CIRCULAR No. 18 JULY, 1912
ALABAMA
Agricultural Experiment Station
OF THE
Alabama Polytechnic Institute
AUBURN
.- Feeding and Managing Dairy Cattle.
II.-Feed and Care of the Calf.
I1.-The Bull.
IV.-Silos and Silage.
By
L. W. SUMMERS
Assistant Professor of Animal Industry
and
L. W. SHOOK
Assistant in Animal Industry
Opelika, Ala.
Post Publishing Company
1912
COMMILTTfEE OF~ TRUSTE~ES ON EXPERIMENT STATION.
HON. R. F. KOLB -- -- -- --- --- - -
HON. H. L. MARTIN -- - - - - - - - - - - ------
HON. A. W . BELL -- ---- -- ------ -
--
STATION STAFF.
C. C. THACH, President of the College.
J. F. DUGGAR, Director of Station.
DEPARTMENTAL
AGRICULTURE:
J. F. Duggar, Agriculturist.
E. F. Cauthen, Associate.
M. F. Funchess,Assistant Professor
J. T. Williamson, Field Agent.
T. J. Hawley, Field Agent.
0. H. Sellers, Secretary.
VETERINARY:
C. A. CJary, Veterinarian.
1. 5. McAdory, Assistant.
CHEMISTRY:
B. B. Ross, Chemist, State Chemist
J. T. Anderson, Chemist, Soil&C rops
C. L. Hare, Physiological Chemist
T. Bragg, First Assistant.
EXTENSION:
L. N. Duncan, Superintendent.*~
J. B. Hodby, Assistant.",
S. I. Bechdel, Assistant.*
J. M.. Moore, Assistant.*
.-- Montgomery
- - ____Ozark
__---Anniston
ORGANIZATION.
BOTANY:
F. E. Lloyd, Botanist.
F. A. Wolf, Plant Pathologist
C. S. Ridgway, Assistant.
HORTICULTURE:
P. F. Williams, Horticulturist.
J. C. C. Price, Assistant.
H. M. Conolly, Field Agent.
ENTOMOLOGY:
W. E. Hinds, Entomologist.
W. F. Turner, Assistant.
J. A. Dew, Field Agent.
ANIMAL INDUJSTRY:
Datn T. Gray, Animal Husbandman.
W. F. Ward, Junior Animal Husbandman*
L. W. Summers, Assistant Professor.
L. W. Shook, Assistant.
S. S. Jerdan, Assistant.*
A. R. Gissendanner, Assistant.
C. D. Allis, Assistant.
*ln cooperation with United States Department of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION.
Alabama consumes a much larger quantity of dairy products
than she produces, yet no other state has more natural advan-
tages for a profitable dairy industry. Instead of having to im-
port butter, milk and cream, she should produce a surplus of
these commodities. Excellent local markets are found in nearly
all sections of the state, whole milk usually selling for 25 to 40
cents per gallon, cream for $1.00 to $2.00 (depending on the
per cent of butter fat it contains), buttermilk for 10 to 20 cents,
and butter for 25 to 40 cents per pound.
There is no other phase of the live stock industry which
gives as great returns and yet removes as little of the plant food
from the soil as does the dairy industry. The dairy cow, though
not a scavenger, consumes a large amount of feed which would
otherwise be wasted. There is a double profit derived from the
purchased concentrates, since the cow not only produces prod-
ucts more valuable than the purchased feed, but also leaves on
the farm, in the form of manure, from 80 to 90 per cent of the
plant food contained in the feqd eaten. Dr. Thorne, of the
Ohio station, found that the addition of eight tons of live stock
manure per acre increased the crop production, at market price,
$2.95 per ton of manure, and that the plant food contained in this
manure is as valuable as that in commercial fertilizer. Live stock
manure improves the soil by the addition of organic matter (a much
needed substance in the South), by inducing chemical action in the
soil, by introducing beneficial bacteria, and by improving the phys-
ical condition of the soil.
Part I.
Feeding and Managing 
the Cow.
CONFORMATION.
Since the heavy producing 
dairy cow is the hardest 
worked
of our domestic animals, 
the selection of an individual 
which will
produce milk economically 
is of prime importance. 
She should
be of a general angular form 
and wedge shape, possessing 
good
constitution, capacity and a well 
developed udder, which is typ-
ical of our highest producers. 
She should also have 
a general
lean appearance, which indicates 
that the food consumed above
the amount required to maintain 
her body will be converted 
into
milk rather than surplus 
fat.
In addition to producing milk, 
the cow is called upon to re-
produce her kind. It has been 
found that in order to be able 
to
transmit her qualities to her 
offspring she should possess 
a femi-
nine or motherly look in addition to 
other qualities. Those which
fail in this respect are generally 
lacking in productive power as
well as in breeding ability.
In order to endure the severe strain of production 
and re-
production, a cow should have a 
strong constitution. It is also
important that she be a vigorous 
animal so as to impress her
good qualities upon her offspring. A strong constitution 
is in-
dicated by a large heart girth and thoracic 
cavity, as the vital
organs are located in this region. The 
dairy animal receives
her constitutional capacity mainly through depth 
of chest, rather
than by width, as in the beef animal. 
However, extreme nar-
rowness is undesirable. A large, distended 
nostril and a large
windpipe go hand in hand with vitality, 
as they control the
amount of air which passes into the lungs 
and therefore the
amount of oxygen available for purifying 
the blood.
The heavy producer, in order to consume 
and assimilate the
amount of feed required for her work, must have 
a large diges-
tive capacity. This is shown by a deep abdominal 
cavity, long
barrel, and well sprung ribs. In examining 
a cow's capacity at-
tention should be given to the depth as viewed 
from the side
and width as seen from the rear, since 
an animal may pos-
sess sufficient depth and yet lack capacity on account 
of extreme
narrowness. From 50 to 60 per cent of the amount 
of feed a
milking cow consumes is used for maintenance. 
Therefore, it is
easily seen that the larger the capacity the smaller is the per 
cent
of feed used for maintenance. One possessing 
capacity and
lacking efficiency for utilizing her feed is also 
unsatisfactory.
As the hide and the digestive tract are developed from the same
101
source, the condition and character of the hide is 
the best possi-
ble indicator of the quality of the digestive organs.
