A;'0
I
S
A/
9
Li ~
I.LGHLIGHT
------------ -----------
r
f
this
issue
(Jluest C 1)Iumrlf
Fighting Fescue Toxicitx
Old Rotation Documents Sustainable
Cotton Production
\ Better Way to Choose Your Wheat
Textile Sludge Boosts Cotton Yields
The Changing Face of' Rural Alabaimt
I nlocking the Enmu Oil My stery
(Composting Sweetens Smell of Swine Manure
I ungi Affecting Alabama's Winter Wheat
Iwo-Stage Feeding of Broiler Breeders:
Good Egg or Bad Egg?!
Clean Orchard Floors Yield More Pecans
I oxx-fat Ground Beef:. Good Food in Many Ways
A'FarlyCoxver: A Full Benefit Cover Crop
Controlling Cockroaches with Less Insecticide
Hormonal Treatments May Muscle Up
Swine Industry
ONTHEUkCO)VER. Auburn Uiniverx inx's ''0hdRotatuon in)Aint'i
oldes t cointl inulous cottoin C Ip)eri/liC/t. It has prov'ided v'o/w
in/ornuioon susA talinale aIgiriculltunre:' see storPV onl pauge 4~
NN I i n t r 1 9 9 4 V 
I ui m c 4 1 N u m b e r
xAubun i Cl trilt.
LM AI I) [i, I IN B S 1......... D~ie.Iti ihr i
DA I x ii I fN ........ ... _.... Assoial~ic irector~
RI'SI Ii N iii xN 'IRNG Assoite IDirectr
PAi GRI I SA _.I ._,) ......... xr) um DM ic to
E diiorial Coum mhittee: I -vcllI rol i i I Cn(ol m , i
,,t. n/Hoiticuli tue: It/tco Lien AistanItitut Its ofot-
,tn S, wm c \cs \551(.1. ftmnili oia,tef rtsn ctt
Agri, illwaltcf Eltn of Ircti ti Rual x1oMio N: Robelrttt Tifl
HCr ft~ Entmoli: Jim Sar, 5.tint. A ttIriiiti PrFc/i tof An
tim,,' lot, ini nd km bC MWcru
1)11) nd',Nemn hi Xteit laam liricuIlt ttt I-xl imcnt
Staion oii Auhuit it-ntt iht it)o tne hbrand uset ano.thettr.
ICeac Ci re IpotedCi does nt otlituiC rcitmmeindaiont ot)
'.hotild he i.ued .1u rIeCs aihmtc IhitC pCImitted hi the iIheli
In
lrl '',
A
1
-icultmral rescai-ch calls for team-
wxor k and increased attention to doxwnstream
3concerns of 
the wxorlId's market 
ecoinomy.
The role ol the consumer in the food and
fiber system has taken on gieateri impor-
tance as expanding pioduct Choices lead to
fierce competition in the mar ketplace.
6 Food satcety 
and nutrition 
hav e been
6 catapulted to the top of the national agenda.
8 Ini preparation 
for the 1995 Farm 
Bill reau-
thorization, the human sciences comu
I0 nith% xill sponiisor 
a food chain wo rks hop 
in
Wash i nton, D.C. Some key topics wxill
2 inclnde dietary patter 
ns and consumer food
behav ior. impros ing health through opti-
1 3 oral nutrition, and tood safety and quality.
In parnrciship wxith ITextilIe Engineer-
15 in, reseaircheirs, Consumer Af'fairs fac-
ultx tackle issues of product safety and
quality, mar kets. and trade. Aubuirn and
16 three other univ ersit ies 
work jointly in
the National Textile Center. perhaps the
18 ult imate unix ersity, industry. gov'ernment
partnership. The NTC is funded by a $
19 million appropriation f-rom the U.S. lDe-
partment of Commeircc andi is guided by
20 national textile industirx leaders.
Through these expeiriences, wxe haxve
22 learned that partnerships gain strength
throu eh com mitment to common pu--
poses and div ersity (of expertise. Our
23 outreach hey ond the 
traditional bOL nd-
aries of agriculture xxill establish newx
systems and encompass nexx talent to
generate creat ixe sol ut ions for today 's
cu 's comnplex problems.
l1)/C Jll/ie Hellion, D)ean
* School ot'Humncni Sciences
F IGH T IN G
3es cue 
'toxicitu
by Dauvid Brimn.sbr, Daviid Kee,.
(111d John/ Owuen
p7
Ca ttle producers could hav e a new tactic for combat-
tine the effects of tall f'escue pastures infected with
a toxic fung~us on grazing liv estock. Toxic fescue slow s the rate of
weight gain in beef cattle, but AAES researchers discovered that
using a deworming medication in combination with growth hormone
implants had a dramatic effect in countering this problem.
Beel steers era/inh toxic fescuc shoxxed
more than an additix c increase in xweight
Lain wixhen dexxoi med wxith Iv omec and
implanted wxith Sy novxx comparedi to wxhen
they ireceivxed either product alone. This
appar-ent sy nergistic elffect ot the txxo prod-
ucts was not evident among steers grazing
fescue xxith loxx lexels of toxicity.
It isx wcll knoxxn that oroxxth iimplants,
infection of animals xxith worms, and tall
fescue infected xxith the toxic endoph\ IL
fungus. Acreoion it/O roenopliinioo all at-
fect the hormonal system of beet cattle. lIn
addition. sex eral expeiments hax e shoxxni
unusually large xxeight gain responses to
dcxxormine cattle xxith Ixomec on toxic
fescue. Hoxxexver. no previous research cx-
Alabamao A g',i~ iltii or/xpl 1 l-uiewi .Stton
lh litIxhr o/A It iiltiiot Pesctt ot Vol. 41,
aiined the interaction am tmg all three of
these f actors on beef animals.
Steers grazed high-and loxx tuneus lCS-
cue at Sand Mountain Substat ion in
Crossville in spring and summer 1994 xxith
I ) no dcxxorming Or implant 1 nont eated
controls), (2) dewxorming xxitl Ix omec onlI.
Nontr ea tedilei'drs (left) vh tni .ign'o of /cs
cti/Cci~ onW hWO/ ig ih-fliigas( /)oaslflrc.,
rrit i /c tos treated iftil it/i Iviomec andi/ t
.Sx oi c aret hea(lthy.
but no implant, (3~) Synfo\ cx S implant only,
but no dexxormer. or (4) both dcxxor1ming
wxith lx omec and implanting xxith Sy nox ex.
Sixty-four steeirs wxere placed on l6 txxo-
acre pastures at a stocki ng rate of t\\ 600-~
pound steers per acre. All treatments except
2 and 4 on loxx-fungus pastures also xxere
ex aluated at the Piedmont Substation in
Camop Hill in ihe spring only. Highlungus
C oninied on l /u; -1
Average Daily Weight Gain for Steers Grazing High- and Low-Fungus
Fescue With or Without Treatment with Ivomec and Synovex
Treatment Sand Mountain Piedmont
High-fungus Low-fungus High-fungus Low-fungus
Lb/lday Lb/lday Lb/lday Lb/lday
Nontreated controls 1.27 1.48 0.38 1.06
Ivomec only 1.54 1.89 0.53-
Synovex only 1.28 1.71 0.63 1.59
Ivomec & Synovex 1.75 1.71 1.42-
Vo.4, Ut iiter 1994
pastures averaced about 701r infection and
low-muncLus pastuires about I5/. Grazing
continued for 203 days at Sand Mountain
and 84 days at Piedmnt.
Nonticated animals on high-funeus pas-
tures shoxxed typical siculs of fescue
toXicosis. ,including rocich. muddy haircoats
and poo' condition (scc photo on page 3).
At Sand Mountain there was relatively little
weight gain response tocitlici productx hen
adminiistered alone on hilh-fcineus fescue.
but the response was large when the piod-
ucts were applied together (see table). In
fact. wx hen both piodicts were ised on
animals irazing hichfunL us pastures.
weight gain was similar to the hichest gains
rec(rded Ior animaIs grazing low-fungus
pastui Cs. Weight gain pci acre was 71(0
pounds. wIhich is exceptional I high tor
stockers graz ing toxic fescue without
sipplement. F;urthieimoie, these steers
showedl little si(il (if fescue toxicosis . Al-
thognefi cight cgain wxas lowxer at the Pied-
mont Substation, the pattern amonc the
treatments tested was vci y Similar and actu-
ally miore pronounced oi Iiigh-fungus pas-
tuires. Howx ever. these patteris were not
evident among animals grazing low-fuii
gus fescue at either location.
The strong similiaiity ini resuIts from the
two locations suggests that the response
observed in this study might he consistent.
However. 1994 was a year of unusually
high rainfall and results could be weather-
dependent. Furthermore, the physiological
mechan isim that caused the xeight gain
response is not understood. Consequently.
further research is needed to examine these
issues.
Bransby is a Professor, Kee is 
a Research Associate,
and Sladden is a Research Specialist in Agronomy and
Soils. Eason is Superintendent of the Sand Mountain
Substation and Owen is Superintendent of the Pied-
mont Substation.
armers aie coicerned about
U . the world's ability to sustain
profitable agricultural prodLuc
tion. Consumers deiand
high-quality dependable. and low-cost
products. And both groups support farm-
ing practices that protect the environment
and preserv e natural resources. A simple
xay to measure sustainability. taking into
account all these attributes, has not yet
been developed.
Howeer. AAES researchers xxith
Rockefeller Foundation support have rea-
sured sustainability of continuous cotton
productioi using the concept of "total fac-
tor productivity" (TFP) at Auburn
University's "Old Rotation." The
Rockefeller Foundation selected the Old
Rotation. Arerica' s oldest continuous cot-
ton experiment. to document the
sustainability of cotto production. fn the
study, researchers utilized Old Rotation
records that date back to the experiments5
inception in 1896. Trends can be observed
over aliost a century of continuous pro-
cuctio ard an era ottrenenclous chance in
technology and markets.
