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Contents
Preface Acknowledgments Annotated Bibliography Index
4

5 52

FIRST PRINTING 2M, SEPTEMBER 1997

Information contained herein is available to all without regard to race, color, sex, or national origin.

Timber

Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast: An Annotated Bibliography

PREFACE
KARNI R. PEREZ

he economic and social lives of communities across the southern United States are bound up with the forest resources which surround them. Community dependence upon forest resources is a phenomenon of growing importance in the South, yet one which has attracted little scholarly attention. This bibliography was prepared as a contribution to a project (Social and Economic Correlates of Timber Dependency in Alabama) funded under the National Research Initiative Competitive Grants Program of the United States Department of Agriculture. A second grant from the Southeastern Forest Experiment Station of the U.S. Forest Service helped extend the focus beyond Alabama to the South as a whole. A major purpose of the project was to examine timber depenThis bibliography was compiled by Karni R. Perez, Research Associate in the Auburn University Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology. Research on this bibliography was funded by grants from the U.S. States Department of Agriculture's National Research Initiative Competitive Grant Program and by the Southeastern Forest Experiment Station of the U.S. Forest Service.

2

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

dency in the unique social, historical, cultural, climatological, and silvicultural conditions of the South. Research supported by this pro ject has shown that the nature of timber dependency in the South differs in important ways from that prevailing in the Pacific Northwest due to the South's unique social structure and racial composition; the skewed distribution of forest ownership and the predominance of private ownership; and industry's reliance upon rapidly growing, intensively managed stands. This project had two objectives. The first was to determine the impact of the forest industry on economic and social welfare in Alabama. Research questions related to this objective included: *Where in the state is timber dependency concentrated? *What social and economic conditions are characteristic of timber-dependent communities in the state? *What is the extent and cause of variation in these condi tions among timber-dependent communities in Alabama? The second research objective was to evaluate the means by which the forest products industry in Alabama could contribute to social and economic welfare and rural development in Alabama. Research questions associated with this second objective included: *What socioeconomic characteristics can be directly

attributed to timber dependency? *Under what conditions can timber dependency lead to heightened community well-being? *What non-forest-related variables are most significant in influencing community well-being and how do they relate to forest-related variables? * Are there beneficial institutional arrangements which can be adapted for timber dependent communities in Alabama? *How can forest products industries contribute to community development in Alabama?

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

3

The most difficult aspect of an undertaking such as this is deciding what to include and what to exclude. The project's focus was used as the primary focus of this bibliography, but the bibliography is not restricted to Alabama or even to the South, which is quickly becoming the center of the nation's forest products industry. Guiding the selection process has been consideration of what kinds of material would be most helpful to future researchers about to engage in comparable work in Alabama or neighboring states in the region. Broader literature on resource dependency is not included. Much of the existing social science literature on timber or forest dependency has focused on other regions of the United States or on Canada. This bibliography is not intended to represent a comprehensive review of the literature on timber dependency or forest dependency, but it does include the most representative and relevant examples of this literature. The interested reader will be led to the many other sources on timber dependency through the materials covered here. No attempt was made to incorporate non-human aspects of forest ecosystems, though some items address timber supply in Alabama and the South, and a few mention environmental impacts of forest industries. The collection was limited by the selection of items reasonably available for annotation. Sources included the library catalog of Auburn University and other Alabama universities; the 1995 Forest Service bibliography entitled Selected References Concerning the USDA Forest Service: Social, Political, and Historical Sources of Information; and the following indexes and databases: Social Sciences Index, Business Periodical Index, Humanities Index, Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, Applied Science and Technology Index, Biological and Agricultural Index, General Sciences Index, Abstracts of Business Information, Educational Resources Information Center, Psychological Abstracts, and PAIS. Keywords (and combinations and variations thereof) used in the search were as follows: Alabama, community, dependency, development, economy, employment, forest, gender, growth, history, industry, labor, logger, lumber, mill town, natural resources, paper, products, pulp, pulpwood, race, sawmills, social impact, South, timber, unions, welfare, well-being, women, and workers. "Gray" liter-

4

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

ature in the form of unpublished papers, etc., was omitted because of its limited availability. Compiling and annotating this bibliography helped to highlight some areas in which further research on forest dependency is need ed. Sociological and anthropological studies of southern forest dependent communities are particularly wanting. The literature would be enhanced by more studies examining the qualitative, as well as the quantitative, nature of forest-dependent communities and their economies. Some areas in which gaps exist are: effects of par ticular forest industries on the daily lives and customs of the people who work in or around them; the roles of forests and industries in community organizations and functions; gender roles in the forest industries and communities; and historical impacts of organizational and technological change in the industries on people's lives. Comparative analyses involving southern communities dependent on other industries and resource bases would also enhance the study of forest dependency. Research taking the region's unique history and economic development into account is needed for an understanding of resource dependency in the South. Users of this annotated bibliography may wish to begin their explorations by examining the index to identify specific works addressing their interests.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work would not have been possible without the support of the four

principal investigators on the project here at Auburn University: John Bliss, associate professor in the School of Forestry; Conner Bailey, professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology; Glenn Howze, professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology; and Larry Teeter, associate professor in the School of Forestry. Special assistance from Dr. Bliss and Dr. Bailey throughout the effort is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are due also to the individuals who took the time to read through the final draft and give us their thoughtful suggestions for improving this bibliography: Tom Beckley of the Northern Forestry Centre in Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; Jo Ellen Force of the University of Idaho in Moscow; Christine Overdevest of the Southern Research Station in Athens, Ga.; and Wayne Flynt, professor in the Auburn University Department of History.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast5

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adams, Debra. 1985. Paper companies put on some more weight but are staying fit and trim. Pulp & Paper 59(7)(July):57-59. Table.

Reports on some of the currentways in which pulp and paper mills had been handling recessionary conditions in the industry during the 1980s. Focuses on labor-related factors such as employment rolls, wages, benefits, productivity, and worker involvement programs.
2. Alig, Ralph J., and David N. Wear. 1992. Changes in private timberland: statistics and projections from 1952 to 2040. Journal of Forestry 90(5)(May):31-36. Table, graphs.

Presentsfigures on the amount of privately held forest land in the U.S., occasionally broken down by region, and on management of those lands. Discusses changes in land use with regard to acreage, ownership, management and investment, forest type, and policy effects on forest management. Makes projections which reflect anticipatedsocioeconomic changes.
3. Allen, Ruth A. 1961. East Texas Lumber Workers: An

Economic and Social Picture, 1870-1950. Austin, TX: University of
Texas Press. 239 p. Photos, tables, bibliography.

Follows the development of the lumber industry in East Texas. Presents a demographic portrait of the people employed in the industry, the company town, and the labor unrest of the early 20th Century. Focuses particularly on the economic circumstances of workers. Discusses possibilities for improvement, as well as factors which have limited the economic benefits accruing to mill workers.
4. Anon. 1990. Spiking, vandalism spread into South. Forest Industries 117 (4) (May) :11.

6

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

Reports on the first known incident of "ecoterrorism" in the South log-spiking and equipment damage in a North Carolina forest. Briefly recaps statements by forest officials and environmental activists.
5. Ashton, Peter G., and James B. Pickens. 1995. Employment diversity and economic performance in small, resource-dependent communities near western National Forests. Society and Natural Resources 8(3):231-241.

Seeks to clarify relationships between USDA Forest Service programs and the economies of small rural communities which they affect. Addresses two main issues: dependence of the sample communities on employment associated with Forest Service programs and the relationshipbetween employment diversity and economic performance. Finds counties with high employment diversity are better able to cope with changing economic conditions over time than less diverse counties. Concludes that facilitating diversity may be an appropriategoal.
6. Austin, Phyllis. 1987a. Controlling the fate of America's

forests. Business and Society Review 61:55-58. Identifies factors in the decision-making process of forest products companies which can affect the well-being of timberdependent areas. Includes decisions regardingforest management, balancing short-term profits with long-term gains, and new technologies. Illustrates points with examples of company officers' experiences. Discusses changes in decision-making structures such as increasing decentralization. Provides examples from the Northeast and the Pacific Northwest, not from southern forest industries.
7. Austin, Phyllis. 1987b. The making of a one-company ghost town. Business and Society Review 62 (Summer) :59-64.

Describes the impact of Great Northern Paper Company's cutbacks on residents of a small rural Maine town economically dependent on the company's two pulp and paper mills. Describes effects primarily from points of view of the residents' and union leaders. Provides some insight on the relationships between labor and the industry.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

7

8. Bailey, Conner, Peter Sinclair, John Bliss, and Karni Perez. 1996. Segmented labor markets in Alabama's pulp and paper industry. Rural Sociology 61(Fall), 475-496. Table, bibliography. Explains its approach in relation to existing thought on labor markets. Describes and discusses factors which play a role in determining participation of various groups, including AfricanAmericans and women, in core and peripheral sectors. Factors include structural and cultural elements characteristic of the industry and the South. Points out the role those factors have had in the distribution of benefits in Alabama communities economically dependent on the pulp and paper industry. 9. Beckley, Thomas M. 1996. Pluralism by default: community power in a paper mill town. Forest Science 42(1):35-45. Illustrations, bibliography. Reviews and connects theories of dependency, underdevelopment, and community power in the context of a Maine community. Concludes that political consequences of forest dependence have involved an evolution of power relations: namely, the gradual withdrawalof the mill's corporateleadersfrom local politics and the emergence of a situationin which everyone may have access to the community political process. Notes that because power resides largely outside the community, however, residents view local officials as relatively powerless, and few are interested in participating. 10. Beckley, Thomas M. 1995. Community stability and the relationship between economic and social well-being in forest-dependent communities. Society and Natural Resources 8(3)(May/June):261-266. Questions the assumption commonly made by researchers that social well-being is dependent exclusively on economic factors and that stability is necessarily a desirable policy goal. Stresses the appropriatenessof recently enhanced qualitative forms of assessment such as case studies involving an ethnographic approach. Encourages the use of qualitative as well as quantitative indicators and discusses quality of employment, social cohesion, and local empowerment as examples. Suggests that community adaptability is a more useful concept and a more desirable policy goal than community stability.

8

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

11. Beckley, Thomas M., and Audrey Sprenger. 1995. Social, political and cultural dimensions of forest-dependence: the communities of the lower Winnipeg Basin. In: Rural Development Institute,

The Economic, Social, Political and Cultural Dimensions of ForestDependence in Eastern Manitoba, RDI Report Series No. 1995-1, pp. 23-61. Manitoba: Brandon University, The Rural Development Institute. Tables, graphs, map, bibliography.