As the process of secreting milk takes place 
in the udder,
this is one of the most important parts 
of a dairy cow. The
desirable udder is one attached high behind and well to the front,
with even developed quarters, teats of good size 
and placed well
apart so that the cow may be easily milked. 
The size and
shape of the udder are not sufficient indications of the amount
of milk a cow will produce, as the udder may be filled 
with
fatty tissue rather than secreting cells. However, it should
decrease considerably in size during the process of milking, thus
showing that it does not contain a large amount of surplus fat.
The size and shape of the udder can not be accurately judged in
heifers and dry cows as with one in milk, but this can be judged
fairly accurately by the length and levelness of the rump, ac-
cording to some authorities, who hold that a short, drooping
rump indicates a poorly shaped udder and a long level rump indi-
cates a large, well-formed one.
In order to be converted into milk, the feed must be first as-
similated and the nutrients pass into the circulatory system, and
thus be carried to the udder. Therefore, the veins passing from
the udder toward the forelegs should be large and branching,
showing that there is an ample supply of blood passing through
the udder. An udder attached as described above gives a larger
area to come in contact with the large arteries and more space
for small ones to branch off. For these reasons more blood
comes in contact with the udder and larger amounts of nutrients
will be given off to the working cells.
In addition to possessing a desirable conformation, the cow
should be a persistent milker. Some cows are heavy producers
for a short time after calving; but soon decrease considerably in
the amount of milk they produce. In order to be profitable, it
is not sufficient that she produce heavily for a short time, but
she must be a persistent milker also. If she produces a large
amount of butter, the cow must give milk rich in butterfat, as
well as a large quantity. The quality of the milk can be deter-
mnined most satisfactorily by use of the Babcock Tester.
NERVOUS SYSTEM.
There is another feature of the physiology of a dairy cow
which is equally as important as the organs of digestion and se-
cretion, viz., the nervous system. The nervous system includes
the brain, spinal cord and its numerous branches Which control
the action of most of the organs of the body and determine to -
la ge degree the amount of work they do. A iervous tempera-
102
ment in a dairy cow is very much desired. By this it is not
meant that she be irritable and excitable as is sometimes erro-
neously supposed; irritableness really indicates a lack of con-
trol. A nervous temperament is indicated by great width be-
tween the eyes, and lengh between the eyes and the poll of the
head, giving ample room for brain development; prominent, open-
jointed spinal column, indicating a well-developed spinal cord
and a general lean appearance throughout, showing that the ten-
dency is to use all feed consumed above maintenance for milk
production and not for surplus fat.
The lymphatic temperament is sought in beef cattle and is
indicated by sluggishness, lack of interest in surroundings and a
tendency to lay on fat. This beef temperament is very unde-
sirable in dairy cows.
FEEDING THE COW.
The first use which the cow makes of her feed is the main-
tenance of her body. Unless the animal's body be preserved'
and kept in good working order, she can not satisfactorily do the-
work which falls to her lot. Portions of the tissue are con-
stantly wearing out and must be rebuilt. The strongest ten-
dency for the utilization of feed is for this purpose, and must be
supplied before other calls for feed are responded to.
Until the cow has reached maturity, she is constantly build-
ing new tissues in the process of body development. After
maintenance, the feed which the young cow consimes is used
for developing those parts or organs which have not yet reached
maturity. Therefore, she must be supplied with feed for devel-
opment as well as maintenance, if best results are to be realized.
Next, and of equal importance, comes the feed required'
for milk production... If a cow requires 30 pounds of a certain
mixture of feeds for maintenance and receives 40 pounds daily,
she has 10 pounds available for milk production. If she re-
ceives only 35 pounds daily she has only 5 pounds available for
milk production, or only half as much as when 40 pounds are fed.
It can readily be seen then that liberal feeding is really econom-
ical feeding. However, it is possible to over-feed, especially
the cows that do not give much milk. If the dairy cow is fed a
balanced ration and fed all she will consume without gaining-
but very little in weight, it will be found that she is producing-
milk most economically. Milk can be produced more economical-
ly with a cow that produces four gallons a day than with one
which produces only two gallons. In the first case, one cow is:
mintained for each four gallons, while in the second, two cows
are maintained to secure the same amount of milk.
Where the largest returns are received from dairy cattle,.
103
they are bred so as to ,be dry only six to eight weeks before
dropping the next calf. When the cow is pregnant she is called
upon to furnish feed for the nourishment of a foetus, main-
tenance and milk production. All of these demands are being
made on her supply of feed at the same time, and the dairyman
can not afford to overlook any one of them. Lack of a boun-
teous supply of feed will necessarily cause a lack of nourish-
ment in one or more ways, and first in the supply for milk pro-
duction.
It is not possible to fatten a heavy producing cow while she
is in full flow of milk, and it is not desirable to have one which
converts her food into fat rather than into milk. On the other
hand, it is advisable to feed so that she will fatten during her
dry period and thus be in a vigorous condition at the birth of her
calf. For a short period after the birth of the calf a cow is not
in condition to consume the large amount of feed which she re-
quires. During this time she makes use of the small amount
of surplus body fat.
NUTRIENTS OF FEEDS.
The nutrients found in feedstuffs are divided ipto five
classes-protein, carbohydrates, fats, mineral matter, and wa-
ter. Protein is the only class of nutrients which contains nitrogen,
and is absolutely necessary for building the muscles, bones, blood,
hoofs and hair for milk production, and may be used to a small
extent for supplying the body with heat or energy. The carbo-
hydrates and fats furnish heat and energy, assist in producing-
butterfat and at times are stored as fats in the body. The min-
eral portion of feeds plays a necessary part in the building up
of the bones, blood, lean tissues, hoofs, hair, etc., and in milk
production. Water enters into all of the tissues of the animal
body and forms about 87 per cent of milk. Therefore, its
importance as a nutrient can readily be seen.