TFP rexeals how productive a systen is
by conpari ng all prodiction inputs and
outputs. TFP cses aii index that allows
coiparisos from one year to the iext exen
whei input and output prices change. The
index considers all inputs of the cropping
system, the costs of those inputs, all out-
puts, aid the xalue of those oitpits. If the
index is greater than 1.0 the aiount of
i)citput prouLicecf per uiit of inpit is in-
creasing oxer time. and the system can be
considered sustaiiable.
The Old Rotation experiment includes
differeit rotations of cotton xiti corn. soy-
beans. snall crains, and winter legumes
(crinson cloxer and xetch). Three ot the
contiiuois cotton systens were analyzed
A labamia Agr,'icu ltural F kpeiunicnt Sttion
ili,:;hrc I/ 1 Agic ultural Rex ((iiu/ih Vol. 41, Na 4. IVi,nteri 1994
roU t 'It toT
% 'odu ()J
b v Charles Mitchell, Gre goryv Traxler, anid Jam/es Novak
Taking rec'~ords in the "Old Rom-i
tion 'ini 1923. Establishedin 1890
ton and leg'iines, the Old1 Rota-
tion is still active onI the .same
plhots.
n this study: (Il) no leg1umes and no fertil-
izer nitrogen: (2) winter legume nitrogen
only: and (3) Fertilizer nitrogen only (120
pounds 1)1N peracre peryearas ammonium
nitrate).
The output index is the yield of cotton
lint and seed and the price receise cc or each
product. Input measurements are not as
simple to calculate. [hey include costs far
seed. feitilizcmr. pesticides, harvest, ginning.
machi nery, fuel, and labor (see table). Also
consider ed in the sustal nabilIity measure-
ments wAere inputs with indirect costs, such
as soil erosion associated wxith each crop-
ping system and potential ens ironmental or
health threats posed by pesticide use. Such
"externalities"' are dificult to quantity. Val-
uies based on pies ious research wsere tised
as ireferences in these calculations.
Uising 1990 as a reference point, the
figcure illustrates no constant trend in TFP
ar sustai nabi lits'. The treatment using fer-
tilizer N did not begin until 1956. There
hasve been periods (1I90()-1925 and 1 965-
1980) swhen pm odue ______________
tis UN sas declining 
iii Output and 
inP
all systems. From tIe Old Rotation,
late 1 940s until the
I970s, productis its
increased. A dramatic
Output
increase occuiied Se
around 1960 wshen 
a Lint
single technologicl. Input
adsvancement aser- Seed
sshelmed all other in Fertilizer
puit factors 
the Herbicide
adoption 
of the iec 
netcd
chanial 
ctton 
Drying/ginning
chanica cototi Defoliant
picker. The large 
ini Labor
crease in TFP associ- Machinery
ated swith this one
adsvancement points out the tremendous
nfluence technology can hasve on aericul-
tum al sustainabilIity.
ItJ
All three Old Rotation treatments fulfill
at Icast one Citeria reqilired for a system to
______________________he sustainable out-
ut Shares on the 
It per unit input is
1896 and 1992 liiher in 1991 than
m1896, esven when
1896 1991 cverilalities are sil-
Pct. Pct.
ied. The external el-
S 1 1 
eets of soil 
erosion
93 89 
and pesticide use
usen only a modest
8 6 ci tect on measuired
II 4 pI oductis ity. How-
0 5 es r. 
the loss input.
2 9 
svstem w ith 
neither
28 39
o i Ihemical or organic
34 7 
nitrogen is less pro-
1 7 29 JuCtis e than 
the other
155o sy stems. The or-
"anie and chemiical sources of nitiogen
hasve similar productis its' impacts.
Continued oin page 6
A4labama Ari uiIuihiii (IIx/eriiiiei Statioli
IHig'/in, hi o aAgri( ihuma Research V1oh. 4!. No.4, W)inier 1994
l)V Bethi (;ii'ital, Edcrcl t'a/i .Sante,,
Kathy Glass, Paul Mas k,
(hid IDavid Brantsbv
A BETTER WMY TO 
CHOOSE YOUi
I ac/h xuar, fan ners are faced frith the challenige of
selecting ti/zeat Vaietie~s thact ar~e high vie/ding, disease
res/is rant, and adapted bnr i/eir grotling are-a. Variety in/orrinationt av'ail-
able tlirough'l the AAES hlps ftnners make those .selections, cand non'
re.5eac Iil is 1protidaig (icadditiontcl informationi that can enable. fizr,,ers to
Var iety information ot ten is gleaned by
harmers from the AAES A laama Pert or'
nu10/ie Comiparison ot Smnall Grain Variet
isreport. This publication. ax ailable
thirough the AAES and at each countx
E'xtension off ice. provxides yield rankings
from v aiety trials conducted at I I loca-
[Hacke eveni miore echiecuted dc/cisions.
So, w~hat does all this mean to Alabama
cotton farmers wsho are interested in uio
tainable cotton production? These Ii.~
prox e that continuouS cotton producti~
can be sustainable. Hoxwecxer. the cfel l)I
xweather, management, pests, technolog i. I
adxvancements. and other factors can cr ci e
productivity cycles that may last for sex ciii
decades. Because major technological
breakthroughs cannot be predicted, futture
sustainability cannot be predictedl. Farmet
can only use those practices that appear i
gixve them the highest TFP in today's ~
terns.
Mitchell is an Associate Professor of Agronomy and
Soils; Traxler ison Assistant Professor and Novak is an
Associate Professor of Agricultural Economics and
Rural Sociology.
6
TSFP Index (1990 c100)
150
No nitrogen
Cotton-winter legume
120 Ib./a. N
(begun in 1956)
100
50
0l 1 1 1 1 1 1
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980
andi niff.sift peit'iide t'sf. TII I (outputii inidex) / (input i/hil's).
Alaibaimai A groitua of i 5/h imief i Stion
Highliiliht of A g',icunl Resear/ cicoh Vol. 41, No.4. iter 1994
K
'.f. f
a variety with below
average yields in poor
environments and
above average yields
in good enviornments
Lower yielding Average yielding Higher yielding
locations locations locations
60-
6500
".%
a Q
s> <>0Florida 302
3 30 Avg. yield 42 bu./a.
Q Q Saluda
Q Average yield 39 bu./a.
0 All varieties 36 bu./a.
20 
_j 
L
20 30 40 50 60
Environment mean yield, bu/a.
F-igufre 1. ,SItiilit\ (lOidvis. Figu re 2. Exoiopl' stahility oaiohs is.
tions thiouighout Alabama. alone wxith dis-
ease ratings for niorthern, Southern, and
central Alabama. Wheat grai n x ields frm
the c uric nt x ear are published, along wxith
txxo- and liii e-year station and regional
av erages.
Researchers in the lDepartment of
Agronomy and Soils hax e been exploring
the ise of a tee hn icie call ccl tabiIi ty analy
si s" to provside growers with additional
infor mation about the relatixve yi elds of
xwheat xvarietiles across Alabama. StabilIity
analysis is a comparison method where the
performance ol a selected wxheat xvariety is
compared to all the other varieties in the
trial. Stabil ity ainalysis is different trom
methods ccirrently cised because yield dif-
ferences dhic to location are not j1 Lst aver-
aged into a inal ax erage number. but are
consideied an important par t ol the v ariety
selection process. Stability analysis is often
presented as a graph, so the response of the
variety to dlifferent locations (chances iin
enxvironment)I can be examined visually.
Using F igur e I as an example, the aver-
ace x telds of all x aricties is represented as
a diagonal linie that dix ides the figucre into
twxo equal triangles. This is the reference
line against x"hich specific xvatrieties aire
compared. Yields ol a specific xx heat x ani
ety are plotted against the axverage y ield of
ail xvarieties at each location.
The axverage yield cof a givetn location is
an indicator of the quality ol that enx iron-
ment- if the location is high yielding then
it wxill appear on the right hand bottom side
of Figccre I. If the location is loxw yieldinc,
it xxill appear on the left-hand side. WXhetn
all the indixidcial locations haxve been plot-
ted, a line describing the relatiotnship be-
twe en the selected x ariety, anid all the other
varieties is calculated. These are the lines
that ate illIcstrated in Figcure I.
It the line lies aboxve the diagonal line
then it is a stable xvariet, .and it has
outs ielded the ax crace of all the x arities.
no matter how poor or gocod the ensviron-
ment (the orange line in Figuite I ). The
creen line illcistrates a x ariety that per-
lotrmed wxorke than the average in poor
ensvironments, bctt yields better than the
axverage in good envxironments, a typical
Sitciation xxith man', wxheat x arieties.
Ten years of wxheat xvariety trials con-
dlccted at 12 locations xxith a total of 82
vat tties xer ctccsed in the stahility~ anlalysis.
As an example. twxo wxheat xatricties popuilar
n Alabama are cisedl in the stabilIity analysis
illustrated in Figcure 2. Florida 302 consis-
tenitlx outy ielded the axverage ot all the
varieties, regardless ofl the qlcal ity of the
ensvironment. In contrast, Salcida performed
poor ly in loxx ci y ielding enxvitronmenlts, bcit
ciuts ielded the ax erace and F loridla 302 in
the best enxviroaments.
Some states already include stabi lit',
analx sis in N earlx 5 arietx test publications.
The cisc of stahi lity anal)ysis for selection of
xxheat xvarieties shoxxs promise. andc it may
become a regular par of the A labaia Per-
/ao7?tattde Coompari son o/ Sniali Grain Vao
rieties. A combi nation of stabi lity, anialysi s
and conventional xvariety test results can
help growxers to select xxheat xvaricties xxell
adapted to their specific location.
