Gram's stain. Blood serum growth crumpled becoming mealy and greyish white. Agar plate--growth on surface irregular, streaming and to naked eye appears like ground glass. Agar stroke is rugose, becoming mealy and grey-white. Gelatine liquifled and pellicle on surface. Bouillon-at first a crumpled film; then mealy, flaky pellicle; flaky precipitate. Litmus milk coagulated and peptonized slowly. Gas is produced in lactose bouillon. Potato growth is at first watery, and later becomes white crumpled and mealy. This germ is closely related to bacillus subtilis. Inoculated a field lark with negative results. (b). Dec. 6, 1903, obtained following germ from eye exudate of sore-head chicken: Bacillus 1.5 to 2 times as long as broad. In old cultures it appears beaded. It is motile. Does not liquify gelatine; in gelatine stab the growth is filamentious; colony on surface has wavy edges and is finely granular. Colony on agar surface white, finely granular, edges even or slightly lobed; colony two-zoned. Hydrogen and carbon dioxide gas in glucose bouillon. No gas in sacchrose bouillon. Inoculated field lark by smearing scarified conjunctiva. Negative re- 32 suits. Inoculated chicken by smearing scarified conjunctiva-negative results. (c). Germ from sore-head chicken, taken from blood under crust on comb. Oval or short rod with round ends; 1 t& 1.6m long by 0.4 broad; and agar white round raised colony: does not take Gram's stain; motile with peritrichie flagella; forms irregular light grey growth on surface of litmus gelatine; does not liquify gelatine; on neutral agar light gray growth. On potato the growth is gray in 24 hours and later becomes brown. It decolorizes litmus milk and coagulates it. Produces gas in acid, lactose agar and increases the acid color. Tested by smearing sacrified surface on chicken and by injection under skin. Negative results. (d) Germ obtained from sore-head crust; coccus occurring in masses, sometimes single and sometimes short chains growth on gelatine surface a wax-like yellow and very slight growth in depth. Gelatine not liquified; germ nonmotile; takes Gram's stain; a lustrous yellow growth on blood serum. No gas in glucose, sacchrose or lactose bouillon. This germ was not tested by inoculation. (e) Germ derived from crust of sore-head chicken. Large germ round ends; not motile; does not take Gram's stain; very slow growth in depth of gelatine at room temperature; in agar stab growth' largely along depth of stab; slight brownish growth on blood serum; alkaline bouillon slight turbidity; acid bouillon heavy turbidity and precipitate at bottom of tube. This germ produces fermentation in glucose sacchrose and lactose bouillon. It may be a coli group germ or the Bacterium aerogenes of Escherich. inoculation of one chicken failed to give positive results. (f) Obtained from crust of sore-head chicken, a coccus with following characters: It appears in two's, chains of six or eight and in masses; is motile and has one flagellum; it takes Gram's stain; yellow line growth from stroke on blood serum; milk not coagulated, yellow growth collects at 33 bottom; in bouillon yellow or white cloudy growth at bottom; colonies on agar surface produce diffuse cloudiness; does not liquify gelatine; on potato the growth is slow and yellow. Inoculated pigeons (b) and (c) with negative results This germ corresponds closely to Chester's description of Ptanococous citreiu. (g) Yeast. (h) A streptococcus-negative results from inoculation. (i) A germ that stained like a young culture of human diphtheria bacilli. Unable to transmit it by inoculation. (j) Pseudoronas pyocyanae. Found quite common in all forms of sore-head, roup and avian diphtheria. (k) Molds of various kinds are often found in sore-head crusts. INOCULATION TESTS. Inoculation tests with Pseudomonas pyocyanae, other germs, and exudate from natural cases of sore-head. 1. Brown chick, 3 months old. December 1, scraped rose comb and left wattle ; then rubbed into raw places green pus germ (pure culture from sore-head case). December 8-Very slight indications of the inoculation taking hold. December 15-Distinct thickening of skin on comb. December 25-Well developed sore-head growth on comb. 2. Gray chick, 3 months old. Injected December 15 aqueous suspension of some green pus germ into left wattle and into comb. December 25-Fairly good case of sore-head on comb. 3. Hen, 1 to 2 years old. Injected lcc of acid bouillon culture of green pus germ under skin of head and into wattle. No appreciable effects. 4. January 17, 1903. Brown chick, 5 months old. Inoculated by scarifying comb and injecting under skin with a big coccus obtained from Adam's sore-head rooster. Result negative. January 17, 1903. Injected under skin in 4 places and into comb of young chick a short thick bacterium from 34 _Adam's cock. Chick died January 20. Liver, kidneys, intestines, lungs, all contained the germ (septicaemia). This germ was a short bacterium that coagulates milk; does not liquify gelatine and forms white growth on surface and a villous growth along the gelatine stab; white. seven cloudy, growth on surface of agar; white, watery, glistening growth on potato; white even surface growth on Loeffler's blood serum. In neutral bouillon, it gave a thin film on the surface and slight turbidity; a granular growth formed finally at the bottom of the tube. 5. Oct. 3. Scarified inner surface of eye-lid of hen and smeared over this streptococci obtained from sore-head case. Negative results. 6. Feb. 2, 1903. Black chick 5 months old inoculated with a coccus and a mould obtained from sore-head case. Injected the coccus and mold under skin below the eye and into the base of the comb; chick died February 6 of septicaemia without showing any signs of sore-head. 7. idec. 1. Inoculated cockerel. 16 month:; old, in right wattle with 1-4 cc of big bacillus (bouillon culture). No results from this. At same time rubbed in pseudomonas pyocyanae on sacrified comb. Dec. 4. The comb above the scarified place showed red and swollen papillke and skin at base of papillae was yellowish green. Dec. 10. One tooth of the single comb slightly involved. Dec. 15. Digit or tooth on comb still involved and other teeth or digits of comb appear slightly involved. Dec. 30. Scab came off and comb recovered. Jan. 12. Scarified side of comb and rubbed in material from fresh natural case of sore-head-no results beyond the effects of scarification. 8. Post-mortem on chicken (4 mos. old) died of sore-head; i hid small white d:irhtheritic patches in mouth, pharyax, oesophagus and larynx. Had been sick 10 days. Body light and very poor. Indications of diarrhoea by 35 soft feces covering feathers below the anus. Crust on comb, wattles, skin of head and on eye-lids, and in corners of mouth. Yellowish exudate in conjunctival sac larger than eye-ball, cornea partly destroyed and whole eye inflamed. Plate cultures from the eye exudate gave a large bacillus apparently bacillus subtilis; micrococcus albus and a germ that liquifies. loefflers blood serum and stain like the human diphtheria germ showing the beading. But this germ from cultures did not produce any form of the disease by smearing over scarified surfaces of skin, comb. eye-lid and mouth. Archibald R. Ward (20) makes the following records: Inoculated 17 cockerels with solid or semi-solid exudates applied to broken skin of head. Only one developed sorehead. Four out of the 17 developed nasal discharges resembling roup. The same case that showed sore-head developed diphtheritic lesions (not stated where). One case developed nasal (roup) discharge by exposure to another chicken in same cage. This would seem to indicate that roup, sore-head and diphtheria in some cases were associated in the same chicken or that the causes of these socalled diseases were sometimes found in one chicken. Ward has proven that faulty ventilation or exposure to draughts in California does not cause roup or sore-head. INOCULATIONS OF PIGEONS WITH GERMS AND MA. TERIAL FROM SORE-HEAD IN CHICKENS. (a) Inoculated pigeon with bacillus from blood obtained of a sore-head chicken. Blood taken from directly under sore-head crust. Hanging dop showed almost pure culBlood was injected ture of short oval, motile germ. and injected under skin of head with Planococcus citreus and smeared. This had no effect on pigeon. (b) Pigeon smeared on scarified inner surface of eye-lid and injected under skin of head with planococccus citreus 36 obtained from sore-head case and cultivated in alkaline chicken bouillon. No results. (c) Pigeon-Used the same germ as in (2) in the eye, the nose and under skin. No results. (d) Oct. 18, 1905. Inoculated a pigeon with aqueous suspension of material from eye of sore-head chick. Injected material under skin of breast and smeared it over eye-lid. This material contained numerous green pus germs and a few micrococci. October 31 this pigeon died. At point of inoculation was an abscess surrounded by characteristic green coloration of the green pus germ. Liver hyperaemic, also lungs and kidneys. Cocci in blood. Oct. 31. Inoculated under skin another pigeon with blood from heart of above pigeon. Results negative. TESTS WITH MOSQUITOES AS CARRIERS OF THE VIRUS. (a) One Cockerel-Rhode Island Red. Previously had one attack of nasal roup. Two pigeons--grown. Three grown hens. Two chicks half grown. One hen that had sore-head the year. One young common cockerel. All were exposed for three months from May 1 to August 1, 1905, to mosquitoes, (culex and stegomyia varieties). Rain barrels were kept close to the coops where nunerous mosquitoes could be grown and easily get at the thickens. Not one case of sore-head. All kept in shed and the weather was quite damp and air very moist most of the time. (b) Oct. 24, 1903, confined two hens and one rooster in a coop which was placed over a barrel of water from which mosquitoes were constantly hatching. Nov. 3 one hen had developed sore-head. All three of these chickens had a 37 .naturally acquired case of sore-head the previous winter. At the same time (Oct. 24) four chicks (one-half grown) were confined in another coop in same room, and on November 3, two (2) chicks developed sore-head. These chickens and the barrel of water were all confined in a room, where green pus germs were plentiful and the .germ was pesent in the water in which the mosquitoes were developed and also found in the sore-head lesions. The mosquitoes were not tested for the green pus germ. (c). At my home in Auburn, a hen with six chicks kept her chicks at night under a dense growth of honeysuckle vines. Three out of the six chicks developed sore-head. This was in November and mosquitoes were quite numer,ous about the honeysuckle .vine. Another hen had four chicks in a coop 100 feet away from this vine and they did not contract sore-head. The chicks of the two hens mingled more or less in the day time. A lady in Texas has recently reported to me that she has found that roaches are the carriers or the cause of sore-head in chickens; that when she exterminated the roaches the sore head cases disappeared. This is by no means conclusive, but suggestive. The CAIUSE or CAUSES of avian diphtheria, roup and sore-head have not been definitely determined. It appears that Loeffler's Bacterium and Harrison's Bacillus cacosmus and the Pseudomonas pyocyanae have some claim as casual factors. But the records and tests do not seem to place any one of them as always the primary or real cause. There ismuch evidence that the real or primary cause is an ultramicroscopic organism and belongs to that group of disease-producing organisms which are classed with the causes of small pox, cow pox, sheep pox, contagious foot-andmouth disease, possibly yellow fever and some other diseases. -pause According to Ward exposure to air draughts does not "roup" in California. 38 Transmission and Dissemenation.-It is evidently infectious; because the disease in all its forms, spread rather Ward, rapidly from one chicken or pigeon to another. Harrison and others have transmitted, in some cases quite readily by carrying small amount of diseased material (exudate and blood), from a sore-head chicken to healthy chickens. It is also, quite certain that chicken pox and pigeon pox are identical or one and the same disease. Mosquitoes, gnat flies, chicken mites, (ticks) chicken lice, chicken foot mites (sarcoptes mutans) and possibly cockroaches may sometimes be the carriers of the real virus. It seems quite certain that mosquitoes can transmit the virus from water or some other source, under certain conditions. Warm and wet weather seems to increase the virulency of the virus and favor the rapid transmission of the disease. It is not impossible that ants may have a role to play in the transmission or cause of sorehead. Pathological Anatomy.-On the skin the small, greasylike nodules, or hypertrophied nodules of the skin, contain epithelial cells that have in them "greasy" refractive bodies that stain yellow with picro-carmine and the nuclei of the epithelial cells become "reddish brown" in color. Nearly all of the epithelial cells in the nodule appear larger than normal and contain the refractive bodies. In the younger epithelial cells these bodies (young coccidia?) are relatively small and occupy onefourth to one-third of the epithelial cell cavity. In the older or outer or cast-off epithelial cells these refractive bodies are said by Friedberger and Frohner to occupy the entire cavities of the epithelial cells. The invaded or infested epithelial cells are unusually larger than the epidermal cells of the healthy neighboring skin. Among the cast-off mass of epithelial cells are found round refractive bodies and numerous nuclei of leucocytes or pus cells. The subcutaneous connective tissue is hyperaemic (congested) and is infiltrated with cells (leucocytes and nuclei of disintegrated cells). 39 Possibly some of the small nuclei-like bodies among the cells in the subcutis (see fig. 7) may represent one stage in the development of cocidia. Many observers have, also, found various bacteria in the nodule and subcutis. In the diphtheritic membranes on the mucuous surfaces of the mouth, pharynx, larynx and oesophogus, the epithelia cells are sometimes invaded by refractive bodies in the same manner as the epithelial cells of the skin and in the' mass of diphtheritic exudate and cast-off cells on the mucous surface may be found the well formed coccidia, usually in the stages (a) and (b) as indicated in fig. 5. But the refraetive bodies are not found in the epithelial cells of mucuois exudates or of skin nodules in every case. I have found them only in the early development of the nodule and the diptheretic exudate, and have never found the mature coccidium in the nodules of the skin. When the exudate on the mucuous surface or the crust of the nodule of the skin is torn off the raw surface bleeds rather freely and a fresh mount of this blood contains a short oval bacillus, numerous round bodies (see fig. 7.) usually said ti be nuclei of leucocytes; and a few polynuelear leucocytes. Repeated inoculations in the comb, wattles, skin and conjunctiva and oral mucuosa of healthy chickens of various ages, with this blood, fresh from under a nodule or a diphtheritic exudate, has failed to produce positive infective results. I have also tested it on pigeons with like negative results. The exudates on the mucuous membrane of the throat mouth or larynx appear to be very much alike in all forms of the disease. The CLINICAL SYMPTOMS of sore head are quite clearly described in the quotation from Friedberger and Frohner on page 23 of this bulletin. The crust-like nodules on the skin of the head, comb, wattles, and eye lids are quite common. The mucuous membrane (conjunctiva) of the eye may be involved and a large amount of tears or serum 40 and organized exudate fill the conjunctival sac or the cavity formed by the closure of the eye-lids. The cornea of the eye ball may become ulcerated and destroyed by pressure of the exudate and extension of the inflammation to the cornea. In some cases the entire eye ball may be destroyed by pressure of the exudate and inflammatory processes. There may be crbupy diphtheretic membranes in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea and oesophogus; also in the nasal passages and air cells or cavities connected with these passages. When the larynx or trachea are affected there may be difficult breathing, as wheezing or rattling in the throat. When the nasal mucuosa is involved, a nasal mucuous discharge will appear; and when the lower orbital sinus becomes filled with semi-solid mass of pus, etc., a prominent swelling will appear under and around the eye; that half of the hard palate in the roof of the mouth becomes twice its usual width and bulges into the mouth cavity. At the first appearance of this enlargement, pressure on it may produce a discharge from the nostrils. At first this enlargement under and around the eye may be soft and if then opened will be found to contain quite a thick, pus-like liquid: but later the enlargement becomes hard, and if then opened is found to contain a mass of white or yellowish granular or flaky pus, more or less dry. If the inflamed process has been progressing for sometime about the mouth, throat, etc., the infection may extend to the intestinal mucosa and there, diphtheritic infiltration may appear attended by diarrhoea with watery, bad smelling feces, somtimes the feces becomes mu ik'ginous, or bloody. This usually causes stupor,dullness, depression and death. If the head only is involved, the affected chicken may retain its good appetite and general health and make a nice recovery in 10 to 20 days. In some badly affected cases of the nasal form (roup) the appetite will remain good, but the affected bird becomes gradually more and more emaciated. 41. The PERIOD OF INCUBATION is said to vary all the way from 2 to 20 days. In December I placed a newly-purchased barred Plymouth rock cock (18 mos. old) in a yard with my chickens, many of which were recovering from sorehead, and in 24 hours this cock developed a good case of sore-head on the wattles, comb and eye-lids. There were mosquitoes in the oosting house. The period of incubation varies with mode of transmission, virulency of the virus. the weather (rapid in damp warm weather and slower in cool and dry weather,) and the age and condition of the chicken or pigeon. Chicks from broiling size up to 7 or 8 rmonths old seem to be most susceptible. Chickens with large combs seem to be more susceptible than birds with small combs and wattles. Affected birds may recover in 2 to 8 weeks. The mortality is said to vary from 50 to 70 per cent. of the affected birds. I judge this a low per cent. of losses if birds are left to themselves without proper care or treatment. But if individual treatment is patiently and regularly applied the mortality can be cut down to less than 20 per cent. If only the skin of the head, and the comb and the wattles are involvedone should lose less than 10 per cent. If the mouth and pharynx are also involved, less than ten per cent. should die. But if the nasal passages and infra-orbital sinus is filled with pus, or the larynx and trachea are involved, or the intestines become involved, good care and treatment may save 50 to 80 per cent. Immunity.-It is possible that one attack of sore head makes the bird insusceptible to a second attack. I have noticed that old chickens that have passed, at least, two summers, are rarely affected and I have been unable to infect chickens that have had one attack of any form of the disease, except in a few cases. Treatment.-Iodoform, creolin, lysol, creosote, carbolic acid, permanganate of potah,-corrosive sub limate, chlorate of potash, chloride of lime, nitrate of silver, boric 42 acid, tincture of iodine, sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, zinc sulphate, solicylic acid, and many other drugs have been recommended. It is possible that a number of the above drugs may be useful if properly applied. Friedberger and Frohner advise "the application by brush of a solution of corrosive sublimate (1 or 2 parts in 1,000 of water), or one of creolin (1 to 2 in 100 of water)." This they say is especially effective when the disease is localized. I have found nothing better or more effective than iodoform by itself; or iodoform 1 part and tannic acid 1 part;or iodoform 1 part, boric acid 1 part and tannic acid one part. It is best to wash. the head, wipe out the mouth and throat with a weak solution of creolin (1 or 2 to 100), using a boiled cotton or medicated absorbent cotton swab. Next remove the crust on the skin, comb, wattles and eye-lids and the exudate from the eyes, the mouth and throat. Then with sterilized or boiled or absorbent cotten wipe away the blood on the raw surfaces until they cease to bleed; then with cotton swab cover the raw places with iodoform or either of the iodoform powders above mentioned. Do not be afraid to put iodoform into the eye or the conjunctival sac. The next day or the same day a few hours later, apply freely vaseline or fresh lard all over these places. In some cases it may be necessary to apply the iodoform or iodoform powders once a day for two or three days, and thereafter apply freely only lard or. vaseline every day. In other cases, one application of the iodoform and daily applications of lard and vaseline are all that is required. In bad cases, especially where they do not improve as rapidly as they should, give internally, as much as a teasponful of vaseline, containing a few drops of creosote, or 10 to 30 grains of Epsom Salts in 1 tablespoonful of water. This may be given once per day or once every other day; it usually prevents intestinal infection or complications. In cases where "roup" predominates, or where the sub-orbital sinus becomes filled with pus and the eye is greatly dis- 43 tended,there are several lines of treatment that may be followed. In the early stages apply sweet oil or olive oil to the nostrils and if possible inject some of this oil into the nasal passages by using a small nozzle and syringe. After injecting or applying the oil, apply pressure over the distended parts and thus expel as much of the pus as possible. This may be repeated twice per day. Also in the early stages of roup, the diseased birds may be placed in a moderately tight room and there steamed in this way: Fill a large bucket or a kettle a little more than one-half full of hot water; now put into the bucket 1 tablespoonful of creolin and the same quantity of turpentine; then drop into the bucket a red hot iron, weighing 5 to 10 pounds. Let the affected chickens breathe this steam for 10 to 20 minutes. If the room is too small or too close, you might scald or suffocate the chickens; this can be prevented by regulating the entrance of fresh air at the door or windows. This may be repeated once per day, for a week or longer if it improves the condition of the birds. When the distension is hard or firm, there is no way to remove the dry pus from the sub-orbital sinus except by opening the sinus.. This can be done by cutting into it below the lower eye-lid and parallel to the border of the lid; remove the pus: wash out with weak creolin or other disinfectant and stitch it up. Chickens with affected eyes must be fed by hand. 