Using qualitative methods and secondary data, examines a variety of issues related to consequences of forest-dependence in four communities in southeastern Manitoba. Presents an historical profile of the communities and discusses the researchquestions and related hypotheses. Assesses dimensions of social well-being and the communities' ability to adapt to forces of social change. Explores the extent to which local and regional politicalpower in a paper mill town lies in the hands of an economically dominant paper company in that community. Based primarily on interviews with individuals reflecting a broad, representative spectrum of the communities' residents.
12. Berck, Peter, Diane Burton, George Goldman, and Jacqueline Geoghegan. 1991/92. Instability in forestry and forestry communities. Journal of Business Administration 20 (Emerging Issues in Forest Policy) (1 &2) :315-338.

Examines the meaning of stability and instability relative to forest-dependent communities in terms of employment. Discusses measures of instability for many Oregon industries and presents a model for identifying and analyzing timber-dependency.
13. Blahna, Dale. 1990. Social bases for resource conflicts in areas of reverse migration. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W R.

Burch Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology
of Natural Resources, pp. 159-178. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Looks at the body of research on resource conflicts, clashes between culture and environment identified in a variety of situations. Focuses in particular on conflicts in resource management ideas between long-time community residents and more recent immigrants from urban centers in Michigan.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

9

14. Bliss, John C. 1992. Survey yields insight into Alabama for
est owners' attitudes. Highlights of Agricultural Research 39(1) (Spring):3. Table. Published by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Alabama.

Reports findings of a survey of Alabama non-industrialprivate forest land owners. States the survey's intent to identify certain socioeconomic characteristics, forest management activities, and opinions on a number of controversial issues in forestry. Found diversity but also found discernible patterns in forest owners' backgrounds, ages, education, perceptions of benefits, attitudes, and management opinions.
15. Bliss, John C., and Warren A. Flick. 1994. With a chainsaw
and a truck: Alabama pulpwood producers. Journal of Forest and

Conservation History 38(2) (April):79-89. Photos.

Based largely on oral history interviews, describes the workings of traditionalrelationships between producers, dealers, and forest products manufacturers in the southern pulp and paper industry. Discusses the evolution of those relationships in terms of the power hierarchy and effects of changing mechanization, access to capital and stumpage, and competition.
16. Bliss, John C., and Ken Muehlenfeld. 1991. Timber and the Economy of Alabama. Agriculture and Natural Resources Circular No. ANR-602-DTP. Auburn University: Alabama Cooperative Extension Service. 15 p. Tables, graphs, maps, bibliography.

A readable report on Alabama forest lands, including acreage, ownership, and inventory. Illustrates the forest-products industries' roles in the state's economy with data on cash receipts, employment, payrolls, value added, and value of shipments. Compares the industry's contribution as a whole to those of others in the state and comments on future demand and supply. 17. Bowers, J. R. 1979. The Alabama Forest Industries: Their
Contributions to the State's Economy. M.S. Thesis. Auburn University, Alabama. 136 p. Tables, figures, map, bibliography.

10

Alabama

Agricultural

Experiment

Station

Develops a model for describing and measuring the contributions of the forest industries to the state's economy. Takes into account forest industries' effect on individual welfare and regional economic stability. Compares measures over time and relative to the contributions of other industries in the state. Attempts to interpret the impact of changes in the forest industries on the economy. 18. Bruce, John W., and Louise Fortmann. 1991/92. Property and forestry. Journal of Business Administration 20 (Emerging Issues in Forest Policy)(1 &2):471-496. Discusses the relationships between property rights, forest development, and forest destruction under three different types of land tenure: agriculturalsystems, the commons, and state-managed forests. Focuses primarily on developing countries and on land tenure security. Briefly discusses emerging issues. 19. Brunelle, Andy. 1990. The changing structure of the forest industry in the Pacific Northwest. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology of Natural Resources, pp. 107-124. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Tables, bibliography. Discusses the relationship of forest industry structure to community stability in forest-dependent areas. Identifies forces influencing structural change and examines industry changes in the Pacific Northwest due to historical trends such as mergers, integration, downsizing, and other changes in the industry. Discusses and compares problems of large companies with those of small companies and the implications of those problems for local communities. 20. Burch, William R. 1977. Social aspects of forest research policy. In: M. Clawson (ed.), Research in Forest Economics and Forest Policy, Research Paper No. R-3, pp. 327-382. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future. Tables, bibliography. Describes areas of social research which have forest management policy implications, including issues relating to human systems, such as worker welfare, family and community stability. Addresses ecosystem integrity. Promotes attention to potential

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

11

long-term outcomes through the consideration of bio-social variables, which would help bring forest management policy in accord with cycles of biological and human social time. Addresses similarities and differences between forest-dependent regions.
21. Bush, C. E. 1988. Traditional wood procurement strategies. In: Forest Products Research Society (ed.), Current Challenges to

Traditional Wood Procurement Practices. Proceedings of a conference sponsored by the Forest Products Research Society with the cooperationof the Society of American Foresters, 20-30 September 1987, Atlanta, GA,
pp. 27-29. Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society.

Focuses on procurement strategies in the South. Describes basic conditions in the pulp and paper industry during the period 1930-1950. Discusses the traditionaldealer system. Points out problems with the strategy of dealers, company-owned timberland, mill inventories, and changes that have occurred.
22. Byron, Ronald N. 1978. Community stability and forest policy in British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 8 (March):61-66. Tables, graphs.

Examines the validity of the assumption that community stability results from sustained-yield management. Concludes that other factors function in the distributionof forest industries, such as technological economies of scale, location relative to transportation, export markets, etc. Demonstrates that occupations in the forest industries (logging, processing, etc.) are less stable in single industry towns.
23. Carroll, Matthew S., and Robert G. Lee. 1990. Occupational community and identity among Pacific Northwestern loggers: implications for adapting to economic changes. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology of Natural Resources, pp. 141-156. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Bibliography

Based primarily on participant-observationand interviews,
aims at identifying elements of successful adaptation to changing

demands for labor in selected communities in northern California.

12

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

Describes elements of loggers' social world, including their shared identities and meanings, status hierarchies, career ladders. Concludes that adaptation was more difficult when loggers were more attached to their occupation and had more specific and therefore less transferable skills. Policy implications include (1) a need for outside intervention to help loggers adapt and (2) support of increased cooperation between economists, sociologists, and other social scientists in addressing the problem.
24. Clark, Thomas D. 1985. The Greening of the South: The Recovery of Land and Forest. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press. 168 p. Bibliography.

Blends micro- and macro-historical approaches for a good understanding of developments in southern forests. Reviews changes in land and forest tenure and use from the 19th to the 20th centuries. Covers the development of scientific forestry; the roles of the CCC, TVA, pulping technology, ecological and ownership changes resulting from industry use of forest resources. Discusses developments from social, economic, and environmental perspectives.
25. Clawson, Marion. 1979. Economics of U.S. Nonindustrial Private Forests. Research Paper No. R-14. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future. 410 p. Tables, graphs.

Describes and analyzes NIPFs in the United States their characteristicsand potential. Includes a section on NIPFs in the South. Takes primarily an economic approach that is pragmatic, empirical, and informative. Uses biological, ecological, and silvicultural data to point out relationships in the data, taking into account practical aspects of operation and politics. Attempts to consider all the outputs and functions of NIPFs but concentrates on timber. Conclusions often contradict commonly accepted beliefs regardingNIPFs, and appropriatepublic policy.
26. Clephane, Thomas P. 1978. Ownership of timber: a critical in industrial success. Forest Industries 105(9)

component

(August) :30-32.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

13

Reports results of an investment firm survey of forest products companies. Discusses company forest land holdings in the U.S., timber valuations, and the impact of company ownership.
27. Collier, John M. 1965. The First Fifty Years of the Southern Pine Association, 1915-1965. New Orleans: Southern Pine Association. 173 p. Photos Chronicles the development of the Southern Pine

Association, organized in New Orleans in 1914 to enhance markets for southern timber. Reviews early associations among lumbering and sawmill operators. Describes the SPA's accomplishments and its role in the industry's technological development. Reviews the roles of association leaders and closes with an optimistic view of future possibilitiesfor the southern timber industry.
28. Connaughton, Kent P., Paul E. Polzin, and Con Schallau. 1985. Tests of the economic base model of growth for a timber dependent region. Forest Science 31(3) (September):717-725.

Reports on a test of an econometric model used to quantify the effect of management programs on local economies. Tests the assumption that activity related to productionfor export affects but is not affected by derivative activity (not producing for export). Concludes that when the basic sector is affected by the derivative sector, one gets an inaccurate view of economic impacts.
29. Cook, Annabel K. 1995. Increasing poverty in timber-dependent areas in western Washington. Society and Natural Resources

8(2):97-110. Examines changes in poverty, employment rates, and growth between 1980 and 1990, before the impact of the spotted owl issue. Found that changes in the structure of the Pacific Northwest timber industry coincided with substantial declines in several indicators of well-being in western Washington. Notes that poverty rates in timber-dependent areas increased compared with rates in metro areas during those years.
30. Cook, Bernard A. 1977. Covington Hall and radical rural unionization in Louisiana. Louisiana History 18 (2) (Spring):227-238.

14

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

Tells the story of Covington Hall's efforts to organize a radical socialist labor union among Louisiana lumber workers early in the 1900s, after the Brotherhood of Timber Workers failed. Describes his plans, ideas, and organizing activities. Explains the union's failure as the result of worker apathy, manipulation of racialfeelings by employers, organized opposition of companies and their political allies, and prosperity brought by the first world war.
31. Cottell, Philip L. 1974. Occupational Choice and Employment Stability Among Forest Workers. Bulletin No. 82. New Haven: Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. 161 p. Tables, bibliography.

Reports on a study of forest workers employed in logging and related activities. Studies them as a distinct social group. Attempts to combine economic and sociologicalconcepts in a focus on occupational choice. Shows a variety of economic and non-economic factors influencing employment decisions. Compares results with studies in other industries.
32. Craig, Ronald B. 1939. The forest tax delinquency problem in the South. Southern Economic Journal 6 (2) (Oct):145-164.

Discusses the alarming increase in long-term federal and state tax delinquency during the 1930s. Posits reasons for the increase, including overassessment, declining property values, increased proportion of income taxed, and additional taxes. Suggests steps for preventing or decreasingdelinquency.
33. Cramer, Lori A., James J. Kennedy, Richard S. Krannich, and Thomas M. Quigley. 1993. Changing forest service values and their implications for land management decisions affecting resourcedependent communities. Rural Sociology 58(3):475-491.