Guertal is an Assistant Professor, van Sonten is an
Associate Professor, Glass is a Research Associate,
Mask is an Associate Professor, and Bronsby is a
Professor of Agronomy and Soils.
Alibamia . I i,' ina iiii iiA periliel St ationi
igh'IlightsioA/ g~riciiiiiia! Rescr,(I Vol. 4/, No.4, intri 1994
a variety
with above
average yields
W HEMT
Mudge
3joosts
?otton
E
In effort to recycle and keep
)tnialy valuable materials out
ii more and moie materials are
being ev~aluated as soil amendments. One
Such material is textile miiill w.sastewater
treatment Sludge. w~hich resulted in impres-
sive yield increases when applied to cottonl
at the E.V. Smith Research Center in
Shorter.
Textile sludge contains decomposed
waste fibers and dyes that collect in a wxaste-
'Tis iesearch '.a s suppor ted by ihe WVs t Point-
Stsns ill in O pchika.
.Sludg'e-treated p)lots (le~ft tore grond) has
highJer \ iehts than i ventionalls tern/li,.cd
w~ater lagoon. According to Env ironmental
Protection Agency guidelines, the sludge
used in this study could be applied w~ith no
restri ction s.
Sludge wxas collected from a local textile
mill and dr ai ned of water. It was applied
and incorporated just before cotton wxas
planted in late April of 1993 and 1994.
Prcliminary tests had indicated that the
sludge contained 10 pounds of nitrogen (N)
ier-ela LUd grnoxit of eL/lng cottoni a111
p)lots (righ/t, toregr'toiind) inl 1993.
per w~et toil. buit tests after application ire-
vealed that it actual ly contained approxi-
mately 1 8 pounds. Only hall that aimount
was available foi plant uptake. Therefore,
each ton ol Sludge provided nine pounds ot
av ailable N. instead of the fiv\e pounds for
w~hich reseairchers had original ly planned.
The sludge w~as low in other primary and
secondary nutr ients.
Three application rates were used: 20.
A labama Agicltura tnvtoI'erimtet .'tulioti
Hig'h Iigiv o/ Agricuiltural0 Re seoo Ii Vol. 41, No.A Wintr /994
.r
c,
by CIrle.s' MitChell and1( Johni Odomn
40, and 801 tons per acre. These rates pro-
vided I80, 260. and 720 pounds of axail-
able N per acre, respectively. The unex-
pectedly high rates were enough to create
excessive vegetative growth under the right
conditions. Sludge was applied to fallow
land each year. In addition, the 1993 treat-
ments were evaluated for their residual
effects in 1994. Both years, researchers
included treatments that received 100
pounds of N as anmonium nitrate and
others that received no N.
In the relatively dry growing season of
1 993. sludge-treated plots produced 501,
to 73( more cotton than the conventional I
fertilized treatments. However, 1994 vl.
relatively wet, and yields in the sludge-
treated plots were 4% to 22% lower than
plots treated with 100 pounds of N as
ammnounium nitrate. The high-N rate caused
excessive vegetatiye growth and rank cot-
ton. There were no significant differences
in yield between the 20-ton and 80-toi
rates.
The high rate of sludge application in
1993 had no negative effects. 
Instead,
sludge improved the physical condition of
the soil by providing organic material, and
it increased water-holding capacity of the
soil. These factors may have contributed to
the dramatic yield increase from the sludge
duiring the dry growing season.
Soil prolile analysis after harxest indi-
cated that nitrate-N was leaching below the
effective rooting zone where excessive
sludge was applied. Where 80 tons of
sludge per acre was applied in the spring.
soil samples contained as much as 60
parts per million (ppm) of nitrate-N in the
16- to 24-inch depth. compared to five
ppm where 100 pounds of fertilizer N was
applied.
There also was significant N carryover
from 1993 to 1994 where 80 tons of sludge
were applied. The residual effects of the
1993 application produced significantly
higher yields in 1994 than any of the other
treatments.
When used at appropriate rates based
upon total N. the textile mill sludge could
have positive agronomic benefits tor some
cotton producers.
Mitchell and Odom are Associate Professors of
Agronomy and Soils.
1993
1994
1994
1993
residual
Q No sludge Q Sludge
Seedcotton ields f romi the application ofIO pounds Nper acre as fertilizer cd
20, 40, and 80 tons per acre of wastewater sludge. Considerable N carreover is
eividcit in 1994 Yield from residual sludoe applied in 1993.
Alohaia Agriliriduul Expseriment Srtion
High,'light.Jis o/lAgicr iliuilz Researci Vol. 41, No.4. Wiire, 1994
Seedcotton yield, Ib./a.
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
Loe (ik7klglvzg Jcice op Rh 1rn
he change that has occurred in rural Alabama dutring this
century is astounding. In a period not much longer than the 75-
year average life expectancy of today's Alabamiats, the state
has shifted from rural, farm-baled to urban, indttstr) /serx ice-
based. This population shift ttanslates into a changed eco-
nomic and political reality and a need for new policies to serve
all Alabamians.
It 1900, 88 / of Alabamians liv ed in
riral areas and 65(k livedc and wxoirked on
art s (Figure I ). Nincty years later, fexwer
than 401/ lixe in rural areas and only, 1.5(1
aire Iarm residents. The most rapid change
occurred between 1 94) and 1 970) wxhen
the rural IpopulIat ion dec rca sed fr om 701h
to 42(' and the fairm populatin from 47i(
to less than 5(/
While Alabama as, a xx ole is 
6
01(
iii ait, the 199(0 U.S. Census rev eal s that
46 of the state's 67 counties remain pie-
dominantly ruiral, xxith more than half the
residents liv ing in the onpe n-countr', or itt
tow\ns and comimunit ics of fxxwer thait
1500)( inhabitants (F'iure 2). Sexventeen
counties xxere moie than 80 / rural: I)
wercie 65- 80%4 rural: and 13 xxere 50-
6
5(,
inuial
Betwxeen 1980 and 1990 the fastest
growxin- ruiral counties were those adjaI
cent to metiopolitan aieas (FI-igure 3 I.
Shelb', Countx, whxich wxas 651/ rural i
1980) grexx 70(k duiig the decade to 61
uii an. Baldxxin Count', increased 25 i
St. Claii Count', 211 I .iiustoneCountx,
I18(/: and Elmore County. 13(/. In all. 20)
ciiral counties grexx in the 1 980s.
Buct most rural counties lo(tst popul Iat ioin
during the decatde. Pen'v and (oticilt-
ties each declined more than 101k. This loss
of people f roum Alabama's rural counties
wxas the result of nmore residents mox inc out
of these counties than there wxere babies
born or ncxx residents mox inc in. The larg-
est out-igr~iation occurrecd fromi counties
located across the rural. B lack Belt area of
the state, particularly, Perry (-21 1(), Dallas
(19(/r), WXilcox~ (-17(/), and Loxxndcs
1 6%) counities (Ii11Uii 4).
Moire than 89, 100 peIrsons - 23(: of
the population ceft Alabama durng the
1 98(), Indl s etc not teplaced h\ nultutal
JiJ,} j4,1J)~
SLost population
Gained 0%-5%
Gained more than 5%
Urban
080%.+ rural
0 65% -80% rural
S50% -65% rural
Urban
I// tih nt o 1,i i/tz I i incI I t/. ti r i, it
Hhlit hts u).1t irt i/1 Re icoun Voln. 4/A Nit. 1t Wittw I94
1'J J J 1 J1 J' JJJ.} . Jl
J JJ J
47/ xu'u 6
/)V Gilenn Hloie, John~ IDimkelbcrger, and Noel Tiom~psoii
J JnJ.iJ J'1
I I I I I
ncrease ( more bitt hs than deaths)I or in-
migration. In 5I counties. both iruiral and
uirba n, inore people mov ed ouit than imoved
intt I ban coutnties wsith the greatest out-
nigration losses wsere Dallas ( -1I9%) .
Calhoun and Jefferson 017c%), Etowsah and
Mobile (~ ). and Montgomer y (-3%)r
Africanl \ utet can r esidents. wsho corn-
0 Lost more than 1 5%
III Lost 0% -1 5%
Gained in-migrants
Urban
Lost more than 1 0%
Lost 0% -15%
[ Gained in-migrants
[_ Urban
:1JWL.,, ]w_; JiLL)
I/i/u tu A i"u lirui~l L ipet-imett .Stuiiu
Ii" i/ic/ts u 4 cot itu/iru Rce nit Vol. -/.,
A)
prise more than 
9 5
r of Alabama's non-
w\hite population, lelt at a higher rate than
wshite residents ( Figure 5). Only 16 coun-
ties show\ed a net increase of nonwh ites.
and all hut thiree of these counties were in
the northern half of the state wxher e the
nonw~hite population has been smallI his-
torically. The exceptions, located in the
southern halt ot the state, w~ere Lee, Elmore,
and Bullock counties. Rural counties wkithi
the largest proportionate increases in non-
w.hite population w~ere Dekalb (?5c/r ), Win-
ston (21 er ). Lassrence ( 201( ), Jackson
( 18c.) and Mairion ( 74 ) . Conv ersely,. the
larg-est declines in African-American resi-
dents amione rural counties occurired in the
B lack Belt counties of Loss ndeS. Marengo,
Perry. and Wilcox. where out-migCration
sas in excess ot 24 during1( the 190S
The transformation of Alabama frtorn a
ruralI to urban state has occurred at a raptid
pace. It has cett many rural counties and
muttLIi-county areas economically and po-
l itically wseakened. It has wsidened difI er-
etnces in standards oflivking between ruiral
,tnd urban iresidents. It has iraised aness
qutestitins about eq~uiity in rutral and urban
education, health care, and social serv ices.