All of these nutrients are found in the common feedstuffs, but
in widely varying proportions and amounts. Practically the only
feed which furnishes nutrients in suitable proportions is green
grass. For this reason it is usually necessary to feed a com-
bination of several feeds in order to furnish the nutrients in the
proper proportions. The dairy cow requires one pound of pro-
tein to about 5.5 pounds of carbohydrates and fats (one pound
of fats being equivalent in feeding value to 2.25 pounds of car-
bohydrates). To a limited extent, carbohydrates and fats may
take the place one of the other if one is lacking. No other nu-
trient can take the place of protein, however, as it is the only
one that contains nitrogen. And since a relatively large amount
104
,of protein is required by dairy, cattle, this nutrient is often lack-
ing in many sections. But in the South cottonseed meal and
leguminois hays are so largely used that as a rule too much pro-
tein is fed instead of too little.
No other animal produces human food as economically as
-does the dairy cow, provided she is properly fed. Yet all feeds
we have are not suited to her needs. We can not get a satisfac-
tory flow of milk by feeding Johnson grass hay and corn. Why?
Because they are deficient in two essentials for milk production-
protein and ash. Such a mixture would not make a very palpa-
ble ration and best results could not be secured from it on this
account, even if all the required nutrients were present in suffi-
cient quantities.
FEEDING IN DIFFERENT SEASONS OF THE YEAR.
Every dairyman realizes that best results are obtained when
the cow receives an abundance of grass during the summer. This
is due to the fact that she has pleasant surroundings, is receiv-
ing; first, an abundance of palatable feed; second, a properly
balanced ration; and third, a succulent feed-all of which it is
possible to furnish her twelve months in the year. The first
duty of the dairyman is to make the cow feel it is summer all the
time in Alabama.
The question naturally arises, shall we feed on pasture?
This is a question upon which there is a great difference of
opinion, but it is the opinion of the authors that on the average
pasture in this State it will pay to feed a light grain ration to
the heaviest producers and to the young cows that are not fully
matured. If the pasture is a good one, it will not pay usually
to supplement it with grain except for the two classes of cows
mentioned above. Very heavy producers and young cows not
fully developed can not consume enough grass to furnish the
nutrients which they require, and should have a small feed of
grain to supplement the grass. At the Cornell Station it was
found that the flow of milk could be increased by feeding grain
.on a good pasture, but increased without profit. The pasture
used in this experiment was much better than our average Ala-
mama pastures, but no better than every farmer in Alabama could
.have if he would go to work and make a good pasture.
In Winter. As before stated, the first thing to do is to imi-
tate summer as nearly as possible. An abundance of palatable
tfeeds should be supplied, as good hays, winter pasture, silage
aind such concentrated feeds as shorts, corn and cottonseed meal.
A succulent feed, as winter pasture and silage, can be supplied
throughout all of the winter months. A balanced ration-that
is, one which will furnish the cow feed for building muscles,
105
bone, hair and for producing milk-should also be provided.
Feeds may well be divided into two classes: those rich in pro-
tein, as cottonseed meal, shorts, clover, alfalfa, soy beans and
peavine hay, and tho' , rich in carbohydrates and fats, as corn,
corn silage, timothy and Johnson grass hay. A milking cow
should not be fed exclusively on feeds from either of these
classes, but should have some from each.
There is no justifiable reason why the dairymen in Alabama
should not have either green feed or silage for his cows at all
times during the year. During the fall when pastures are fail-
ing, soiling crops should be used or some temporary grazing
crop, in order to reach the winter pasture. Corn and sorghum
ware two of the most satisfactory crops for soiling purposes (cut-
ting and feeding in the green state). In those sections where
Inelilotus grows, melilotus and Johnson grass mixed make an ex-
,cellent soiling crop. In the southern part of the State, velvet
beans make an excellent grazing crop. They can be grazed
green until frost, and after frost falls on them they will lie in
the fields and furnish good grazing all winter. In first turning
cattle in on velvet beans, care should be exercised to avoid bloat.
The cattle should be turned in for a short time just after feed-
ing, and they will not eat enough to hurt them, as they will not
be hungry. This practice should be kept up for a few days, un-
til the cattle become accustomed to their feed. After frost falls
the cattle should be kept off of the velvet beans for two or three
weeks, as it is dangerous for cattle to eat them just at that stage.
Below is given a system which will provide green feed the
year round and will prove satisfactory in practically all sections
of the State:
CROP. GRAZING SEASON.
(Bur clover 
Feb. 1 to May 
15
Permanent pasture (Bermuda 
May 15 to Oct. 1
(Lespedeza
Silage Oct. 1 to April 1
Oats or rye Dec. 1 to Mar. 1
There are other crops that could be used satisfactorily, the
above merely showing a good system that will furnish green feed
the year round.
AMOUNT TO FEED.
It is a very difficult matter to overfeed a good dairy cow,
and a very easy matter to overfeed a poor one. For this reason
it is advisable for the feeder to use some other guide rather than
the size of the cow in determining the amount to feed. . Proba-
106
bly the best rule to govern this is the one given by Prof. Eckles.
in "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production," and is as 
follows:
1.-Feed all the roughness the cows will eat up clean 
at all
times. 2.-Feed one pound of grain p. L day for each pound
of butter fat produced per week, or one pound of grain daily for
each, three pounds of milk. 3.-Feed all the cows will take
without gaining in weight.
The roughness should be composed mainly of some good
leguminous hay; if a sufficient supply of leguminous hays can not
be secured, grains rich in protein should be used rather freely.
Where the cow has been bred some time before she is dried up,
she should gain sufficiently in weight to offset the increase in
weight of the foetus.
Remembering that part of the cow's feed is used for main-
tenance and part for the work she is performing, one can see
why she should have an abundance of feed in order that neither
call be unanswered. The cow uses feed first for maintenance,
and then for milk production, and when the supply is not suffi-
cient for both, milk production is the one which suffers.
Where silage is fed, some other roughness should be fed
along with it, as there is danger of scouring where silage forms
the sole roughness. The amount of silage a cow should receive
daily depends on a number of things, as the size of the cow, the
amount of milk she is giving, the amount and kinds of other
feeds she receives, etc. Ordinarily though, a cow should have
from 25 to 35 pounds per day. Very large, heavy producing
cows may even profitably be fed 40 pounds per day, but the
average cow should receive from 25 to 30 pounds.
The amount of grain that should be fed daily will also vary
with the size of cow, the amount of milk she gives, etc. From
4 to 12 or 14 pounds per day will represent the range
for cows in milk. It will rarely be found profitable to feed over
12 or 14 pounds of grain daily unless the cow is a large one
and a very heavy producer. Cottonseed meal should not be fed
in quantities larger than 4 to 5 pounds daily, as it is such a con-
centrated feed it deranges the digestive system if fed in larger
quantities, especially if fed for long periods.