'rcrertic,'.-No doub+, it can i.e introduced into a lock of birds by bringing in an affected bird, and this should always be avoided. But I have seen it appear on farms and in yards where no new birds had been introduced for 6 months or more. However, in such cases, pigeons or other wide ranging birds may have introduced it. Sore-head has occurred in Alabama,so widely extended as t embrace nearly every county, every year for the past 15 years. The cause or virus may live over from year to year or it may pass the winter in a second host. Isolation of sick from well birds 44 ventilated and cleans is adv.1 isable and wide ranges, dry, roosting Houes wil lmateri8;!' aid ii checking the e eniion of the disease. The conditions that favor the propagaof mites. ticks, lice, mosquitoes and roaches are favorable to the extension and excessive virulency of so-e-head in all its forms. Hence, old andfilthy nests, lamp, hot and filthy roosting houses; filthy and close brooding pooriy drained and small,, unclean yards; water and filtlly water and feed vessels; sour, fermenting, rotten, mmusty, or spoiled feed of any kind should all be not only as means of preventing sure-head in all its forms, but also to help keep out all other infections and maintain the vigor and health of the flock. Cleaning, white-washing, spraying with di infectants, should be practiced at least once per month during outbreaks of sore-head, and once every two or three months as wise and profitable sanitary and preventive measures. well tion coops; avoided;. Some of the Cases Treated. 1. Plymouth rock cockerel, 5 months old. Had several scabs on head. Removed the crusts once and applied vaseline every day. Recovered in two weeks. 2. Plymouth rock grade, 4 months old. Several crusts on head. Renmoved crusts once and applied vaseline and 5 .3. per cent creolin. Recovered in 2 weeks. White Leghorn hen, 2 years had sore-head crusts all over comb and large yellow exudate in eye. From the eye almost pure culture of psendomonas pyacyanae old: was obtained. Removed crusts- from comub and exudate from eye : applied equal parts of iodoform and tannic acid, to comb and put into eye. Repeated every day_ for three days ;then used vaseline every day. Recovered in 18 days. 4. Rhode Island Red cock, 1 year old. Had sorehead and eyes were distended from a collection of dry pus, suborbital cavities. In other words this cock had sore-head and roup. Applied vaselne to crusts on head and gave in 45 vaseline per mouth, and tried to work it into nostrils. This cock recovered from skin sores on head and at times appeared to improve in the roup conditions in nasal sinwas continualy poor uses. He never lost his appetite or thin in flesh. He died or was killed one night by some animal. 5. Common hen with distended eyes from pus in one nasal sinus. -Opened below eye and removed pus; washed with 3 per sent. creolin; stitched :up; recovered in 10 days. 6. Light Bramah hen, 2 years old; head one mass of crusts; both eyes filled with exudate and closed. First removed crust from skin of head and exudate from eyes. Applied iodoform and tannic acid to the head and eyes, once per day for three days: then applied daily vaseline. Recovered in 18 days. Had to feed this hen by hand for several days until she could see to eat. 7. Common hen with crusts on head and diphtheritic exudate in mouth and throat. Removed the crusts from the head and exudates from the mouth and throat. This always leaves raw bleeding surfaces. Applied iodoform and tannic acid to raw surfaces. Repeated this for 4 days; then applied vaseline once each day, some days gave one-half teaspoonful of vaseline and a little 3 per cent creolin internally. This is done to destroy and eliminate germs or parasites that may pass into the alimentary canal when the throat and mouth are at first involved. This hen recovered in 15 days. 8. In flock of 75 White Bramahs and White Leghorns, a large number of the young chickens 2 to 8 months old and many of the old hens contracted "sore-head." The disease appeared in June and cases appeared among these chickens from that time until the last of August. Many of the chickens were very badly involved. The disease was confined usually to the skin of the head, to the eyes, the comb and wattles. A few cases had-the mucosa involved and there diphtheritic exudates appeared. Quite a but 46 number of cases developed nasal discharge. These cases were treated with vaseline. The crusts were removed and veseline applied. Thereafter vaseline was applied once per day for 3 or 4 days and then every other day. The exudate in the eyes mouth and throat was forcibly removed and vaseline applied freely. Ninety per cent. recovered. 9. In a brood of 9 chicks, hatched in October, when three weeks old, 6 of them developed sore-head and sore mouth. The eye-lids and the eyes (conjunctival sac) and the mouth and throat were involved. In this case the chicks had what is usually called sore-head with sore mouth or diphtheria of mouth and throat. This combination is not uncommon. In fact nearly every case of chicken pox or sore-head has sore-mouth in some form and also some discharge from the nasal openings indicating the presence of "roup." These chicks were treated with iodoform and tannic acid once per day for 3 days and then pure fresh lard was applied daily. All but one recovered in three weeks. 10. In large number of White Leghorns sore-head and dis. tended eyes from roup exudate in nasal passages appeared. Nearly all died where the dried exudate collected in nasal passages but large per cent. of the cases of sore-head recovered by removing the crusts and applying fresh lard. 11. One man reports trying "Mercurial Ointment" on sore head chickens and that it failed to cure them. References: (1) Bollinger.-Tagebl. d. Vers. D. Naturf u. Aerzte. Cassel. 1878. (2) Von Eimer.-Ueber ei und kugel- formige Psorospermien der Wirbel thiere, Wurzburg, 1870. (3) Leuickart.-Menschliche Parasiten, Erster band 1863; p. 740. (4) Podwyssozki.--Centralbl. f. Bakleriotologie. u. Parasitenk, 1889, 21. 47 (5) Peters.--Berl. klin. Wachenschr, 1888, (6) Pfeifer, L.-Zeitschr. fur Hyg. II u III 1888 Monatsch. f. Dermatol. VI 10. ) Lenekart; iReick, Deutsche Zeitschr. f. Thiermed, XIV 52. Ber. uber. d. Vet. W. im K. Sachsen 1882, S, (8) 60. (9) Ostertag.-Wilcox; Handbook of Meat Inspection, p. 521. (10) irsch-Hirschfeld,' Lehrbuch der Algem'inen path, Anatomie, pages 370 to 284, Ill) Neunmann.-Parisites and Parasitic Diseases of Domestic. Animals, p.264 and p. 341. (12) Bollinger. Epithelioma contagiousum bein Hanshuhn and die sog. Pocken des gefingels, in Virchows Archlv, f. Path. Anat. Bd. LVIII 1873, p. 349. Friedberger and Frohner (Hayes transi.) Veterinary Pathology, Vol. I, p. 222 to 235. Les MaliThes M' ;jbiennes des (19%) Nocaid t Le clainch, iimaux, i'02 p. 252. (15) Moussu and Marotel, Bulletin de Ia Societie de Med. D'. 31. Repor v.1 in Centialh. f. Bak. u!d Dec. Veter Parasitenk, 1902. 21. Johne; l1;) (16) Eckardt.-Urber coccidiosus intestinalis biem Geflu- gel, in Berliner tierarztl, Wochenschr, 1903. No. 11. (17) Metzner.-Untersnchnngen on Coccidiurn cuniculi Arch. f. Parasitenkunde,Bd. II. 1903, p. 13. (18) I, Thoma.-Pathology p. 132; 1896. Ward.-Observations and Pathological Anatomy, Vol. (19) Ward.-Poultry Diseases in California. of Amt. Vet. (20) Med. Association Proceedings Proceed- 1904. p. 164. on Roup in Chicken. ings of Am. Vet. (21) Harrison and XXV II, 1903, p. (22) Harrison and Association 1905) p. 198. Streit.-Roup, Am. Vet. Review, Vol. 26. Streit.-Roup : An experimental study. 48 Bulletin 132. Ontario Agric. Coll. and Ex. Farm 1903. (23)Harrison.-The Supposed Identity of Human and Avian Diphtheria. Re-print (in pamphlet) from the proceedings of the Thirtieth Annual Meeting of American Public Health Association, 1902. (24) Mack.-The Etiology and Morbid Anatomy of Diphtheria in chickens, .Am. Vet. Rev., Jan., 1905. (25) preliminary investigation of diphtheria in 'fowls. Bul. No. 8, U. S. Bureau of An. Id., 1895. (26) Loeffer.-Ueber die Bedeutung der mikroorganismen f. der Entstehung der Diphtheria biem Menschen, bie der Tauben und biem des kaiserl. Gesundheitsamtes, t II 1884, p. 421. (27) Loir et Duclaux.-La diphterie avaire en TuniseAnn de l'Institut Pasteur 1894. p. 599. (2i) Haushalter.-Notes sur la dipterie aviare-Rev. Med. de lest, t. XXIII, 1891. p. 289. (29) Quaranta.-Sulla dipterite aviaria in sapporto cella dipterite umana. Nota prima, Torino 1897. (30) Cornil et Megin.Memoire sur la tuberculose et dipterie chez les gallinaces, Journal de l'anatomie XXI, 1885, p. 268. (31) Von Kraj ewski.-Ueber die Diphterie des llausgefiugels, Dent, Zertschr, f, Thiermed, band. XIII, 1887. (32) Babes aid Puscarin.-Untersuchungen uber die Diphterie der Tauben Zeitschrift fur Hyg. band. VIII, 1890, 376. Moore. -A Kalba.-Mitthiel, lat. p.. (33) hefte fur Thierheilk, 1894, p. 433. Gallez.-Diphterie Animale Eberlein.--Geflugeldiphterie bei Rebhuhnern. Monatshumaine, (34) et diphterie Annales de Med. Veter, 1895) p. 309. (35)- Ferre.-Diphterie humaine et diphterie aviaire. Congres d'hygieue de Madrid, 1898. (36) Gratia et Lien aux.-Contribution a l'etude bacterc.- ologique de la dipterie aviaire. 1898, p. 401. Annales de Med. Vet 49 (37) Guerin.---Sur la non-identite de la diphtheria humaine et de la dipterie aviare, Recueil de Med. Vet. 1903, p. 20 (from Moore.) (38) Gerhardt.-Revue f Thierheilk, und Viehzucht. Bd. VI, p. 180, (from Moore). Parise (39) Debrie.-Reported in Centrabi, f. Bak, and tenk, Bd. XIII, p. 730. (From Moore, Pathology of Ifeet. Diseases of Animals). Royale de Med. de: 40) Schrevens.-Bulletin de 'PAcad. p. 380 (Moore). Belgique. Vol. VIII. p. 41, (1890 Menard.- Revue d'Hygiene t,'XItI (Moore). (42) Cole.-Archives of Pedriatics, XI, 1894, p. 38La (Moore). 1,41) (43) (18,94). Luggar.-Minnesota Sedwick.-Chickens Experiment Station BulletinI- sects injurious I~n I89,6. comb and wattles). (44) Page 91. (Saricoptes mutans o~n and their diseases in Hawaii, Bul. No. 1, Hawaii Agricultural Expt. Station, 1991. (45) Salmon.-Diseases of Poultry. 50 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Fig. 1-Sore-head crusts on comb, eyelids and skin. Fig. 2.-- Head of hen that recovered from bad case of sorehead. The bare places on the skin around the eye give some idea of the extent of the crusts. This case was treated with creolin and vaseline. Fig. 3.-A case of sore-head with eyes badly involved and a large diphtheritic ulcer with prominent exudate on roof of mouth or hard palate. Fig. 4. Same case as fig. 3 with mouth opened to show the exudate on hard palate. Fig. 5.-(By Johne in Birch-Hirschfeld's Pathological Anatomy). It represents the stages in the life history of coccidia. See description on page 27. Fig. 6.-Shows epithelial cells of the skin from sore-head case. The coccidia are supposed to enter the epithelial cell and destroy its contents or take the place of the body of the epithelial cells. Fig. 7.-Illustrates the cells found in blood taken from immediately under a sore-head crust. rbc. are nucelated red blood cells. wbc. are white blood" cells or leucocytes. sf. are the nuceli of white blood cells or are free "sporozoits" or a free spore-like stage of coccidia. Fig. 8.-Section of the mucous membrane -of pharynx of chicken. d. is the diphtheritic exudate (early stage) containing coccidia. m. is the mucuous membrane. mg. are mucuous glands. VIBI 4M A T ]i J fi Fig. 1. a ^J c I I. \TI : 11. Fig 3. Fi 1 b c d PLATE 11L. X, Ft ha'-E' r Fig. 7. Cq 4y Pd 51 APPENDIX. A few .words on sanitary conditionsi the poultry busi ness may help some poultrymen out of difficulties. The wtter supply for poultry should be the very best. Fresh water in clean, uncontaminated vessels should be all kinds kept constantly within reach of the.chickens, well of poultry, especially during the hot weather. water is preferable to running surface water. Protected earthen-ware vessels, or any form of water vessel, should be so constructed that it can be cleaned. In fact itshould' be cleaned daily with biing hot water. The Feed is responsible for the health, growth and of poultry. Young chicks are often over-fed and usually fed in filthy places ew in unclean troughs or vessels. More young chicks die from over-feding, and sour, fermenting, discomposing feed than from any other cause. Especially is this true where mlashhes or liquid or moist feed is used. Some poultrymen use milk with bread or coarse meal in it. Milk is a good food; but if given to chickens it must be fe-esh or it should be boiled or cooked with the bread or meal in its and fed as soon as sufficiently cooled. Always feed it ir clean vessels, not in too large quantities and never leave, the excess to :sour. In feeding milk and all forms of moist orGood flesh feeds scald to chickens be sure to -thoroughly clean and boil or- out the feeding vesse'ls once or twice perP day duringhot weather. Look well to chick feeds. Many of are made of refuse corn, wheat sorghum and other grains. the them, As a rule it is best to make your own mixed grain feeds and then you will know the quality of each grain ingredient and* will not be comp~ell'ed to pay grain prices for the heavy grit thaSt is so plentiful in the average mixed chicken feed. Itis cheapest and safest and best for the health aund growth of the chickens or other fowls buy the separate grains-. and the grit and do your own mixing. The chicken houses should be separated from all other-' -to 52 buildings and all the sides should be of lattice work or quite open during the summer; the north. east and west may be closed during late fall and winter. The fiouos, roosts and nests should be so arranged as to be readily removed, cleaned and disinfected. Portable or movable chicken houses are useful if so built that they will not come to pieces when moved. In case of infection with disease germs or of infestation with mites, intestinal parasites, lice, etc.. it makes the work of disinfection and eradication of parasites more easily and quickly and permanently done, if the house can be quickly moved to a new uninfected locality. Most chicken coops are too close, too heavy and too inconvenient to clean. Some one should invent a "knockdown" brooding coop that can be cleaned readily and one that will not easily break and retain firmness and solidity when set up. The yards and runs are usually too small and insufficient in number. Poultrymen can greatly lessen their work by having large runs or yards and many of them. The placing of 20 to 40 chickens in a small yard (say 50 x 100 feet) and keeping them there 8 to 12 months in a year is one of the means of intensifying the propagation of intestinal parasites of all kinds. The degree of infestation of a yard or run or poultry house depends upon the size the number of poultry kept in them; the length of time poultry are kept in them; and, to some extent, on weather conditions. A large area, as a yard or pen, will not become alarmingly infested with intestinal or other parasites as quickly as a small area. Likewise, the fewer the birds and the shorter the time the birds are kept in a given place, the less, in degree, the infestation. This often explains why a man with very few chickens having good feed and wide range, can raise fine, healthy birds. But when this same man attempts to raise a large number on a small range, yard or run, he fails and his chickens are less vigorous or 53 healthy and consequently less profitable. The number of houses, coops, yards and runs should always be in excess of the immediate demands. Suppose a man has yards, runs, houses and coops for 3 different lots of chickens. He should at least have 3 extra yards and runs into which he coui shift the disinfected houses coops and birds as soon as the the other yards or runs became infested. It would be best to have yards and runs, sufficient in number to enable the poultryman to make three or four shifts before coming around or back to the first. This may seem extravagant but it is the only means by which you can breed healthy, vigorous birds without an immense outlay in cleaning and disinfecting yards or runs. Immediately after vacating a yard or run, plow it up and seed it down to wheat, rye, oats, barley, cowpeas, sorghum or anything that will make a growth upon which the chickens can graze when brought back to this yard or run. Young chicks should not be allowed to range over grund where old chickens run; if it be possible, have the young chicks in a run or yard where Sno old chickens have been for 6 or 8 months. This will prevent young chicks from becoming infested with round worms and tape worms. In purchasing a new chicken, or a new lot of chickens, have them confined in some place remote from the hock for one to four weeks. During this time you will determine the presence or absence of such an infectious disease as fowl cholera. This precaution may Rave your flock and the difficulty of disinfecting houses and yards. Chicken mites are the most common pests in nests and houses. Cleanliness is the best means of preventing their multiplication. They developed best in filthy nests and in cracks and under boards in chicken house. Clean the house (move if portable) and then spray the house with kerosene oil emulsion. If possible apply tar in the cracks and under roosting boards and this will catch many which escape the spray. Clean and spray the infested houses and coops 54 once per week and dip the infested chickens in weak kerosene oil emulsion, or a 2 to 4 per cent creolin solution. Never dip chickens in a poorly mixed kerosene solution. It will blister the skin, i the kerosene is not thoroughly emulsisified. The copper sulphate solution if applied hot will kill mites. It should not be applied on the chickens. Every farmer or poultryman in Alabama should take one or more good poultry journals, and get all the bulletins on poultry from the department of agriculture at Washington, D. C., and the bulletins on poultry published by the state experiment station and also secure Salmon's book on Poultry Diseases. Please report to me all the outbreaks of poultry or other infectious animal diseases that may occur in your vicinity or on your farm. Make these reports, at least once every year. Kerosene oil emulsion is made as follows: Dissolve 1-2 pound of hard soap in one gallon of hot water; add 2 gallons of kerosene and stir or churn until a milky mixture (or emulsion) is formed: now add 8 to 10 gallons of water; stir or mix with a spray pump, or keep the first emulsion of soap, water and kerosene and use as much of it as you desire after diluting with 8 to 10 parts of water. Copper Sulphate Solution.-Dissolve 4 to 6 pounds of copper sulphate (blue stone) in 20 to 50 gallons of water. Spray this over dusted or cleaned boards, walls, nests or other places. When dry, or the next day, whitewash with spray or brush. If applied hot this copper sulphate solution will kill miles. Government White Wash.-"Half a bushel of unslaked lime, slaked with warm water. Cover it during the process to keep the steam. Strain the liquid through a fine siene or strainer. Add a peck of salt previously well dissolved in warm water, three pounds of ground rice boiled to a thin paste and stir in boiling hot a half pound of powdered Spanish whiting (Plaster of Paris) and a pound of glue 55 which has been previously dissolved over a slow fire, and add five gallons of hot water to the mixture. Stir well and let it stand for a few days. Cover up from dirt. It should be put on hot. One pint of the mixture will cover a square yard if properly applied. Small brushes are best. There is nothing that compares with it for outside or inside work and it retains its brilliancy for many years. Coloring may be put into it and made of any shade, Spanish brown, yellow or common clay." This is good for chicken houses, et.,to fill up small cracks and make a smooth surface. To it may be added two pints of caibol'c acid' which will make iva disinfectant. List of a few drugs and their uses for the poultryman: For Intestinal Worms: 1. isolate infested birts and destey or d-sinfeet their droppings while being, treated. 2. Pat one to 2 drams of copper sulphate in each gallon of drinking water, for one week : or 3. Powered Pomganate 'root bark (for tape worms) followed by 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of castor oil: or 4. Oil of turpentine, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, followed in 4 to 6 hours with castor oil. 5. Powdered santonin in 5 to 8 grain doses is especially good for round worms. 6. Chopped-up pumpkin seed for tape worms. For worms in the air passages: 1. Turpentine introduced by stripped feather, into the windpipe. 2. Steaming with creolin and turpentine in the hot water. 3. Feeding garlic in the food. For Diarrhoea: 1. Subcarbonate of Bismuth. 1 to 4 grains. 2 to 3 times per day; or 2. Pulv. cinchona bark. 1 to 2 grains 3 times per day and 3. Quinine 1-8 to 1-2 grain 2 times. a day. 4. Dry feed or cooked and slightly moist feed. 56 Constipation : 1. Epsom Salts.-20 to 30 grains in 1 tablespoonful of water; or 2. Castor oil, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; or 3. Calomel, 1 to 2 grains; and 4. Soft feed. For Lice: 1. Lard,or vaseline over head, under wings and around anus. 2. Dipping in 15 per cent. kerosene oil emulsion; or 3. Dipping in 2 to 5 per cent creolin solution. 4. Pyrethrum powder dusted among the feathers. 5. Clean nests yards and houses. For intestinal disinfectant: 1. One-half to 2 drams of copper sulphate in one gallon of drinking water; or 2. One-half to 2 drams of iron sulphate in 1 gallon of drinking water; or 3. Salol 1-2 to 1 grain, once or twice daily. 4. Napthol 1-2 to 1 grain, once per day after eating. 5. Resorcin 1-4 to 1-2 grain once per day after eating 6. Hyposulphite soda, 4 to 10 grains in one tablespoonful of water FOR CHICKEN MITES. 1. Lard or vaseline on legs, feet and head applied once or Twice per week. Wash off scales. 2. Kerosene Emulsion sprayed on walls, roosts, floors and nests once per week for what is commonly called chicken mites or chicken ticks. 3. Two to 5 per cent creolin solution sprayed on same places as (2). 4. Formalin 1 part to 200 parts of water sprayed as (2). 5. Corrosive sublimate (very poisonous) 1 part to 1000 parts of water sprayed as (2). 6. Boiling hot water freely applied by pouring over walls, roots, nests and floor. 7. Clean Chicken house every day until mites are gone. BUILLETIN~ NO. 137 ALABsAMA SEPTEMBER, 1906 Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AU BU RN. Experiments With Oats By J. F. DUGGAR, Director Opelika, The Post 1906. Ala.: Publishing Company, COMITTEE OF J. M. TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ...................................... Montgomery. CARMICHAl SAMEORD. T. D. Opelika. W. C. DAvIS..................................................Tasper. STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH ........ ................................... President. J. F. DUGGAR. B. B. Ross...... C. A. CARY...... ....................... Director and Agriculturist. Chemist and State Chemist. .............. Veterinarian and Director of Farmers' Institutes. Plant Physiologist and Pathologist. E. M. WiLcox ............... R. S. MACKINTOSH.........Horticulturist and State Horticulturist. ANDERSON., .......... 3. T. Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations. ASSISTANTS. C. 14. HARE...... ..................... First Assistant Chemist. .Second Assistant Chemist. A. McB. RANSOM.................. T. BRAGG........... ........ ... ...... ....... Third Assistant Chemist. C. S. WALDROP................ D. T. GRAY.......... . . ..... Fourth Assistant Chemist Assistant in Animal Industry. ...... Superintendent of Farm. ... Assistant . .. . ...... C. M. F 4 OVD................. 14. C. F. KINMAN........................... N. DUNCAN.............................. in Horticulture' in Agriculture. Assistant Assistant in W. GILTJNER..:..................... Veterinary 0. -Science. H. SELLERS........ ............ Stenographer and Mailing Clerk. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. EXPERIMENT WITH OATS By J. F. DUGGAR. SUMMARY. Experiments extending over a period of ten years are -summarized in this bulletin. The oat may be made a much more profitable crop in Alabama than it now is, provided farmers will make the two following innovations in the usual method of caring for the crop; (1) Sowing in the early or middle fall. (2) Applying nitrate of soda as a top dressing in March, or sowing on land where a soil-improving crop like cow peas has recently grown. In tests of varieties extending over a number of years there was little difference in the yields of Red Rust Proof, Appler, and Culberson when sown in the fall. These three varieties are practically identical. When sown after Christmas the Burt or May oats averaged 7 per cent. less grain than did the Red Rust proof variety. Turf or Grazing oats sown in November afforded only 59 per cent. as much grain as Red Rust Proof oats sown at the same time. The order of ripening of the principal varieties sown in the fall was Burt, Red Rust Proof, and Turf. Red Rust Proof oats may be distinguished from other varieties usually grown in the South by the long beards which are usually present on both grains, by the brownish yellow color, by the plumpness of the grain, and still more positively by the greater length of the tiny hairs or bristles -located at the base of the lower grain. 60 Red Rust Proof and related varieties or strains, Appler and Culberson, constitute the best general-purpose type of oats for this region, being suitable for either fall or February sowing, and having stiffer straw and greater rustresistance than any other variety tested. The Burt oat, (synonym May oat), is chiefly valuable for its earliness, and hence for sowing at a rather late date in spring. When sown in November it was almost completely winter killed in the severe winter of 1904-5, but it was uninjured during the mild winter of 1905-6. Winter killing of oats may be greatly reduced and the crop almost insured against ordinary winters by using one or more of the following methods: (1) Sowing in deep drills. (2) Sowing in October. (3) Sowing with a grain drill. (4) Use of a roller after the plants have been heaved and their roots exposed. (5) The use of Turf oats in the northern part of the cotton belt. The average of seven experiments made in seven different years shows that Red oats sown in November averaged 11.3 bushels per acre more than when sown in February. This is a profit of $5.65 per acre, or an increase of 73 per cent. as the result of sowing in the fall. October is advised for .fall sowing, and the first few days in February for spring sowing in this latitude. Oats sown in deep furrows, about two feet apart, yielded more than broadcast sowing, the increase being 3.2 bushels per acre when the deep furrows were only partly filled, and 2.3 bushels when the furrows were almost completely filled. Planting in deep furrows only partially filled is recommended only for well-drained soils. Smut of oats can be entirely prevented by moistening the 61 seed in a mixture of one ounce of formalin and three gallons of water. Nitrogenous fertilizers have been much more profitable than phosphate or potash on the sandy and loamy soils at Auburn, but it is recommended that on such soils at least 100 pounds of acid phosphate be applied at the time of sowing oats. Among the various nitrogenous fertilizers a pound of nitrogen or a dollar of investment has been most effective in nitrate of soda, and somewhat more effective in the form of cotton seed meal than of cotton seed. When either cotton seed or cotton seed meal is used it should be applied at the time of sowing, but nitrate of soda is most useful when used in March after growth begins. Barnyard m'anure greatly increased the yield of the ciop of oats to which it was applied, and exerted some effect on the next crop. In one experiment it required 43.1 pounds of nitrate of soda and 103 pounds of acid phosphate (costing together $1.93) to afford the same increase as one ton of fine, fresh, unleached horse manure. In thirteen experiments with nitrate of soda the yield and total profit per acre increased with the amount of nitrate applied up to 200 pounds per acre. However, the smaller applications were more economical. The cost of nitrate of soda required to produce one additional bushel of oats was 14.5 cents from the use of 63 pounds per acre; 17.7 cents when nitrate was applied at the rate of 100 pounds, and 21.1 cents when 200 pounds of nitrate of soda was used per acre. The smallest application afforded , profit over the cost of fertilizer of 249 per cent.; the use of 100 pounds of nitate per acre returned a profit of 206 per cent. on the cost of the fertilizer, while the heaviest application resulted in a net profit of 140 per cent. The three different amounts of nitrate of soda gave profits per acre of $4.73 for the light application, $6.19 for the 100- 62 pound application, and $8.40 for the 200-pound application.. Sixty to 100 pounds of nitrate of soda is recommended to be applied as a top dressing to oats in March. No nitrogen need be purchased for oats, provided the oats be sown after a crop of cow peas, velvet beans, peanuts, or moy beans, all of which crops, whether only the stubble or the entire growth was plowed under for fertilizer, afforded an increase in the succeeding oat crop of from 6.2 to 33. bushels per acre. From 5 to 15 bushels increase in the succeeding oat crop is considered an average result of the use of the stubble or vines of leguminous crops employed as fertilizer. THE OAT CROP OF ALABAMA. Official estimates credit Alabama with only 197,787 acres of oats in 1904, as compared with 2,791,811 acres of corn. Is there any adequate reason why the farmers of Alabama should plant only one acre of oats for every fourteen acres of corn? For the ten-year period ending with 1904, the average yield of corn in Alabama was 12.7 bushels, and the average yield of oats was 13.9 bushels. Reducing both to pounds, we have a yield of 714 pounds of shelled corn and 445 pounds of threshed oats per acre. The small production of oats per acre in Alabama would be a sufficient reason for the neglect of this crop were no improvement in yield practicable. However, it is a comparatively easy matter to double or treble this yield, and at very slight expense, as indicated in the experiments described in this bulletin. In view of present and prospective agricultural conditions in Alabama there is urgent need for a very great extension of the area devoted to oats. A decreasing supply of labor calls for an increasing proportion of crops that, like oats, can be handled largely by machinery, and that require little labor per acre. The continual impoverishment of the soils of the Southern States argues for the more general in- 63 troduction of crops that will improve the soil. This improvement can be effected universally by the growing of cow peas, but most cotton farmers will not grow any considerable area of cow peas except on the land from which a crop of small grain has been harvested. Hence the extension of the culture of the small grains means an increase in the acreage of cow peas, soy beans, velvet beans, and peanuts, and hence the upbuilding of the soil. YIELD OF OATS COMPARED WITH THAT OF CORN. -- We have seen from a preceding paragraph that corn and oats average respectively in Alabama 714 and 445 pounds per acre. This comparison is scarcely fair to oats, for the reason that this crop is usually assigned to the poorest land on the farm, and is seldom fertilized. To ascertain the relative yields of oats and corn on adjacent plots, a careful study has been iiiade of the results of an unpublished rotation experiment that has been in progress on the station farm at Auburn during the past ten years. We are able to make a satisfactory comparison for three years when all conditions of fertilization, season, and time of sowing were normal or identical for the two crops. The average yield of oats from fall sowing (October 16 being the average date of sowing) was 24.6 bushels per acre, as compared with 13.8 bushels of corn planted April 6 to 8 each year. No uitrate of soda was used. Reducing both crops to pounds of grain per acre we have 787 pounds of threshed oats and 772 pounds of shelled corn. This indicates that the yields under these conditions were practically identical in the following rotation: 1st year: Cotton. 2nd year: Corn, with cow peas between the rows. 3rd year: Fall sown Red oats, followed by cow peas. In this rotation corn has a slightly more favorable position than oats, but this is doubtless offset by the fact that 64 the fertilizer used was not the one which affords the largest yield of oats. In one experiment in which oats were compared with other small grains, all sown in the fall, the yields were as follows: Oats versus wheat versus barley for hay and for grain in 1904. CROP. Alabama Blue Stem Wheat Red Rust Proof Oats................ ......... Yield per acre, Unthreshed. I Grain. Bus. Lbs. Lbs. 16.5 990 2620 1950 1150 36.0 Bearded Barley.................. Culberson Oats.........1400 1400 600 700 12.5 21.9 This shows a greater number of pounds of grain yielded by oats than by wheat or bearded barley. However, the weight of unthreshed grain and straw combined was greater with wheat, which indicates that wheat affords a larger yield of hay than does oats. In a comparison of Red Rust Proof oats and Beardless barley both sown February 25, the yield of oats was 25 bushels (800 pounds) and of Beardless barley 18.7 bushels (880 pounds), the yield of barley being greater than we ordina.ily secure. I VARIETIES. While the list of varieties of oats grown in the Northern States and in Europe is a long one, there are but few kinds that thus far have proved suitable for the Gulf States. Our tests of varieties have been concerned almost entirely with the standard southern kinds, namely: Red Rust Proof, Appler, Culberson, Burt, and Turf or Winter Grazing oats. The first table that follows gives the yields of varieties sown in the fall. The average date of sowing has been November 14, which is too late for maximum yields, and especially much too late for the Turf oats. The next table gives the 65 ,yields resulting from sowing oats in February or March, the average date of these spring sowings being February 20, which is several weeks later than the date preferred by the writer for oats sown after Christmas. The third table following is calculated from the other.two and is the most important of the tables, giving the relative yields of varieties in terms of percentage and average results of experiments extending through a number of years. Tests of varieties of oats sown Variety at Auburn in the fall. . Yield per acre Straw Grain Sown Nov. 6, 1897 Red Rust Proof.....................41.3 Hatchett's Black....................38.7 Beardless Red.......................42.9 Early Siberian......................28.5 Gray Winter or Turf...............29.6 Deleware Winter...30.4 Sown Nov. 23, 1899. Red Rust Poof......................48.6 Gray Winter or Turf...............31.2 Hatchett's Black.........45 Sown Nov. 13, 1903. Lbs. 1800 Bus. 30.8 20.8 1,057 1,155 1,1291,232 783 27.1 13.9 16.1 10.6 9 32.6 37.8 869 769 675 13.5 7.5 14.0 30.0 32.7 Appler ..................... Sown Nov. 10, Red Rust Proof ............ Culberson ........... ......... .............. Gray Winter or (Va. Gray).......... *Red Rust *Appler ................... *Culberson ......... Sown Nov. 18, 1905. Appier....................... 1904. Proof(spring 32.5 38.3 1,320 1,720 1, 440 28.0 1,400 1,120 836 1.144 2,080 21.0 28.0 28.3 29.4 52.6 strain).....44.4 52.0 45.1 ... ......... ...... 48.9 Burt........ ....................... ................ Culberson Red Rust Proof (fall strain)..... .... Sown Nov. 14, 1905. Burt (av.fall and spring strains) .. ... ...... ........ May............. 3744 45.7 47.7 44.9 46.9 46.8 2,784 2,088 1,974 1,784 1.880 1,575 52.0 48.0 48.4 46.1 51.9 58.2 Red 0 Rust Proof (av. fall and, spring strains) Partly winter killed. 66 Tests of varieties of oats sown at Auburn in Percent Grain. the spring.. Grain Variety. YIELD PER ACRE Straw Sown Feb. 17, 1898. ......... May .......................... Burt ...................... ........ Gray Winter or Turf.......... Red Rust Proof.... ............ 39.9 1,790 I.bs. Bus. 35.9 41.7 20.0 42.9 27.6 43.1 1, 658 690 1, 276 616 620 Sown Mar. 7, 1902. Burt ...... .................... Ma.-........ Red Rust Proot ......................... 41.45.5" 30.6 7..;; 14.7" 47.1 33.6 25.7 34.3 370 870 896 65 557 880 10.313.7" 9.71.9.109 Sown Feb. 5, 1903. Burt........................................ Culberson ................................ May...................................... Red Rust Proof ...... ................. 33.3 Sown Feb. 23, 1905. Red Rust Proof .................... 42.1 May .......................................... n~ rr~V) 13.7' 1,384 36.4 1,929 31.5* 35.0. Relative yields ing yield of Red Rust Proof oats O -I ~ of grain of varieties of N A oats at Auburn, tale- as 100. "'-4 V-) ___________________ - I - I - I Sown in November. Red RustProof. Beardless Red Appler............... Culberson... Early Siberian.... Gray or Turf........ Burt...... ......... May................. Av. Burt and May . .. Hatchett's Black ... Deleware Winter. 'r100 100 o s45 56 104 31 a68 100 135 117 15, " . . 100 100 100 100 100 88 1C9 100 109 106100 X93 106 100 45 70 59 108 78 93 81 81 89~ 86. 31. 100 100 . 053' 66... 4 75 100... . Sown in February. Red Rust Proof .. ............ Burt ..... May...... ........... Av. Burt and May .... Culberson............ .. . Gray or Turf ...... 100 . 100 . . . 111.... . . . 107 66..... ... ... 101 93. 87 15 *Yield reduced by. smut. **Different fields and different dates of sowing. 67 The last table deserves careful study. The variety Red Rust Proof, also known as Texas Rust Proof, Texas Red, and simply as Red oats, has in these tests, as usual, proved worthy of its position as the most popular or standard variety for the Gulf States. It has: been relatively satisfactory whether sown in the spring: or the fall, though fall sowing is decidedly preferable in the central and the southern parts of Alabama. Appler, a selection from the Red Rust Proof, cannot be distinguished from its parent, but in the three tests made at Auburn, the Appler has afforded 6 per cent. more grain than the Red oat. Culberson is also like Red oats in appearance of grain, and the yield when sown in the fall has averaged the same. With us it proved a little more hardy than the Red oat, a slightly larger proportion of the Culberson plants surviving the trying winter of 1904-5. It is apparently a strain of the Red Rust Proof variety. Both Culberson and Appler are at least equal in merit to the parent strain. Winter Turf, also variously known as Gray Winter, Virginia Gray and Myers' Turf, has been relatively unproductive here, averaging only 59 per cent. as much grain as Red oats when sown as late as November 14, and apparently not equaling Red oats when sown at its proper season, September or October. Sown here in the spring, the Turf oat is an entire failure. It ripens about two weeks later than Red oats sown at the same date, and hence is especially liable to fail to fill out well, either because of rust or of drought. This oat is only to be considered for grazing or hay, or for grain on the very best land, or in those localities in the northern part of the cotton belt where Red oats are usually winter killed. It has been recommended as a good variety to sow for hay with hairy vetch, but this is only true on rich land, for on our poor sandy uplands at 68 Auburn, Turf oats do not throw up seed stems in time to support the slender vetch plants. Here we find that a beardless variety of wheat or the Red Rust Proof oat makes a more satisfactory combination with hairy vetch. Burt and May are apparently the same variety, the latter being the local name near Auburn. This is a spring variety and is seldom sown in the fall; however, it passed without any winter killing whatsoever through the mild winter of 1905-6, and afforded an average yield of 89 per cent. as much grain as the Red oat. In the severe winter of 1904-5 only 5 or 10 per cent. of a stand survived from a sowing made November 10, 1904. When sown in the spring the grain yield of Burt or May oats averaged 93 per cent. of that of Red oats, some years the advantage being with one variety and some years with the other. It is generally believed that Burt can safely be sown later in the spring than Red oats, and while our sowing of March 7, 1902, does not support this opinion, yet the view seems reasonable and correct because of the quicker maturity and longer straw of the Burt. DESCRIPTIONS OF STANDARD SOUTHERN VARIETIES OF OATS. Red Rust Proof :-Plants medium height; straw large and strong; berries or "grain" bearded, beards borne on both grains in most spikelets; beards large and long, usually inserted low down on the larger grain, that is, half way between the base and the extreme tip, but nearer the tip on the small grain; color of berries yellowish-brown, darker near the base, and darkening on exposure to moisture. A characteristic of Red Rust Proof oats is the greater length of the slender bristles or hairs at the base of the spikelet (that is at the lower end of the larger grain), which bristles in other varieties commonly grown in the South are either wanting, or occur on only a few of the spikelets, or art shorter than on Red, Appler, and Culberson oats. The 69 grains are very large and very plump. This variety is sometimes attacked by rust, but is less injured by this disease than the other varieties tested. Appler:-This is a selection from the Red Rust Proof oats, and most of the spikelets are not to be distinguished from the parent variety. As grown at Auburn in 1906 it was even less uniform than the Red, containing a large admixture of black grains and a considerable proportion of spikelets of which only the larger grain was bearded. Culberson:-This appears to be a strain of Red oats. The straw is perhaps a little taller. The grains are strongly bearded, both grains being usually bearded. In color, size and plumpness the grain is not distinguishable from the Red oat. The bristles at the base of most spikelets are relatively long, as in Red oats. All' three of the above varieties, constituting the Red Rust Proof group, are decidedly mixed, or lacking in uniformity of grains, which indicates the need of breeding for pure strains, a work that this station now has in progress. In the Red Rust Proof group about half the weight of sheaf oats consists of straw and half of grain, though the proportion of straw exceeds this on rich land. Burt:-The majority of spikelets bear one bearded and one beardless grain, but some are doubly bearded and a few entirely beardless. The grains are more slender than those of Red Rust Proof oats, of a paler cream or brownishyellow color. Most spikelets have only short bristles, or none. The straw is taller and weaker than that of Red oats, and the date of ripening is earlier. This variety is tender and is adapted to spring sowing. Turf :-This variety is beardless. The grains are slender, light cream or gray in color, of a lighter shade than Burt oats, and the two berries usually break apart in threshing. The percentage of grain is small, there being usually about twice as much straw as grain. 70 Since there are so few varieties of oats adapted to the ,Gulf States, it is important that some distinguishing marks .be found by which Southern farmers may be able to identify seed oats of a few leading varieties. With this end in view -careful examination has been made of the four most popular varieties in the South, and we have found what seems to be a means of positively distinguishing the seed of the Red Rust Proof group from the other well-known southern varieties. The greater plumpness of grain of the Red oats and the larger proportion of spikelets in which both grains are bearded will serve to separate the Red oat group. A still more positive indication that a sample of oats is the genuine Red Rust Proof is the presence of a bunch of fine dhairs or bristles at the base of the lower grain and the greater length of some of these bristles in this variety than in other varieties in which bristles occur. WINTER KILLING OF OATS. Oat plants from sowings made in the fall are liable to be killed by cold weather at any date between December 1 and March 1 in the central part of Alabama. As illustrating the earliest and the latest dates on which severe winter killing has occurred within the memory and observation of the writer, I would say that March 1, 1890, was one of the coldest days of the winter, and oats growing on rich land, which had already thrown up tender seed stems, were entirely killed, while other plants at an earlier stage of growth were severely injured. The earliest date recalled on which oats were injured was on December 15, 1901, when the temperature suddenly dropped below the freezing point, following a period of heavy rains. There were severe freezes at night and complete thawing during the day fo lnearly a week, thus affording extremely favorable conditions for the heaving and destruction of oat plants. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Alabama, and 71 probably the most complete destruction of oats by cold was experienced in February, 1899, when on the station farm practically all Red oats were killed except near woods or protecting fences, where a part of a stand survived. That cold weather, during which the minimum temperature was -6 Fahrenheit, not only killed Red oats, but Turf oats as well. The following precautions used singly or together will greatly reduce the danger of winter killing and practically insure in this latitude the survival.of a fair stand of oats, except in unusually severe winters: (1) Sowing the seed in deep drills not completely covered, as discussed in a later paragraph. (2) Sowing in October so as to give the plants time to form a strong root system as an anchor before severe freezes occur. (3) Sowing with a grain drill, which leaves the land slightly ridged and the plants close together, thus apparently furnishing a small amount of mutual protection. (4) Passing a roller over a field on which the plants have been heaved and the white roots exposed by alternate freezes and thaws. (5) The sowing of Turf oats, which are hardier than Red oats, but are not to be preferred where the Red oats ordinarily succeed. Cold weather may kill oat plants in either of two ways, directly by the action of the cold on the foliage and crown or indirectly by the heaving or lifting effects of alternate freezes and thaws. The first method of prevention mentioned above is effective against both results of cold, but is chiefly useful in preventing heaving. The use of the roller just after a succession of freezes is intended to counteract the results of heaving, since the roller presses the exposed -crowns into contact with the soil, thus favoring the development of new roots. We have repeatedly used this method 72 with good results. It should, however, be remembered that the use of the roller while the land is still wet may result in unduly compacting the surface. Before deciding whether it is best to rely chiefly on fall sown or on spring sown oats it is worth while to recall how many complete failures due to winter killing and how many partial killings have occurred within one or two decades in any given locality. Applying this test to the fall sown Red Rust proof oats on the Station farm at Auburn we find that during the past eleven years there has been but one winter in which practically all red oats have been killed, namely in 1899. In 1902 in spite of the trying weather of the preceding December, a part of the oats on the Experiment Station farm afforded a fair yield. The winter of 1904-5 was perhaps the third most unfavorable year as regards winter killing. Although the stand was very much thinned, yet the yields of our variety plots that year averaged about 28 bushels per acre. It is believed that farmers overestimate the danger of winter killing of oats or the frequency with which the stand is reduced to a point where the yield would be less than with oats sown in the spring. This tendency is natural, since few have put in effect the above-mentioned measures that may be taken to reduce the amount and frequency of winter killing. TIME TO SOW OATS. A large proportion of the oats grown in Alabama are sown in February. While this may perhaps be considered necessary for Red and Burt oats in those parts of the state in which experience indicates that fall sown oats are usually winter killed, yet this is the wrong time to sow most fields of Red oats in the central and southern parts of the State. Our experience, which is partly tabulated below, indicates that the yield from fall sowing is far greater than from sowing Red oats after Christmas. In all the experi- 73 ments tabulated below the same amount of fertilizer was used for the February sowing as for the November sowing, and all conditions were equal except the date of putting the seed into the ground. Average results of fall sown vs. spring sown oats. Increase Yield of Yield of of grain grain grain straw from in sheaf per acre per acre fall oats sowing Percent DATE OF SOWING Experiment No. 1. Percent. Bus. 21.7 Lbs. 895 November 18, 1896 ............. 45 Bus. 7.9 March 1, 1897..............43 Experiment No. 2. November 23, 1897 ............. 38 February 9, 1898 ............ 13.8 18.2 6.4 23.8 14.1 587 958 228 994 440 9.7 11 Experiment No. 3. November 26, 1897 ............... February 9, 1898 ............. 47 43 51 Experiment No. 4. November 13, 1902 .............. 40 February 5, 1903 ............ 34 Ezheriment No. 5. November 19, 1903 ............. 57 February 23, 1904 ............. 55 27.2 13.7 15.9 13.3 *26.9 32.0 1328 1024 384 416 1068 1360 13.5 2.6 -*5.1 Experiment No. 6. November 10, 1904 ............. 44 February 23, 1905 .............. 43 Experiment No. 7. November 14, 1905 ............ 52 February 16, 1906 .......... .... Average 7 Experiments ........... 53.8 15.0 1560 38.8 ........ 11.3 *Fully 25 winter killed. The average of seven experiments shows a gain of 11.3 bushels or 73 per cent from sowing Red oats in November as compared with sowing them in February. Who ca, afford such a loss? Who would not arrange to pay his notes three months ahead of maturity if thereby he could have 43 per cent deducted from their face? The two cases are arithmetically the same. If the "turning out" of cattle by common consent in winter prevents the sowing of grain in the fall, is the few months' winter range worth the sacrifice? 74 Other experience, often repeated, has shown us that the average date of fall sowing in the table above, November 17, is too late for maximum yields of fall sown oats. We have found that sowing in October gives a larger yield and the plants endure cold better than do plants from sowings maade in November. I would recommend October sowing, while realizing that any date between September 1 and November 15 may afford satisfactory yields. We find it advisable to discontinue entirely the sowing of oats about the first of December. For such fields as must be sown after Christmas I prefer on the uplands in this latitude to sow about February 1. For oats sown after Christmas only the richest lands are suitable and these are needed for other crops. On the other hand, oats sown in the fall may make a profitable crop on land that is quite poor, provided they be judiciously fertilized. Thus the advantages of fall sowing consist of (1) a much larger yield, even after deducting the losses from partial winter killing; (2) the utilization .of poorer land by the fall sown crop, (3) the employment of teams at a time when they are not needed in preparation of land for cotton or corn, and (4) earlier maturity of fall sown oats, permitting the use of the crop and the use of the land at least two weeks earlier than when oats are sown after Christmas. METHODS OF SOWING OATS. A method of sowing oats that has proved highly satisfactory as the most effective known means of avoiding winter killing consists in opening deep furrows at intervals of 18 to 24 inches and drilling the seed and fertilizer in the bottom of these furrows, barely covering the seed with such earth as falls in as the one-horse planter and fertilizer distributor passes along. The primary object is to reduce the amount of killing by placing the plants in a position where they will not be heaved by alternate freezes and thaws. 75 For four years we have compared this method with a modification of the same, in which the deep furrows were covered nearly or quite full after the sowing of the seed, and witt broadcast sowing. In 1900 a harrow was run over all plots and dragged in more dirt than was intended. That year the "covered" drills were filled and the oats covered by the use of scooters on a double stock. In 1899-1900 the drilled oats were scarcely injured by cold, while the broadcast plots lost about 25 per cent of their plants, and yielded far less grain than either method of drilling. In 1904 the broadcast plots lost about 20 per cent of their plants from winter killing, while the loss from cold in the drilled plots was insignilcant; soma plants in the deep, partially filled furrows were injured by sand washing in. In 1905 there was some loss from cold on all plots, this being estimated at 20 per cent on the broadcast plots, 10 per cent on the plots sown in filled furrows, and only 5 per ,cent in furrows only partially filled. In the average results and in three out of four years ,drilling oats in furrows two feet apart yielded decidedly more than did the sowing of the seed broadcast on the plow ed ground and covering with a disc harrow or other similar implement. No very severe winter occurred while this test was in progress, which probably accounts for the practical equality in resistance to cold of the plants in the filled and in the partly filled furrows. For well drained soils there are decided advantages in drilling fall sown oats in deep furrows, especially when the winter proves severe. It is advisable where practicable to run the r(ws perpendicular to the line of the coldest winds, which would give the rows a direction from southwest to northeast, or east and west. This method of sowing oats in deep unfilled furrows is 76 evidently not adapted to prairie or other very stiff, poorly drained soil, where standing water in the furrows would drown the young plants, and it is slower than sowing broadcast or using a grain drill. Yields of oats sown broadcast and in deep furrows, or entirely drilled. Yield per acre. Year Broad-| 8 in. drill cast Bus. Deep furrow, slight covering Bus. 24.3 33.7 19.2 32.3 27.4 Deep furrow,covered? Bus. 29.1 25.7 20.5 31.5 26.7 1900 1903 1904 1905 Average 19.9 26.4 16.0 34.6 242 31.0 INCREASING THE HARDINESS OF OATS. In a severe winter the oat plants that survive the winter are either those best protected by their location or else those possessing in themselves a special degree of hardiness. If we could plant seed only from plants possessing this inherent hardiness we should doubtless be able within a few years to breed up a variety hardy enough to endure the severest winters. The Alabama Experiment Station has for several years been engaged in this attempt to increase the hardiness of our ordinary Red Rust Proof oats towards cold. Since we cannot separate those plants whose survival of winter's cold is merely accidental, or due to their environment, from those planst that have in themselves special hardiness, our task will doubtless take many years for its accomplishment. For though we select each year from plants that survived the previous winter and whose ancestors survived still earlier winters, yet among these continuously hardy plants are many tender plants that have endured the 77 ~old merely because of favorable environment. It will require the recurrence of several severe winters to eliminate the tender plants. In thus breeding the oat plant for improvement in hardiness we also had an opportunity to ascertain whether seed -oats for sowing in the fall should come from a strain sown each year in the fall or indifferently from either fall or ;spring-sown ancestry. The following table presents the rersults of this inquiry to date. ,all Yields of oats from sowing in the fall seed from fall-sown vs. spring-sown ancestry. Date Year Variety of Yield per acre strain Fall Spri g strain Straw Grain Straw Grain Lbs. Bus. Lbs. Bus. -1898 .1903 1904 1905 1905 1006 1906 1906 Red Rustl Proof ................ Red Rust Proof ............. ......... Red Rust Proof........................ Red Rust Proof (Broadcast).... Red Rust Proof (8-in. drills).. Red Rust Proof (8-in. drills).. Red Rust Proof (8-in. drills).. Burt .................... .................. Average.................... .1223 Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. 61050 13 1110 960 5 1352 5 1256 18 1936 141560 14 1676 25.3 21.3 30.0 35.5 31.0 50.9 53.8 45.6 996 505 888 1160 1128 2112 1590 1892 28.6 11.3 27.7 33.7 31.0 51 0 62.5 46.5 6.5 36,7 12831 Thus far the difference in yield is slight and accidental between a strain of oats that for several years has been continuously sown in the fall and other oats descended from crops alternately sown in fall and in spring.In the above table the fall strain of Red Rust Proof oats has been continuous, having been sown in the fall of 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905: in 1902 the fall sown seed were from the station farm where nearly all the oats are sown in the fall, and hence the habit of growing in winter extends back at least five years prior to 1902. The "spring strain" seed oats does not represent -a continuously spring-sown ancestry, but usually only one generation of spring-sown oats. This experiment with Red 78 will be continued. Until we can accumulate conclusive data we can advise only on theoretical considerations. These suggest the probable advisability of sowing in the fall seed from a strain that for several years has been sown in the ili. This is another argument for saving one's own seed oats, for we seldom know whether purchased seed oats are accustomed to fall or to spring planting nor whether grown in or near this latitude. vats PREVENTION OF SMUT. Smut is almost universally present in the oat fields of Alabama, blackening many of the heads and reducing the yield from 5 to 30 per cent. It can be prevented easily and cTieaply. Several methods may be used, the most convenient being the use of formalin. Unfortunately this useful mater ial is not generally found in the smaller drug stores but may be ordered from wholesale drug stores through local druggists. The cost should not exceed one dollar per pound including express charges, and in large amounts the cost is much lower. Pour one ounce of this liquid formalin into three gallons of water. Into this liquid the oats may be dipped and then drained and spread out to dry, or the liquid may be sprinkled over the pile of oats until the grains are thoroughly moistened. Then the pile of treated seed should be kept covered from two to ten hours, so that the gas generated may destroy the germs or "seed" of smut, which are present on the gat kernel. One ounce of formalin will treat a number of bushels of oats, making the cost only a few cents per acre. The saving or increase in the crop will usually be from 8 to 20 per cent, or say 2 to 8 bushels per acre. We cannot afford to plant oats without this or equivalent treatment. In case formalin is not quickly obtainable smut in oats may be destroyed by the following method: Obtain an accurate thermometer. A dairy thermometer costing 25 to. 79 50 cents will usually answer. Then dip the bags of seed oats into hot water which must be kept at a temperature of about 132 degrees, not dropping below 130 nor running above 135 degrees Fahrenheit. Keep the oats in this hot; vater for ten or twelve minutes, stirring them so that every grain becomes heated. Then remove the sack of oats and dip into cold water. After this cooling the oats should be spread out to dry, never spreading them on a floor on which untreated seed oats have been stored. FERTILIZERS FOR OATS. It is a custom far too common in Alabama to sow oats without any fertilizer. The experiments here recorded show that it pays to fertilize oats, and that the most profitable fertilizer is one that is rich in nitrogen. Omitting the long table of figures, the conclusions drawn from average results of a number of years' experimentation in Auburn are here given. On our sandy and loam soils rather heavily fertilized with complete commercial fertilizers for a number of years, the results were briefly as follows: Potash was practically useless; acid phosphate was of secondary importance, while nitrogen in whatever form applied, whether as stable manure, cotton seed, cotton seed meal, or nitrate of soda, gave a considerable increase in the yield of oats. BARNYARD MANURE AS A FERTILIZER FOR OATS. For several years an experiment has been in progress to determine the increase in various crops due to the application of manure during the current or previous season. Only such of these data as bear on the oat crop a. here given. In the winter of 1900 heavy applications of ca t>imanure, obtained by the use of a ration of cotton seed meal or of cotton seed, were applied to fall-sown oats. The following table shows the results obtained the first year, in which the 80 increase in yield was 29.6 or 31.5 bushels of oats per acre: Immediate or first year effect of cattle manure applied to oats. Manure per acre. Lbs. 43740 30600 No manure Manure from feeding. C. S. Meal, etc., Cotton Seed, etc. Yield per acre. Bus. 40.7 38.8 9.2 Increase per acre. Bus. 31.5 29.6 The next year oats were again grown on the same field without additional fertilizer. Manure per acre previous year Lbs. 43740 30600 Yield per acre second year. Bus. 37.5 28. Increase per acre second year. Bus 26. 16.5 Even on this sandy soil a heavy application of stable manure gave a large increase in the second crop of oats, as well as in the crop to which it was directly applied. The important matter is to determine what increase in crop was afforded by each ton of manure, and this information is contained in the following table, which deals not only with this experiment, but with two others in which very light applications of horse manure were employed. Increase in first and second crops of oats per ton of manure. Increase per ton of manure Kind of Manurep P ' 1 - 'o Tons 21.87 Cattle; from feeding c. s. meal, etc. 15 3 Cattle; from feeding cotton seed,etc. ,6.2 Cattle; from feeding c. s. meal, etc. Bus. 1.4 1.9 1 6 Bus. 1.2 1.1 .5 Bus. 2.6 3.0 2.1 2.0 Horse manure ...... ........ ..... 2.0 Horse manure .......... .......... 8.8 9.8 81 From the above table it will be seen that where heavy appli,cations of rich cattle manure were made to oats the aggregate increase in yield of the two following crops was :2.8 bushels per acre and that of this the secondyear's increase accounts for more than one bushel. On the other hand, when only two tons per acre of horse manure was used the increase the first year averaged 9.3 bushels per acre. This :illustrates the greater efficiency per ton of the smaller .applications, though the broadcast application of less than four tons per acre is scarcely practicable even by the use of the manure spreader. This expensive piece of farm machinery is needed where large amounts of manure are to be distributed, for it greatly reduces the amount of labor in handling manure, pulverizes the material finely, and enables a lighter application to be made where this is desired, the lighter application and the finer pulverizing making a given amount of manure go further and afford a larger increase in crop yield. COTTON SEED VERSUS COTTON SEED MEAL. In three experiments made in as many different years we have compared 200 pounds of cotton seed meal with 434 pounds of cotton seed, both furnishing equal amounts of nitrogen and both being applied at the time of planting in the fall. In every case cotton seed meal has given larger yields, the excess resulting from the use of meal as compared with seed being in different years respectively 2.1, .7 and 11.8 bushels of oats per acre, which would give an average advantage of 4.9 bushels per acre to the meal. If we reject the last figure as being so large as to excite suspicion of error we still have an average advantage of 1.4 bushels per acre in favor of the cotton seed meal. While cotton seed has long been recognized as an excellent fertilizer for oats, especially when used in large amounts, the increased price of cotton seed and the superior ,effects of an equal value of nitrate of soda on oats 82 make it unadvisable to apply cotton seed to the oat crop if nitrate of soda can be purchased. Since the 'fertilizer requirements of wheat and oats are that in similar presumably about the same, I would a slightly experiments with wheat cotton seed meal larger yield than cotton seed, both used in the amounts mentioned above. add gave NITRATE OF SODA AS A FERTILIZER FOR OATS. Numerous experiments made under the writer's direction both on sandy loam soil at Auburn and on stiff lime lands at Uniontown show that this is by far the most commercial fertilizer for oats. The following table affords. means of comparing, nitrate of soda with cotton seed meal, cotton seed, and stable manure, which are the principal sources of fertilizer nitrogen available to the southen farmer. effective Cotton seed meat, cotton seed, nitrate of soda, and manure 1906 "CD as fertilizers for oats. Yield and increase per acre 0 1901 5 CD " IERTILIZ1&R PP Pip -i*CD~ n(D D 0 o0 Lbs. 200 Cotton seed meal 24OAcid Phosphate Lbs. Bus Bus. ......... Lbvs. 87498018 22.'. Bus Bus. Bus. 291. 784. 301. 05 44dohonSphate......724.2 hsht 7.3 1136 32.1 2.2 4.80Ai 240 Acid Phosphate.......... 532 16.9 0.0 1160 29.9 0. 10OONitrate of Soda(iO sprinlg) 1130 36 3 19.4 1776 55.8 25.9 22.7 240 Acid Phosphate 1222 36.0 19.1 2128 54.4 245 21.8 cdPhsht 24 4000 Manure.. ..... 1152 34 4 17.5 2152151.5 21.6 19.6 Referring to the figures in the preceding table, we have the following comparison between the results of 2 tons of 83 fine horse manure and an application of 100 pounds of nitrate of soda together With 240 pounds of acid ph,:sphatee the phosphate being applied at time of sowing in the fall and the nitrate being applied as a top dressing in March. With two tons of fine horse manure applied in the fall the average increase was 19.6 bushels of oats per acre; with the commercial fertilizer mixture the average increase was 22.7 bushels of oats. In other words equal first-year results were obtained from the use of one ton of manure as from 43.1 pounds of nitrate of soda aided by 103 pounds of acid phosphate. With nitrate at $60 and phosphate at $12.50( per ton these amounts of commercial fertilizer cost $1.93. Hence the farmer could afford to invest at least this amount in the production or purchase and very thin distribution of one ton of fresh unleached horse manure, and still be ahead by the greater effect of manure than of chemicals after the first year. We have seen in a preceding paragraph that the second year effect of a ton of manure on our sandy loam soils is equivalent to more than one bushel of oats per acre. While the application of stable manure to oats on poor land is to be commended, yet the limited supply of this material makes it necessary for the farmer to purchase nitrogen in commercial fertilizers. Probably even better use for manure can be made than to apply it on oats, thus making it necessary to purchase nitrate of soda for oats and other small grain. The following table shows the results of 13 different experiments conducted under the writer's direction at Auburn and Uniontown, Ala., and bearing on the effects of nitrate of soda applied in March as a top dressing fer oats: 84 Year Date of sowing oats p'r °C Lbs. 200 200 200 120 100 100 100 1C0 100 Date of applying nitrate , Increase due to nitrate Bus. Bus. Percent 49.5 32.3 188 43.8 25.3 137 .Fallsown 1904 *1903 Nov. 4, Oct. March March *1903 Av. Av. 1906 1901 1906 x1904 Nov. Nov. Nov. Oct. Nov. 20 15 15 4 March 13 March 18 March 13 March March March 28 March 13 March March 28 46.7 34.2 36.3 55.8 28.8 21.8 19.4 22.7 14.8 17.0 18.5 163 176 116 69 42.1 34.0 42.3 1896 1906 1904 Av. Sftring sown Oct. Nov. 20 N v. 4 Jan. 27 March 19 80 60 50 63 120 80 29.3 28.0 29.0 28.78 12.9 15.6 11 3 13.3 9.9 8.0 79 126 64 90 95 38 82 77 67 *1903 Av. 1896 20.3 19.7 23.0 29.0 1900 Feb. 20 _____ - 76 March 25 921____ 7.4 8.4 60 64 *On stiff lime land at Uniontown; from Bul. 22, Ala., brake Exp. Station, by J. F. Duggar and J. M, Richeson. Cane- IJ the following table the preceding dataae agA as to show average results from the use of d fercnt ainoun ts of nitrate of soda on oats: Increase and profit from nitrate of soda and cost tilizer per bushel of increase. CD 00 (D ( ,oair of fer- 0s-0Z P Cn - 0 rr+ o t 0.