C'ontinued out-migration of rural residents.
particuilarly older x outh and x oung adults.
eopardizes efforts to promote and accom-
pl ish social and economic dev elopment in
rutral aicas.
Howze and Dunkelberger are Professors of Agricul-
tural Economics and Rural Socialogy. Thampsan ts an
ACES Data Analyst.
\ o.4, I intui l )C)4
UnLocking the Emu OiL1 Myst(
Findings Could Boost Alternative Agricul
by MA/argaret Craig-Schmidt, Amnda Brown, and Paud Smith
BEmu oil has recently
received attention for its
Emu s are becoming
popular Ilivestock among
farmers looking- tot alterna-
tiv e agriculture. Nationally,
about 10,000 emit ranchers have
an estimated 500,00) birds. The
industry is in its infancy in Ala-
bama bitt growsing. and experts say
thiat further emu production is fea-
sible in the state. Greater under-
Emu1 p~roductionis a, sml but/Si
l015iilg indiixrt~v in Alobanio.
standing of the benefits ot emu-related prod-
Lids could make the industry grow~ at an
even laster rate.
It is not known exactly hosw emu oil
exerts its beneticial effects. Because sex-
eral fatty acids ate knowsn to hav e potent
phy siological eftects. it is impotata to char-
acteriz'e the composition ot emu oil. AAES
researchers studied the f atty acid comrposi-
tion of emun oil and toulnd inflotrmat ion thIiat
helps explain the oil's properties and pos-
sible benefits.
Approximately 70%4 of the fatty acids in
emu fat wsere found to be unsaturated, wxhich
is consistent wxith current recommendations
for a "heart healthy " diet. The emu s mieat.
wxhich tastes mutch like beet, is lows in
cholesterol and 97c fat-free. In addition.
the Auburn study tounid emu oil to be hich
in a I atty acid that is kntowsn to help topical
agents penet ate the skin.
Natural fat contains a mi xture of threcc
types of fatty acids -saturated.
monountsat urated, and polyunsaturated.
Saturated fat in the diet raises blood choles-
terol. Unsaturated fats losser blood choles-
terol lev els, thus reducing one's risk for
cardiov ascular disease. Some polyuinsatu-
rated ty pes are cal led *'essential fatty acids"'
because they are necessary tor good health
bitt can only be obtained trom dietary
itutees.
Alabama Agsricutural Experimewnt Staton
Hig~hligs~ of A g' 1iull s I rchl Vol. 4]. No.4, Wter 1,994
54
possible therapeutic
and cosmetic benefits.
Oil from the emu, a
flightless bird second
in size only to the os-
trich, has long been
used as a pain-te-
lieving emollient
by Australian Ab-
origines and is cur-
rently being used in
the cosmetic induts-
try for its reported
protectiv e and soft-
ening effects on the skin.
sp
M
ire Industry
1)V 1 /t M -ICaskeV and Joe Little
Oleic acid was found to lie the ma-
or nionouiisaturatedl fatty acid in emu
oiil, comprising oxver 40%4 of total fatty
acids. Oleic acid is kinown to enhance
lhe transporit of hi act ixe c o11pou nd s
into the skinii possibly explai ning xxhy
enxu oil is cery penetrating. In a
folloxxup investigation, Auburn re-
searcher s aie Study ingc' mu oils abil-
it y to triaiispoit aint i-inifiam mat io(n drugs
through1 the skinl.
L inoleic acid, an essential fatty acid
involx ed in the production (If poxxerful
hoirmone-like compounds required for
normal body function. wxastfound to be
the primary polyunsaturated fatty acid
in emu oil. Linoleic acid comprised
20(4 of total fatty acids.
Othei unsatuirated fats found wxere
pal mitoleic acid (less than 5%~), lino-
lenic acid (1-2(( ), and arachidonic acid
trace amounts). Matoi satuiated fatty
acids in emu oil were palimitic acid
()f and stearic acid (8c/ ). Ten
samples from birds across the South-
east xxerie analx zed by gas clhioiiatog-
raphiy: eight of the saiiples were non-
reiidered, and twxo wxere rendered.
Craig-Schmidt is an Associate Professor and
Brown is a Graduate Research Assistant in
Nutrition and Food Science. Smith is a Professor
of Pothobiology.
Alabama iiiii/ icii/iioa! k spet in ii .Stationi
COM POSTING SEQUENCE
D 
5" poultry 
litter
or recycled compost
D1.5" swine manure
D 0.25" 
peanut hulls 
wood
chips, or chopped hay
A I t h Ii l la1\ / 4 /ouiIi \ lino ()U it (Xiled
compos~)t was sed ais the hl e, followied III a
1.5-inch lax er (Ifiine maniure ainda 0.25 inch
hiaver of 1)ulking ageInt. IThe sequ/ience nvas
r'epeaited( fie tilil~i, aund a file-inch lax er of
litter or (0)mp)/ (IlS (ohded to the top.
to luable use aIs a fertil-
izei; but it canl create nloxious odors
duriing land application and can con-
tami nate xxatcr Supplies if applied im-
properly. AAE-S research has showsn
that composting may help reduce these
problenis and enhance the usel ulnesS of
this byproduct.
Conmposting has been adv ocated to
cr eate a marketable resource. wxhilec
minimizine landfill disposal of biode-
ci adable wxastes. This method is com-
monly used by pouiltry producers and
iithers to turn orcanic wxastes into rela-
tely odorless, stable fertilIiz'ers that
c an be land applied wxith less impact on
the env iioiiment or matrketedl to the
public.
Composting degrades organic com-
piounlds and eliiiateS noxiouls odors.
The humUS material produced bx the
process is relatixvely inert and stable
from11 furithler decom posit i (n. Compo-
nents (of the compost. Such as niitrogen.
fihosphiorus, potassium. micronutrieiits. aiid fiber. iiake good fertilizer aiid soil amieiid-
mlents.
The swine manure compiostiiig study wxas conducted at the Lower Coastal Plain
Substatioii iii Camideii. [Four exper imnental compost binls. each wxith a 16.6-square-foot
base, xxere constiruicted for coiipostiiig 1,500 pouiids of iiaterial. The coiipost recipes
coiitai ned swine maiiure niixed wxith either pioultry litter or irecycled comfpost, aloiig wxith
peanut h1ulls. wxood chips. ior hay (Table I. page 14). These ingredients proxvide a source
oif carboii to facilitate coiiposting. The swine iianure (f 19/ dry matter) wxas collected Iiroim
sxxiiie fed a fiisliin, iratioii and reared oii concrete.
A five-iiichi-thick layer of poultry litter or recycled coiipost was used as the base for
Couinuued oni p)age 14
13
lighxlii hli of A ,'i iiul I Rearcli Vol. 41, Vo. 4. Wt~iei / 994
Table 1. Swine Manure Composted with Poultry Manure or Recycled Compost
Initial mix
Ingredients C/N ratio Moisture
SM/PL/CSl
After two-stage composting
Mass reduction Volume reduction Compost temperature
Max. Days > 122?F
Pct. Pct. Pct. OF OF
With poultry manure
A 1 /1.4/0 9.3:1 46.6 20.4 15.6 128 13
B 1 /1.6/0 8.6:1 43.6 18.5 14.0 137 14
C 1/ 1.5/.033' 9.1:1 43.4 16.9 17.5 134 17
D 1/1.6/.0463 8.2:1 43.1 15.2 17.7 134 9
With recycled compost
SM/RC/HA
4
E 1/1.6/.05 15.3:1 58.7 30.9 31.0 144 1 1
F 1/3.0/.10 12.1:1 52.4 28.1 23.9 145 21
G 1/4.5/.15 12.1:1 52.5 27.6 22.8 148 22
H 1/5.8/.20 13.8:1 50.3 24.6 21.9 149 22
'SM/PL/CS = swine manure/poultry litter/carbon source.
'Peanut hulls.
3
Wood chips.
4
SM/RC/HA = swine manure/recycled compost/hay.
F c oI nl o m i c
,inals sis indicates
thait swinme manure
coumpost is wo th
about 525-35 per
wset toin hased on its
N-P- K content
(I tile 2)I This coin
parie s f asorably
55 thl compoisted
dcad chickens and
pou ltry litter.
These resuilts
ndicate that cori-
poisting sw5ine ma-
'site has potential
in oin-farnm settines
and m~ay help pork
each coimpost bin. follossedr by a I1.5-inch
laye oifi swsinc Manure, and about a 0.25-
nell lay er of bulking ac-ent (peanut hulls.
wood chips. orchiopped hay ). T~he sequence
of laverinea incdients wsas tepeated five
tinmes, and a fike-inch layci olpoultix litter
or recycled compost w.sas added to the toip.
The temperature til the comipoist wxas mont-
toted dai lx to ensure that it ceached 122TF
and remained there for att least fiv e dlays.
This heating, is necessary ti eliminate any
enteric paitho~genic bacteria.
Alter approximately 30l days. the hills
wxetc monitored for mass and x olume re-
ductioils of the etitmpost. C~ompost w5as ic-
moved rm thle bins. mixed to aerate the
materital, and rttn ed to the bitis to n-
dlergo at secotnd 30l-day comuposting pto-
cess.
Coitpost tecipes A-ID rised poniltry litter
as the priniciple bulking agenlt. Recipes E-H
usedl recycled comtlpost that wcas created
alfter recipes A-D) had unldcrgonte two-0Stiage
ccmlptosting. Moistrte lex els of the mlix-
tntc es bfot e cottmpost intg sserc ntear the
ideal rangyst of 45-55(7r
Recipes wxith recy cledl comnpost had
hi ehet carbon to Ilitrogel (C/NI ratios xxhich
allowsed recipes E-H to achiex e htghet tem-
petratures. All recipes we rc adeqluate to
achiex e needed comnpostintg tempel atsies.