SUGGESTIVE RATIONS.
A great many dairymen in Alabama would find it very easy
to increase their profits by using more home-grown feeds, thus
cutting down the cost of production. Cottonseed meal is one of
the cheapest and best feeds, and could profitably form a part of
practically every ration for dairy cattle in this State. If the
dairyman raises his own corn, as he should, corn or corn-and-cob
I It _ __I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
a ile hIiC, a iaigt. plain headi aiii ack hut let)uiemeut. I ii. hitc 1v henu Itesh pttdtuicd
tn ill . , 1: I
it T
r- wt
ei
I It. M 2.
smatller ancimal thtu the othri hifet sie tas a laiger liarrel aind is a belter prtdtitre.
108
meal will prove about the cheapest and most satisfactory concen-
trate to mix with the cottonseed meal. When cottonseed can be
obtained for $20.00 per ton or less they can economically be
used. Wheat bran, shorts and the mixed concentrates on the
market are good, but unless they can be bought for $25.00 per
ton or less many dairymen can not afford to buy them.
Cottonseed hulls and grass hays are two other classes of
feeds that the majority of dairymen cannot afford to buy un-
less they can be bought very much cheaper than present prices.
Leguminous hays are much better than grass hays for dairy
cattle and should be raised and used liberally by all dairymen.
Home-grown corn stover will be found much cheaper and prac-
tically as good as cottonseed hulls. If a man has as many as
ten cows he can hardly afford to do without a silo. Corn silage
makes a very cheap and palatable feed and gives splendid re-
sults.
It is impossible to take any feed as a standard and say just
how much other feeds are worth when compared with it, as there
are a number of variable factors which must be considered, as
the feeds with which it is fed, the age and condition of the ani-
mals to which it is fed, etc. The following table shows fairly
accurately the comparative value of the different feeds, taking
cornmeal at $25.00 per ton as a basis:
Lbs. of
digestible
Lbs. of Lbs. of non- nitro- Value of Value of
Lbs. of digestible digestible genous nu- nitroge- non- nitro- Total
FEED digestible carbohy- ether ex- trients in 1 ous nutri- genous value of
protein in drates in tract in ton (ex- ents at 3c nutrients 1 ton of
1 ton 1 ton 1 ton pressed as pet pound at 1 I-3c feed
carbohy- per pound
Sdrates) I
Corn meal.. 158 1334 86 1517.5 $ 4.74 $20.23 $24.97
Cottonseed meal 744 338 244 887.0 22.32 11.83 34.15
Cottonseed - 250 600 346 1378.5 7.50 18.38 25.88
Shorts ..-.. 244 1000 76 1171.0 7.32 15.61 22.93
Wheat bran 244 784 54 905.5 7.32 12.07 19.39
Alfalfa hay _ 220 792 4 846.0 6.60 11.28 17.88
Soybean hay ... - 216 774 30 841.5 6.48 11.22 17.70
Cowpea hay .... 216 772 22 821.5 6.48 10.95 17.43
Crimson clover hay 210 698 24 752.0 6.30 10.03 16.33
Johnson-grass hay - 58 912 16 948.0 1.74 12.64 14.38
Corn silage 18 226 14 257.5 .54 3.43 3.97
Corn stover 34 648 14 679.5 1.02 9.06 *10.08
Cottonseed hulls._ 6 662 34 738.5 .18 9.85 *10.03
*Cottonseed hulls and corn stover are probably not worth
over one-half the amount shown in the table, as they contain a
very large amount of crude fibre and are not veryr palatable.
1119
A flw .si..gcstic u rat ions ar gi ii lic low. Thei proportions
in w,,hi the lords shouldhe fed aiirr not given. ns this depends
tre Luric1x upon thn price ofi the Cariolls fB (15 Priecs 'Lr~V
so froin \ ar to ter andlii ini it rnt localities that it is iIpo~ssi-
I ti to ra Intlust1what prprions woul hmt ihelt . Thar~t is n duis-
tion ii It icn must solve accordlinrg to hiis owc lmocal cndtitions:
(', tt ,iiwmd tasal
(m Cmic 
Imm
-(',mpme I
11tm 'e hulls
C~ut.1ccdma
3 ('m i l l1 hi
1
1 41 I 1
t mtti 
min t
( ltmnsl ull i s
Si Iitgm
mi't em ee
(.111
I 4x,-u tminicr hiay
5 i ge
Lmt i ou" ]lls
( ttimse macc l
lii
"rr
t
Courtc.c of lluc BrccdI _ GvctL.
c l i el p l a ii 
cn (u u ts 
1 ' i c
(}azet tr>
It de lopekI tnre (jIk1:1 rant 
illptitit It plt e tcat
is 
?
Part II.
Raising the Calf.
The success of the dairyman in improving his herd and in
increasing his profits depends to a large extent upon the proper
-care and handling of the calves produced in his herd. The wide-
-awake dairyman does not only see the possibility of replacing an
old cow by raising a heifer calf, but also a possibility of replac-
ing her with a better cow. This can be easily done where the
right kind of a bull is used and the calf is properly cared for.
The practice of destroying the calves and depending upon
buying cows to replace those which have passed their usefulness
is a double source of loss. In the first place, high producing
cows are seldom found on the market and when found cost
more than the average dairyman can afford to pay for them, be-
-cause he can produce such cows cheaper at home. The prac-
tice of depending on buying cows is very objectionable and es-
pecially where "springers" (cows which are heavy with calf)
-are purchased and kept through only one milking period, then
fattened and sold for beef. Such a practice invariably results
in a low producing herd and a small profit.
Like many other things, a good beginning is very important
in the life and welfare of a calf. The care of the calf should
begin before it is born, in order that it may begin life in a
-strong, vigorous condition. This can be accomplished by giving
the cow proper care before the calf is born. Since the first milk
given by a cow (colostrum) has a medicinal effect upon the calf,
it is best that it remain with the cow about 24 hours in order to
get this milk. After that time, it should be removed and kept
away from the cow, as it can be taught to drink milk much
easier than when left with her for several days. If a cow's
udder remains hard, lumpy and feverish, it is often well to leave
the calf with her until this condition can be overcome.