Briefly reviews problems of resource-dependent communities' vulnerability to decisions by outside interests. Aimed at communities in or near publicly-managed lands but deals with similar problems of dependency. Discusses results of a 1992 study of values of Forest Service employees and their attitudes towards the agency's goals and management priorities. Finds newer employees

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

15

tend to place higher priority on multiple uses besides timber production than older employees. Concludes that shifting attitudes within the agency as younger employees gradually replace more experienced ones may cause problems for communities with highly forest-dependent economies. 34. Crecink, J. C. 1970. Rural Industrialization: Case Study of a Tissue Paper Mill in Pickens, Mississippi. Agricultural Economic Report No. 189. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 12 p. Tables. Reports an investigation into the contribution of industry to economic development of a depressed rural area to aid understandingof how development proceeds in such communities. Presentsa profile of the town's economy and demographics before and shortly after the paper mill's establishment around 1962. Finds that this first marketing venture of the regional and state redevelopment agencies was unable to compete with larger, more favorably locatedproducers and succumbed to insurmountablemarketing and financialproblems. 35. Cubbage, Frederick W., Thomas G. Harris Jr., Robert C. Abt, Gerardo Pacheco, Regina Armster, and David Anderson. 1995. Southern timber supply: surplus or scarcity. Forest Farmer 54(2, Suppl. 30th Manual Edition) (March/April):28-39. Summarizes statistics on timber supplies in southern states. Presents data from the late 1980s for some states and from the early 1990s for others. Projects supplies into the future. 36. Deavers, Kenneth L., and David L. Brown. 1985. Natural Resource Dependence, Rural Development, and Rural Poverty. Rural Development Research Report No. 48. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. 16 p.
Tables, maps, bibliography. Examines the influence of natural resource dependence on

rural income levels and recent population growth in selected counties, most of which are in the South. Provides a demographic profile and data on the nature of resource dependency and population changes in those areas. Found no discernible effect of dependence

16

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

on a community's income. Found population growth highest where there was access to a metro area. Points out that the counties tended to have other similar characteristics, such as persistent poverty, low educational levels, high age dependency, and a high proportion of African-Americans. Attempts to explain differences in the data and outlines implications for ruralpolicy. 37. Demmon, E. L. 1937. Forests in the economy of the South. Southern Economic Journal 3 (4) (April):369-380. Tables. Compares forestry with farming in an assessment of the economic value of southern forests and forest products at the time the article was written. Includes labor requirements, production capacities, naval stores, labor, pulpwood, and other factors. Projects a potential for pulp and paper production and mill establishment. Promotes farm woodland management for conservation, multiple use of private lands, and sustained yield management. 38. Drielsma, Johannes H. (1984): The Influences of Forestbased Industries on Rural Communities. Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University. 290 p. Reviews the historicaldevelopment of forestry ideas concerning the positive relationship between sustained yield and community stability as well as sociological thought on rural communities and the effect of ruralindustrialization. Finds certain social characteristics of forest-dependent communities related to characteristics of the forest industries. Using secondary data sources, examines evidence for stability and well-being in several types of resource-dependent communities, focussing particularly on those dependent on the forest industries. Concludes a negative relationship exists between sustained yield and community stability, contrary to traditionalforestry thought, with forest-dependent communities among the lowest in stability and well-being. 39. Eisterhold, John A. 1973. Mobile: lumber center of the Gulf Coast. Alabama Review 26(2) (April) :83-104. Bibliographical footnotes.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

17

Tells the history of Mobile as a center for lumber trade and export up through the mid-1850s, particularly during the 20 years prior to the Civil War. Presents historical facts about the lumber industry, mills, lumber technology, mill operators and owners, and other businessmen involved in related enterprises. Describes employment arrangements for white and black laborers formation of white labor organizations, problems of timber theft, and how various tradingand shipping services were carried out.
40. Eller, Ronald D. 1982. Miners, Millhands, and Mountaineers:

Industrializationof the Appalachian South, 1880-1930. Knoxville, TN:
University of Tennessee Press. 272 p. Tables, maps, photos, bibliography.

Traces and generally links the development of Appalachia's natural resources with changes in the area's communities. In Chapter 3, describes the evolution of logging activities in the ancient hardwood forests, from early family enterprises to large, integrated industrialoperations. Describes life in the timber camps and towns and the effects of changes on Appalachians'family and community lives. Discusses the conservationmovement and conflicting views regardinguse of nationalforest lands. As a whole, takes the point of view that persistent poverty in Appalachia is a result of the particular kind of industrial resource development that occurred there.
41. Ferrell, Jeff. 1991. "The song the capitalist never sings": The Brotherhood of Timber Workers and the culture of conflict. Labor History 32 (Summer):422-431.

Details the campaign of the BTW in its attempts to organize lumber workers against mill owners in East Texas and West Louisiana early in the 1900s. Describes methods of mobilizing and cultivating sentiment. Bases statements on excerpts from BTW campaign literature.
42. Fickle, James E. 1981. Race, class, and radicalism: the wobblies in the southern lumber industry, 1900-1916. In: J. R. Conlin

(ed.), At the Point of Production: The Local History of the IWW, pp. 97113. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

18

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

Describes the conflict between lumber workers and mill operators in eastern Texas and western Louisiana. Focuses particularly on the period 1911-1912, when the Brotherhood of Timber Workers was founded and supported by the IWW. Describes conditions in the industry which invited the organization of labor. Traces events from the organization of the BTW through violent clashes to its collapse. Details actions of union leaders and the mill operators' association. Describes the interplay of race relations with class relations in the efforts of leaders on both sides to set workers, communities, and operators against each other. Traces events from buildup and violent clashes to the total collapse of the BTW, noting the contribution of the union to racial cooperation in the process of class struggle. 43. Fickle, James E. 1980. The New South and the "New Competition": Trade Association Development in the Southern Pine Industry. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. 435 p. Focuses on industry history since the Civil War. Discusses development of the industry and the Southern Pine Association, effects of the two world wars, and the National Recovery Act. Describes the SPA's use of statistics and development of industry standards, advertising, and trade promotion. Discusses the roles of transportation, conservation issues in the SPA's history, and basic changes in the organization due to post-World War II shifts in leaders, products, and ownership patterns. 44. Fickle, James E. 1976. The SPA and the NRA: a case study of the blue eagle in the South. Southwestern Historical Quarterly
79(3) (January):253-278.

Follows the Southern Pine Association, organized in 1914 to deal with industry problems, through its participationin development of the NRA's lumber code in the 1930s. Portrays the events and interactionsof the organizationand the federal government as they attempted to regain a supply-demand balance after the Depression. Describes the difficulties encountered in administering the code and posits reasons for its failure in southern lumber compared to other industries.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

19

45. Fickle, James E. 1975. The Louisiana-Texas lumber war of

1911-1912. Louisiana History 16(1)(Winter):59-85. Reviews the development and decline of the Brotherhood of

Timber Workers, tracing the origins of the violent LouisianaTexas lumber conflict back to labor uprisings in 1906-1907. Discusses the role of the Southern Lumber Operators Association and its leaders, and the role of lumber workers and their leaders, in the conflict.
46. Fickle, James E. 1974. Management looks at the labor problem: the southern pine industry during World War I and the postwar era. Journal of Southern History 40 (1) (February):61-76.

Discusses southern pine industry history and labor relations from World War I to the mid-1920s. Based on Southern Pine Association records, trade journals and other documents, sheds light on the management view of labor complaints and other problems in the industry. In particular, discusses management's campaign to retain African-American workers in the South in order to cope with wartime labor shortages.
47. Fickle, James E., and Donald W. Ellis. 1990. POWs in the
piney woods: German prisoners of war in the southern lumber indus-

try, 1943-1945. Journalof Southern History 56 (4) (November):695-724.

Addresses the issue of use of World War II German prisoners as a labor source in the southern lumber industry. Questions include whether prisoners were adequately trained and supervised, what the value and impact of the prisoners on the industry were, and whether the project was carried out in accordance with the Geneva Convention. Traces the process and the difficulties encountered. Lists sources of information providing perspectives of prisoners as well as Americans.
48. Firey, Walter. 1990. Some contributions of sociology to the study of natural resources. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch

Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology of
Natural Resources, pp. Bibliography. 15-25. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

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Reviews the historicaldevelopment of naturalresource sociology in the ideas and works of researchers since about 1925. Traces the beginning of the field from a holistic social geography, which studied adaptations of humans to and within their regional environment, to other studies which have added to the body of knowledge and method. Includes as examples researchon the rise and fall of social disorganizationin resource-based towns, stability, the use of forest resources in agricultural areas, and human ecology. Notes factors which have hindered or enhanced progress in the field.
49. Flick, Warren A. 1985. The wood dealer system in Mississippi: an essay on regional economics and culture. Journal of Forest History 29(3) (July):131-138. Table, photos.

Explains how the wood supply system worked and evolved with the growth of the Mississippi wood products industry and with increased competition. Describes the roles of the people who comprise the dealer system. Discusses the role of the system in the economy and politics of mill communities. Summarizes the evolution of the state's forest industries and their role in the state's economy.
50. Flick, Warren A., and Larry D. Teeter. 1988. Multiplier effects of the southern forest industries. Forest Products Journal 38(11/12) (Nov/Dec):69-74.

Presents and discusses multipliers for industries in the South calculated from economic models. Ranks states according to output, income, and employment. Concludes that southern industries have an above-average economic impact locally and regionally and that an important reason for that impact is the local purchase of most inputs to mills. 51. Flynt, J. Wayne. 1987. Mine, Mill, and Microchip: A Chronicle
of Alabama Enterprise. Northridge, CA: Windsor Publications. 376 p. Photos.

Produced in cooperation with the Business Council of Alabama, provides an overview of business and industry in the

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state. Contains a few scatteredpages on the larger forest-products company mills and aspects of their history. Briefly discusses labor conditions and problems in the late 19th Century, forest industry growth and consolidation in the 1960s and 1970s, and selected production data. 52. Flynt, Wayne. 1989. Poor but Proud: Alabama's Poor Whites.
Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. 469 p. Tables, photos, bibliography. Tells the story of Alabama sawmills, woods workers, and

technological changes affecting the industry in one section of the book. Covers workers who harvested turpentine as well as loggers. Describes how they lived in the woods and mill towns and the role which race, unions, and technology played in their lives. Illustrates aspects of individual lives with excerpts from oral history interviews.
53. Folweiler, A. D. 1941. Cotton, wood pulp, and the manof the deep South. Southern Economic Journal

land ratio

7(4) (April) :518-528.