Recipes E-H also
achieved greater
Table 2. Fertili
mass5 anld x tlume re-ad t
dict ions. i nrlcat inc_
better compostinug Recipes
cotllions. CompostL
inug is ai degradlation 
Manure with 
pot
A
process, the success ol B
wshichi is itndicatedl by C
reducti10ns1 ill mahssD
Manure with rec
anid x olurne. Howevcxc. E
the I tili~et x alue of F
the compost is treduiced G
H
dlue to losses of vtitro- Other 
byproduc
gen and other comtlpo- Swine manure
rlents. The valite 
of (19%o dry matter)
Poultry mortalityc
comtlpost for recipes E-(64% 
dry matter)
H wxas aborit SS pet Poultry litter
xx et ton loss er- than the 
(81I % dry matter)
Pounds of the nutri
comnpcst front reci pes 
'Values were calculat
A-l. cents, and K
2
0 =15
pitiltici redceC costs aind glLattdariCS as-
sociaited wxith w~aste disposal.
McCaskey is a Professor ofAnimal and Dairy Sciences
and Little is Superintendent of the Lower Coastal Ploin
Sbt ton
zer Value of Swine Manure Compost
her Agricultural By-products
Lb./ton Lb. Iton
ultry litter
51.0 55.7
53.0 61.9
56.1I 62.5
55.3 59.2
cycled compost
9.6 64.7
14.2 68.0
17.3 68.5
24.3 73.6
ts
8.8
compost
48.4
64.4
K
2
0'1 Total
Lb./ton
34.2
38.3
35.8
36.5
37.9
41.2
41.8
43.9
N-P-K value
2
$32.73
35.35
36.02
35.14
$23.35
25.94
27.05
30.57
15.6 7.0 $7.19
52.6 32.2
57.8 44.8
30.97
38.64
ent per wet ton.
ted on a per-pound basis: N = 29 cents, P20
5 
=23
cents.
1 , h'.~ / I '; e/ / /5 t//rimcn Smiini
Higight/si/i n/ Agi( u tr i/ eac VoL0./i 4 41 I,..4, Wtinter 1994
Recipes
}} .
1 II ! ll 
II + 1r ~$
/
ys'V
- .
I
UNGji AF-PEcIINC ALABAMA ;S CV NIEk -EAl
by Chutnguant C/hen, Dent Collins, and Garthfi Mat lat-Janes
oot and c rowxn diseases can
he a mnaj or constrainit to w.xin-
tec wxheat production in AlIa-
hama, causi ng thin Stands,
reduced ghain yields, and
other prohlenms. Howxev er, hefore farmers
can pirotect tlieii ciops. they must fir st knoxx
exact ly wxhat orelan i sis cause these dis-
eases.
AAES researchers hav e conducted the
fir si detailed suirvey ot the distibution and
precxale nce ol the pathogen s that can se root
and c rowxn diseases in Al ahamia's wxinte r
xx heat. Results tfrom this surxe c wxxill he
used to plan ftuic research on cultural and
hiologiL at control ot these diseases.
Root diseases can atffect wxheat at x irtu-
all any stage ot plant gr oxxth and dcx elop-
nment. Root and crowxn diseases o1 wheat are
caused hx at least i e different tunc1-i. all ot
wxhich lixe in the top four to Six inches of
soil. Diseases caused by these fungi ty pi-
cal ly cause death of roots. crowxns, and
other plant structures.
H iI,hli~ of Agi( u/lu ral ResarchO/ Vol. 41,
Plant samples xwere taken
hama countiesdturing the spr1il]
and tatlI ot 1993. Samples xx ci
taken from the secdling to the
Soft douigh stages of growx il
Roots and cioxxns xxcie c\,i-
iried for disease.
Diseased tissue xxa icun-
tured, and the tfugL 11 olon ic'
gr1," ilg lionm the
dliseased t issulc
we re isolated and t alO
identified. All iso- 28fi~g
fited fungi were
tested to see it were iSOlInt(
they caused 
di,, andc 
identitfh
ease in seedlings
of Coker 9766 from diseaise
soft red wxinter
roots and
wxheat, a xvar iety
representati xe ot C/VV471.
the ty pes ot xxheat
Coiitimliu l on,,c luh /
.. WI inter /994
~V~W -11*
1 ! 1' ll i
comotiiinly eroxxn in Alaharna. A total of
218 fuittiet wcrte isolated and identified Iron]
diseased roots and crowxns: 196 ( 894)
eauised disease in Coker 9766 seedlings.
Ot the funtin identiftied, the niost precxa-
lent wxas (;'/ue inonii its grami~iiis % m.
fritici (59/iigi, 274( of totl), wxhich causes
take-all toot rot. Wet sodls duiring xxintet
wheat produetion many hiaxe tax ored G
g'rouninik, var. tritici. Also, wheat is otften
dOnhie-cropped wxith soyhbeans, a croppi ng
systenm that may maintain spores ot' the
take-all fuingus. Hoxxex cr. rotation xxith
oats or a wxintter leLtttiie can reduce the
disease to mi nor status xxhen wxheati,
eIrowli alamn.
Forty-six fungi (214%) were Cclc
xoio ufivus w xhieh causes eonmmon roo
rot. Sixty-one ( 28~4) xxere Fll, wriui,pc
t.ies, of xxhich 43 (20c( ) xxere ko/uum
o tvsporioo. Various Fusari lni species ii c
inixolved in the root rot conmplex of xx liu
Although . omv pornoi wxas trequenik
isolated, it w~as n~ot as xvirulent as G. g'runiiiui
xvatr. ritici or C. /0/ivi s. and prohahly is wi
a m]ajor compon~ent of the root and cross
rot comiplex ot xxitntet xxheat it] Alahamo
The trematining, 24'c/ of the fungi xx ir
Ri-o oi .xolun, Sch'roiioi rolf'i, and
Px lliumo species.
The pr-e alence oh t'unci isolated iroin
diseased roti/ and crxxin tissue of xxheat
differed accordintg to geographic locations
it] the state. In north Alahama G. gumnis
var. frifici xxas trequiently associated xxithi
diseased t issue. R..s0/00/ xwas f requetl
foun~d in nrithtl atid cetitral areas ot the state.
Fusalrium spp. anid C. saftirus generally
were ton d tlir Oughouit thle state.
Chen is a Graduate Research Assistant, Collins is an
Assistant Prafessar and Margan-Janes is a University
Prafessar in Plant Pathalagy.
i itu-.)utgt 1 cutIag (J tai LCif Di cc'dcS:
Good Eggr 
or Bad 
Eggu?
I MA
TAa
lie/Iel qiiclitv is vital1 in broiler breeder
f t /rodInftill lbecausle it )fl1lintaii IA a/)tlflhf i
IfhIUwhbilitY.11l ilU/izesc 1(O/11 illation fl
eggs daring iiitibatiii. (fd l/ls1.5ures higher qul//itY
chiicks. Shell quality gel/era//v declintes as breeders age
and teil/)erftureS increase, and Jpaarshelh /alcdityeauses
Ce wessive moIistufre loss datring ineabatian.
Ini an effort to minimize this decl inte iii shell qnality in older hetis,
many hreeder producers are adoptitig a two-stage teeding program
Alciaiu Agr'/(iulural [xpim f leli .Stactioii
Hlig hh/ts oriuf S u ~l ReseachI Vol. 41, o..4. Winter /994
1 ww on her "rundh, " c" S tit dic kublim t nirci silo
/'nidt _V Kc seurch Ceuler. C'tin lllu, > iN a /c'stn/ eggNhell
yuulitV (lilt/ chiCkcn Cnrhnn Viubilih, in Which 0 light
source i.s u.sed to illuminate uu egg's irtlerior. iIAES
reseurchcrN /rxuul that two-s7uge 1eediug muV uol im-
prove eggshell quality.
in wiclh the second phase teed prov ies
ditferent lev els of' nutrients than the first.
The probhiemil is thiat these f eed ing program s
are based on research conducted on Leg-
horn hens. wxhich lay eggs for human con-
sumption (table eggs). In table-ccc lax ers,
alterations in dietary nutr11ient lexvels have
been showxn to sicuil icantix i ncrease egg
shell thickness and control the normal in-
crease in eec~ size that occuirs as lhens age.
thtis ieducing the number of cracked eggs.
No prex ious research had documented the
efIfeet s oft tw'o-stage feed ing on breeder
hens. AAES rI carichciS found that ex en at
miodeiratelIy hli gh te inpe rat tres, such pro-
girams do not appreciahly atffeet breeder
egg siz e or eggshell qinal ity.
Hens at the Aubur'n Un ixersity pouitx
researich fiarm were provided one of' t wo
feeding progiram s ( I ) a st andtard breeder
teed from 21) weeks of age until the end of'
the 65-wx ek productioni cx cle: and (2) the
standard feed ironm 20-45 weeks and a spe-
cia~i o ll II,/tejd Scol/tl teed fom -45-65
wxeeks. The second feed contained more
ealcitim (3.80 x s 3 201)~ hut less protein
(14.5 xvs. 15.51-1c. methionine (.3 x 5.37 4 ),
and axvailable phosphorus (.35 xvs. .40(4)
Egg weight, Shell quality,. egg prodtiction,
and hodxi we igcht wxere imonitored at fixve-
xweek inteixals from 45-65 wxeeks.
Unlike research wxith table-egg lax ers.
few measurable dliifferences in piroduetion
xxere tound in broiler breeders prox ided the
two-stage program. Eggshell qftality re-
mai ned cood in both treatments, and there
wxere no) differences in egg size (see table).
Egga prodtiction deelined xxith age. hut nei-
ther feedinc treatment aftfectedt pr dutc t ion
sicuificantly trom 45-65 wxeeks. Hoxx ex cr,
hotly wxeights of' hens fed the second feetd
increasetd at a tastei rate f rom 50-65 xx eeks.
perhaps because the loxxer protein antme-
th iine lexvels atlloxwed them to produce
mor e tat. Egg prodution i in this grouip atlso
shoxwed a sli chtlx creater decreasing tirentd
from 6()-65 xweeks.