After removing the calf, let it remain alone without feed
until it becomes hungry, then it should be given about 8 pounds
of its mother's milk each day, in two feeds of 4 pounds each.
Large calves, as Holstein-Friesians, may require 5 pounds or
more each feed. After the calf is two weeks old, gradually re-
place the whole milk with skim milk, taking two weeks to com-
plete the change. For instance, if the calf is receiving 12
112
pounds of milk a day, replace 1-2 pound in each feed with an,
equal amount of skim milk. The second day substitute one
pound of skim milk in each feed for one pound of whole milk,
and continue to increase the amount substituted until in about two
weeks the calf is receiving skim milk only. It is not necessary
to feed the calf more than 16 to 18 pounds a day at any time
before it is weaned.
Most dairymen seem to think that where calves are being fed
on skim milk it is necessary to feed more than would be re-
quired if whole milk were being fed. However, this is not true.
What is needed is something to take the place of the fat which
has been removed. This can be very satisfactorily done with
such feeds as cornmeal, shorts, and ground oats. After the calf
is several weeks old shelled corn and shorts (equal parts) make
an excellent substitute for this fat which has been removed.
When only about one week old, the calf will usually eat a small
amount of grain if it is placed in the trough just after feeding
the milk, or, if necessary, rub dry grain in its mouth after feed-
ing the milk. This is the time to teach calves to eat grain and
prepare them for the skim milk which is soon to be substituted
for whole milk. The grain may be left before them all the time
for a few days until they begin to eat it. readily, after which
time they should have just what they will clean up readily twice
a day, which will be about 1-2 pound per day up to one month
old. Gradually increase this amount until they are eating 2
pounds daily, at the age of two months, which is sufficient (ex-
cept with very large calves) until they are weaned. Other
grains may be fed along with the corn and shorts if they are avail-
able, but it is not necessary.
The calf will usually commence eating hay when about
three weeks old, and should be supplied with all it will con-
sume. It is best to feed a grass hay (crab, Johnson grass, etc.)
if it is available, for the first few weeks, as the calf is more
apt to eat too much of the more palatable hays, thus going off
feed. Such hays as clover and alfalfa also have a laxative
effect and may assist in giving the calf scours. Where a good
pasture is available no other roughage will be necessary. How-
ever, the calf should be fed just before going on the pasture
in order to prevent it from eating too much grass, and thereby
going off feed. For the first month and a half to two months it
is as well to keep the calves off of the pasture, unless there is
very little extra trouble and labor required in pasturing them.
When dairy products are as valuable as they are in Ala-
bama and when there is a ready market for them, such as we
have here, the dairyman can not afford to feed calves until wean-
113
ing time on whole milk. Then too, the poor results so often
attributed to skim milk feeding are usually due to the treatment
and care of the calf. Prof. Eckles, of the University of Mis-
souri, says: "Some have seen unhealthy and undersized calves,
that have been fed skim milk, and have considered them the
necessary results of feeding skim milk. Such calves are the
unfortunate victims of their owners' ignorance or carelessness.
The skim milk calf raised according to modern methods differs
little, if any, in size, quality and thrift and value from the same
animal when raised by the cow."
The following table from bulletin 126 Kansas Experiment
Station shows the cost of producing calves on whole and on
skim milk:
Number of Average gain Cost per hun-
RATION Calves Days 
fed per head dred pounds
gain
Skim milk ......... 10 154 233 $2.26
Whole milk ...... 10 154 287 7.06
Running with dam_ 22 143 248 4.41
It has been found by experiments conducted at the Nebras-
ka and other stations that the whole milk calf will very proba-
Lly weigh more at weaning time and look a little more prom-
ising than the skim milk calf, but that this is not true at one
year old or later. The whole milk calf shrinks more at wean-
ing time than does the one on skim milk, thereby giving the lat-
ter the advantage at this time. By the time they have reached
the age of eighteen months there will be no appreciable differ-
ence in them. Where calves are raised according to improved
methods of feeding, it is not necessary to feed more than 180
pounds of whole milk to each calf. This amount of milk at 10-
cenis per quart is worth $7.00, and in addition to this about
1500 pounds of skim milk are required, which, at 80 cents per
hmdred, is worth $4.50, or a total cost of $18.50 for the value
of the milk required for a skim milk calf up to weaning time
(four and a half months old). A calf fed the same amount of
whole milk will consume 1680 pounds, which, at 10 cents per
quart, is worth $84.00, making a difference of $70.50 in favor
of the skim milk calf where milk is worth 10 cents per quart.
The calf fed on skim milk will require a little more grain, prob-
ably costing $1.50, than the whole milk calf, which still leaves
nearly $70.00 difference. When butter is sold, the difference is
not so great as in the above case, yet it is too much to be over-
114
looked. The whole milk calf consumes 1500 pounds more whole
milk than does the skim milk calf; this milk would probably
.test 4 per cent butter fat, thus giving 60 pounds of butter fat,
or about 70 pounds of butter. Where butter sells for 30 cents
-a pound this amount is worth $21.00. This amount of butter
fat can be replaced with approximately $1.50 worth of grain
and $4.50 worth of skim milk. Then why feed butter fat to
,calves ?
METHOD OF FEEDING.
Far too many calves are improperly handled at meal time;
many dairymen attempt to feed them all in a long trough or guess
at the amount of milk each one drinks. The first method re-
sults in having a part of the calves overfed and the others
stunted from lack of feed, since some calves drink much more
rapidly than others. The second method of feeding gives the
same result on account of the lack of ability of the feeder to ac-
curately judge how much milk each calf consumes. Not only
this, but those receiving too much are apt to be troubled with
scours. The only satisfactory way to feed calves is to have
stanchions to place them in and weigh or measure each calf's
feed. Then, by having a trough in front of the row of stan-
chions, they can be given the grain ration which will keep them
satisfied until the milk has dried from their lips and thus the
undesirable habit of sucking the other calf's ears be avoided.
With young calves, this is the best time to teach them to eat
grain, since they are apparently very hungry immediately after
receiving a feed of milk and will cat almost any feed placed be-
fore them.
r FEEDING AFTER WEANING.