Discusses the potential of the southern pulp and paper industry to provide employment for rural labor surplus created by declining cotton markets. Analyzes the industry's potential to relieve population pressures, which were thought to cause the low standard of living in the Deep South, through increasing jobs by examining factors such as labor requirements of different industry products, processes, and production levels. Stresses the importance of market factors such as competition in pulp supply.
54. Force, Jo Ellen, Gary E. Machlis, Lianjun Zhang, and Anne Kearny. 1993. The relationship between timber production, local historical events, and community social change: a quantitative case study. Forest Science 39(4):722-742.

Tests the hypothesis that community social change is associated with changes in the level of production of local resources and/or

with local historicalevents. Demonstrates support for the hypothesis among data for a 60-year period, but notes that not all the

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relationships are direct. Lists number of employees, community structure, cohesion, and anomie as dependent variables. Uses timber production and historical events, including timber-related and nontimber-related economic development and natural disasters, as independent variables. Gives suggestions for future
research.

55. Forest History Society. 1976. Oral History Collection: An Annotated Guide. Guide to Forest and Conservation History of North America No. 1. Santa Cruz, CA: Forest History Society. 88 p.

An index to over 200 oral interviews with individuals who have played a variety of roles in the history of forest conservation, management, or use since the late 1800s. Lists transcripts from foresters, loggers, government officials, and both leaders and workers in the forest industries. Includes information about each interview, transcript length and date, general topical content, and availability.
56. Futch, Sidney. 1988. Current challenges to traditional wood procurement practices: wood producers' and dealers' roles. In: Forest Products Research Society (ed.), Current Challenges to Traditional Wood Procurement Practices. Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society.

Promotes independent logging contractor and worker services as the most economical way to harvest wood now and in the future. Calls for support for their economic vitality. Describes characteristicsand responsibilities of competent wood suppliers.
57. Gray, John. 1992. Soft-hat management a veteran observer urges an innovative course resources of the evolving New South. 98 (_) (January/February):38-39, 50-51. Comments compiled from a speech on for southern forests: change for the rich American Forests the U.S. Forest

Service plan, "Fourth Forest Analysis and Recommendations." Notes that the Forest Service is taking essentially the same approachas it did in the 1950s, although the skewed private ownership of timberlands is beginning to be noticed. Maintains that

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

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the role of the national forests in timber supply must change and argues for a "naturalistic forestry" which minimizes environmental impact, promotes landscape design on heavily used land, and supports more extensive environmental education. 58. Green, Jim. 1980. The Brotherhood. In: M. Miller (ed.), Working Lives: The Southern Exposure History of Labor in the South, pp. 22-39. New York: Pantheon Books. Photos. A sympathetic review of the history of the Texas-Louisiana lumber industry and describes the lives of its workers. Discusses the development of the Brotherhood of Timber Workers, founded in 1910, and the grievances out of which conflicts with mill operators and logging bosses arose. Tells the story of the "lumber wars" of 1911-13, strikes which resulted in violence and community upheaval. Proposes reasons for the Brotherhood's successes and ultimate decline. [A similararticle appearedin 1976, entitled "The Brotherhood," Southern Exposure 4(_):21-29.] 59. Heavrin, Charles A. 1981. Boxes, Baskets and Boards: A History of Anderson-Tully Company. Memphis, TN: Memphis State University Press. 178 p. Tables, photos, illustrations, bibliography. Traces the corporate history of the Anderson-Tully Co., which had holdings in Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi from the late 1800s to the 1980s. Includes some history of the South, embedded in the history of the company and other southern lumber enterprises. Describes the products and policies of the company, its operators and key individuals. Includes a biographical appendix, glossary, and tables with various company statistics. 60. Hicks, William T. 1940. Recent expansion in the southern pulp and paper industry. Southern Economic Journal 6(4):440-448. Discusses the development of mills, the processes by which pulp was manufactured, and kraft industry growth, export, and domestic market trends. Includes USFS acreage data from the southern pine survey. Promotes the southern wood pulp industry and forest resources at the time of publication as a means of diversifying agriculturalproduction and the regional economy.

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61. Howard, John C. 1970. The Negro in the lumber industry. In:
H. R. Northrup, R. L. Rowan, D. T. Barnum, and J. C. Howard

(eds.), Negro Employment in Southern Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Five Industries, Studies of Negro Employment No. IV, pp. 195 (Part Two). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Wharton School of Finance and Commerce. Tables, graphs. Provides a broad and thorough analysis and overview of the

lumber and wood products industry, including industry characteristics, location, and labor force to 1960. Discusses impacts of unionism in the industry before 1960, civil rights and full employment after 1960, problems of equal opportunity, and determinants of industry policy. Presents occupational descriptions and statistical tables in appendices.
62. Humphrey, Craig R. 1990. Timber-dependent communities. In: A. E. Luloff and L. E. Swanson (eds.), American Rural Communities, pp. 34-60. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Discusses conditions in small timber-dependent communities in the U.S., stressing the role of the forest products industry and characteristicsof the industry affecting those communities. Takes the position that increasingly rationalized and efficient production processes present workers, their families, and communities with an increasingly stressful and uncertain existence. Reviews definitions of timber-dependency and touches on community social structure. Discusses trends in timber supply and their significance for these communities, organization of the forest products industry, regulation of public forest lands, and the future of timberdependent communities.
63. Humphrey, Craig R., and Kenneth P. Wilkinson. 1993. Growth promotion activities in rural areas: do they make a difference? Rural Sociology 58(2):175-189. Tables.

Analyzes data on forested Pennsylvania counties to determine the association between community efforts and actual economic growth. Considers ecological and structural factors, efforts to obtain development support and investment, and growth-promoting efforts of local leaders. Results suggest that

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

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local growth promotion activities can positively influence growth under certain conditions.
64. Hutchins, Cecil C., Jr. 1989. Southern Pulpwood Production, 1987. Resource Bulletin No. SE-106. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 28 p. Tables, maps.

Reports production by cords and residues, state, species group, territory, and county. Lists location, process, and capacity of pulp mills using southern wood.
65. Hyde, William F. 1991/92. Social forestry: a working definition and 21 testable hypotheses. Journal of Business Administration 20 (Emerging Issues in Forest Policy) (1&2) :430-452.

Discusses hypotheses pertaining to a wide range of regional and conceptual problems in social forestry. Maintains that knowledge about the social impact of forestry is essential to understanding forestry's role in rural development and community welfare. Encourages rigorous analysis of evidence to build and strengthen the discipline.
66. Irland, Lloyd C., ed. 1975. Manpower- Forest Industry's Key

Resource. Papers Presented at the 39th Industrial Forestry Seminar, May
20-24, 1974. Bulletin No. 86. New Haven: Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. 242 p. Tables, illustrations, bibliographies.

Contains articles on labor problems in the industry during the early 1970s. Articles on labor supply focus specifically on the issues of shortages. Articles on management deal with a variety of topics including productivity, safety, organization, and training. Orientation is toward management of workers as a factor of production.
67. James, Lee M. 1946. Restrictive agreements and practices in the lumber industry, 1880-1939. Southern Economic Journal 13 (2) (October) :115-125.

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Reviews the development of the lumber industry in the late 19th century and industry attempts to control competition. Includes the effects of world war, Depression, and Federal Trade Commission on industry associations and their activities manipulating production and prices. Focuses on different geographicalregions of the U.S. till the beginning of the second world war and concludes that the industry is complying adequately with antitrust legislation.
68. Jensen, Vernon H. 1945. Lumber and Labor. Labor in Twentieth Century America Series. New York: Arno Press. 314 p. Bibliographical notes.

Provides a good overview of conditions and issues in the U.S. timber industry from the late 1800s to the late 1930s. Deals with employment in the southern pine industry in Chapter 5. Stresses the role of land acquisition in development of lumbering in the South. Covers mill establishment, mechanization, and wood procurement methods. Compares production and labor force data from selected southern states. Presentsdata on living and working conditions in a company town. Discusses earnings, medical care, labor relations, employer associations, and labor conflicts in the early part of the century. (Reprinted in 1971 by Farrar and Rinehart, New York.).
69. Johnston, Ray R. 1991. Felling the timber risk. Best's Review

(Property/CasualtyInsurance Edition) 91:40-42. Describes the nature of insurance risks in Alabama's timber industry. Discusses primarily dangers of the logging process.
70. Kaufman, Harold F. 1953. Sociology of forestry. In: W. A. Duerr and H. J. Vaux (eds.), Research in the Economics of Forestry, pp. 113-119. Washington, DC: Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Foundation. Defines sociology of forestry as it relates to economics but promotes it as a field in itself. Outlines areas of forestry in which

sociological analysis can make a contribution, including community stability, social history of forests, policy, population and resource issues, conservation, education and forestry public relations. Describes a sociological study to illustrate points.

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71. Kaufman, Harold E, and Lois C. Kaufman. 1990. Toward the stabilization and enrichment of a forest community: the Montana Study. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch Jr. (eds.),

Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology of Natural
Resources, pp. 27-39. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. A much-condensed version of the first empirical sociological study of forest-dependent communities, reported originally in

1946. Based on participantobservation and recordings from two Montana communities, presents an exchange of letters which hint at constraints on community research. Suggests possible approaches and potential problems regardingachieving stability in the communities.
72. Kromm, David E. 1972. Limitations on the role of forestry in

regional economic development. Journal of Forestry 70:630-633.

Proposes that advantages of forest industries for local communities are limited and fewer than previously expected. Suggests reasons why stabilization of forest use results in minimal regional development. Briefly explains factors generating this minimal impact, including lack of competition in employment, few multiplier linkages in local purchases and marketing, weak infrastructure development, and questionable economic stability.
73. Kusel, Jonathan. 1991. It's Just Like Baseball: A Study of Forest Community Well-Being. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California, Berkeley.

Evaluates well-being in three forest communities in California. Examines structure and events in the timber industry, the environmental movement, and nationalforest management in those communities and sheds light on the roles these elements have played in community cohesion and well-being. [Also appears as Study 3 (Volume 2) of Well-Being in Forest-Dependent Communities edited by Fortmann and Kusel (1991).]
74. Lieser, David. 1988. Dealer/direct purchase/mixed procurement: advantages and disadvantages. In: Forest Products Research

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Society (ed.), Current Challenges to Traditional Wood Procurement Practices, pp. 64-66. Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society.

Describes some of the changes the dealer system has undergone with increasing competitiveness in the wood procurement system.
75. Machlis, Gary E., and Jo Ellen Force. 1990. Community stability and timber-dependent communities: future research. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry:

Continuities in the Sociology of Natural Resources, pp. 259-276.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Reviews the research and identifies issues in the literature, such as the definition of community, theory pertainingto community stability, the dominance of economic measures of stability and resource-dependence. Summarizes theoretical possibilities and methodological problems related to the research. Suggests directions for future research. [Appears also in Rural Sociology 53 (2) as "Community stability and timber-dependent communities," by Machlis and Force, pp. 220-234. ]
76. Machlis, Gary E., Jo Ellen Force, and Randy Guy Balice. 1990. Timber, minerals, and social change: an exploratory test of two resource-dependent communities. Rural Sociology 55 (3):411-424.