-p Soil CD $nD Lbs. Fall sown 200 200 Av.200 120 100 100 100 100 Av. 100 80 60 50 Av:50to80 Spring S. 120 80 76 Av. Sp. S. Bus. 1$ 32.3 25.3 28.8 21.8 19.4 22.7 14.8 17.0 18-5 12.9 15.6 11.3 13.3 9.9 8.0 7.4 8.4 10.15 6 65 8.40 7.60 6.70 8.35 8.40 4.50 6.19 4.05 6.00 4.15 4.73 1.35 1.60 1.42 1.45 Per ci Lbs. $ 188 137 163 176 115 69 77 67 82 79 126 64 90 95 38 60 64 6.2 7.9 '7.0 5.5 5.2 4.4 6.9 7.1 5 9 6.2 3.9 4.4 4.8 12.1 10.0 10.3 10.8 .0.186 0.237 0.211 0.165 0.156 0.132 0.207 0.213 0.177 0.186 0.117 0.132 0.145 1904 Lime 1903,Lime 1906 1901 1906 1903 1904 1896 1906 1904 Sandy loam Sandy loam Sandy loam Lime Lime Sandy loam Sandy loam Lime Sandy loam Sandy loam Sandy loam 0.363 1896 0.300 1903 0.309 1900 0.324 In the above table the representing the averages. are highly significant and of careful study. They show that fronm 200 pounds of -nitrate of soda the average- figures worthy ing 63 pounds of nitrate of soda), the increase was 13.3 bush. els; and from the application of smaller amounts increase was -28.8 bushels of oats per acre; -from an appli- ing 63 pounds of nitrate of soda, the increase was 13.3 bushels of oats per acre. It is notable that when nitrate was. a.pplied to spring sown oats the results were less favorablethan when used on fall sown oats, the application of an average of 92 pounds of nitrate on spring-sownl oats giving ant. (averag- 86 increase of only 8.4 bushels. The percentag ~s of increased yield were respectively 163, 82, 90, and 64. The fifth column of the table shows the number of pounds of nitrate of soda required per bushel of increase of yield, -namely 7.1 pounds where 200 pounds per acre was employed, 5.9 pounds where the application was 100 pounds of nitrate of soda. and 4.8 pounds when an average of only 63 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre was used on fall sown oats. These figures again show the greater relative ,efficiency of the smaller applications. Notice again that it takes more fertilizer to add a bushel to the crop in the case of spring sown oats, namely, 10.8 pounds of nitrate of -soda per bushel of increase, or nearly twice the fertilizer necessary to the same results on fall sown oats. The average cost of nitrate of soda to make one bushel of increase was 21.1 cents for the very heavy application; 17.7 cents when 100 pounds of nitrate of soda was applied, and only 14.5 cents when a very light application was made to fall-sown oats. When, however, a light application of nitrate was made to spring-sown oats each bushel of increase cost for nitrate of soda, 32.4 cents, a further proof of the greater profit from fall sown oats. If we will think of oats as worth 50 cents per bushel we will notice that after deducting the cost of the fertilizer, each bushel of increase made by fall-sown oats and due to nitrate of soda afforded a profit of from 28.9 cents to 35.5 cents, the greater profit per bushel being obtained from the smaller applications. After all, profit is the important consideration, therefore, let us examine the financial returns per acre from the use of nitrate of soda. After deducting the cost of nitrate of soda at the rate of $60.00 per ton we have left a profit of .$8.40 from an application of 200 pounds per acre; a profit .of $6.19 from an application of 100 pounds; and a profit ~of $4.73 from a light application, averaging 63 pounds of 87 -nitrate of soda per acre. Surely farmers cannot afford to withhold this fertilizer when profits like these can be ,had by its judicious use. These facts appear in still more striking form when we figure the percentage of profit on the amount invested in nitrate of soda. When this fertilizer was used at the rate ,of 200 pounds per acre the profit on the fertilizer investment was 140 per cent; 206 percent when the fertilizer was used at the rate of 100 pounds per acre; and 249 percent when a lighter aplication was made on fall-sown oats. These last figures illustrate the general tendency of fertilizers to .return the largest percent on the investment in fertilizers when used in small amounts. But this alone -should not govern, for preceding figures have shown that heavier applications afford a greater aggregate profit per acre, and hence are advisable for the farmer who has abundant capital to invest in fertilizers. I recommend that nitrate of soda be used at the rate ,of from 60 to 100 pounds per acre, according to the amount that the farmer can affor'i to invest in fertilizers. From such an investment he should expect to realize a profit of $4.00 to $6.00, provided the application be made to fall sown oats. If the nitrate be used on spring sown oats the profit may be only about half of the above figures, but even here fertilization with nitrate of soda is advisable. WHEN TO APPLY NITRATE OF SODA. The experiments conducted in Auburn, and recorded in Bulletin No. 95 of this Station, indicate that nitrate of soda should be applied early enough to give at least 55 days before the time of application and the probable date of harvesting the grain. Any time in March is suitable. We have found nitrate of soda applied as a top dressing in March more effective with oats and wheat than when put into the ground with the seed in the fall. This superiority sof the spring application has been greater with wheat than 88 with oals and much greater on quite sandy soil than on gravelly soil containing considerable clay, on which stiffer soil both fall and spring applications have greatly increased the yield of oats. All lumps in the nitrate of soda must be carefully pulverized. The fertilizer is strewn by hand, and distributed as evenly as seed oats or seed wheat would be. No covering or harrowing is necessary. This fertilizer is so readily soluble that a small amount of moisture in the soil wilt dissolve it and carry it downward to the plant roots. It is best to sow nitrate of soda when the ground is somewhat moist, but one should avoid applying it just before a rain, which might wash away a large part of the nitrogen. Hence if practicable we prefer to apply nitrate of soda just as the weather clears after a period of rainy weather. We usually apply this fertilizer to oats about the middle of March, though application at any date within that month is satisfactory. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS FERTILIZERS FOR OATS. Cowpea or velvet bean stubble or entire growth as fertilizers. We have seen that of the commercial fertilizers the one best adapted to oats is nitrate of soda, but since the us of this material involves a cash expenditure, we may well inquire whether some fertilizing material produced on the farm may not act as a substitute. The principal materials that might thus be used are barnyard manure, which has already been discussed, and leguminous plants, such as cowpeas, soy beans, velvet beans, etc. Both the entire plant and the roots and stubble alone of these legumes are rich in nitrogen and hence useful as nitrogenous fertilizers. The following table, quoted from Bulletin No. 95 of this Station, gives the result of an experiment in which the use of either the stubble or entire plant of cow peas or velvet beans afforded an enormous increase in the yield of the 89 :succeeding crop of oats, an increase larger than we can usually count on. The Red Rust Proof oats were sown in the fall of 1897 and the crop was cut May 18 following. On all plots oats were fertilized with 220 pounds per acre of acid phosphate and 44 pounds of muriate of potash, no nitrogen being supplied except that contained in the remains of preceding crops of cowpeas, velvet beans, etc. Yield per acre of oats grown after stubble or vines of cowpeas, velvet beans, etc. Yield per acre 6 o Grain Bus. 28.6 38.7 33.6 28.8 34.4 31.6 9.7 8.4 StrawLbs. 1206 1672 1439 1463 2013 1738 231 361 296 1 Oats after velvet bean vines ................... 6 Oats after velvet bean stubble................... Average after velvet bean vines and stubble 4 Oats after cowpea vines . .................... -3 Oats after cowpea stubble ..................... Average after cowpea vines and stubble...... 2 Oats after crab grass and weeds................7.1 -5 Oats after German millet........................ Average after non-leguminous plants ....... From early spring there was a marked difference in the appearance of the several plots, the plants being much greener and taller where either the stubble or vines of cowpeas had been plowed under. When the oats began to tiller, or branch, the difference increased, the plants supplied with nitrogen, through the decay of the stubble or vines of cowpeas, and velvet beans, tillering freely and growing much taller than the plants following German millet or crab grass. May 18, 1898, oats on all plots were cut. In this experiment the average yield of oats was 33.6 bushels after velvet beans, 31.6 bushels after cowpeas, and only 8.4 bushels after non-leguminous plants (crab-grass, weeds and German millet.) Here is a gain of 24.2 bushels of oats and nearly threefourths of a ton of straw as a result of growing leguminous 90 or soil-improving plants, instead of non-leguminous plants during the preceding season. Undoubtedly this is an extreme, and not an average, case. An unexpected result of this experiment is the larger crop on the plots where only the stubble was left than on those where the vines of cowpeas and velvet beans were plowed under. The writer thinks that the difference in yield was almost wholly due (1) to the fact that the vines (especially those of the velvet beans) were not properly buried by the small plow employed, and (2) - that the seed bed for oats was more compact where only stubble was plowed under, a point of advantage, doubtless, in such a dry winter as that of 1897-'8. In BulletiniNo. 120, of this station, we have shown that the residual fertilizing effect of the entire growth of legumes is greater than that of vines and stubble. For example, the average increase in the second crop after plowing under stubble of velvet beans and cowpeas averaged 12 per cent, while the increase of the second crop was 24 to 54 per cent where the entire growth of legumes was plowed under. When spring sown oats follow leguminous plants the increase due to the legume is smaller than is indicated above. For example, in one of our experiments the yield of spring sown oats following German millet was 12.4 bushels per acre, while on an adjacent plot where cow pea vines had be~n plowed under the yield was 22.8 bushels. This gives ian increase of 10.4 bushels per acre, worth $5.20. as the fertilizing effect of a crop of cow pea vines of which the pods had been previously picked, yielding 11 bushels of cowpeas per acre. Thus the total value of the cow pea crop was about $16 in addition to any fertilizing effect that mad have extended to the second crop. Cowpeas, peanuts and soy beans as fertilizers for oats. The following table shows the yield of oats in 1906 on one of the poorest tracts of land on the station farm, which 91 would be 'classed as a poor grade of Norfolk sandy loam. It is a deep sandy soil, light gray in color. The table shows the yields of unfertilized oats when grown after each of the following crops :Sorghum, sweeer potatoes, soy beans, el3ufa s 'corn, Whippoorwill cow peas, Spanish peanuts, and running -peanuts. Effects of preceding crop on yield of fall sown oats in 1906. Oats per acre Part plowed under Preceding crop Sorghum, drilled.........Stubble............. 12.4 Sweet potatoes ............ Vines ................. 11.7 Tops only ............. _....... Chuf as........... 13.7 Stubble............ Whippoorwill cowpeas 19.9 Vines after picking. (drilled, picked). Shed leaves, etc.........26.7 ... Spanish peanuts... Running peanuts.........All except nuts.........30.0 . Soy beans, drilled........ Stubble................21.4 Soy beans, drilled ........ Entire growth.........42.2 Stuble............... Sorghum; 28.0 60 lbs. nitrate of soda on oats Stuble........... Sorghum; -Corn...................... -1.3 -- 2.0 6.2 13.0 16.3 7.7 28.5 14.3 20.5 120 lbs. nitrate of soda on oats 34.2- picked and removed (yielding 17.5 bushels of cowpeas per acre) , increased the crop of oats 6.2 bushels per acre as compared with the preceding crop of corn. This makes the crop of. drilled cowpeas worth for seed and fertilizer Where peanuts were at least $20.00 per acre, 16.3 bushels per acre ; when 13 grown the increase was soy beans, sown in drills, were cut and used for hay the remaining stubble. increased the following oat crop 7.7 bushels per acre. When the entire crop of soy beans was -plowed under the increase was 28.5 bushels. W'hippoorwill Fromi this table we learn that a. preceding crop of drilled cow peas plowed under after the pods were to 92 It is interesting to notice that so far as measured by the first crop of oats 60 pounds of nitrate of soda was worth more than the stubble of soy beans or the picked vines of cow peas and worth nearly as much as the picked vines of running peanuts; 120 pounds of nitrate of soda gave a larger immediate result than any of the leguminous plants except soy beans where the entire growth was plowed under. From all the experiments detailed above and from others it seems safe for a farmer by growing a crop of cowpeas before oats, to expect to increase the yield of oats by from 5 to 15 bushels or more per acre, whether the peas are simply picked or cut for hay. In another experiment oats constituted the second crop after the plowing under of the picked vines of drilled cowpeas on a good grade of reddish loam soil, with retentive sub-soil. The increased ,yield on plots where cowpeas had grown two years before was 9.75 bushels of oats per acre, as compared with adjacent plots on which cotton had grown continuously for several years. OATS AS A HAY CROP. Good hay is made from oats cut when in the early dough stage. On deep, gray, sandy soil (Norfolk sandy loam) two plots of Hatchett's Black oats were sown October 24. Both were fertilized at the time of sowing with 360 pounds of acid phosphate and 48 pounds of muriate of potash. The plots receiving no nitrogen yielded 678 pounds of cured hay per acre. The plots fertilized March 20 with 80 pounds of nitrate. of soda per acre fielded 2,120 pounds of hay, or about 3 1-2 times as much as the plots without the nitrogen. From this late variety of oats the hay was ready to cut May 15. With Red oats the date for cutting oat hay is usually earlier. PLACE OF OATS IN THE ROTATION ON THE COTTON FARM. The small acreage devoted to oats on most cotton farms makes this crop a negligible factor in the farm rotation. Un- 93 doubtedly as the supply of labor decreases and the presence of the boll weevil makes it necessary to reduce the acreage and to intensify the fertilization and cultivation of cotton, oats will be grown on a more extensive scale. Even under present conditions it will be profitable to greatly extend the acreage in oats. Among the arguments for this increase is the fact that farmers seldom reserve any large acreage for cow peas except the land occupied during the earlier part of the year by a crop of small grain. More oats means more cow peas and more cow peas means a larger crop of cotton on this land the following and succeeding years. A desirable rotation for a cotton farm on which it is considered necessary to devote half of the land to cotton is the following: 1st year: Corn, with cow peas between the rows. 2nd year: Oats, followed by cowpeas, which may be cut for hay, picked, or grazed, or simply plowed under in December, January, or February, as fertilizer for the succeeding crop of cotton. 3rd year: Cotton. 4th year: Cotton. A still more rapid improvement of the land would result from sowing crimson clover, properly inoculated, or other suitable winter growing leguminous plant in September among the growing cotton plants, covering with a one-horse harrow used just after the first or second picking, when little or no injury would be done to the cotton. On a farm where stock is kept and where cotton requires only one-third of the cultivated area the rotation would be that given above for the first, second and third years, that is, corn, with cow peas; then oats, followed by cow peas; then cotton, and the fourth year corn again. HOME GROWN SEED OATS. While this Station has made no experiments comparing southern seed oats with those grown further north or west, 94 our experience shows that oats grown continously for a number of years in Alabama do not "run out." We use our own seed of Red Rust Proof oats year after year and our average yield in recent years has been greater than it was ten years ago. On farms where fair crops of e-ats are grown it is far better to save one's own seed than to buy seed of unknown origin, which may contain Johnson grass or other seed, and which may be otherwise objection able. Acknowledgements are hereby made to the following parties who at various times have participated in the conduct of the experiments herein recorded. T. U. Culver, formerly Superintendent of the Farm; C. M. Floyd, Superintendent of the Farm during the past three years; and L. N. Duncan, Assistant in Agriculture, who has. aided in the preparation of the tables in this bulletin. p~ *_l Fit; I, in i; ort ot, A pril 2:;, 1906; righlt so ivn in \ or'uii sr; hfft sownm Fcbrluary. An-;l O', 111110 -vii07)t "n ern iu A--o-h-- ]aft nn vvvi is lira nr!-. Il/ I I ! r ; , t ri rr u A r h .= g e r i. , i , , l , Il',,, I 1. IIll I I I ,,,IP it, \r,,, Uiwl , IILI1ETIN NO. 13 8 ALABAMA.. DECERBER, 1906 Agricultural Experiment Station 0F THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBURN. VARIETY TESTS WITH COTTON AND CORN. Williamson Method of Corn Culture. J. F. DUGGAR, AND Director L. N("DUNC AN, Assistant in Agriculture. Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1906. COMMITTEE OFt TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENTSTATION J. M. CARMICHAEn T. W. .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Montgomery Opelika. Tasper. Do SAMVORD. . . ... ...... ................................... ......... C. DAVIS................ STATION COUNCIL. C. J. C. THACH ....................................... F. DUGGAR...... .................... Director.and President. Agriculturist. B. B. Ross.........................Chemist C. and State Farmers' Chemist. A. CARY ..... Veterinarian andIDirectorof ............... Institutes. E. M. WILcox R. Plant Physiologist and Pathologist Horticulturist and State Horticulturist S. MACKINTOSH ........ J. T. ANDERSON...............Chemist, Soil and Crop Investigations. ASSISTANTS. C. L. HARE.................. A. ..... .First'Assistant Chemist~ McB. T. M. F. RAN~SOM ..................... .......... Second Assistant Chemist. T. BRAGG....................... D. C. C. GRAY.:....... FL~OYD........................... KINMAN _........... Third Assistant Chemist. Assistant in Animal Industry. Superintendent of Farm. Assistant in ...... Horticulture' . ............ L. W. N. DUNCAN........................ GILTNER......... SELLERS........ Assistant in Agriculture. .............. ............ Assistant in Veterinary Science. Stenographer and Mailing 0. H. Clerk. P. H. AVERY................. ....... .... Fourth Assistant Chemist. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station,, Auburn, Alabama. VARIETY TESTS OF COTTON BY J. F. DUGGAR, DIRECTOR AND AGRICULTURIST AND L. N. DUNCAN, ASSISTANT IN AGRICULTURi. In order that the results of our unpublished variety tests of cotton may be in the hands of farmers in ample time for use in making plans for another year, this brief bulletin is presented. The results of other experiments made in 1905 and 1906 with cotton and corn will be reserved for future publications. In addition to the varieties of cotton grown in plots of sufficient size to give an accurate measure of the yield per/ acre, a much larger collection of varieties has been grown, each on a small area, with a view to making descriptions of all obtainable varieties. We expect to publish a bulletin containing all these descriptions early next spring. The two tables that follow give the yields in plot tests with 32 varieties of cotton in 1905 and with 20 varieties in 1906. They were grown on ordinary upland. The soil where this test was made in 1905 was a stoney, reddish-gray sandy loam and the soil where varieties of cotton grew in 1906 was a gray sandy loam free from stones. 98 ields of lint and seed and total value'per acre of cotton in 1905. of varieties VARII S. Y ) M ad c Toole.................... 531.2 2. Cook's Improved .......... 528.0 3. Cleveland................. 520.0 4. Bancroft's Herlong ......... 488.0 5. -Christopher............... 480.0 Schley...................480.0 7. Row-den ................... 480.0 8. Pullnot. ........ .480.0 9. Layton.................. 48b.(r 10. Russell .................... 464.0 11. Strickland ................ 459.2 12. Willett's Red Leaf ......... 452.8 13. Crosslanda ........... :..... 456.0 14. Hawkinsi. ............. 456.0 15. Alex. Allen................ 440.0 16. Culpepper (av. 5 plots) ..... 433.6 17. Haggaman............... 432.0 Peterkin................. 432.0 19. Texas Bur............... 424.0 20. Southern Wonder........... 420.8 21. Blue Ribbon.............. 416.0 22. Cameron .................. 424.0 23. Truitt.................... 416.0 1. Lbs. Lbs. 851.2 $67.04 828.8 66.52 840.0 948.8 916.8 880.0 868.8 65.63 61.76 61.62 61.36 61.28 6. 768.0 75b. 60.53 66.49 896.0 902.4 792.0 723.2 688.0 59.63 59.12 57.61 57.50 57.20 18. 24.' 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 832.0 812.5 776.0 56.42 55.55 688.0 806.4 819.2 916.8 736.0 768.0' 55.11 54.50 54.40 54.11 54.09 53.91 53.22 Woodfin's Prolific ......... Jackson's Limbless ........ 411.2 'King No.. 1 ............... 408.0 Shine..........400.0 No. 148 (U. S. D. A. Selec.) 400.0 Berry's Big Boll 392.0 404.8 800.0 52.15 30. 31. Welborn's' Pet...... ............ 376.0 ..... 160.0 691.2 696.0 792.0 772.8 824.0 52.13 51.79 51.54 51.41 50.85 680.0 611.2 48.00 41.54- Rogers................ ... 324.0 32. Dickson-f ......... *Lint at 11 1-2c; seed at 70c. tRuined by boll rot. The fertilizer used and amounts per acre, 320.0 20.64 -consisted of all applied (14 the following ingredients before 'planting: 1906. lbs.. 1905. 80 lbs. Nitrate of soda..................80 160 lbs. Cotton seed meal ........................... 240 lbs. Acid 64 lbs. Muriate of potash .. .... 544 lbs. phosphate per ct. available)......0 80 lbs. b .. ........... ......48 lbs. 408 1b8.: 99 The crop was injured by excessive shedding late in the summer of 1906, and by a severe wind and rain storm in September, 1906, which considerably reduced the yield. Yields of lint and seed and total value per acre of cotton in 1906. of varieties M VARIETY Q) Lbs. Cook's Improved........... 617.6 -Cleveland................ 608.0 Layton ................... 612.8 Toole..................... 608.0 Pulinot ................... 596.8 King No. 1................ 592.0. Peterkin.........588.8 Hawkins............ ... 552.0 Alex. Allen................536.0 10. Pride. of Georgia........... 