When the calf reaches the age of four and a half or five
months, it is time to wean it, as the skim milk can be more prof-
itably fed to younger calves or to pigs. If the calf has been
properly handled there should be no stunting at weaning time.
The amount of milk fed should be gradually cut down and the
amount of other feeds increased. A well developed dairy calf
should weigh from 250 to 300 pounds at five months old. Be-
fore weaning the calf will probably be eating 16 to 18 pounds
of skim milk and 1 to 2 pounds of grain daily. If on pasture,
or if fed a leguminous hay, as cowpcas, soy bean, clover or al-
falfa, the grain ration should be cut in half.
After weaning the calf there are few difficulties met with
in feeding the heifer until she begins to give milk, provided a
good pasture is available. The best and cheapest feed can be
secured from a good pasture at this age of the animal. How-
:fxX #
r
X. d TI
~i
'I
1 11 1 Hl t I I I I i~uC J :t
116
ever, during the winter she should be given more careful attention.
It is not advisable to feed her at this time so that she will be-
come excessively fat, but she should receive a small grain ration
along with an abundance of good roughage. Experienced dairy-
men favor feeding the heifer. abundantly on roughage, as it is
believed that this develops her digestive organs to the best ad-
vantage. This should be a leguminous roughage such as cowpea
or clover hay, in order to furnish protein and ash for body de-
velopment. The cheapest source of winter feed comes from
roughage or winter pasture, and for this reason as much as pos-
sible of the nutrients should be secured in this way. The devel-
opment of a foetus is a grea
t 
strain on a heifer, and as a rule
she does not develop during the latter part of her pregnant pe-
ribd, thus showing the importance of late breeding and liberal
feeding.
After weaning, the calf should receive from 1 1-2 to 2 1-2
pounds of grain daily and have all the leguminous hay it will
eat if not on pasture. If a go3d pasture is provided the grain
ration can profitably be reduced to one pound per head daily.
Pasturage is much cheaper than commercial feeds, and if the
calf is to make satisfactory and economical gains after weaning,
it is essential that plenty of pasture be available. A great ma-
jority of the dairy cattle of Alabama are undersized, and if this
defect is to be overcome it must be done the first year of the heif-
er's life. An animal that is not well nourished the first year
of its life never attains its maximum development, no matter how
well cared for later. Grass, legumes, and silage are the cheapest
feeds we have, and should occupy a much more prominent place
in our system of agriculture than they do at the present time.
When the heifer is about fifteen months old she should be
bred. If bred before this time she is likely to be stunted, as the-
majority of farmers do not feed heavily enough to properly nour-
ish both the heifer and the unborn calf. After having been bred'
the heifer's ration should be increased, as she has the foetus to
nourish, as well as herself. The amount of grain that should
be fed from 15 to 20 months old will vary with the amount of
pasturage and other feeds available. If the heifer is on a good
pasture or if she is fed silage and legumiuous hays, 1 to 2 pounds
of grain per day will produce satisfactory growth. On the
other hand, if pasture is short and the hay and silage are lacking
or are poor in quality, the grain ration can be profitably in-
creased to 3 or 4 pounds per day.
When the heifer has reached the fifth or sixth month of preg-
nancy, she should be put in the producing herd and receive the
same treatment as the cows in milk. She should be fed from
117
3 to 5 pounds of grain daily, depending on the amount and char-
acter of pasture and hays available. The character of the grain
ration at this time depends upon the amount and character of
pasture and hays the heifer receives. If the pasture has clover,
lespedeza, or any of the legumes in it or if a legume hay is fed
the grain ration might well consist of cottonseed meal 1 part and
corn, or corn-and-cob-meal 4 parts, or cottonseed meal 1 part,
wheat bran or shorts 2 parts, and corn, or corn-and-cob meal 7
parts. If the pasture is poor, or only grass hays are used, the
protein part of the grain ration should be increased. Either of
the following mixtures could be fed satisfactorily; cottonseed
meal 2 parts and corn or corn-and-cob-meal 2 parts, or cotton-
seed meal 2 parts, wheat bran or shorts 2 parts, and corn or
corn-and-cob-meal 4 parts. At the present price of mill feeds
many dairymen can not afford to buy anything but cottonseed
meal or cottonseed cake, and for this reason it is very important
that he raise his own products. Cottonseed meal should not be
fed to heifers in amounts larger than 1 1-2 pounds per head daily,
as it is a very concentrated feed and leads to derangement of the
digestive organs if fed in large quantities. Where cottonseed can
be obtained for $20.00 a ton or less they make a very economical
feed and can profitably replace part of the cottonseed meal,
wheat bran, or shorts. Like cottonseed meal, though, cottonseed
should not be fed in very large quantities. From 1 to 1 1-2
pounds per head daily is as much as should be fed.
SCOURS.
One of the greatest problems which confronts the average dai-
ryman in raising calves is "Calf Scours." In a number 
of
dairies a large per cent, and in some cases all of the calves are
victims of this disease. In most cases the trouble can be traced to
either carelessness on the part of the feeder or lack of sanita-
tion.
Some of the ways by which the feeder paves the way for this
disease is by feeding the calf at irregular hours, overfeeding,
feeding milk at irregular temperature and especially cold milk,
feeding the calf from a dirty bucket, and feeding sour milk.
The calf is often considered an animal with a digestive tract
which is not easily deranged, but such is not the case. The calf's
digestive organs are of such a nature that they may be easily
upset by what seems to be very little imprudence on the part
of its master.
Where scours lhave developed they should be treated at once
since they weaken the calf rapidly and will be difficult to cure
if not treated promptly.
118
TREATMENT.
If the calf is still strong and has a good appetite, it is not
usually necessary to cut the feed down, but if it has a stubborn
case of scours the feed should be reduced to half and other treat-
ment as follows resorted to. Mix one-half ounce of formalin with
15 1-2 ounces of water and give one teaspoonful of this mixture
with each pound of milk. This treatment is recommended by Dr.
Klein, formerly of Clemson College, and has given good results
at this Station. In case the calf becomes very weak or the scours
continues for more than three or four days, from three to six raw
eggs should be fed with the milk daily.
A treatment which was tried at this Station during the spring
is apparently very satisfactory,* though it has not been used
long enough to be recommended stronger than as a suggestion.