Reports results of research on two communities in northern Idaho: one timber-dependent, the other mining-dependent. Demonstrates support for the hypothesis of a positive relationship between local resource production and social change in both communities. Finds, however, that the strength of the relationship, its form, and the amount of time before change became evident varies with the indicator and that the relationships are complex.
77. MacKaye, Benton. 1918. Some social aspects of forest management. Journal of Forestry 16:210-214. Discusses the problems of forest workers and reasons for their

discontent. Attributes the lack of advance in coping with their problems to the attitude among foresters emphasizing mining as opposed to cropping of timber resources. Calls for a deliberate policy goal of working toward stable employment and community life.

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78. MacMillan Bloedel Inc. 1969. Perpetual Harvest. Pine Hill, AL: MacMillan Bloedel Inc., Woodlands Division. Photos.

A newsletter series published since 1969 which covers events and activities of employees, management, and individuals and organizations in the community related to topics such as forestry, mill and employee performance, training, recreation, and special accomplishments. Includes articles dealing with industry and community issues such as education, environment, research, and development. Generally a vehicle for corporate public communication and relations. 79. Main, Alden C. 1971. The Impact of Forestry and Forest-related Industries on a Local Economy: Baldwin County, AL. M.S. Thesis. Auburn University (Alabama). 279 p. Tables, bibliography. Demonstrates the role of the forestry sector in rural county growth by means of an economic input-output analysis of 1968 data from Baldwin County, Alabama. Obtains multipliers by examining impacts on the county and the interrelationship between forestry and forest-related activities. Concludes forestry was a majorfactor in the atypical expansion of Baldwin County's economy, which included also recreation, government contributions, agriculture, and fisheries. 80. Maki, Wilbur R., Con H. Schallau, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1988. Florida's Forest Products Industry: Performance and Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No. PNW-RP-397. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Reports results of a study of the changing role of the forest products industry in Floridabetween 1970 and 1980. Briefly describes the composition, location, and evolution of the industry in relation to economic activity elsewhere in the state, the south, and the US. 81. Maki, Wilbur R., Con H. Schallau, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1987. Tennessee's Forest Products Industry: Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No.

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PNW-RP-386. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps.

Reports results of a study of the changing role of the forest products industry in Tennessee between 1970 and 1980. Briefly describes the state's industry, its components, locations, evolution, and relationship to other economic activity in the state, the South, and the U.S. Finds an increase in the industry's competitive position and value. 82. Maki, Wilbur R., Con H. Schallau, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1986a. Alabama's Forest Products Industry: Performance and Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No. PNW-361. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Reports results of a study of the changing role of the forest products industry in Alabama between 1970 and 1980. Briefly describes Alabama's industry, its components, locations, evolution, and relationship to other economic activity in the state, the South, and the U.S. Finds significant growth in the 1970s because of increases in the size and amount of timber, capital investment, and growing demand. Provides additional data, including annual earnings of workers, value added, productivity, employment. 83. Maki, Wilbur R., Con H. Schallau, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1986b. Louisiana's Forest Products Industry: Contributionto the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No. PNW-RP-371. Portland, OR: U.S.D.A., Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Reports results of a study of the changing role of the forest products industry in Louisiana between 1970 and 1980. Briefly describes Louisiana's industry, its components, locations, evolution, and relationship to other economic activity in the state, the South, and the U.S. Finds a decrease in employment reflecting increased technology; closure of old, more labor-intensive sawmills; and a shakeout in the southern pine plywood industry.

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84. Maki, Wilbur R., Con H. Schallau, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair

H. Redmond. 1986c. South Carolina's Forest Products Industry:
Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No. PNW-351. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps.

Briefly describes the components, location, and evolution of South Carolina'sforest products industry over the period 19701980. Relates findings to other economic activity in the state,the South, and the U.S. Finds significant growth in employment and earnings during the 1970s and a larger share of the nation's forest products employment and earnings. 85. Maki, Wilbur R., Con H. Schallau, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1985. Georgia's Forest Products Industry: Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No. PNW-332. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Reports results of a study of the forest products industry in Georgia between 1970 and 1980. Briefly describes the composition, location, and evolution of the industry and compares those characteristics to economic activity elsewhere in the state, the South, and the U.S. Found significant growth in the industry, though no change in its share of Georgia's economic base. 86. Marchak, Patricia. 1990. Forest industry towns in British Columbia. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology of Natural Resources, pp. 94-106. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Tables, bibliography. Discusses the "boom and bust" experience of many B.C. single-industry towns. Illustrates the diverse nature of timber-dependent towns by describing three studies which conclude varying reasons for economic instability. Describes community-extended proposals for local control. Suggests planned use of the resource in order to maintain some stability in forest-dependent communities, even though planning is difficult with changing global markets and technologies. Concludes that such communities need to diversify their economic bases.

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87. Marchak, Patricia. 1983. Green Gold: The Forest Industry of British Columbia. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. 454 p. Tables, figures, maps, bibliography.

A comprehensive and thorough exploration of forest-dependent economies in British Columbia. Discusses the nature and weakness of a resource economy and the history and structure of the B.C. forest industry. Reviews forest legislation and reactions to it. Presents a study of forest workers and discusses findings in light of human capital theory. Examines relationships between employment, markets, and technology and explores the situation of women in forest-dependent towns. Compares two different types of industry towns. Using statisticaland interview data and theoretical discussions, illustrates the roles played by capital and government in the vulnerability of forest resource economies.
88. Massey, Richard W., Jr. 1960. A History of the Lumber Industry

in Alabama and West Florida, 1880-1914. Ph.D. Thesis. Vanderbilt
University (Nashville, TN). 230 p.

Uses oral histories and other sources to trace the lumber industry from the end of Reconstruction to the beginning of World War I. Covers western, central, and southern Alabama and western Florida. Maintains that the abundance of available land and labor after the Civil War contributed to the emphasis on extractive activities in the South, wasteful practices, outside exploitation, and rampant laissez-faire capitalism. Covers the western, central, and southern part of Alabama. Discusses geography and forest ecology, land acquisition and tenure, timber-stealing, logging and lumber manufacturing operations and technology, railroads, labor issues, and industry structure and business methods.
89. Maunder, Elwood R. 1977. Voices from the South: Recollections of Four Foresters. Santa Cruz, CA: Forest History Society, Inc. 252 p.

Presents interviews with I.F. Eldredge, E.L. Demmon, W.J. Damtoft, and C.H. Coulter, four foresters involved with the establishment and early accomplishments of forestry in the South.

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Provides a picture of forestry history through the interviewees' individual careers, their personal experiences and perceptions of forestry management as well as the actual events and issues in forestry history. Conducted by the compiler in 1958-1959. 90. Maunder, Elwood R., comp. 1977. James Greeley McGowin, South Alabama Lumberman: The Recollections of his Family. Santa Cruz, CA: Forest History Society. 135 p. Based on interviews with family members, depicts McGowin family life and history. Describes the family, owners of Smith Lumber Company of Chapman, Ala., as major actors in the history of lumbering and, more recently, in sustained-yield management of forest land. Includes some correspondence. Describes the family's relationship to people in the small mill town of Chapman, and mores, social customs, lifestyle, and attitudes in the town from the early 20th century to the 1970s. Conducted by Maunder with written recollection by Estelle McGowin Larson. 91. Maxwell, Robert S. 1982. The first big mill: the beginnings of commercial lumbering in Texas. Southwestern Historical Quarterly 86 (1) (July):1-30. Reviews the development of the sawmill industry in East Texas since the early 1800s. Describes technological advances in the mills as well as individuals who were key actors. Focuses particularly on Lutcher and Moore, two businessmen who came to the area to invest in lumber, and their experiences establishingthe Lutcher and Moore Lumber Company. 92. Maxwell, Robert S. 1973. The impact of forestry on the Gulf South. Forest History 17 (1) (April):30-35. Photos. Briefly traces the southward move of lumber companies and development of forestry activities in the late 1800s. Describes how uncontrolled harvesting and recognition of the need to conserve led to conservation-orientedlegislation. Covers dates and names of actors who played a role in these events, including individuals, the Forest Service, and the government. Oriented more toward conservation impact than economic impact of forestry.

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93. Maxwell, Robert S., and Robert D. Baker. 1983. Sawdust Empire: The Texas Lumber Industry, 1830-1940. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. 228 p. Photos. Describes development of the industry from activities of the first white settlers to the start of World War II. Based on information from company records; interviews with owners, loggers, and foresters; and secondary literature. Describes technological developments, economic and social arrangements, and the beginnings of conservation. 94. McArdle, Richard E. 1956. Seventy-five years in southern forestry. Southern Lumberman 193(Christmas Issue) (December 15):119-121. Written like a personal message or speech, presents a brief historical snapshot of forest use in the South from the late 1880s to the 1950s. Reviews the development of forestry, pulp mills, and research. Stresses the importance of the small forest landowner to the future of the industry. Expresses optimistic expectations for southern forest industries. 95. McRae, J. Finley. 1956. PaperMaking in Alabama. New York: The Newcomen Society in North America. Princeton University Press. 32 p. A loosely organized review of the history of pulp and paper industry presence and impact in Alabama. Describes the origins of papermaking and papermaking technology in general. Illustrates the economic significance of the state's forests and wood products industries with occasional descriptive statistics. Celebrates the state's and the industry's accomplishments. 96. McWilliams, William H. 1992. Forest Resources of Alabama. Resource Bulletin No. SO-170. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.
71 p. Tables, graphs, maps, photos, bibliography.