516.8 11. Willett',s Red Leaf......... 512.0 12. Christopher................504.0 13. Culpepper.................503.8 14. Russell (U. S. D. A. Selec.) .488.0 15. Sunflower.................472.0 480.0 16. Truitt .................... 17. Russell (Ala.).............472.0 18. Floradora.................460.8 1. 2. 8. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Lbs. 1076.8 1184.0 1072.0 1048.0 $69.30 69.09 68.78 68.14 1124.8 1186.0 1076.8 1088.0 1072.0 1200.0 67.55 67.15 66.42 62.82 61.10 60.08 58.03 57.46 976.0 1008.0 19.- 1069.0 1048.0 1184.0 1008.0 1016.0 1108.8 908.8 57.02 56.14 55.49 -55.06 54.31 53.84 50.36 Bancroft's Herlong......... 440.0 20. No. 148 (U. S .D. A. selec.) .390.4 *Lint at 10c per pound and seed at 70c per 852.8 100 pounds. 45.01 The tables show that in total value of lint. and seed the five leading varieties were in order in 1905, Toole, Cook's Improved, , Cleveland, Baucroft's Herlong, and Christopher, and in 1906, Cook's Improved, Cleveland, Layton, Toole and Pulluot. Sunflower and Floradora are long staple varieties and such staples commanded in Opelika in the fall of 1906 a premium of about four. cents per pound. By assigning a price of 14 cents per pound to these long staples, the total value of their lint and seed becomes respectively $74.37 and $72.27. However, the land on which 100 these two varieties and Willett's Red Leaf grew is slightly lower and richer than that occupied by other that even at a premium of four cents per pound it is not certain that the long staples head the list in total value of product. The bolls of these two long staple varieties being small picking is more difficult than with big boll varieties like Cook's Improved and Cleveland. The Experiment Station has no seed for sale or distribution. Hence we give below the addresses of the parties from whom our seed was obtained: Variety.. Alex. Allenn ....... Bancroft's Herlong Seed from. A. W. Allen, Temple, Ga. .. Edward Bancroft, Athens, Ga. Co., Montgomery, Ala. varieties,'so Blue Ribbon ......... South Carolina Experiment Station, Clemson College, S. C. Cameron............R. R. Cameron, West Green, Ala. Christopher ... :......R. H. Christopher, LaGrange, Ga. Cleveland ............ J. H. Cleveland, Decatur, Miss. J. H. Cook, Schley, Ga. Cook's Improved'... Crossland ............ U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Culpepper........... J. E. Culpepper, Luthersville, Ga. Capers Dickson, Oxford, Ala. Dickson ............. Floradora...........HR. D. Tatum, Palmetto, Ga. .Haggaman .......... U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. 0. Hawkins...........B. W. Hawkins, Nona, Ga. Jackson's Limbless ... Harvey Seed Co., Montgomery, Ala. J. King Co., Richmond, Va. King No. 1..........T. D. Layton, Cresston, S. C. Layton ...... :......R. No. 148 (U. S. D. A.) U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Motte, S. C. J. A. Peterkfn, Peterkin.. ......... Pride of Georgia Pulinot............ Berry's Big Boll ..... Harvey Seed H. Rodgers, Darlingtcn, S. C. Rodgers....... . "..R. J. A. Shine, Faison, N. C,. Rowden ............. Russell............ .James Moore,. Auburn, Ala. Washington. Russell (U. S. D. A.) . U. S.' Dept. of R. D. Tatumn,. Palnmetto, Ga. . Schley .............. J. A. Shine, Faison, N. Shine ............... 'Southern Wonder .... L. F. Grier, Oxford, Ala. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington., D. C. Strickland ........... M. Schaefer, Yazoo City, Miss. Sunflower ........... C. E~. Smith, Locust Grove, ...... Texas bjur.... Tol.............. W. W. Toole, Augusta, Ga. U. ... J.-E. .S.. Dept. .. Bradbury, -of, Ft. Agriculture, Washington. Athens, Ga. Agriculture, 'C. Ga. Truitt Welborn's Pet ....... Willett's Red Leaf Woodfin's Prolific . G. .............. :N. W.Wllett L. "Truitt, LaGrange, Ga. .. ... Drug Co., Augusta, Ga.. . N. L. Willett Drug. Co., Augusta, Ga. .S: V. Woodfin, Marion, Ala. TEST OF. VARIETIES OF CORN. All tests of varieties of corn except that made in 1906 101 were published in Alabama Experiment Station Bulletin No. 134, issued in December, 1905. The results of the experiment made in 1906 are given below. Yield of shelled corn per acre in 1906. VARIETY. 1. 2. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9'. 10. 11. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 16. 17. 18. Sanders ......................... Marlboro. ...................... Per ci. 97 97 Bus. 28.9 28.3 26.0 3. Mosby.......................93 Henry Grady .................... 97 Local White Cob ................ 97 Albemarle...................9a 97 Experiment Station Yellow. McMackin's. Gourd Seed........ 96 .Cocke's Prolific ................. 97 Boone County Special...........97 Boone County White (Tenn.) .... 97 Boone County White (Ind.) .... 97 No. 77 U. S. D. A. Selection ...... 97 Henry Grady (white cob select) .97 97 Red Corn ...................... 97 Hickory King ................. 97 Learning ...................... Reid's Yellow Dent............97 Silver Mine (Iowa)............97 25.7 25.4 25.1 24.7 24.4 24.3 24.0 23.7 23.7 23.4 23.1 22.3 Riley's 22.0 18.6 18.6 17.9 15.7 Favorite ...... .. 97 The best yields were made by Sanders, Marlboro, Mosby and Henry Grady, all except. the latter being prolific or several-eared varieties. Sanders, Mosby, and Henry -Grady are the varieties which in previous experiments made here have, taken high rank. The early northern varieties are .Alabama conditions, the again shown to be worthless yield being low and the grain of very inferior quality. The fertilizer used per acre consisted of for " 80 80 240 40 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Nitrate of soda. Cotton seed meal. Acid phosphate. Muriate of potash. 440 lbs. Total The soil was a reddish-gray, stony, sandy loam, and this 102 upland field was the same on which the test of varieties of cotton was made in 1905. We obtained seed of Ailbermarle from J. E. Stone, Sylacauga, Ala.; Henry Grady from W. J. Headden, Austelle, Ga.; Experiment Station Yellow from Ala. Expt. Sta., Auburn, Ala. Seed of other varieties except the local white cob and Experiment Station Yellow were furnished by the U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., the early varieties having been grown in the North. WILLIAMSON METHOD OF CORN CULTURE. The press of the southern states has given much space during the past year or two to a discussion of a method of corn culture successfully practiced and ably advocated by Mr. McIver Williamson, of Darlington, S. C. The distinctive features of this method are as follows: (1) Dwarfing the corn plant by withholding fertilizers until the plant is several feet high and by omitting all cultivation from the time the plant is about eight inches high until it is about eighteen inches high. (2) Thick planting in the row, which is made possible by the small size of the plants. (3) Use of the turn plow in the last cultivations. (4) Planting on land enriched by plowing under the entire growth of cowpeas. To determine whether the dwarfing of plants and thicker planting have a favorable effect on the yield of corn two plots of poor gray sandy upland soil on the Experiment Station farm at Auburn were prepared alike and in accordance with Mr. Williamson's plan, the details being as follows: A fair growth of velvet bean vines was plowed under on both plots with a two-horse plow in February. Then rows were laid off 6 feet apart and bedded out, the water furrow thus formed being subsoiled, by using a Dixie turn plow with wing removed. Then with the same plow a slight list was formed in the water furrow. This list was 103 opened and corn planted and covered on both plots without fertilizer, planting it thick on the Williamson plot and about half as thick on the check plot. Unfortunately we were not able to plant this experiment early, as is recommended. The first and last cultivations of the two plots were similar. Fertilization of both plots was identical, namely the very heavy application, as advised for the Williamson method, of 200 pounds of cotton seed meal, 200 pounds of acid phosphate and 400 pounds kainit per acre applied to both plots June 23; and 200 pounds nitrate of soda applied to both plots in side furrows July 7. The details of cultivation were as follows: Williamson plot. April 19 planted............... May. Middles cultivated shallow. May 21 .................... June 1 ...................... ...................... Check plot. Planted. Middles cultivated shallow. Two trips to row with Diverse Cultivator. Hoed and thinned to 1 plant every 33 inches. Cultivated with scooter and scrape 5 furrows per row. Two side furrows with scooter and scrape. complete Applied 800 pounds fertilizer per acre in side furrows. middles Finished cultivating with scooter and scrape. scooter and Cultivated with scrape, plowing in cowpeas. Applied in both side furrows 200 pounds nitrate of soda per June 7 June 21. Hoed and thinned to 1 plant every 16 inches. June 23. Two side furrows with scooter and scrape. 800 pounds June 23. Applied complete fertilizer per acre in side furrows. cultivating June 23. Finished middles deep with Dixie turn plow. July 7. Cultivated with scooter and scrape, plowing in cowpeas. July 7. Applied in both side furrows 200 pounds nitrate of soda per acre. acre. A study of the statements above will show that the treatment of the two plots was identical except in the following points: (1) Later hoeing of the Williamson plot. (2) Double thickness of planting on the Williamson plot. (3) Omission of two cultivations on the Williamson 104 Iplot, namely, those given to the check plot on May 21 and June 7. (4) Use of turn plow on the Williamson plot in cultivating middles on June 23. The result of the thicker planting and the omission of cultivation between the early part of May and June 23 resulted, in dwarfing the plants on the Williamson plot, which is the end aimed at in that system of culture. Its advocates claim that the dwarfing of the plant tends to promote the production of grain. The yield of shelled corn was 30.5 bushels per acre on the Williams6n plot and 29.5 bushels per acre on the check plot. This is a gain of one bushel per acre, or 3.4 per cent in favor of the Williamson method. On the Williamson plot each plant averaged only about one-third (.346) of a pound" of shelled corn; on the check plot the yield of grain per plant was almost exactly double this (.667 of a pound). The ears were slightly larger on the check plot where the plants had greater distance, the average weight of shucked ear or nubbin being .54 of a pound as compared with an average weight of .45 of a pound on the Willimason plot. The variety used was Cocke's Prolific. Naturally, the plants with wider spacing on the check plots afforded a greater number of ears per plant, one hundred plants on the Williamson plot affording only 96 ears and nubbins as compared with 156 ears and nubbins per 100 plants on the check plot. The average height from ground to the joint or node from which the ear or lower ear grew was 44 1-2 inches on the check plot and only 36 1-4 inches on the WilliamThe stalks on the Williamson plot were much son plot. more slender and broke down worse, the broken-over plants on the Williamson plot constituting 29 per cent, and on the check plot 14 per cent. This means a greater tendency for the corn to rot in the field on the Williamson plot. 's rf ; -' A'z N 'p Y '4 4, 'is, ~'1~' 'A'- * :; .4 'Ut (,/tt'- agel weiglh t for tlhe plot. 1, oiio l I I 2, heloig') [''rn 1l1iaur/t jilot. r../ erlyc/, plot; 7f e'rs anl siz' if stalks; the smaller plaint is from the Williamson plot. 106 A study of the rainfall record for April, May, June and July indicates that at no time during the growing season did either plot suffer for moisture. The frequency of rains was doubtless favorable to the thick planting. Frequent rains at the time when cultivation of the Williamson plot was omitted prevented any injurious effect from this neglect. It is doubtful whether in average seasons such thick planting as was done on the Williamson plot (16 inches between plants) would have escaped disastrous firing. It is obvious that we did not obtain profitable returns from this unusually large application of fertilizers; 1,000 pounds of commercial fertilizer cost $12.80, while the value of the crop at 70 cents per bushel was only $21.35. Our experiments in a number of localities in Alabama, and especially on a tract of gray sandy land similar and adjacent to that used for the Williamson experiment lead us to believe that the proportion of kainit in the Williamson fertilizer is too high. It is an open question whether the unusually large yields obtained by Mr. Williamson on upland in South Carolina are not due more to the frequent plowing under of a crop of cowpea vines, to the liberal use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and to close planting, than to the dwarfing of the corn plant through omission of cultivation and withholding until late the application of fertilizers. Our previous experiments lead us most heartily to recommend plowing under a crop of cowpeas or other legumes as a fertilizer for corn, or the liberal use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and in many cases somewhat thicker planting than is customary, but a single year's test does not permit us to recommend all the details of the Williamson metho'd. The experiment will be repeated, and in such a way as to inform us which of the details of the method are the really essential ones and responsible for the large yields some-times secured. BULLETINS OF ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station AUBURN * INDEX. VOL. tXV. BULLETINS 139-141 AND 20TH ANNUAL REPORT January to December, 1907. List of Available Bulletins, June, 1908. OPELIKA, THE POST ALA: COMPANY PUBLISHING CONTENTS BULLETINS: Description and classification of varieties of American upland cotton --------------------------- June, 141. Texas or Tick Fever----..-------------------July, March, 142. Corn Breeding in Alabama --------------March, Circ. No. 2. Cedar Apples and Apple Leaf-RustAnnual Report, Twentieth --------------------- January, 140. ---- 1907 1907 1908 1908 1908 INDEX Agriculturist, report of-------------------------20: 9-13 Anderson, J. T., report of-----------------------R. 20: 17-19 Animal Husbandman, report of------------------20: 31-33 Arsenate of lead -------------------------------- B. 139: 6 Best -variety of cotton--------------------------B. 140:.32 Boll outlines of cotton varieties ------B. 140: 71-105 Blood ii Texas fever-------------------------B. 141: 111-117 Botanist, report of ---------------------------- R. 20: 22-23 Cattle tick, life history of------------------B. 141: 117-120 Causes of tick fever-------------------------B. 141: 110-111 Castor bean tick, description of----------------B. 141: 143-144 Care of cattle after inoculation against tick fever -B. 141: 130-131 Cary, C. A., report of-------------------------R. 20: 20-21 Chicken tick, description of------------------B. 141: 145-147 Chemist, report of-----------------------------R. 20: 14-16 Cotton. descriptions of. ------------------------ B. 140: 41-70 size of seed -------------------------- B. 140: 37-38 percent of lint of---------------------B. 140: 135-137 the best one-----------------------------B. 140: 32 correlation of characters-----------------B. 140: 32-33 number of boils per lb. seed cotton---------B. 140: 34-35 photographs of ---------- B. 140: plates 1 to 36 boll outlines of --------.----------B. 140: 71-105 Cotton varieties, uniformity of------------------- B. 140: 24-25 Basis for classification------------------B. 140: 23-24 groups of ------------------------ _.-- -- B. 140: 25-29 ranked by yield------------------------B. 140: 30-31 Description of ear tick---------------------------B. 141: 145 Description of varieties of cotton-----------------B. 140: 41-70 Descripion of Lone Star tick --------------------- B. 141: 145 Diagnosis of tick fever ------------------------ B 141: 123-127 Description of dog tick (American) -- -- -- -- -- -- -B. 141: 144-145 Dog tiKii, (American), description of- -- -- -- -- -- B. 141: 144-145 Description of net tick --------------------------- B. 141: 44 Description of Castor bean tick- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- B. 141: 143-144 Description of Texas tick --------------------- B. 141: 141-143 Description of dog tick (European) --------------- B. Description of chicken tick- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -B. 141: 145-147 141:.147 190 Dog tick (European), description of---------------B. 141:.147 Director, report of ----------------------------- R. 20: 9-13 Dugga-° J. F., report of-------------------------R. 20: 9-13 Entomologist, report of------------------------R. 20: 34-38 Ear ti2k, description of--------------------------B. 141: 145 Farm practices to eradicate insects---------------B. 139: 12-15 Gray, D. T., report of--------------------------R. 20: 31-33 Groups of varieties of cotton---------------------B. 140: 25-29 Hinds, W. E., report of--------------------------R. 20: 34-38 History of tick fever---------------------------B. 141: 109 Horticulturist, report of-----------------------R. 20: 24:30 Inocul-ated cattle tick, temperatures of--------B. 141: 138-141 Inoculation of cattle, records of---------------B. 141: 132-137 Inoculation against tick fever------------------B. 141: 128-130 Injury by insects ------------- B. 139: 4-5 Insects, poisoning of --------------------B. 139: 5-8 trap crops for ------------------B. 139: 11-12 control -of -----------------------B. 139: 16-19 Insect pests, destroying by mechanical methods B. 139: 8-11 Insects with sucking mouths------------------B. 139: 15-16 Immunity to tick fever-----------------------B. 141: 127-128 Lice on plants-------------.-----B, 139: 19-20 Life hi-tory of ticks in Alabama--------------B. 141 147-148 Life hiE.tory of cattle tick---------------------B. 141: 117-120 Literature on corn breeding---------------------B. 142: 21-24 Live Stcck Sanitary Board--------------------B. 141: 181-186 Lone tar tick, description of------------------B. 141: 145 Mackintosh, R. S., report of---------------------B. Mechanical methods of destroying insects Methods of eradicating the tick cattle ----------- 20: 24-30 B. 139: 8-11 -------- 141: -B. 156-174 Net tikl*, description of ------------------------- B. 141:: 144 Paris green---------------------------------------B. 139: 5 Photographs of cotton varieties -- -- -- -- -- -B. 140: plates 1 to 36 Plant isce- -- - --- -- -- -- -- - ----- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- B. 139: 19-20 Poisonirg of Productiveness of varieties of cotton Record3 Soils insects------------------------------B. 139: ---------------- B. investigations, report of----------- 5-8 140: 29 of inoculating cattle- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- B. 141: 132-137 Report of Chemist------------------------------R. 20: 14-16 Ross, I. B., report of ------------------- ------ R. 20:' 14-16 Scale, insects, control of -------------------------- B. 139: 3-5 and crop R. 20:' 17-19 Sucking insects--------------------------------B. 139:- 15-16 Symptoms of tick fever----------------------B. 141: 121-123 191 Temperatures of inoculated cattle-------------B. 141: 138-141 --------------------------- B. 140: 19-20 Testing seed corn Ticks inl Alabama, life history of--------------B. 141: 147-153 Tick fiver, immunity to-------------------B. 141: 127-128 Tick fever, inoculation against---------------B. 141: 128-130 Texas cattle tick, description of---------------B. 141: 141-143 Tick fewer, history of--------------------------B. 141: 109 Tick or Texas fever, causes of-----------------B. 141: 110-111 Tick fever, symptoms of---------------------B. 141: 121-127 Tick fever, diagnosis of----------------------B. 141: 123-127 Varieties of cotton, number of bolls per pound of seed cotton------------------------B. 140: 34-35 percent 6f lint------------------------B. 140: 35-36 size of seed----------------------------B. 140: 37-38 description ranked of oy yield -------------------------- B. 140: ----------------------- B. 140: B. 140: R. 41-70 30-31 productiveness of ------------------------- B. 140: 29 classification of-----------------------24-25 20-21 reasons for classification ------------------- B. 140: 23 Veterinarian, report of-----------------------20: 22-23 Wilcox, E. M., report of-- -- -- -- - -- -- -- -- -- -- ----- R. Why eradicate the cattle tick- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --B. 141: 154-156 20: 192 1.-Report of Agriculturist, new series. 28.-Water melons and canteloupes. 80.-A preliminary list of Alabama fungi. 87.-Soil inoculation ior Leguminous Plants. 105.-Winter pasturage, hay, and fertility afforded by hairy vetch. 112.-OY chard notes. 113.-Cc-operative fertilizer experiments with cotton, 1899-1.900. 114.-Feeding experiments with dairy cows. 115.-Commercial fertilizers. 116.-Texas fever. 117.-Orchard notes. 118.-Cowpea culture. 128.-Feedirng experiments with beef cattle. 131.-{Jo-operative fertilizer experiments with cotton, 1901-2-3-4. 133.-The manufacture of cane syrup. 134 -Corn culture. 135.-Diseases of sweet potatoes in Alabama. 136.-Chicken pox or sorehead in poultry. 137.-Experiments with oats. 139.-Injurious insects and their control. 140.-Descriptions and classification of varieties of American upland cotton. 141.-Texas or tick fever. 142.-Cern breeding in' Alabama. BULLETIN NO. 139 APRIL, 1907 A LA BAMA Agricultural Experiment Station of THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBURN. INJURIOUS INSECTS AND ThEiR CONTROL. By WARREN T. CLARKE, Entomologist Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing Company, 1907. STATION COUNCIL. C. THACH ............................ .. President J. F. DUGGAR.......................Director and Agriculturist B. B. Ross.......................Chemist and State Chemist C. CARY.... Veterinarian and Director of Farmers' Institutes E. M. WILCOX................ Plant Physiologist and Pathologist C. A. -R. S. MACKINTOSH....... .Horticulturist and State Horticulturist and Crop Investigations ..................... J. T. ANDERSON.............Chemist, Soil W. T. CLARKE........... Entomologist ASSISTANTS. C. L. HARE ......................... A. MCB. RANSOM ...................... T. BRAGG ............. ............ D. T. GRAY.......................... C. M. FLOYD........... ................. First Assistant Chemist Second Assistant Chemist Third Assistant Chemist Assistan~t in Animal Industry Superintendent of Farm C. F. KINMAN*.............. L. N. ......... Assistant in Horticulture W. DUNCAN.......................... Assistant in Agriculture GILTNER............... ........ Assistant in Veterinary Science JH. P. STUCKEY.................. 