It is as follows: Dissolve one "Sulpho Carbonated tablet" in the
milk at each feed, and in stubborn cases cut the feed down 50 per
cent. If the calf becomes very weak, give raw eggs as recom-
mended above.
Where the calf is properly housed during bad weather and
treated as outlined above, the disease should be checked within
three to five days.
*Suggested by Drs. Cary and McAdory, of Auburn.
PartIII.
The Bull.
In the dairy industry, satisfactory returns are always received
from money invested in a good bull. All dairymen have no doubt
often heard it stated that the bull is 50 per cent of the herd, yet
there are a large number of them who do not appreciate the fact
as they should. The best breeders usually appreciate the value
of a good sire and give the selection of one careful attention.
There are many, however, who are still using grades or in-
ferior pure breds in an effort to be economical. Such mistaken
economy is extremely costly to the dairymen, especially, since the
heavy milking quality of the dairy cow is an artificial characteris-
tic and must be constantly kept in the mind of the breeder in order
that the herd not degenerate rather than improve. Though this-
quality is dormant in the bull, still he transmits such qualities
to his daughters with surprising results.
Nothing except a pure bred bull from a strong milking line of
cows should be kept even though the females be grades. If he
is used on a grade herd, the calves will prove to be more 
satis-
factory milkers than were their mothers. A bull should not
be tolerated in a herd unless his daughters are equally as good
in case of heavy producers, and better, in case of light producers,
than were their mothers at the same age.
By keeping a bull which will decrease the average production
of the herd 1,000 pounds a year (which is not uncommon),
the production from thirty cows will be reduced 30,000 pounds
or 3,750 gallons. At ten cents per quart this is a loss of $1,500.00
annually. With a bull which would increase the average produc-
tion 1,000 pounds there would be a difference of $3,000.00 an-
nually in the value of the products from thirty daughters of
each of these bulls. Lorne of Merridale produced 12 daughters
in the herd at the University of Missouri which averaged 1,410
pounds more milk per year than their dams. This increase was
secured in a Jersey herd.* Where then, is the profit in keeping
an inferior sire and losing more each year than a good one would
cost?
It is not possible to tell from his general appearance what
kind of milking qualities the bull will transmit to his offspring.
However, the records of his immediate ancestors for at least:
*Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, Page 158.
satn e as,, the w.u slw in 1 il , 9,h is mchU mme l l 
aI c . king,. iniIIh~ III.ImtiII
i -
"1
44
SIcn ti ana I cIclnc nI iiiiiml ""m d r u iml and Ila" ii i 
. A ul
122
two generations back will show what he is most 
likely to do in
this respect. If the dams have 
been heavy producers and the
sires getters of heavy producers, the bull 
may be expected to
himself be a getter of heavy producers. If 
his sires and dams
have been only ordinary performers the bull 
will most likely be
only an ordinary sire.
The conformation of the bull should be considered as well
as his pedigree. In buying a bull of any age, he 
should be true
to type, strong in constitution, have good capacity, 
well developed
rudimentary teats, long level rump, be of good size 
for his age,
and have a masculine look.
A bull with long legs, small cylindrical body, short drooping
rump, and showing a lack of masculinity almost invariably 
proves
a sire of inferior producers. 
(See figs. 7 and 9.)
CHANGING BULLS.
Many breeders make the mistake of selling an old bull which
has been a satisfactory breeder and replacing him with a young
one. Under such circumstances it is not possible to tell what the
young bull will do before practically three years after he enters
the herd. By this time, if he is an unsatisfactory breeder, he has
already been a source of a greater loss than would have been the
cost of a good bull. Where it is possible, the most satisfactory
method is to buy a tried bull, or in other words one which has
been used as long as is advisable in some other herd and which
has proved to be a satisfactory breeder.
If it is necessary to take a young bull to replace an old and
good one, the old one should be retained until some calves have
been secured from several old cows and the young bull. In this
way it is possible to get a fairly good index to what the young
one will do as a breeder. Where the herd is of sufficient size to
make it profitable to keep two bulls, the old one should be re-
tained and bred to all the cows which are not closely related to
him. A second bull should be secured to breed to the cows re-
lated to the first bull and later to take the place of the old
one.
MANAGEMENT.
An improperly managed bull soon develops into the most
troublesome animal on a farm, while one carefully handled
should be very little more trouble than one of the females.
Under no consideration should he be placed in a paddock or pas-
ture where there is not a very substantial fence. Such treatment
only leads to further trouble. When he has once broken through
this weak fence it will be much harder to control him than be-
fore he had such an experience. A small pasture is the best
123
place for the bull as it cuts down the feed bill and also enables
him to take exercise. Care should be taken to see that it is well
fenced, however. If no small pasture is available the next best
place for the bull is a substantial pen near or adjoining the lot
in which the cows are kept. In this way the bull will take eonsid-
erable exercise passing along the fence, and it is also easier to lo-
cate those females which are in season. Where more than one
bull is kept, it is best to keep them in the same pen unless
they prove extremely hostile towards each other.
A breeding crate built in one edge of the pen is of great
assistance in mating the animals. This crate should open from
the outside and also into the "bull pen." With such a crate,
the cow can be placed in it and then the bull admitted from the
opposite side.
Many breeders have the idea that most bulls are over-fed.
This is usually not the case; they are more often under-fed.
He should .be fed liberally on a rather high protein ration for a
mature animal, since he requires more protein than does a fat-
tening animal. Where such is available, he should be given some
good succulent feed, pasture during the summer and winter pas-
ture, silage or some feed of this character during winter. Keep
him in a good vigorous condition in order that he may transmit
his qualities to his offspring to best advantage.
Part IV
Silos and Silage.
THE SILO.
In days past, farmers often considered the cow as an animal
suited to consume all of the spoiled hay and what little pasture
might be at hand, converting them into valuable dairy products.
Along with other advancements he has, or should have, changed
this opinion of the cow. There is no other animal on the farm
which deserves better feed and treatment or which gives greater
returns for the feed she receivs than does a good cow. She
has conformed to man's requirements in milk production and
when asked what she most desires, and given an opportunity
to demonstrate her answer, replies-"Silage when pasturage is
short."