Reports results of an inventory of Alabama's forests. Provides forest data such as area and type, land use, ownership, species distribution, volumes, inventory changes, and timber products

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output. Covers the study methodology, reliability, definitions, species lists, and additionaldata in an appendix. 97. McWilliams, William H., K. L. Duncan, and John S. Vissage. 1990. Forest Statistics for North Alabama Counties - 1990. Resource Bulletin No. SO-149. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 30 p. Tables, graphs. Reports net growth and removals, land areas and timber volumes, by county, type of forest, species, etc. Compares data from 1982, 1990, and occasionally goes back to 1972. Describes methodology and presents conclusions summarizing changes and trends. Suggests needed steps to maintain and improve timber supply. 98. McWilliams, William H., Patrick E. Miller, and John S. Vissage. 1990a. Forest Statistics for North-Central Alabama Counties 1990. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 31 p. Illustrations, map. Reports results of forest inventory, including net growth and removals, land areas and timber volumes, by county, type of forest, species, etc. Compares data from 1982, 1990, and occasionally 1972. Describes methodology and presents conclusions summarizing changes and trends. Suggests needed steps to maintain and improve timber supply. 99. McWilliams, William H., Patrick E. Miller, and John S. Vissage. 1990b. Forest Statisticsfor Southeast Alabama Counties - 1990. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 34 p. Tables, graphs. Reports results of a timber inventory, including net growth and removals, timber volumes, and land areas. Describes methods and presents conclusions regardingthe outlook. Data are from 1972, 1982, and 1990. 100. McWilliams, William H., Patrick E. Miller, and John S. Vissage. 1990c. ForestStatistics for Southwest-North Alabama Counties

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- 1990. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 30 p. Tables, graphs. Reports results of an inventory of land areas and timber vol-

umes by county, species, type of forest, among other variables. Concludes that this is the state's main timber-producing region and describes ratios of removals vs. growth. Summarizes trends and changes and suggests actions to enhance supply.
101. McWilliams, William H., Patrick E. Miller, and John S.

Vissage. 1990d. Forest Statisticsfor Southwest-South Alabama Counties
- 1990. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 30 p. Tables, graphs.

Reports results of inventory of land areas, timber volumes, growth and removals. Concludes timberland area has reduced, growth-removal ratio has improved, management is more intense, and hardwood removals have increased. Compares data from 1982, 1990, and some from 1972. Suggests actions to enhance the resource base.
102. Moyers, David M. 1989. Trouble in a company town: the Crossett strike of 1940. Arkansas HistoricalQuarterly 48 (Spring): 34-57. Tells the story of the conflict between Crossett Lumber

Company and members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners Local, which resulted in a strike in 1940 that divided the community and almost paralyzed the local economy. Describes the events, leaders, and tactics of the strike, and the roles of key players.
103. Nord, Mark. 1994. Natural resources and persistent rural poverty: in search of the nexus. Society and Natural Resources 7(3):205-220.

In the context of various natural resources including forests, identifies and discusses five different types of resource use, different opportunities created by each, and their differential effects on the poor and nonpoor. Suggests that the primary mechanisms linking natural resources and rural poverty are (1) the spatially

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

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uneven distribution of income positions due to occupational and ownership structures of the industries and (2) the attractiveness to the poor of subsistence and quasi-subsistenceresources. Discusses policy implications. 104. Northrup, Herbert R. 1970. The Negro in the paper industry. In: H. R. Northrup, R. L. Rowan, D. T. Barnum, and J. C. Howard (eds.), Negro Employment in Southern Industry: A Study of Racial Policies in Five Industries, Studies of Negro Employment No. IV, pp. 1-232 (Part One). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce. Tables. Describes the structure and technology of the southern pulp and paper industry until 1970. Reviews historicalcircumstances, events, and issues pertinent to African-American workers from the early days of the industry to the beginning of affirmative action. Presents extensive data on industry structure and characteristics. Includes appendices with statistical tables and three 1968 and 1969 court decisions on discriminatory practices in corporations and unions. 105. Northrup, Herbert R. 1969. The Negro in the Paper Industry. The Racial Policies of American Industry No. 9. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. 233 p. Tables. Describes the structure and technology of the southern pulp and paper industry before 1970. Reviews historical circumstances, events, and issues pertinent to African-American workers from early days of the industry to the beginning of affirmative action. Presents extensive data on industry structure and characteristics. 106. Oden, Jack P. 1977. Origins of the southern kraft paper industry, 1903-1930. Mississippi Quarterly 30(4) (Fall):565-584. Using information primarily from industry publications, describes the uses of southern pine and the evolution of the pulp and paper industry. Describes the development of pulping technology, establishment and expansion of southern mills, individuals and firms which were key players in these processes. Explains

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industry development in terms of changes in demand and supply primarily through collected facts. 107. Oden, Jack P. 1973. Development of the Southern Pulp and Paper Industry, 1900-1970. Ph.D. Dissertation. Mississippi State University (Mississippi State, MS). 652 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Presents an extensive and intensive history of the southern pulp and paper industry till 1970. Contains an abundance of factual information from numerous sources, primarily industry publications. Follows the ups and downs of the industry by chronicling the establishment, expansion, modernization, and production of virtually all southern mills operating before 1969. Describes the evolution of pulp and paper technology and mill equipment in detail. Mentions individuals who were instrumental in these events and processes. Describes wood procurement and production processes and labor-management relations. Discusses personnel, environmental, and forest conservation issues. 108. O'Leary, Joseph T., and Robert G. Lee. 1982. Forestry. In: D. A. Dillman and D. J. Hobbs (eds.), Rural Society in the U.S.: Issues for the 1980s, pp. 389-394. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Discusses the place of forestry in rural sociology issues. Suggests topics for researchsuch as community dependency, conflict management, administrative behavior, technology transfer, and energy resources, are social issues which apply to forestry. 109. Overdevest, Christine. 1992. Forest dependency and community well-being. M.A. Thesis. University of Georgia (Athens). 48 p. Bibliography. Tests for a relationship between forest dependency and economic well-being in rural Georgia counties. Finds that forest dependency is multidimensional. Using economic segmentation as a theoretical base, identifies distinct effects of core dependency and timberland dependencies. Demonstrates that core dependency brings generally greater benefits to county economies, while peripheral industry shows no discernible relationship to county

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

39

well-being. Finds an association between lower well-being and timberland concentration, particularlyunder farmer ownership.
110. Overdevest, Christine, and Donald B. K. English. 1994. Understanding people and natural resource relationships: Ouachita National Forest timber purchasers and changing timber harvest policy. In: Southern Forest Experiment Station (ed.), Ecosystem

Management Research in the Ouachita Mountains: Pretreatment
Conditions and Preliminary Findings, General Technical Report No. SO-112, pp. 241-252. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Figures, tables.

Explores perceived effects on woods workers of changes in timber harvest policies in Ouachita National Forest. Describes policy changes. Summarizes and discusses results of interviews with timber purchasers, building upon earlier studies of policy change and technology impacts on producer and local community welfare. Timber purchasers include product mills, timber brokers, and loggers. Illustrates and discusses common and contrastingvalues, experiences, and perceptions of timber policy impact.
111. Overdevest, Christine, and Gary P. Green. 1995. Forest dependence and community well-being: A segmented market approach. Society and Natural Resources 8(2):,111-131.

Examines the relationships between forest dependence and community well-being in rural Georgia as indicated by county per capita income and poverty. Demonstrates a positive relationship between income and core industries (pulp and paper) but no significant relationship with peripheral industries. Discusses economic segmentation and uneven development theories and addresses methodological problems. Concludes that forest dependence is multidimensional and that types of forest-related employment and timberland concentrationare important factors in economic returns.
112. Peterson, Keith. 1987. Company Town: Potlatch, Idaho, and the Potlatch Lumber Company. Pullman, WA: Washington State University Press. 284 p. Photos, maps, bibliographical notes.

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Traces the evolution of Potlatch from its early years as a booming sawmill town in the early 1900s to the company town's sale and incorporation in the 1950s. Describes the lives of residents, both leaders and workers, and the effect of the industry on surrounding communities and agricultural activities. Focuses especially on the establishment, workings, and influence of Weyerhaeuser and other timber companies. 113. Pikl, I. James, Jr. 1960. The southern woods-labor "shortage" of 1955. Southern Economic Journal 27 (1)(July) :43-50. Explains the growth of the pulpwood industry in the South. Argues that dwindling inventories of southern pine pulpwood are due less to declines in the farm labor population than to the greater pulping capacity of new southern mills. Points out that expanded capacity of existing mills only adds to the apparent increased need for wood. Procurement methods and competitive conditions contribute.
114. Rosson, James E,Jr., and Larry Doolittle. 1987. Profiles of Midsouth Non-IndustrialPrivate Forests and Owners. Resource Bulletin

No. SO-125. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 39 p. Tables, graphs, map, bibliography. Analyzes demographic characteristics of non-industrial private forest lands and owners. Compares data with other ownership classes. Finds diversity among NIPF lands and lack of intensive forest management practices. Suggests ways to improve management for timber production and outlines implications of changes in tax law. 115. Salazar, Debra J. 1990. Counties, states, and regulation of forest practices on private lands. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology of Natural Resources, pp. 241-255. Boulder, CO: Westview
Press.

Describes recent developments in regulation of forest practices in several regions of California and Oregon. Provides a con-

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

41

ceptual framework which links community profile, patterns of politicalparticipation, and the nature of local regulations.
116. Salazar, Debra

J., Con H. Schallau, and Robert G. Lee.

1986. The Growing Importance of Retirement Income in Timber-dependent Areas. Research Paper No. PNW-359. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 10 p. Tables, bibliography. Examines five timber-dependent counties in the Pacific Northwest. Compares demographic and economic data from the 1970s on inmigrationof older people and changes in the economic base. Finds that retirement is a major economic sector in three of the counties. Describes implications for forest resource management and land use in these counties. 117. Schallau, Con H. 1990. Community stability: issues, institutions, and instruments. In: R. G. Lee, D. R. Field, and W. R. Burch Jr. (eds.), Community and Forestry: Continuities in the Sociology of Natural Resources, pp. 69-82. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Bibliography. Discusses the concepts of community stability and sustained yield. Reviews the evolution of government responsibilityfor community stability in forest management and argues for the contribution of social scientists in determining definitions and theoretical issues. Questions a direct relationship between stability and sustained yield, since timber dependencies vary. Encourages customized management based on dependency and economic diversity. Reviews stages of growth theory and models for evaluating economic importance. 118. Schallau, Con H. 1980. Stages of Growth Theory and Money Flows from Commercial Banks in Timber-Dependent Communities.
Research Paper No. PNW-279. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 16 p. Tables, graphs, maps, bibliography.