\lough temnpera.1tures xxere niodei ateix
high tdtring the latter part of the trial. they
wxere not e xtreime. It is possible that any
positixve effects of a second breceder feed
max be manifIestetd (mix dtiriii c sex ere heat
stress.
A lack of benefit from the txxo-Istace
prolgrams may be explained by the fact that
breetter hens exert less piresstire on the
systems that piroxide nutrients for egg pro-
dtictioin than tdo table-egg lax ers. Lec~horns
weigh 3.5-4 potinds. eat 100 grams of feed
dai lx, and lax aii ax erace of' 5.5 60)-cram
eggs weekly. Broiler breetders weicli 7-8
pounds. eat I15) grams of feed d~aily. and
protdtce about four 65-gram eggs wxeekly.
Lcg hoirus can pr odtice at tliis lexe ef or oxer
ayear. wh ile breeders olily prodtLice forniiie
months. Theiref ore. hi eetdeis haxve gieater
body stores tol meet ntitrient needs, less
time to deplete botdy stores, and greater
teed in takes to prox'idte iiuti n t 5.
One beief it that xwas realizetd tdtri ng tile
trial wxas the cost saving s oft feeding a less
e \pensivxe tfetd xx ith no marked necatixve
effects. It co/st $3 per ton
Eggshell Quality of Broiler Breeders Provided a One or Two-stage Feeding Program
Age, Specific gravity Pct. shell Egg wt. Body wt. Egg production
weeks 
Grams Lb. Pct.
oneI twoI one two one two one two one two
45 1.0870 1.0876 9.08 9.26 65.0 64.4 8.06 8. 10 62.4 62.7
50 1.0857 1.0860 9.02 8.84 66.3 66.0 8.77 8.87 53.5 51.8
55 1.0843 1.0854 9.07 9.39 66.6 67.2 8.86 9. 19 44.2 44.4
60 1.0822 1.0832 8.50 8.87 67.7 67.0 9.20 9.54 47.8 46.7
65 1.0828 1.0827 8.73 8.75 67.0 66.3 9.30 9.76 47.8 41.8
Numbers refer to one-stage or two-stage feeding programs. See descriptions in text.
less for tile 20-xxeek pe-
rott wh Iei tile seconiit ectd
wxas pridtetd. Hoxw cxer.
these saviings wult he
lo1st if total egg protc-
tion tiroppetd by moire thlan
onie (or txxoc eggs per hein.
Hess and Lien are Assistant Pro-
fessors tn Poultry Science.
tIIl5III (111 . IIl/H lll //II 1II kc m n .5IHti/O
H/igl/ight/I o1/ '1 ri1 Ilur/ul Rarchu/I Vol. 4/. No. 4. ttinc I/ 1 994
Keep)ing the floor of pecao(rcha(rds clean/f o/ ttyeedl*s can increaU(se i/he groth
of'>on tree(s (111( resit t in higher to r(SI so.sxecr
}' . ' r
T he pioject, initiated in 1986 at the Gulf
Coast Substation ini Fairhiope, wsas designed
to determ ine the effects ot wseeds on c rossth
and piroduct ion ol y oung pecan trees,. Ear-
l ier research showedcc that controlln w s seeds
ncrrased the gir0owth ol nessly planted pe-
cans. Tlhat same trend can he seen in yields
now that the trees arc becinni ng to pioduce
nuts.
Trees in this ongoing experiment w5ere
subjected to the follossing~ orchard floor
managemlent sy stems: ( I) total chemical
control ol we eds and cirasses: (2) mossing
every tw o weeks: (3) monthly tillage hv
diski nc: (4) crass-oiilI control wsing Selec-
tiv e herbicides: and (5) no control. These
systems wsere app!lied to dirip irrigated and
nonirrigated trees until irrigation ssas dis-
continued in 1993. All production inputs.
ncludi nc ferti lisat ion. dIisease, and insect
control. wsere maintained tor optimum
grossth and production.
Herbicides used f or the total treatments
included ors ,alin I SurI Ian). iiorl lurazon
Solicam . sinmazi ne ( Princep), di uron
(Direx), and glyphosate (Roundup).
OrN ,aliu and sethoxs dim (Poast) wsere
used to maintain the grass-only treatments.
These herbicides are iregistered for use in
pecans and wsere used at labeled irates.
Weeds intesting the orchard included
iiut sedge. coimmin Iem
dagrass. prickly sda Iag
eraberass. hoi sceed aI
cutleaf es ening.priuoe
Trees in the study began to
bear pecans in 1990 and has e produced
crop each year since.
Pecan grossth ditfterences established
the earlo years of the study has e bek
maintained tip to 1993 (iable
1.Trees receis inc the total
treatment we rc larger than t c
in three of the other four treat-
ments. Disk ing prod need
growsth equis alent to the tot, retr
treatment but is tnot endorsed
bcause ot the possibility ot
causing erosion 
or the spread 
u)Irrigat
Total
erowsn gall disease. 
l1i iation Disking
increased osveraill '" 5th 
Mowin
slichtly Grass
None
Avg. of
OVANonl
e Total
n all
Disking
treatments 
Mowin
Faihope 
Grass
asverages ANone
about 65 ~ Avg. of
inches of rain- 'Tree
fall per year. 
from I
ra~Vfloor.
Table 1. Pecan Stem Diameter as
Influenced by Weed Control and
Irrigation in Bearing Trees
Year
1992
In.
1993
In.
:ed
4.7 5.7 6.5
g4.3 5.0 6.0
g3.4 4.4 5.3
only 3.7 4.7 5.4
3.3 4.5 5.2
irrigated 3.9 4.8 5.6
rigated
4.4 5.5 6.3
g3.8 4.8 5.7
g3.1 3.8 4.9
only 3.2 4.2 5.1
2.7 3.5 4.2
nonirrigated 3.4 4.4 5.2
stern diameter measured in February each year
990-93.
H-,ighl1ig'hts of Agriut iaiol Rc seot cl Vol. 4/., No. 4, t iuih' /99-4
r r ty ..v r lar 7 uva Jl r /vr E
by M~ika Patters on, Bob Goodnnuii,
Bill Go/; (and Ronnie McDaniel
'Frees. in dryer areas may respond ditfer-
en tlIy to i rri gat ion and weed control.
Yields tol loxxed the same trend as tree
groxxth. Trees receivxing the total treatment
produced ii (we nults than mos~t other treat-
ments(Tiable t). 1Trees recixinc the disking
treatment produced y ields~ equlal to the total
treatment but only when the trees were
irri gat ed. Disking dries thes'oi1I.and i fmois
lu re is no t replaced by irri gat ion or rainftall
then yi eld is atfected.
Yields, fromt trees in the nmoxxinrg and
grass-only treatments were no bettct
than trees in the no-control treatmcinl
('uouloti\ c \ iIl' (1\ri lk li/Li for-car
rioll showx trees receiv ing the total orchard
floor1 management sy stem produced ap-
proiImately f oni times as. many nuts. as
trees. receix inc, nou control.
Ass'uming an axerage price ot S I per
pounid oft pecans. to the growxer andI a cos.t of
$45 pci acre annuial ly for the total '.y'tem,
this. management '.trategy '5ouild prox ide a
retuIirn (ot approx im atelIy $7 pciracrie for each
dlo/llar '.penit on wxeed control.
Patterson is on Associate Professor of
,nomy and Soils; Goodman is on
sistont Professor of Agriculturol
Eonomics and Rural Sociology; Goff
is a Professor of Horticulture;
and McDaniel is Associote Su-
perintendent of the Gulf
Coast Substation.
Table 2. Pecan Yields As Influenced by
Weed Control and Irrigations
Treatment
1990 1991 1992 19932
Lb./a. Lb./a. Lb./a. Lb./a.
Irrigated
Total 227 389 1,452
Disking 234 405 1,174
Mowing 10 51 384
Grass only 44 1 19 486
None 24 77 275
Avg. of irrigated 108 208 755
Nonirrigated
Total 281 255 1,329
Disking 84 144 680
Mowing 47 81 521
Grass only 103 67 355
None 44 37 247
Avg. of nonirrigated II 1 117 625
Yields obtained in November each year.
2
lrrigation treatments discontinued in 1993.
3
Total of 1990 through 1993.
1,849
1,563
906
953
659
1,790
1,102
761
975
575
Cumulative
3
Lb./a.
3,917
3,376
1,350
1,602
1,035
3,655
2,010
1,411
1,498
902
JC 
C 
GI 
V
Higiht 4I) / / uli no! Th' r'uo V/Xol. 41I. No.4l, Wintiu /994
L OW- FAT
GROUND
BEEF:
Good Food in
Many Ways
by Jeanh Olds- Weese
C //nSLI1iCI '. dctmand foods. loxx ci in
faut. '.alt. and sutgair. andI the tood process'ing
indus.try has. respondedl wxithi many newx
products.. including lowx-fat riounid beet.
AAES research indicates. that newx loxx-tat
ground beet prodluct'. not only (/ter less' fat,
buit atlso prox ide addlititonal nuitritional ben-
efit.
Traditional c1rolnd beet mar' cont ain up
to 27(/r fat. xx hiic/i translatcs to 3 13 calorie'.
in a folir-ounce unicooiked beefpattx . Ground
chuck. wxhich muist be no mote than 20%
f at. and grouind rouindt, wxithI ap prox imuatelIy
1 5(, fat. wxere once the on ly leaner option'.
for cons.umers.. Niix s.everial ncxw low-fat
options. exi'.t, incliuding AAE-dev eloped
L' Lean. xx hich ha'. 6-7(% tat. A product
'.imiltar to AU Lean -Ultra Lean is.
beine mar keted by an Alabama grocery
store chain. Ultra Lean contain'. approxi-
mately t0'/( tat.