The silo is no longer a feature of dairying to be experimented
with; it is a practical part of the dairy farm. Cottonseed were
originally dumped in rivers and are now converted into valuable
feed for cattle. Corn stalks were burned in days past, but now
it is possible to convert them, with their other parts, into a valua-
ble supplement to the cottonseed products. A silo for an average
herd of dairy cattle in the South can be built for less than $200.00
.and in many instances will pay for itself the first year. The silo
need not be excessively large and costly since they hold a large
-amount of feed for the space they apparently possess.
In the "Progressive Farmer" of May 28, 1912, Dr. Tait But-
ler gives a striking example of the cow's opinion of silage. The
-test was conducted by the Mississippi Experiment Station under
farm conditions. To quote Dr. Butler; "When winter came the
value of the silo became apparent. The seven herds without
silage averaged 240.4 pounds of milk per cow per month, while
the herd with silage averaged 855.9 pounds of milk per cow per
month, or a gain of 36.81 per cent for the silage-fed cows.
"In a herd of 20 cows this same rate of gain due to the silo,
would amount to 1,029 gallons of mill in five months. At 20
-cents a gallon this makes a gain of $205.80, due to silage for five
months or during the winter with a herd of 20 cows."
Where milk sells for 10 cents a quart, as it does in many parts
of Alabama, this increase of products would have amounted to
$411.60 for the 20 cows during the winter. A silo that would
hold sufficient silage for these 20 cows can be built for $200,
which is much less than the returns from the increase of products
for the first year. Not only this, but the cost of feeding the
.cows in the test referred to above was less where they received
125
silage, costing $3.00 per cow less for the five months, making
an additional profit to be credited to the silage.
CROPS FOR SILAGE.
There are several crops as corn, sorghum cowpeas, and soy
beans which may be used for silage, though it is doubted by the
writers whether it is advisable to use all of these except where
it is not possible to utilize them-in any other way.
CORN. Apparently there is no other crop which can satis-
factorily take the place of corn for making silage. It is not
uncommon to produce five tons or more of green corn on an acre
which is one thing in favor of corn. Furthermore, corn does not
contain as much sugar as sorghum, thus not making as sour a.
product as is the case with sorghum. The practice of removing
the ears and putting only the stalks and leaves into the silo is
not desirable for several reasons. First, the corn is still green,
and will not make a desirable product to be fed as ear corn to.
other animals, nor can it be easily cured; second, when the ears
are removed the silage is not so valuable as a feed and more
supplementary grain will be required; third, the grain contained
in silage is practically as valuable as where it is preserved as ear
corn. The small amount which is dropped on the ground, or
which passes through the animals as whole corn, may be con-
sumed by hogs. Taking all things into consideration it is surely
an undesirable practice to pull the ears from silage corn, except
where there is a ready market for "roasting ears" and a part of
the corn is removed for this purpose.
SORGHUM. Sorghum furnishes a large amount of valuable
green feed for cows at a time when pastures are short, but is
probably most satisfactorily fed as a soiling crop (cut and fed
green). When made into silage it furnishes a large amount of
sugar to be converted into acid and therefore is very apt to be-
too sour, and may be of a slimy nature. Many farmers, however,
are using it for silage purposes with marked success.
COWPEAS AND SOYBEANS. Leguminous crops, such as
these) furnish our most valuable hay and are almost totally con-
sumed by stock as such. For this reason it is best to make these
into hay where such is possible. If the season is a very wet one
and it is not possible to convert these crops into hay they may be
advantageously used for silage. Where it is possible, though, it
seems to be the best farm practice to make these crops into hay
and use corn to fill the silo.
126
The following table shows the actual cost of producing silage
on Alabama farms.
Cost of Producing Si/age on Alabama Farms.*
Acres of Yield Cost Cost Total cost
COUNTY corn per acre, per acre per ton of silage
Tons filling silo per ton
Pike______________ 25.0 3.12 $5.00 $0.88 $2.49
Jefferson -____________ 6.0 5.80 4.00 .91 1.59
Chilton ____________ 14.0 4.00 4.87 .89 2.10
Chilton______________ 4.75 5.49 8.03 1.13 2.59
Jefferson _______ 8.5 7.64 7.50 .91 1.89
Montgomery----- 20.0 10.00 7.00 .86 1.55
Baldwin-------- 5.0 9.30 16.20 .75 2.77
Bibb________ 5.0 7.56 8.95 1.01 2.40
Baldwin--------------- 4.0 7.5 17.00 .48 3.57
*Data collected by the Animal Industry Department at Auburn in co-
operation with the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture.
P i-. )q Silt at \ .l i I ii
128
The silo shown in fig. 10 is the one in use at the 
Experiment Sta-
tion at Auburn. It has been in use three 
years giving perfect
satisfaction. It is 12 feet in diameter, 26 feet high 
and has a
capacity of 60 tons. This is a concrete silo with 
walls 5 inches
thick, re-enforced with hog wire fencing 
and was built at a cost
of $188.00. One the size of this is sufficient for a 20-cow 
dairy
and also furnish silage for the bull and 
what heifers and calves
are on hand.
Supposing that the cows receive 25 pounds each 
day for five
months, they would consume 32 1-2 tons leaving over 25 tons 
to
be used for other animals as the bull and heifers and to offset the
small amount which will spoil. This silo shown above gives 
a
cost of $2.30 per ton investment for the silo. Where 
the silo is
larger the investment per ton is less.
The time when silage should be fed is usually given as during
the winter, but in the South where it is possible to have good win-
ter pastures there is another time when silage is worth just 
as
much to the dairyman as during the winter, and that is in tiding
over the period between the time when summer 
pastures fail and
the time winter pastures come in. This period is 
usually from
about Oct. 1 to Dec. 1 to 15. Oats or rye will be 
ready to graze
in December and will furnish grazing all winter. 
About the first
of Febriuary bur clover will begin to furnish grazing 
also.
Winter crops sometimes fail however, and there are times 
when
the land is too wet to be pastured and silage is necessary 
to keep
up the milk flow. For these reasons the dairyman 
should always
Lave silage on hand and during the winter 
he will find it profit-
able to feed some silage even though his cows have 
green crops to
graze. In fact, some dairymen feed it the year 
round profitably.
There are frequently dry spells during the summer and 
the
pastures get short, and in such cases silage is a wonderful 
help
in keeping up the productiveness of the herd.