Concerned with the issue of community stability, examines
the flow of funds from commercial banks for possible appropriate

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responses to expected timber shortfalls in forest-dependent communities. Suggests, on the basis of stages-of-growth theory, that certain areas in which residents have access to a protracted outflow of bank funds will have advanced to a more mature state of development than others in which they have not. Concludes that forest management policies suitable for these areas may not be appropriatefor the areas without such access. 119. Schallau, Con H., and Wilbur R. Maki. 1986. Economic impacts of interregionalcompetition in the forest products industry during the 1970s: The South and Pacific Northwest. Research Paper No. PNW-350. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 44 p. Tables, graphs, maps, bibliography. Compares the role of the timber industry in the economies of the Pacific Northwest and the South. Shows changes in industry role and performance. Compares datafrom the Pacific Northwest with changes in the southern forest products economy and U.S. industry data with its counterpartin Canada. Makes projections for the future and suggestions for forest management policy changes to help Pacific Northwest communities remain competitive in changing economic conditions. 120. Schallau, Con H., Wilbur R. Maki, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1988. Mississippi's Forest Products Industry: Performance and Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970-1980. Research Paper No. PNW-RP-398. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Describes the forest products industry and its evolution in Mississippi. Compares it to other economic activity in the state, the South, and the U.S. Finds that the industry grew in importance, while agriculture diminished. 121. Schallau, Con H., Wilbur R. Maki, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1987. Arkansas' Forest Products Industry: Performance and Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

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Research Paper No. PNW-RP-380. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Reports results of a study of the components, location, and evolution of Arkansas' forest products industry from 1970 to 1980. Relates findings to other economic activity in Arkansas, the South, and the U.S. Finds that forest products are the second largest sector of the state's economy, which is the most timberdependent in the South. 122. Schallau, Con H., Wilbur R. Maki, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1986a. Kentucky's Forest Products Industry: Performance and Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No. PNW-354. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Briefly describes the components, location, and evolution of Kentucky's forest products industry over the period 1970-1980. Relates findings to other economic activity in the state, the South, and the U.S. Found significant growth in employment and earnings during the 1970s and a larger share of the nation's forest products employment and earnings than in 1970. 123. Schallau, Con H., Wilbur R. Maki, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1986b. Virginia's Forest Products Industry: Performance and Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980. Research Paper No. PNW-368. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Reports results of a study of the components, location, and evolution of Virginia's forest products industry from 1970 to 1980. Relates findings to other economic activity in the state, the South, and the U.S. Finds that forest products comprise the second largest sector of the state's economy. 124. Schallau, Con H., Wilbur R. Maki, Bennett B. Foster, and Clair H. Redmond. 1985. North Carolina's Forest Products Industry:

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Performance and Contribution to the State's Economy, 1970 to 1980.
Research Paper No. PNW-343. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 22 p. Tables, graphs, maps. Briefly describes the components, location, and evolution of

North Carolina's forest products industry from 1970-1980. Relates findings to other economic activity in the state, the South, and the U.S. Finds significant growth in the industry during the 1970s.
125. Schallau, Con H., and Paul E. Polzin. 1983. Considering

Departuresfrom Current Timber Harvest Policies: Case Studies of Four
Economies in the Pacific Northwest. Research Paper No. PNW-306. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. Tables, graphs.

Provides a procedure which can be used to examine particular policies and evaluate past performance and likely trends for the future economy of small communities. Analyzes the relevance of possible changes in timber harvesting schedules as well as future economic measures.
126. Shell, Dan. 1989. 101 years and growing - Alabama's Scotch Lumber Company. Alabama Forests 33(4) (July/Aug):8-13.

Sketches the mill's history from its beginnings in 1888 to the 1980s. Describes the various owners, tracing acquisition of land and lumber, construction of mill town and railroads, and development of technologies. Describes mill operations from the logging crews through the production process, primarily in terms of technologies and equipment used.
127. Shofner, Jerrell H. 1975. Negro laborers and the forest industries in reconstruction Florida. Journal of Forest History (19, Suppl. 4) (October) :180-191. Photos.

Traces the history of African-American workers in the burgeoning lumber and turpentine industries of late 19th century Florida. Describes their jobs, relationships to white workers and

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

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employers, abuses, organization, and strikes. Emphasizes the uniqueness of the historical context and of the role played by African-American wage labor in forest work at the time. Includes discussion of the economic climate, shifts, and adjustments made, and of the role of forestry in historicaldevelopments.
128. Smith, Kenneth E. 1982. Another view of the South as a future timber source. Forest Industries 109(9) (August):20-21.

Briefly summarizes an interview with William Sizemore, forestry professor at Duke University, which appeared in Pulp and Paper in June of 1982. Deals with the problem of stimulating reforestation on NIPF lands. Discusses some of the obstacles private landowners face when consideringplanting trees and some possibilities for motivating replanting. Comments on the state of research and programs to encourage and improve effectiveness of reforestation activities. 129. Stauffer, J. M. 1961. The Timber Resource of the Southwest
Alabama Forest Empire. Montgomery, AL: State of Alabama, Department of Conservation, Division of Forestry. 36 p. Tables, maps.

Reviews 1950s forest survey data on land area and growing stock, by type. Includes some comparison with data from the 1930s and 1940s and with state-wide data. Gives historical descriptions of the timber and of naval stores production, going back as far as William Bartram in the 1770s.
130. Stevens, Joe B. 1979. Six views about wood products labor force, most of which may be wrong. Journal of Forestry 77 (11) (November):717-720. Table, figure, bibliography.

Discusses problems for the labor force expected with a decline in timber supply. Contradicts views commonly held at the time about the adaptability of mill workers and loggers, specifically the shortage of skilled labor, unemployment, non-adaptable skills, worker age and employability, turnover, and economic order. Concludes that the Oregon wood products labor force is healthier and stronger than many suspect.

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131. Thomas, Charles E. 1986. Jelly Roll: A Black Neighborhood in a Southern Mill Town. Little Rock, AR: Rose Publishing Company. 157 p. Results of a three-year-long study involving interviews of three-quarters of the African-American households in a small sawmill town in Arkansas. Describes how the people of three generations live and think, using oral history and other sources to weave together a portrait of the community and of selected individuals. Explores the theme of conflict between tradition and change as it occurred in the lives of the town's residents. 132. Todes, Charlotte. 1975. Labor and Lumber. New York: Arno Press. 208 p. Bibliographical notes. Discusses economics of the timber industry, including land acquisition, economic trends, mill establishment, profits of large companies, employment, and living conditions of workers. Reviews effects of conditions during the Depression, company control of workers, and union organization in the industry. (Originally published in 1931 as part of the Labor and Industry Series, American Farmers and the Rise of Agribusiness, by InternationalPublishers, New York.). 133. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1986. Technology and its Impact on Labor in Four Industries: Lumber and Wood Products, Footwear, Hydraulic Cement, Wholesale Trades. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 47 p. Tables, graphs, photo. Composes part of a series of Bureau of Labor Statistics reports on productivity and technological developments. Describes technological changes in different sectors of the forest industries in Chapter 1, including logging, sawmills, veneer and plywood mills, kitchen cabinets, and millwork. Finds reduced labor requirements, but little change in output. 134. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1983. Forest Statistics for North Central Alabama Counties - 1983. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 15 p. Tables, map.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

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Reports commercial forest inventory statistics such as acreage, timber volumes, by ownership, forest type, species groups. Displays some data by county.
135. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1988. The South's Fourth Forest: Alternatives for the Future. Forest Resource Report No. 24. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 512 p. Tables, graphs, maps, photos, bibliographies.

Discusses southern forest resources, the industry, and implications for the future. Divided into five parts. Covers economic significance of forests for the South, including descriptions of forests, ownership, volume, and contribution to the economy in Part 1. In Part 2, presents a history of uses of southern forests up to the present, including the development of forest industries, conservation programs, research, forestry education, technical assistance, tax laws, and public lands management. Projects timber resources for the future in Part 3. In Part 4, discusses implications of these projections for various forest issues such as prices, conservation, employment and earnings, forest management, capital investment, the environment. Discusses the possibilitiesfor intensifying forest management in the last section. Includes appendices with supporting statistical tables and a glossary of terms.
136. Vissage, John S., and Patrick E. Miller. 1991. Forest Statistics for Alabama Counties - 1990. Resource Bulletin No. SO-158. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 67 p. Tables, maps.

Reports compiled results of state-wide forest inventories, including timber volumes, forest land areas, growth, removals. Data are from 1982, 1990, and occasionally from 1972. Describes methodology and presents conclusions regarding changes and trends, suggesting steps to maintain and improve supplies.
137. Walker, Larry S. 1988. Wood source considerations in a competitive environment. In: Forest Products Research Society

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(ed.), Current Challenges to Traditional Wood Procurement Practices. Proceedings of a conference sponsored by the Forest Products Research Society with the cooperation of the Society of American Foresters in Atlanta, GA, September 20-30, 1987, pp. 71-72. Madison, WI: Forest
Products Research Society.

Briefly describes the wood supply system in terms of the relationship between timber buyers, sellers and agents. Calls for greater reliability and cooperation. Discusses human capital investment in woods workers and suggests educating toward greater cooperation will add value to the system.
138. Walker, Laurence C. 1991. The Southern Forest: A Chronicle. Austin: University of Texas Press. 322 p. Photos, maps, bibliographical notes.

Presents a generally organized history of southern forests, often communicating experiences, impressions, and points of view in the first-person. Illustrates forest knowledge and attitudes of early explorers and pioneers and their use of forests with excerpts from their writings. Describes the evolution of small-scale and industrial lumbering in the South, logging and milling technologies, and government legislation and measures affecting forest use. Discusses the rise of forest conservationand forestry practices and ends with a description of current conflicts and issues facing forest management. Lists individuals who played significant roles in forest and conservationhistory and scientific names of trees and plants in appendices.
139. Walker, Laurence C. 1975. Axes, Oxen, and Men: A Pictorial

History of the Southern Pine Lumber Company. Diboll, TX: The
Angelina Free Press, Inc. 73 p. Full-page photos.

Focuses on the founder of the Southern Pine Lumber Company, established in Texas in the late 1800s. Describes his character and actions getting the company started and acquiring land. Includes a description of the people living and working in company logging camps and towns, their social organization, and the role of the company in managing order. Describes the tools and equipment used and construction of railways increasing access to woods and markets.

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast
140. Watson, W. F., G. A. Day, Jim Altman, T.

49

J. Straka, D. W Domenech, and R. K. Matthes. 1989. 1987 pulpwood logging contractor survey. Southwest and Southeast Technical Divisions, American Pulpwood Association. Technical Bulletin No. 162. Mississippi State, MS: Mississippi State University, Mississippi Agriculture and Forestry Experiment Station. 16 p. Tables, graphs. Profiles characteristics of the pulpwood-producing force. Reviews equipment changes and finds an increase in mechanized operations and productive capacity compared to previous surveys, with 80% more employees producing 200% more wood. Finds also demographic changes such as higher average age and educational level. 141. Waugh, Jack. 1991. Lumbering before Pinchot: The short, loud death of Canaan Valley. American Heritage 42(1) (Feb/Mar) :93-96. Describes the 40-year boom in lumbering which wiped out the forests of CanaanValley and surroundingareas in West Virginia late in the 19th and early in the 20th centuries. Introduces the people who initiated the process and describes the residents of the lumber camps and what their lives were like. 142. Wear, David N., and William F.Hyde. 1991/92. Distributive issues in forest policy. Journalof Business Administration 20 (Emerging issues in forest policy) (1&2) :297-314. Identifies critical issues faced by public forestry in regard to its role in distribution and rural development. Defines areas in which researchis needed to address these issues. Calls for a shift of focus away from the effects of forest management activities on community stability to their effects on regional labor markets. 143. Weber, Bruce A., Emery N. Castle, and Ann L. Shriver. 1988. Performance of natural resource industries. In: D. Brown, N. Reid, H. Bluestone, et al. (eds.), Rural Economic Development in the 1980s: Prospects for the Future, Rural Development Research Report No. 69, pp. 103-133. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Tables, graphs, maps.