AAES res.earchers. hax e beeni cxaluiating
the effect that loxxerinc tat in grouind beef
pr oduicts. ha'. on oither iurititonal Clemett'
sulch a'. xitais'. One sulch '.tuul exaluiated
('oorillted 0/n pag.,e 2()
k,' 4
46w
the vitamin B6 content in traditional and
lean ground beef.
Vitamin Bu is essential in building tissue
and utilizing energy in the body. The Rec-
ommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for
vitamin Bt is two milligrams (mg) for men
and I.6 mg for women. The requirement
lor vitamin B6 is linked to protein intake
because the vitamin is required for the
utilization of protein. On average, women s
vitamin 6c intake is typically less than the
RDA, probably because they have lower
protein intakes than men. Lean meats are
the best dietary sources of vitamin B
6
.
The study looked at B
6 
content in
gr(und chuck, ground round. AT Lean,
and Ultra Lean. Three pounds of meat were
F igu're 1. (101). lat content o/ grilled and )'-ie
ground bee! aiple. 
Figioe 2. Total 
ivitain B
conitentI in grilled and fried meat sampiJle s.
divided into 10 four-ounce patties. Four
of the patties were grilled on a char-
coal grill. four were fried in an electric
skillet, and two were left raw. Cooked
patties were grilled or fried to an inter-
nal temperature of 165? F.
All samples were analyzed to deter-
mine their moisture, fat, protein, and ash
contents. The results of the fat analysis
are shown in Figure I.
As expected. both AU Lean and Ultra
Lean were lower in fat than the other
ground beef samples. Ground chuck ( 15-
16% fat) had the greatest tat content,
while AU Lean had the least. Whether
the patty was grilled or fried made little
difference in fat content.
In addition to having the low-
est fat content, AU Lean was found to
contain the greatest amount of vita-
min B6 - 0.56 mg per 100 gramns
(Figure 2). Theoretically, three AU
Lean burgers would provide a woman
with her RDA tor vitamin 6, and
simultaneously allow for a signifi-
cant reduction in fat intake.
Ground chuck (0.25 mg per
100 grais) contained less than half
the vitamin Bt of the AU Lean. Vita-
min B6 content of all four products
was unaffected by cooking method.
These results show that the
availability ot low-fat ground-beef
products provides a twofold advan-
tage for consumers - reduced tat
intake and increased vitamin B6 in-
take. Ongoing research is aimed at
determining the amounts of other nu-
trients in these products.
Olds-Weese is an Assistant Professor of Nutri-
tion and Food Science.
Hairy vetch, a winter
annual legume provides numerous soil
and conserxation benefits when used as a
coxer crop. Now, thanks to a new cultixar
developed by the AAES and the USDA
Soil Conserxation Service (SCS). those
benefits may be increased for Southern
farmers.
Many farmers use hairy vetch to help
conserxe soil and water resources and also
as an inexpensive source of nitrogen in
conserxvation tillage systems. Unfortunately.
most commercially axailable cultivars do
not flower until late spring after many South-
ern farmers have had to turn or kill a cover
crop in preparation for spiring crops. Since
vetch does not reach maximum dry matter
yield until it is in full bloom, these farmers
cannot reap full benefits from the legume.
The AAES and SCS have jointly dexel-
oped AU EarlyCover, an early-flowering
cultivar that could maximize the potential
of hairy vetch in the South. AU EarlyCover
was bred from hairy vetch plants collected
in Henry County. Thirty-three plants were
initially selected. The main selection crite-
rion during the three cycles of selection was
early tiowering date. Other important crite-
ria were vigor, pest resistance, and uniform
morphological traits. Three lines, selected
after progeny testing, were used to breed
AU EarlyCover.
Alabaman A'r-iculiimral E yeinriment Station
Highlights of Agricenr-al Researcih Vol. 41, No.4, Winwe /994
blN" Jorge Mosiulis, Charles Owslev,
M/alcolni Kirkland, IDon Ball, and
Keiinetlh Rogers
LyCover
I 
6 
'6
Extensive testing for for age yield. matu-
ity, canlopy height, comuposition, and dis-
eases of selected hairy vetch lines, was,
conducted throughout Alabama ( Winfield,
Belle Mi na, Marion Junction. Monroe illie.
and Tal lassee)I and in Anmerici, Ga. The
three lines, pertormed w~elI in clipping trials,
at each of these locations,.
AU EarlyCov er appears to he an excel-
lent cov er crop because of it', early grow~th
(see Table I ). When this, cultix ar is, har-
vested or incorporated into the soil a', a
ereen manure onl or around Api i 1 (about
the time wthen many Alabama I aimciL
get ready to plant corn), it has a dry,
imiatte r yield comparable or suiperior tt
the commercial- type hairy vetch ( Tahlc
2). By mid-Eebruarx, w xhen commercial
hai ry etch has little acenumu lated
gio\\th. AU Early Coxer can hax e I5) to
200) pouinds per acre of dry matter. there-
f ore, it can be turned earlier than coin-
iiircial hairy vetch.
Table 3. Number of Days to 75%
Bloom at Tallassee and Americus
in 1992 and 1993'
Cultivar Tallassee Americus Average
1992
AU EarlyCover 46.4 32.3 39.0
Commercial 69.5 68.8 69.1
1 993
AU EarlyCover 42.3 32.5 36.7
Commercial 74.0 -2 74.0
March I was the first day.
2
Plots were lost.
Table 1. Canopy Height and Forage Yield
(Dry Matter) of Vetches Harvested at Tallassee
and Americus on Feb. 15, 1 993
Cultivar Tallassee Americus
Canopy height Yield Canopy height Yield
In. Lb./a. In. Lb./a.
AU EarlyCover 10.6 206.3 13.3 153.6
Commercial 5.5 11.6 3.9 48.2
AU EarlyCover is, well
ada/.pted to the central and south-
iii pats ot Alabama and Geoi-
ii. The plants flowxer 23-36
days' earlier than commercial
hairy vetch (Table 3). Crude
pirotein content of AU
IaxlCox ci i' about 27c% (dry
Table 2. Forage Yield (Dry Matter) of AU EarlyCover and Commercial Ha
Vetch Harvested in Early April of 1992 and 1 993
Cultivar Tallassee Americus Winfield Belle Mina Marion Junction Monroeville
Lb.Ia. Lb./a. Lb./a. Lb./a. Lb./a. Lb./a.
1992
AU EarlyCover 808.2 1,288.0 581.9 1,560.4 1,338.6 3,071.1
Commercial 762.6 1,089.5 431.3 2,570.9 805.5 1,964.6
1993
AU EarlyCover 910.0 1,1 18.0 -1 2,705.8 1,234.1 2,084.3
Commercial 604.6 721.5 -1 2,653.1 834.1 2,739.7
'Plants were killed by frost, except for the commercial type that was not killed, but was dan
matter ha"i I,, on mnca iei \pi I.
AU Early Cox er also may, be a better
choice tor forage purpo',es if farmners wxant
to prov ide early gr Arg. It also can be a
superior legume companion wtith small grain
that is, to be cut for silage oi hay because it',
mlatuirit\ (and thus the optimlum harvest
date) bettei matches that of the
ir, 
mall grain',.
Seed of AU EarlyCov er
shoulId be ax ai lable in limited
Average Lluantities 
for the 1995 autnumn
planting season.
Mosjidis is an Associate Professor of
1,455.6 Agronomy and 
Soils; Owsley is Man-
1,270.7 ager and Kirkland is Assistant Manager
of the Americus P/ant Materials Center,
1,61 1.0 Soil Conservation 
Service, Americus, G.;
I1,445.8 Ball 
is a Professor of 
Agronomy and
Soils; and Rogers is an Agronomist with
iaged. the Soil Conservation Service, Auburn.
21,I/Ob(MMt, ritId/lrul t j)(/ imclltSIolion
Highlights of Agricultural Rescarch Vol. 41, No.-l, Wintrr 1994
Controlling Cockroaches
with Less Insecticide
bY Lune Smith, Eric Benson, Art Appel,
im Muk ando Garb Keever
'O
1 o
So tilkxlrilxxt cocILkro~aLchIs arc
tlhe moxt comilmon coIckroaches
fo uind a ron d Al abam a homes c.
Since thix pext rarely breedx
indoorx. coiitirollitng theni outdoorx alxo te-
ducex thle numnbei seen in the homne.
A Al-S researchers. hav e showxn that an
integrated pesxt inanageinc iit (I PM) pro-
ci am., xxhich iniixo1 x c a xeriex of IutdooIr
tactiex. cati ireduce pexticide uxe tn cock-
roachi CtliiM]. g In additioni. niexxer. outdoor-
applied iiixecticides, elffectix e at lowxer ap-
pl ication iratex. may hlp Prieduce inuxecticide
uxe cxcin further.
In I1993, rexearchers exaiiined
xmokybroxxn cockroach control with three
iixecticidex applicel at recommended ratex
ini a 104000o pciniieter around homex. Thexe
iiicluded DURSBAN xxettable powxder
(chlorpy rifox), SAGA xxectable poxxder
talontiethrinii.andI K 0 -1k IN suixpctnion
51 e
aiid amiount of inxccticide applied at 24
homes.
All tested insecticides we re effectiv e,
but K-OTHRIN (the least toxic. Table 1)
reduced cockroach abundance 851/x, and
control lasted more than 40 days. SAGA
and DU.RSBAN reduced abundance only
. .SAGA 
lasted about 
40 dax s.
I URSBAN (the most toxic and highest
I ate) lasted only 20 days. The IPM treat-
m ent reduced cockr oach abundance 90r/c
and the reduction lasted more than 40 dax x.