0O. H. SELLERS................... FP. H. Acting Assistant in Horticulture Stenographer and Mailing Clerk Fourth Assistant Chemist AVERY... .... .................. The Bulletins of this Station will be, sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. *On leave. INJURIOUS INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL. BY WARREN T. CLARKE. The agriculturist, no matter what crop he may be interested in, usually finds that he has to take into account and overcome, if may be, the ravages of insect pests. Sooner or latter the question of means of control is sure to present itself to him, and on the solving of this question will depend the possible profit or loss in his farm operations. An intelligent knowledge of the fundamental principles governing the study of insect pests and an acquaintance with the best and most economical ways of applying these principles 'becomes therefore each day more necessary. The orchardist, the grower of field crops, the truck gardener, each of these must, to a certain extent, work out the problem in his own environment. The fact recognized that some insect is destroying entirely, or greatly reducing, the value of his crop is not sufficient knowledge upon which to base reme>1 be found effective. The mixture can be successfully and economically applied to such low growing plants by placing it in a. bag made of some loosely woven material and then shaking the bag.over the plant that we desire to protect. The work should be done in the early morning while the plants are yet wet with dew so that the poison will stick to them. This is of course a primitive way to distribute poisons in the dust form but there are very effective dusting machinesmad3 and obtainable by those who desire more up to dateappliances. Arsenate of lead.-The arsenate of lead is also an insoluble arsenic compound and in the matter of possible damage to foliage is rather to be preferred over the Parisgreen. It is slightly more expensive than the latter ma-terial but requires no lime for its preparation and, when fresh, is somewhat easier to mix with water than is Paris green. It can be used as a spray at the rate of one and onehalf pounds arsenate of lead to one hundred gallons of water. At this rate its insecticidal value is good. Arsenate of lead is sold under various trade names and is .commercially prepared for spraying purposes. It is not made in a dry form and cannot be used in the dusting method. Poisoned Baits.-The use of arsenicals either as a spray or in the dust form is to be recommended then, in the majority of cases where the injury is distinctly caused by some leaf or twig eating insect with biting mouth parts. There are, however, exceptional cases where neither the dusting nor the spraying method will answer the purpose satisfactorily. This is especially true where so-called "cutworms," larvae of certain moths, are causing the damage> When our problem is the control of these insects in vegetable patches or truck gardens, then the most satisfactory results will be obtained by what are known as "poisoned baits." These depend for their killing principle upon either ordinary white arsenic or upon some one of the arsenical compounds as Paris green, London purple, or lead arsenate mixed with or put upon some food that is especially liked by the insects in question. A quite effective poisoned bait may be made by dipping succulent leaves, such as cabbage leaves, in water in which either arsenic or some arsenic compound has been placed.. The amount of the arsenical used may vary quite largely and the result still be satisfactory. The writer has found the following proportions effective One quarter pound white arsenic, or one half pound Paris green, to five gallons of water. The mixture should be kept well stirred and the leaves to be poisoned dipped in it. These leaves should then be placed on the ground near the plants to be protected. The work should preferably be done in the late afternoon for usually cut-worms feed in the evening and at night, and the bait will be more attractive to them when fresh. When such succulent leaves are easily obtained in quantity, the method above outlined is recommended. In many instances, however, such leaves cannot be obtained and when this is the case a poisoned bait made as follows will be found to be thoroughly satisfactory: 40 pounds Bran ............................................ 2 or 3 gallons Molasses.............................. 3 pounds Arsenic (powdered white) ................... Water .................. .............. 5 or 6 gallons Mix the bran and arsenic together thoroughly while dry so that the poison will be well distributed in the whole mass. Add the molasses, mixing it and the poisoned bran well together. To this add enough water to make a fairly consistent mash. When a handful of the material will hold together in a ball, not too stiffly, enough water will have been added. Spread this bait about in small heaps near the plants that are to be protected. Usually cutworms will feed rather greedily upon this material and their destruction ensues. This bait can be freshened by sprinkling a little water upon it as it lies on the ground. If Paris green is used instead of arsenic the weight of the former poison should be five pounds in the formula. SCaution.-Care should be extercised in all instances where arsenic or any of its compounds are used for insecticidal purposes. Domestic animals, cows, horses,swine, hens, turkeys, geese, etc., should not be allowed to feed or browse where these poisons are used. The materials should not be left where human beings might accidentally obtain a poisonous dose. No danger to human beings exists when the arsenic compounds are properly used as a spray to protect fruit or trees from insect ravages. The amount of the poison present on sprayed fruit is usually too small to constitute a dangerous factor. Obviously, no possible danger can exist so far as the edible product is concerned when poisoned baits are used. MECHANICAL METHODS OF DESTROYING INSECT PESTS. The use of poison sprays and baits, while generally valuable in the control of insects with biting mouth parts, is not effective in all such cases that may arise. When we type, but which feed upon have to deal with insects of the internal parts of the plant, the use of these poisons is of -no value inasmuch as it is impossible to place the poison in the situation where the insect is feeding. This restriction applies mainly to those insects known as "borerg," the most destructive representative of which class that we have to deal with in this state being -this the well known Peach Tree Borer. Where our problem consists of an attempt to control such pests as these, then mechanical means, so far as our present definite knowledge goes, must be resorted to. Using the insect just referred to, the Peach-Tree Borer, as representing this class of insects the mechanical means to be used, resolve themselves, finally to the actual cutting out and destruction of the individual insects. This may be accomplished by the use -of very primitive tools, a good strong knife, indeed, doing work when properly handled or more elaborate implements may be employed. The so-called "Porter Hook," invented by Mr. C. M. Porter, of Douglas, Ga.,will be found to be one of the most effective of "worming" tools. It con:sists essentially of a handle some twelve inches in length into which is firmly set a curved or "hook" blade. This blade is about six inches in length, not including the shank which is inset in the handle, and is well curved so that the straight distance from base of handle to point of blade is four and one half inches. The destruction, by mechanical means, of the borers being here considered can best be ,done in the fall or early winter. "The larvae are at this time some eighty-odd per cent. of them-extremely small, and are, for the most part, still on the outside of the tree feeding on such tender spots as they may have located between the ridges and crevices of the bark, and generally involved in a mass of gum and excreta. This, and most of the larvae with it, may be cleaned away by a few rapid sweeps with a stedl hook" (i.e., the Porter hook or some similar implement). "The mass of gum, with its content of wriggling caterpillar life, should be thrown or jerked from the hook to a distance of several feet from the tree, in order that the larvae may find it difficult to return and be subjected to capture by predatory agencies. The process of "worming" thus executed is most expeditious and economical and may be conducted on an extensive scale with most satisfactory results." Whatever mechanical means may be employed for the ,effective *Georgia Experiment Station Bulletin 73. 10 destruction of this or other borers, care must be exercised by the operator not to excessively wound or cut the tree. As much damage may. be done the tree by careless or inefficient manipulation as would have been done by the borers that may have been destroyed in the operation. The time above given and the method of work outlined does not, of course, apply to all the various species of borers attacking the different growths in which we may be interested. The general statement, however, may here be repeated that the work of control resolves itself into the careful cutting out, or probing for, the borer and the destruction of the individual pests and we may further emphasize the fact that the use of the arsenical poisons in such cases offers small hope of any success. Certain injurious insects, notably the plum (or peach) curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.), have a habit of dropping to the ground and feigning death when disturbed. This habit is taken advantage of to destroy the insect. Sheets of cloth,- upon light wooden frames, are placed beneath the affected trees which are then rather violently shaken or jarred. The disturbed insects fall on to the sheets and are collected from these and destroyed. The work should be done in the early morning when the insects are least active. The jarring process to be at all successful must be begun as soon as the insects are first noted upon the trees and fruit and must be continued until jarring fails to bring down enough to pay for the labor involved. This purely mechanical means of destroying these pests while being fairly satisfactory, so far as it goes, does not fully answer the question of their control. The writer has had occasion to note quite satisfactory results in controlling this pest by spraying. In the instance in question, the peach orchard was being sprayed with Bordeaux mixture to control the "brown rot" (Monilia fructigena.) The Bordeaux mixture was properly made by dissolving four pounds of copper sulphate (bluestone) in twenty gallons of water and by carefully slacking five pounds of clean stone lime and stirring the milk of lime or lime paste thus 11 obtained in twenty gallons of water. The cop'per sulphate solution and the lime water mixture were then poured together through a strainer into the spray tank and to the resulting Bordeaux mixture was added one pound of lead arsenate dissolved in a small quantity of water. The whole mixture was kept thoroughly stirred while being sprayed on the trees. In the case noted this operation of spraying was repeated three times during the season and. mainly to control the "brown-rot." The first application was made just before the blossom's opened and no poison added to the mixture; the second application, this time with the poison added, was made when the fruit had set, while a third application, again with poison, was made some three weeks later. The control obtained indicated considerable value in the method as above outlined. This spraying method of control, however, cannot as yet, be considered as superceding the method of mechanical control of the series of insects now being considered and until further data is at hand jarring for the curculio is the practice to be recommended. The two methods of mechanical control of insect pests outlined in the preceding paragraphs, that is the destruction by individuals of borers and the shaking down and destroying in numbers such insects as the curculio, indicate lines of work that may have to be employed in certain specific cases. Necessarily the method of work employed will governed by a study of the insect itself and its habits of life. TRAP CROPS. 'be While the methods of work heretofore outlined offer means of control for many insect pests, when these methods have been adapted to the local conditions where the work is to be done, yet there are certain insects that cannot be reached by any of the ways noted. Such of our truck gardeners as are interested in the production of early tomatoes know the damage done by worms to the "bottom" or earliest crop of this vegetable. When this portion of the crop can be brought off uninjured the largest profit accrues to the grower. 12 The insect causing the greatest part of the loss to this ,portion of the tomato crop in this state, is the larval or caterpillar form of a moth scientifically known as Heliothis obsoleta. In the caterpillar form it is best known as the boll worm of cotton or as the corn worm. It is a destructive enemy of corn and especially of sweet corn and seems to prefer this latter to any other diet. The appearance of the larva or "worm" is familiar to all who have handled sweet corn "in the ear." This food preference can be successfully taken advantage of to control this pest in tomato fields where the saving of the "bottom" crop is a matter of importance, by planting sweet corn as a trap trop. The method to be used is as follows; Prepare the land fully four weeks before the tomato plants are to be :removed from the frame and put out in the field. As soon as the land is prepared plant rows of sweet corn about twenty feet apart across the field. The corn should be planted in hills in the rows, these hills being a convenient distance apart for cultivating, so that they may not interfere with this operation after the tomatoes are set out. The sweet corn should be well up and growing before the tomatoes are placed in the field. The adult moth laying the eggs from which are produced the damage causing "worms" are attracted by the sweet corn and oviposit upon it and the tomatoes, in very large measure, escape injury. Of course no paying crop of corn need be expected under these conlitions for the product will be too "wormy" to market. It will, however, have well served its purpose as a trap crop and can, at the proper time, be cut for fodder. This "trap crop" method of controlling certain pests that are rot controllable in any other way, deserves study and use upon the part of the truck gardener. It is, however, not to be considered as offering a ready means of relief in every case of insect injury that may arise. FARM PRACTICE. Closely related to the "trap crop" method of control of ,certain insect pests, in a method that may be designated under the rather broad title of "farm practice." There are 13 some insects which, owing to the fact that their place and way of feeding does not admit of it, cannot be well controlled by any of the methods outlined in the previous paragraphs. In certain such cases a study of the life history of the injurious insect indicates that by changes in our time of planting and method of work we can bring on the crop before or after, .as the case may be, the pest is most active and hurtful. By this means, though the insects are not destroyed, we avoid the damage that might otherwise be great. One of the insects causing damage to corn in this state is commonly known as the "bud worm." This is, the larval form of a beetle known scientifically as Diabrotica 12-punctata. This beetle is about one quarter inch in length, is yellowish-green in color, with the wing covers marked with twelve black spots. The head and the greater part of the legs is black. It is very fond of cucurbits and is frequently found in numibers on the blossoms of such plants as cucumbers and squashes. The larva ("bud worm") is white or yellowish in color, quite slender and soft bodied. It usually feeds upon the corn roots, though, as it grows older, it may eat directly into the stalk and destroy the plant. It is from this last form of attack that it has received the name, "bud worm." It has been noted that early planted corn is most likely to suffer from the attack of this pest. The method of farm practice suggested by this fact is obviously then plant as late as possible to avoid this injury by the "bud worm." In this connection it is as well to say that late planting will not entirely do away with this pest. A system of rotation of crops is highly desirable where this insect is present. This rotation should not include beans or cucurbits as both of these are acceptable food for the Diabrotica. Cotton may be used' in the rotation with safety. There are undoubtedly many insect pests now present in our state whose damaging work would be much lessened by some such simple change in practice as that just noted. Where the method would be applicable, however, would be a matter to be determined by the study of individual cases. 14 Under this heading of "farm practice" we wish to call especial attention to an insect that will in the course of three or four years be of immense importance to the cotton growers of the state. Reference is here made to the Mexi ,can Cotton Boll Weevil, an insect which has not yet made its appearance in Alabama, but whose arrival can be predicted with a fair degree of certainty. While the exact date of the introduction of this pest to this country is not k nown, yet it must have come here a short time before the year 1894, when the attention of the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture was first called to it. It was then present and harmful to cotton in some seven or eight counties of Texas. Since that time, in spite of all control efforts, it has spread over a larger and larger territory until now the limit of its eastern dispersion is within thirty miles of the Mississippi river. Besides the enormous loss to the cotton crops in the states at present mlost affected by this pest, Texas and Louisiana; many thousands of dollars have been spent by these stateL and by the Bureau of Entomology in studies of the insect and in devising ways and means of control. These studies have developed, among other important items, the fact that the Mexican, Cotton Boll Weevil hibernates as an adult. This means that a certain proportion of the full grown weevils live in the cotton fields, or in adjacent situations, through the winter and from these overwintering individuals are produced the first of the new series of weevils the following spring. A further important fact is that this weevil is confined to the cotton for its food. Based on these two facts is the method of control of this pest that has proved most satisfactory and it is one of "farm practice" purely. The method is in brief, as follows: First, plant as early as can be and avoid possible frost injury, using seed of some early maturing variety of cotton. Second, by thorough cultivation and the use of fertilizers force the cotton to early maturity. Third, as soon as the crop is made remove by cutting out, raking to windrows and burning, all cotton plants. While this procedure involves a change in 15 practice in cotton growing in this state yet it is a change that would benefit the industry were the Boll Weevil never to get here. By this method an excessively long period of time results in which no cotton is available as food for the weevils and the number successfully hibernating is much reduced. It is not in the intention of this bulletin to enter very deeply into the subject of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. It is sufficient for our present purpose to merely call attention to the great importance of the method of "farm practice" as applied in this and similar cases of insect attack where other methods offer scanty or no relief. INSECTS WITH SUCKING MOUTH PARTS. Our attention so far has been drawn to the insects that have biting mouth parts and that obtain their food by actually eating out portions of the attacked fruit or plant. There is, as was noted in our opening paragraphs, a series of insect pests whose method of eating is quite distinct and different from these so far spoken of. These insects have mouth parts so adapted, structurally, that they pierce through the outer covering of the plant or fruit attacked, and suck out the sap or juice. They do not use as food any of the outer part of the plant and as a consequence none of the poisoning methods heretofore spoken of are of any avail in their control. Another point of dissimilarity between these insects and the group designated as having biting mouth parts is that while the latter insects move about from place to place and do not, as a rule, gather together in fixed colcnies, the series with sucking mouth parts have this bunching together, greg ious habit, strong ly developed. Not only is the colonizing habit characteristic of these insects but in the most injurious representatives of the group we find that when the sucking mouth parts have been inserted in the plant tissue and feeding begun the individuals remain fixed in the chosen situation throughout the balance of their lives. This habit of restricted motility, as it may be termed, is especially evident among the so-called scale insects (coccidae) and in the 16 nearly related group of insects, the plant lice, (aphididae.) The methods of control that are successful with these insects are based upon this life habit of restricted-motility and in the main consist of the use of what are known as "contact insecticides." These insecticides depend for their killing power, not upon the introduction of some toxie agent to the digestive tract of the insect, but upon the effect that the agency used may have upon the insect when in contact with it externally. They may be caustic in their action, actually destroying the tissues of the insect, and so inging about its death, or they may be oily in their nature and depend for their killing power upon entering the body of the insect through the breathing pores. These are situated upon the sides of the body, and through them and their connecting tubes, (tracheae), air is carried to all parts of the insect's body. While the exact action of the oily sprays upon the insect's respiratory system is problematical, still the value of these sprays depends upon their effect on this system. A third class of contact insecticides depend for their value upon their tendency to loosen the. insect from its situation upon the plant and permit the action of the weather upon the thus exposed pest to cause its death. Each of the methods above outlined has its value in particular cases and under certain conditions. CONTROL OF SCALE INSECTS. The two pests among the scale insects causing the greatest losses in this state are the so-called San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.) and the New or West Indian Peach Scale (Aulacaspis pentagona Targ.) The San Jose Scale is well distributed throughout the whole state while the West Indian Peach Scale is not quite so widespread in its distribution. Both insects belong in the group known as the armored scales which means that the living creature is covered over with an armor like shell which is: composed of the cast skins (exuviae) of the insect and of a waxy material secreted by it. In both cases the individuals are extremely small and it is only their great numbers that make them a dangerous pest. It is not our in- 17 tention at the present time to enter into an extensive description of either of. these insects. For a fuller discussion of the subject the reader is referred to Circular No. 1, issued from this department in October, 1906. It is enough to say here that the same, means of control are applicable and recommended for both insects. These consist solely of contact sprays and the one in most general use, and at present most satisfactory, is the so-called Lime-Sulfur-Salt spray. This may be made by the following formula Lime ................... .............. 