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Examines the relative contributionof naturalresource industries to the economy, including forestry and wood products. Discusses major influences on the industries, such as the global economy, resource and environmental policies, and industry structure. Explores issues such as stability, growth, and unemployment, that have implications for rural counties. Compares metro and nonmetro county statistics. 144. Williamson, David H. 1977. Some effects of social and economic changes on Gyppo loggers. Anthropological Quarterly 50(1 )(January):3 1-38. A sociological study of Northwest gyppo loggers, independent, self-employed loggers who receive pay on a fixed price, piece-work basis. From data gathered in fieldwork with gyppos and their families, describes characteristicsof their work patterns and effects of changes in the larger society on these and other sociocultural patterns. Sheds light on the role that the gyppos' work reputationplays in their adjustment to social change. 145. Yoho, James G. 1965. The responsibility of forestry in depressed areas. Journal of Forestry 63(7)(July):508-512. Discusses issues, reasons for, and problems with forestry's involvement in efforts to uplift communities economically. Suggests that the neo-Malthusian philosophy of resource scarcity which was prevalent previously in forestry no longer applies, since forest supplies have grown. Stresses the difficulty inherent in relying on the wood products industry to bring economic improvements. May be in part understood as a response to the recovery of forests from wasteful harvestingpractices of an earlier time. 146. Zieger, Robert H. 1984. Rebuilding the Pulp and Paper Workers' Union, 1933-1941. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press. 242 p. Describes the successes and difficulties encountered by the larger of the two pulp and paper industry unions which covered the less-skilled of the industry employees. Discusses events and the effects of changes in industry, legislation, worker sentiment, gov-

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast

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ernment role, etc. Deals with national issues, but mentions also issues relating to the South.
147. Zieger, Robert H. 1982. The union comes to Covington: Virginia paper workers organize, 1933-1952. Proceedings of the American PhilosophicalSociety 126(1):51-89.

Traces organizing efforts of union leaders and workers in view of West VirginiaPulp and Paper Company resistance, competition between the AFL and the CIO, World War II and postwar economic conditions. Describes the town and mill environment in Covington, the role of the mill in the economy and in workers' lives, and the aspirationsand complaints driving the conflicts. Discusses the roles of African-Americans, the federal government, the internationalunion, and the Democratic party. Tells the story of the 1952 strike precedingagreement and settling of the union in Covington. Provides a good discussion of relevant historical events and processes.
148. Zieger, Robert H. 1977. Oldtimers and newcomers: change and continuity in the pulp, sulphite union in the 1930s. Journal of Forest History 21(4) (October) :188-201. Photos.

Discusses dynamics of change in the main labor union of the pulp and paper industry during the 1930s. Describes how, as the union expanded to encompass more diverse branches of the industry, the variety of regional settings, products, jobs, ethnic groups, political sentiments, and new leadership prompted shifts in tradition. Discusses changes in management-union relations and the regional split of western workers from the union.

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INDEH
African-Americans 8, 30, 39, 42, 46, 52, 58, 61,104, 105,127,131,147, 148. Alabama 8, 14, 15, 16,17, 39, 51,52, 77, 78, 79, 82, 88, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 126, 129, 134, 136. Appalachia 40. Arkansas 59, 102, 110, 121, 131. Attitude surveys 14, 33. California 12, 23, 73, 115. Canada 11, 31, 86, 87,119. Civil rights 8, 61, 104,105. Community income 32, 36, 38, 50, 72, 103, 109, 110. Community power 9, 10, 11, 15, 42, 49. Community stability 5, 10, 11, 12, 19, 20, 22, 23, 38, 62, 71, 72, 73, 76, 77, 110, 130, 142. Company-owned timberland 21, 26. Company towns 3, 7, 9, 11, 40, 52, 68, 87, 90, 93, 102, 112, 126, 139. Dealer system (see Wood suppliers) Developing countries 18. Economic diversity 5, 8, 60, 72, 86, 117. Environmental conflict 4, 13, 33, 73, 110, 138. Florida 80, 88, 127. Forest-dependent communities 5, 6, 7, 9,10,11,12,13,19, 20, 22, 23, 28, 29, 33, 34, 38, 48, 52, 54, 62, 65, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 86, 87, 90, 109, 110, 111, 115, 116, 117, 118, 125, 131, 142, 145. Forest-dependent communities South (See also Forest products industries - South.) 34, 109, 111, 131. Forest management 2, 6, 13, 14, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 33, 37, 48, 55, 73, 92, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 128, 135, 138, 142, 145. Forest ownership 2, 14, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 53, 57, 68, 88, 94, 96, 109, 111, 114, 132, 135, 138. Forest policy 2, 10, 20, 22, 23, 25, 65, 73, 77, 87, 103, 110, 115, 117, 118, 119,125,135,138,142,143. Forest products industries - general 1, 3, 6, 7, 8,12,16, 17,19,21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, 112, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 132, 133, 135, 138, 141,143. Forest products industries - associations 27, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 67, 68. Forest products industries - economic aspects 1, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 31, 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, 49, 50, 53, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 78,

Timber Dependency in Alabama and the Southeast 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 130, 132, 134, 135, 136, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145. Forest products industries - history 1, 8, 21, 26, 31, 38, 39, 42, 44, 46, 48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 59, 60, 61, 66, 67, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 91, 92, 93, 95, 102, 106, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 129, 135, 138. Forest products industries - impact on environment 24, 57, 88, 135. Forest products industries - labor 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 15,16, 20, 23, 30, 31, 34, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 51, 52, 53, 58, 61, 66, 68, 69, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 102, 104, 105, 109, 110, 111, 113, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 127, 130, 132, 133, 135, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148. Forest products industries - social impacts 7, 8, 10, 11, 15, 20, 23, 29, 31, 33, 36, 38, 40, 48, 54, 62, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 109, 110, 111, 112, 135, 141, 144. Forest products industries - South 8, 16, 17, 21, 39, 42, 46, 49, 50, 51, 53, 59, 60, 61, 64, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 92, 93, 94, 95, 109, 110, 111, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 135, 138. Forest products industries - statistics (See also economic aspects.) 104, 105, 106, 133, 136, 138. Forest products industries - taxes 32, 114, 135. Forest statistics 2, 12, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 100, 101, 120, 121, 129, 133, 134, 135,

53 35, 61, 64, 79, 96, 97, 98, 99, 122, 123, 124, 136.

Forest use 2, 24, 33, 38, 40, 54, 55, 72, 88, 93, 94, 103, 110, 115, 116, 128, 138. Forestry 12, 21, 24, 25, 28, 31, 37, 48, 55, 65, 66, 70, 72, 75, 77, 78, 79, 89, 92, 94, 103, 108, 117, 130, 138, 142, 143, 145. Georgia 85, 109, 111. Kentucky 122. Land tenure (See also Forest ownership.) 18, 24, 36, 111. Legislation 67, 87, 114, 135. Loggers 8, 15, 21, 23, 30, 31, 40, 41, 49, 52, 55, 56, 58, 66, 69, 77, 87, 110, 113, 127, 138, 139, 140, 141, 144. Logging 8, 40, 69, 74, 79, 92, 109, 110, 133, 138, 139. Logging camps 40, 52, 58, 138. Louisiana 30, 41, 42, 45, 58, 83. Lumber industry - general (See Forest products industries - general.) Lumber industry - history (See also Forest products industries - history.) 3, 24, 27, 30, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 56, 58, 61, 66, 67, 68, 78, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 102, 112, 113, 126, 129, 132, 138, 141. Lumber industry - workers (See Forest products industries labor.)

54 Mississippi 34, 49, 59, 120.

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Resource management (general) 13, 36, 87, 103. Sawmills 39, 40, 41, 52, 78, 79, 88, 90, 91, 126, 133, 138, 139. South Carolina 84. Technology 6, 8, 15, 22, 24, 27, 39, 40, 52, 60, 68, 87, 88, 91,106, 107, 110, 126, 133, 138, 139. Tennessee 59, 81. Texas 3, 41, 42, 45, 58, 91, 93, 139. Timber dependency 5, 6, 8, 9, 10,11, 12, 16, 20, 22, 29, 33, 38, 65, 73, 86, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116, 117, 119, 130, 142. Timber supply 16, 35, 62, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 118, 125, 128, 129, 130, 134, 136. United States 1, 2, 6, 12, 25, 26, 55, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 132, 133, 135, 142, 143, 146, 148. U.S. Forest Service 5, 33, 57, 92, 110, 142. Virginia 40, 123, 147. Washington 29. Well-being 10, 11, 17, 20, 29, 38, 54, 65, 73, 109, 110, 111, 130, 142. West 5, 23, 73, 148. West Virginia 141. Women 8, 87. Wood suppliers 8, 15, 21, 49, 53, 56, 74, 110, 137.

National forests 5, 18, 40, 57, 62, 110. Naval stores industry 52, 127, 129. Non-industrial private forests 2, 14, 16, 25, 37, 94, 96, 114, 142. North Carolina 4, 40, 124. North Central U.S. - forest dependence 13, 71, 72. Northeastern U.S. - forest dependence 6, 7, 9, 38. Pacific Northwestern U.S. - forest dependence 6, 1 2, 19, 22, 23, 29, 31, 76, 86, 87, 112, 115, 116, 118, 119, 125, 130, 144. Population change 13, 36, 115. Poverty 8, 29, 36, 40, 52, 103, 111, 145. Property rights 18.
Pulp and paper industry - general
-

(See Forest products industries general.)
Pulp and paper industry -

history

(See also Forest products industries - history.) 1, 8, 15, 21, 49, 53, 60, 78, 95, 104, 105, 106, 107, 146, 147, 148.
Pulp and paper industry - workers

(See Forest products industries labor.) Pulp and paper mills 1, 8, 9, 11, 21, 34, 60, 64, 78, 94, 106, 113. Resource dependency (See Timber dependency.)