In 1994. AA ES resear'chersx tested
SAGA as an IPM tactic. T he insecticide
was applied on the exterior ot homes to
cracks and creviccx susxpected of harbor-
ing cockroaches. Twxo doses of SAGA
wercie tested: 0.01 oi t0.t013 ounc e pci gal Ion
ol xxatet at each home.
These treatmentsx werc compar ed to a
no-man agenmenlt treatmen iit and twxxo 1PM
tr eatments. The standaird IPM tireatment
nelucded, as in the pircxiouS yeair, pellet and
'cl hait".. I he '.ccond IPM\ Ircattucul \\,I,,
16OILce appit~ Ioe L/// I li-
id/c (Ili(/Qc/ lt n al IPMA Ire of
owilt0.
'cncentrate (ie ltamnethri n).
DULRSBAN wxax the old
standard, xxhile SAGA and
K-OTHRIN are newx inxec-
t icides tor cockroach con-
tr01.
The efflectix enexx oif
hese insecticidex was
LI inpared to a no iiia iage-
omn t1caitiiclt and an 1PM treatment. The
IPM t eatment combined twxo tacticx. One
wxax the application ofia pcIlletized hail
I GOLDSTAR ant-and-cockiroach bait)ceon
tainine 0.51-1 DURSBAN to pine sti' .\
fallen leavecs. or ivy w xithin three feet of
home, and next to other suxpected habitat
xuch ax carden borderx. larce rockx,.o
al urn mum xheds. The xecond tactic wxay
gel bait (MAXFORCE) containing"2
hx diam ethx non. wxhich wxax applied ii shcl-
tered crex icex. xuch ax porch coirner,,. tinder
ledgex. crackx in brickx. in craxi I
xpace gratingx, and under gai aI' 
Table
doors. InI
Cockroach population wxax niit.
xured wxeeklxy, before 
and after in Treat
secticide treatment. uxin * 12 hitcdI
SAG/
trapx at each 
home. Rexearchcet 
1/3 Si
nicaxured reduction in 
cockroacl Stand
abundance. duiration of ireductioni. 1/3 IF
1/ ibULL?, 1I LIall alI I _lL ILII, ni SlI,,lII
11~Ii'Qlill L/ icid'LIflal RIaI c Vo'I L L IlI. 4/,.\ LI.A (I IIILe I1994
Table I. Comparison of Labelled
Application Rates Per House and
Toxicities of Three Insecticides
Insecticide Rate Acute mammalian
toxicity
Oz.ihouse Oz.
DURSBAN 3.1 0.35
SAGA 0.4 0.82
K-OTHRIN 0.2 > 10.00
Average lethal dose for a 150-pound person.
2. Amount of Active Ingredient Used
Different Control Treatments, I1994
ment SAGA MAXFORCE DURSBAN
Oz. Oz. Oz.
A 0.04
AGA 0.013
ard 1PM - 0.11 0.6
PM- 0.03 0.2
similar but used only one third ol the insec-
ticide (Table 2). By using two levels of
insecticide tor both SAGA and IPM, re
searchers tested whether current recom-
mended insecticide treatments are exces-
sive. Reduction in cockroach abundance.
duration of reduction, and amount of insec-
ticide applied at 32 homes were measured.
SAGA (0.04 ounce) reduced abundance
appr oximately 9017( for both concentrations.
while reduction lasted longer than 47 days.
The one-third SAG A treatment (0.0113
ouince) reduced cockroaches only 75(/c, and
the reduction lasted only 20 days. Both IPM
treatments reduced abundance 
9
0r , and
reduction lasted longer than 47 days.
These results indicate that use of insec
ticides following 1PM guidelines can re
duce insecticide use 90c%- from recon
mended perimeter sprays. Reducing the
amount of active ingredient of SAGA in a
periiimeter spiay, 0.4 ounce to 0.04 ounce
per house in accordance with IPM guide-
lines, does not decrease control. In tact.
greater redictiois were attained with SAGA
in 1994 through IPM guidelines. The use of
an insecticide like SAGA as an additional
tactic in an IPM strategy decieases cock
roach abundance and possibly lengthens
the period olcontrol. The additional amount
of insecticide required for this additional
tactic is extremely small, only 0.04 ounce
per house (Table 2).
In addition, the amount ot active ingre-
client of I)URSBAN and MAXFORCE re-
quired for an 1PM treatment, currently rec-
ommended as 0.7 1 ounce, can also be re-
duced to 0.23 ounce. The key to the success
of the IPM strategy is in placement of
insecticide where the cockroaches hide and
feed, not in the amount of pesticide used.
Smith is a Post-Doctoral Fellow, Benson is former
Assistant Professor, Appel is an Associate Professor,
and Mock is a former Professor in Entomology. Keever
is a Professor in Horticulture.
A Alglroo A Kicultiol I vperinici r Sttion
Highlighthi//us o Aicithliihl Rtesrch/ Vol. 41. No.4, Wiiiter 1994
Hormonal
'Treatments
jMaky jWuscle Up
bx Don Mit i anev, Russ Kel1ek, Fr ank Oosleev,
Steve Jun gsr, Dwt'ighr Wolfe, Ton Powe,
Benl Mikel, and Hardin Rahe
ii o p)ig oni the left
011fli p)S tti-ctatcd Kilts,
hil the i on the
ight reprel.s
I'og'i\ from li lts not
IhYreatdl iwith pxST
i/if iinhii g's(iatiOMi
o meet consumer demand for lean pork products and compete with other
lean meat options, the swine industry is continuously seeking new
strategies tor enhancing performance and carcass characteristics of
hogs. AAES research indicates hormonal treatments may help meet
that need and allow producers to generate leaner, more muscular pigs.
Since muscle is the largest component of meat, increasing muscle mass and reducing
fat in pigs allows producers to offer a product that meets consumer demand. Researchers
have found that these performance and carcass composition benefits can be gained when
the growth hormone porcine somatotropin (pST) is administered to pregnant sows. In
addition to improving etficiency of the pigs, this management strategy also enhanced
productivity ot the sows. This project was the first time pST was used in management
scheme for early-gestating gilts.
Crossbred gilts were bred naturally to boars. and pregnancy was confirmed between
Continued on l ige' 24
23
Hormonal Treatments /May /Muscle Up Swine Industry
Treatment-affected Traits at Three Stages:
Embryonic, Feeder, and Market Weight'
INCREASED DECREASED
Birth length (CRL) Embryo mortality
2
Feeder loin eye area
3  
Feeder 10th rib fat3
Feeder length
3  
Market average backfr
Market loin eye area
2  
Market 10th rib backf;
Market loin weight
4
Market ham weights4
Feeder weight was 45 pounds. Market weight was
pounds.
2
Observed in both studies.
30bserved in Year I study (0 or 6.8 pg/lb).
40bserved in Year 2 study (0, 6.8 f1g/lb. or 13.6 pg/ib).
dad 2'1 and 24 o1 gestation isiing uiltra-
sound. All animnials were allowed free choice
colsu mption of a I 6/r, ciude proti in gesta-
tiin diet through day 21 of gestation and 6.6
pounds per day for the remainder of the
trial. Gilts were injected twice daily with
zero or 6.8 micrograms (I g) of pituitary
derived pST per pound of body weight
during days 28-39 of gestation. In the
study's second year. 13.6 pg of pST was
injected along x with the original treatments.
D~ata were collected during embryonic.
feeder, and market weight phases.
It
4
at
4
220
\luscle growth and de-
eclopment is determined dur-
in' embronic growxth by the
number and si/c of cells dedi-
cated to becoming muscle
cells. Administering pST to
_,eslating gilts altered the ac-
ti\ity of specific genes in-
\il x ed in determining the
number of muscle cells the
pigs ultimately developed.
(enes that produce growth
factors within the uterus also
w ere chang'ed.
Examination at day 41 of gestation re-
vealed pST treatment increased embry-
onic survival 187.9 vs. 77% ). Hicher em-
bro surxial. possibly due to increased
uterine capacity in the sow and/or enhanced
immunological status ot the progeny. re-
stIlted in larger litters of pigs. Crown rump
length a measure of growth, also was in
creased in the embryos ofpST-treated 5sows.
Pigs fr omr pST-treated gi Its had increased
crown rump lengths at birth (12.4 vs. 11 .96
inches) and at 21 days 120.03 vs. 19.05
Inches). No stnificant diflferences were
observed in hirth or 2I-day weight as a
result of pST treatment. Howeci. thec
was a decreased incidence of birth ei hts
less than 2.2 pounds. Carcasses of feeder
(45-poundI) and marketx-weight ( 22()poundI)
offspring from pST-treated gilts had longer
sides and impox ed muscle traits (see table).
This research could lead to practical
strategies for enhanced productiity in the
swine industry. As the indnstry moves to-
ward payment incentivcs fur lean pigs. im-
Pro\ved caicass composition could provide
benefits of 53-5 per head. In addition, the
use of pST on gestating sows is less labor-
intensive than injecting or implanting each
of the offspring. Anothe advantage is that
meat x alues would be increased by decreas-
in( the amount of fatty wastes in pigs. If
appiroved by the Food and Drug Adminis-
tiation. the use of pST in swine production
should benefit both producers and packers.
Mulvaney, Mikel, Owsley, and Rahe are Associate
Professors; Kelley is a Research Specialist; and Jungst
is a Research Associate in Animal and Dairy Sciences.
Wolfe and Powe are Associate Professors in Large
Animal Surgery and Medicine.
AL ABAMA (;RICL TURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVIERSITY
AUBURN INIVRSITY. ALABAMA 36849-5403
.owll t. Iriihish. Director
POSTMASTII R-Addiess Correction Requested
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES
PAID
PEFRMIT NO. 9
AUBURN Al A.