30 pounds Sulfur. ....................... .......... 2. pounds. 20 Salt ........ .............. ............ ... 5 pounds. Water ...........: ........ ... .. ... ...... 60 gallons. Preparation.*-"For preparing the wash two vats or boilers are necessary, and if the spraying is to be done on a large scale, one of these, . at least, should hold a couple of hundred gallons. If a smaller number of trees are to be Of course treated, iron kettles will answer the purpose. the preferable way of cooking the wash is by means of live steam. Many ways have been suggested for mixing the materials, but the results are the same in every case, so long as the mixture has been subjected to the required amount of boiling. It is largely a matter of convenience, then, that deterrines the particular method, and the one found to best: answer this requirement is as follows: First, place two or three inches of water in the boiler, and to this add the sulfur, which has previously been made into a paste by mixing with hot water in order to remove the lumps, or sift the dry sulfur through a mosquito wire netting and stir in thoroughly. Then add about one fourth of the lime, and when the violent boiling has ceased add another fourth, and so on until the required amount of lime has been added. Hot water should be added with the lime as needed, so as to make the mixture a creamy consistency. Too much water will "drown" the lime while *From Alabama Agric. Exper. Station, Circular No. 1, Oct. 1906. 18 on the other hand too little, will cause incomplete slaking of the lime. In this way the heat generated by the slaking lime is taken advantage of, and by adding the sulfur first, plenty of time is given for removing the lumps. 3y the time the lime is thoroughly slaked the fire should continue the boiling, so that the time of boiling begins with the addition of the lime. The salt and about one-fourth of the water should now be added and the whole boiled from one to two hours, keeping it frequently stirred in the meantime. At the end of this period screen into the spray tank, add the necessary amount. of hot water and apply to the trees hot. The wash, when properly made, is a heavy reddish-brown liquid, very caustic and having a strong sulfur odor. The heavier materials settle upon standing, leaving a lighter liquid both in color and weight. Application On account of the heavier ingredients of the wash quickly settling to the bottom, means should be provided for agitating the mixture in the spray tank. This is best done, of course, by the power outfit. In the absence of this gearing may be attached to the wheel of the wagon and the mixture agitated while going from one tree to another. A still simpler way is to stir frequently by means of a hoe or paddle. The nozzle should be of the stopcock type, which will permit of ready cleaning. The type of spray should be a rather coarse one which will thoroughly wet the insects. .a Thoroughness in application cannot be too strongly urged, and no part of the tree should escape treatment. Time of application. The Lime-Sulfur-Salt wash is for winter use only. It must not be used when trees are growing for very grave injury will be the result if it is applied at that time. When the trees are dormant it can be safely used upon them. Such weather conditions in the winter as will permit work in the orchard will be satisfactory for applying the Lime-Sulfur-Salt wash." The difficulty attendant upon the preparation of this wash has led to a large amount of experimentation with 19 other, washes. Among the many materials used in this experimental work, the so-called "soltible oils" seem to offer the most promise and where winter work with the LimeSulfur-Salt preparation has been impossible, then it is advisable to use this material. It is known under different trade names and under the designation, "Scalecide," a quilte desirable contact insecticide is sold. The spray made with this material can be used with safety in the spring and its results, when so used, are fairly satisfactory. The main point to be observed in the use of this and all other contact insecticides is thoroughness of application. To le effective the material must come in direct contact with the insect to be destroyed. IPLANT LICE. Another quite destructive series of insects with sucking mouth parts are the so-called "plant lice," the Aphidsa These are soft bodied creatures, quite small, though generally larger than the scale insects, and are more easily destroyed than are the latter pests. Certain species of aphids are well known to our truck gardeners, as for instance, the cabbage louse, (Aphis bra sicae), while certain other series are quite destructive ti orchard products and even to trees. When the attack of these insects is confined to the above ground parts of the tree or plant they can be quite readily destroyed by a spray made as follows: Dissolve one and one-half pounds of ordinary kitchen or laundry soap in one and one-half gallons of water. This can best be done by shaving the soap into boiling water and keeping the water boiling until the soap is fully dissolved. Remove from the fire and pour into the strong suds thus made one gallon of kerosene oil, stirring vigorously while pouring. Continue this vigorous stirring for fillly ten minutes. The result should be a fairly stable creamy emulsion with no free oil. To the Kerosene Emulsion thus made add eighteen gallons of water and the spray is ready to be applied. It will be found quite effective as a destroyer of the majority of plant lice with which the grower will have to deal. 20 There are certain--species of plant lice that attack not only the above ground portions but also feed upon the roots and root crowns -of "the trees. When our problem is the control of such insects as -these, special methods of procedure are necessary. The best known of these pests is the Wooly Aphis of the apple-an insect that is familiar to all who are interested in the growth of this fruit. Very briefly we may say that the general method of procedure in such cases as -these is to work in about the tree and root crown such materials as wood ashes or tobacco dust. These materials have a ten dency to either destroy the insects or discourage their- attack- at the point where it is most damaging, the root crown. Special cases of this character, however, demand special study and treatment. In the control of :certain of the insects with sucking mouth parts no spraying or other method of ordinary procedure, is of use and we are reduced to the practice of "'hand picking" or jarring the insects off of the infested plants in our control efforts. This is true of the larger representatives of the series, as for example, the so-called 'squash bug," (Anasa tristis,) where spraying is of little or no value and control is obtained only by the removal and destruction of the individual insects. There are many other insects of the type with sucking mouth parts to which attention might be called but we believe the purpose of this paper is served in citing the instances above noted. Whether the insect causing damage is of the biting or sucking type, a reasonable study of it and its activities allows us to apply remedial measures far more economi(ally and with a greater hope of success than would be the case without this study. The purpose of this Bulletin will have been served if it brings about a closer study of the insect causes of loss in this state and a more intelligent application of remedial measures. BULLETIN NO. 140 JUNE, 1907 Agricultural Experient Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute, AUBURN. Descriptions and Classification of Varieties of American. Upland Cotton By J. F. DUGGAR, Director Opelika, Ala.: The Post Publishing 1907. Company, STATION COUNCIL. C. C. THACH--------------------..--------President J. F. DUGGAR---------------------------------Director and Agriculturist B. B. Ross-----------------Chemist and State Chemist C. A. CARY----------------Veterinarian and Director of Farmers' Institutes E. M. R. _S. WILCOX----------------------------Plant Physiologist and Pathologist and State Horticulturist MACKINTOSH- -------------- -Horticulturist J. T. ANDERSON---------------------Chemist, W. Soil and Crop Investigations ---Entomologist T. CLARKE-------------------------------------- ----- D. T. GRAY--------------------------------In Charge of Animal Industry ASSISTANTS. C. L. HARE------------------------------------First A. MoB., RANSOM---------------------T. C. ----------- Assistant Chemist Assistant Assistant Chemist Chemist of Farmi Second BRAGG---------...----------------------Third M. FLOYD- - -.----- .-------------------- Superintendent - ____________________- -Assistant in Horticulture in Agriculture L. N._ DUNCAN.-------------------------Assistant W. GILTNER-------------------------------- Assistant in Veterinary Science - -- - Stenographer and Mailing Clerk 0. H. SELLERS------------------------.P. H. AYKRY-------------------------------Fourth Assistant Chemist 7li, e buitins of this Station will be sent free to citizen of the State on Applical n to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabamra. any DESCRIPTIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF AMERICAN UPLAND COTTON. BY J. F. DUGGAR, Director. REASONS FOR DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFYING VARIETIES. The objects in view when this work was undertaken by the writer in 1899 were the following: (1) To determine what qualities accompany large yield of lint, so that farmers might be able to choose more intelligently the best of existing varieties ,according to their qualities. (2) To ascertain what characters are correlated, so as to lay a firme. foundation for rational schemes of breeding better varieties of cotton. (3) To obtain a better understanding of the meaning of variety tests made by the southern experiment stations, by ascertaining what qualities, rather than what proper names, have usually been associated with high yield under variable conditions of soil and climate. (4) To protect cotton farmers against the payment of exorbitant prices for seed of so-called new varieties in cases where the "novelty" was the same as some well-known old variety, seed bf which could be obtained at a reasonable price. The investigation is by no means completed and is being continu ed, especially to determine what characteristics may be combined in one plant and what qualities are antagonistic. The results of the first year's work in describing and classifying varieties was published in 1899 as Bulletin No. 107 of the Alabama Experiment Station The present publication includes investigation of varieties made at Auburn, Alabama, in 1899, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, and 1906. During each of those years collections numbering 60 to 100 so-called varie ties were grown, so that the data here published usually represent the average results of tests of the same variety extending through several years. Some of the recently introduced varieties, however, have been tested only one year. BASIS OF THIS CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES. The cotton plant is very unstable, changing easily in many of its characters according to the climate and soil where it is grown. This tendency to vary with its surroundings is especially strong as regards the form of the plant, the length of the lint, and the size of the crop. Even the percentage of lint in the seed cotton varies some- 24 what from year to year. Moreover, the pollen may be carried from one variety to another by insects, thus producing hybrids from which still further variations arise. Because of these and other natural causes, it is to be expected that there should be numerous agricultural varieties of cotton differing from each other in slight and not very permanent qualities or characters. Hence any attempt to classify agricultural varieties of cotton is miore or less unsatisfactory. The gradations between varieties in any one agricultural character, for example, in size of boll, are so slight and gradual that positive identification of a single plant is practically impossible. iEowever, it is believed that the averages,for example, the average size of boll of a number of typical plants within one variety, taken in connection with the average of other qualities,-may be made the basis of a system of classification, which, though not infallible, will be useful. The classification here pro posed is based, as far as considered practicable, on groups of qualities, rather than on a single character. Unfortunately the characteristics that are important to the farmer are those that vary most widely with change of environment. The tentative scheme of classification here presented is practically the same as that published by the writer in 1899, in Bulletin No. 107 of the Alabama Experiment Station. A new group has been added to include chiefly varieties intermediate between the semi cluster and any other group. UNIFORMITY NEEDED WITHIN A VARIETY. Man has done quite as much as nature to increase the confusion as to the varieties of American upland cotton. The chief difficulty that has been encountered in the attempt to describe and classify cottons grown at Auburn under several hundred different names has been the absence of uniformity among the plants of a single variety. While this variability is partly due to natural agencies, it is also largely due to the failure of growers to avoid the mechanical admixture of the seed of other varieties, which so easily occurs at public gins. Worse still, in the case of many, perhaps most, of the so-called varieties, there has been no long period of selection through successive years with a view to fixing a uniform type. A cotton ought to have a considerable degree of uniformity between the plants composing it before it is entitled to a name. If it is a selection from an old variety it may have this uniformity from the beginning, provided that undesirable qualities are cast out by careful selection. If the new cotton is a natural or artificial hybrid, or a mechanical mixture of two varieties, it will require at least sev eral years of rigorous selection to secure any approach towards uniformity. Until this uniformity is secured it is neither just to the public nor advantageous of the exploiter to bestow a variety name. It cannot be too strongly urged upon those who would originat nem varieties of cotton that in selecting plants for seed they should se lect for the same quality or qualities every year. Stick to your ideal year after year. If you find plants that are strong in some other quality than that you have heretofore had in mind, but different from the plants selected in previous years, either discard them or propagate them as a separate strain in a different field. Secure uniformity and special merit; until this is attained do not inflict the public with a new name and additional confusion and financial loss. The confusion among varieties is still further increased by the renaming of old varieties, innocently or for self interest, sometimes intentionally by growers or seedsmen, sometimes by one's neighbors. This practice cannot be too severely condemned, however innocently it is sometimes done. It is to be hoped that public sentiment will hold every exploiter of a new variety morally and financially resp n-sible that what he sells at an advanced price under a neN iName shall be something more than a new name. In the long run there is more profit to the grower in the legitimate business of selecting and selling improved seed of a go d and well known variety under its true name than in selling it under a new name. Here right and self-interest are on the same sid e. GROUPS OF VARIETIES. The short staple or upland varieties of cotton may conveniently be divided into seven classes, and to these may be added the long staple upland varieties as an eighth. I would propose for each of these general classes a name, giving, when practicable, an idea of the manner of growth of the plant, and with each class name would associate the name of some distinct and well known variety as a type or standard. I shall designate these groups as(1) Cluster varieties, or Dickson type. (2) Semi-cluster varieties, or Peerless type. (3) Rio Grande varieties, or Peterkin type. (4) The King-like varieties, or King type. (5) Big Boll varieties, or Truitt types. (6) Long Limb varieties, or Petit Gulf type. (7) Intermediate varieties, or varying types. (8) Long Staple Upland varieties, or Allen type. The lines of demarkation between these groups are not aiwavs clear and distinct; one group often merges into another by almost imperceptible gradations, just as is the case with relaicd varieties. Below is given a list of the varieties which are inc u:ded under these several groupings, and also a general description of the varieties composing each class. Some varieties are not classified, either because of insufficient data, or more frequently beeause badly mixed. In cases of a medium degree of impurity, or variation, description has been made of the predominant type. GROUP I.-CLUSTER VARIETIES, OR DICIKSON TY:L':. The most striking characters are (1) the extreme shortness of the fruit limbs, and (2) the tendency of the bolls to grow in clusters, 26 often two and even three from the same node. The plants are often tall and always slender and normally erect,though often bent down by the weight of bolls growing near the upper :mn of the main stem. The few base limbs are often long, or there may.be no wood limbs,especially when these varieties are closely crowded or grown on poor land. The bolls and seed are usually small, but may be of medium size;-the seed are thickly covered with fuzz, which is usually whitish, with little or no brownish or greenish tinge. As to the time of maturity these varieties must be classed as early, even though they sometimes make a second growth of bolls in the top of the plant which may fail to mature. In earliness they are surpassed by the varieties of the King type (Class IV.) In per centage of lint they are variable, some of them equalling in this respect the Rio Grande group. Dickson, Jackson, (also called Limbless or African), TT. S. Dept. Agr. No. 128, and Welborn, belong to this group. (See illustrations. GROUP II.-SEMI-CLUSTER VARIETIES, OR PEERLESS TYPE. These varieties have in less marked degree some of the qualities which distinguish Class I, being erect and having bolls borne singly very near together. Along the main stem are short fruit limbs increasing in length towards the bottom of the stem. The two to five base or wood limbs are usually of medium length. In size of bolls and size of seed and percentage of lint there is considerable diversity among these varieties. The seed are usually well covered with fuzz of many shades, whitish, greenish, or brownish. Most of these varieties are early or medium, but some that belong in both the semicluster and big boll groups are late in maturing. The following varieties are included in the semi-cluster group: Barnett, Berryhill. Blue Ribbon (L. S.), Cummings, Defiance, Dongola (B. B.), Featherstone, Garrard, Haralson (B .B.), Hardin, Hawkins, Herndon, Hilliard, Lealand, McCall, Minor, Montclare (B. B.), Norris, Peerless. Pullnot, Rogers (B. B.), Sterling, Tyler, and Woodfin. GROUP III.-RIO GRANDE VARIETIES, OR PETERKIN TYPE. The characters which most distinctly mark this class are: (1) The large proportion of lint, usually 35 per cent. or more, of the weight of seed cotton, and (2) Seeds of which many are bare of fuzz, except at the tip end, or so scantily covered with fuzz that the dark seed coat show through. The plants are well branched, and usually, on upland soil, of medium size. On many plants the stems and branches are of a deep red color. The bolls are small to medium and the seed are quite small. In time of maturing these varieties are usually neither very early nor extremely late. The varieties included in this group are conveniently divided into two sub-groups according to the presence or absence of naked, smooth 27 seed. The following Rio Grande varieties have a considerable pro portion of naked seed: Anson Cream, Bates, Braddy, Brannon, Cameron, Carolina Queen, Champion, Combination, Crossland, Dixie Moss, Parker, Peterkin, Wilt-Resistant, Gayosa (?), Mattis (?), Pinkerton, Ptomey, Shine Black Seed, Sistrunk, Texas Oak, Texas Wood, Victor, and Wise. Rio Grande varieties having practically no naked seed, but having many seed so scantily clothed with fuzz that the dark seed coat shows through, giving a brown color, are the following: Berryhill, Borden, Dearing, (probably) Eureka, E.:'-sior (), Favorite, (probably) Gregg, Layton, Park's Own, Speight, and (probably) Toole. GROUP IV.-KING-LIKE VARIETIES, OR KING TYPE. The varieties of this group are the earliest of American cottons. The plants are usually small but may be of medium size. The limbs are numerous and the fruit limbs are rather long in proportion to the The fruit limbs are often crooked at the joints. height of plant. reminding one of the crooked twigs of a black jack oak (Quercu .Marylandica). The base limbs are short and sometimes replaced by fruit limbs bearing a number of bolls on each. King is essentially a short jointed, compact plant with an abundance of slender, rather crooked limbs. The bolls of this group are small; the seed are usually small and thickly covered with fuzz which is usually brownish, with an occasional seed showing a greenish tint. The percentage of lint is usually 33 to 35, and sometimes higher. King and its synor nyms have on many blooms a red spot near the base of the inner portion of each petal. The varieties of this group are: Dozier, Grier, Golddus't, Hodge, King, Lowry, Mascot, Missionay, and probably Shine Early. GROUP V. BIG BOLL VARIETIES OR TRUITT TYPES. The character which especially distinguishes this class is the large size of bolls, of which only 45 to 68 are required to yield a pound of seed cotton. Other specially notable qualities aire late maturity and vigorous growth of stalk. The seed are large or very large, and covered with a thick fuzz, generally brownish white or whitish, a part of the seed of many of these varieties being covered with a deep green fuzz. The per cent. of lint often runs rather low and is usually between 31 and 34. The bolls are not closely clustered; in some varieties the upper limbs are so short as to give the top of the plant the erect, slender appearance which is commion among semi-cluster varieties. In typical plants the base limbs are of short or medium length,