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N THIS ISSUE
GUEST COMMENTS
There is an historic alliance between
Boll Weevil Eradication Program Benefits agriculture and veterinary medicine
Alabama Cotton Farmers 
3 that traces its origins to antiquity. In the
animals of the New World, 17th and 18th
Grazing Intensity Does Not Always Change 
century concerns focused on public health
Persistence of Tall Fescue 4 and sanitation, rabies, tetanus, and various
Aerial Nitrogen Fertilization of Corn 5 diseases of horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs.
The current hysteria over E. coli and
Folic Acid Supplementation Can Improve Reproductive 
salmonella contamination of our food sup-
Performance of Sows 6 ply is a replay of early 19th century human
Rosemary Extract Shown to 
Improve Shelf Life of 
and animal plagues in the colonies 
due to
Fresh Pork Sausage 
7 brucellosis, tuberculosis, 
and other food-
borne diseases. No modern day trade war is
All-American Selections Display Garden Yielding more threatening to animal agriculture than
Information on Bedding Plants 8 was the embargo of 1878 imposed on U.S.
cattle and hogs by West European nations
Air Pollution Injury Observed in Talladega National 
Forest 9 due to an unchecked outbreak of bovine
Managing Peanuts for Minimizing Aflatoxins 10 pleuro-pneumonia and a high incidence of
Improved Diagnostic Tool Developed for Major Poultry Disease 11 porcine trichinosis.
In repeated instances, since antebellum
More Accurate Sampling of Catfish Eggs and Fingerlings 12 days, American agriculture and veterinary
Max-Flex Fast FenceTM 
Evaluated for Reducing 
Deer Damage 13 
medicinehaveworkedtogetherfortheben-
efit of human health and well-being and for
Corn Mold Toxins Reduce Growth and Disease Resistance stability of the nation's economy. This is
in Catfish 14 expressed today in cooperative research on
Evaluation of Low-Input Fungicide Spray Programs for Control such animal diseases as tibial dyschon-
droplasia and mycoplasmosis in broilers,
of Early Blight on Tomatoes 15 enteric septicemia and viral infections in
Width Affects Strength of Glued-Laminated Timbers 16 channel catfish, the shipping fever com-
plex and reproductive disorders of cattle,
ON THE COVER. A researcher samples ozone damage to trees in the Talladega and parasitisms 
of all domestic species.
National Forest; see story on page 9. 
At Auburn University, agriculture and
veterinary medicine have grown from the
U PCO MING E 
V E N T S 
same rootstock for more than a century.
Perpetuation and enhancement of that rela-
April 7 Farm-City Week Awards Luncheon, Birmingham tionship is in the best interest of the public
April 26 Beef-Forage Field Day, Upper Coastal Plain 
Substation, Winfield trust and deserves the unified support 
of
May 17 Livestock-Forage Field 
Day, Black Belt Substation, Marion Junction 
government andindustry in partnership with
the land grant 
university.
June 16 Vegetable Field Day, 
Sand Mountain Substation, Crossville 
J.T. Vaughan, Dean
June 19 Horticulture Field Day, E.V. Smith Research Center, 
Shorter College of Veterinary Medicine
S p r i n g 1 9 9 4 V ol u m e 4 1 N u m b e r 1
A quarterly report of research published by the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station,
Auburn University.
LOWELL T. FROBISH ............ Director
DAVID H. TEEM..................... Associate Director
RUSSELL B. MUNTIFERING. Associate Director
PAT GREEN ............................. Assistant Director
ROY ROBERSON .................... Assistant Director
KATIE SMITH.......................... Associate Editor
ROBYN HEARN ...................... Associate Editor
TERESA RODRIGUEZ............ Art Designer
Editorial Committee: LowellT. Frobish;D.J. Eakes,
Assistant Professor of Horticulture; D.J. Collins, As-
sociate ProfessorofPlantPathology; R.J. Lien,Assis-
tant Professor of Poultry Science; L.A. Shanley, As-
sistant Professor of Consumer Affairs; C.W. Wood,
Assistant Professor of Agronomy and Soils; H.W.
Kinnucan, Associate Professor of Agricultural Eco-
nomics and Rural Sociology; R.A. Tufts, Associate
ProfessorofForestry; W.J. Moar,AssistantProfessor
of Entomology; J.L. Sartin, Associate Professor of
Animal Health Research; and Roy Roberson.
EDITOR'S NOTE. Mention of trade names does
not indicate endorsement by the Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station or Auburn University of
one brand over another. Any use of pesticide rates
in excess of labeled amounts in research reported
does not constitute recommendation of such rate.
Such use is simply part of the scientific investiga-
tion necessary to evaluate various materials. No
chemical should be used at rates above those per-
mitted by the label. Information contained herein
is available to all persons without regard to race,
color, sex, or national origin.
P.A. Duffy, M.E. Wetzstein, D.L. Cain, and G.J. Young
BOLL WEEVIL ERADICATION
PROGRAM BENEFITS ALABAMA
COTTON FARMERS
Cotton farmers in the southern third of
Alabama will vote in a 1994 referen-
dum to determine whether to con-
tinue participation in the federal Boll Wee-
vil Eradication (BWE) program, which has
been active in that area since 1987. AAES
research indicates that the BWE program
was likely responsible for dramatic cotton
yield increases, significant enough to cause
farmers to shift acreage away from alterna-
tive crops into cotton.
Farmers in Alabama, Georgia, and Flo-
rida were surveyed from 1986-90 to assess
the impacts of BWE. Statistical analysis of
the data, accounting for weather conditions
and other factors affecting cotton yields,
revealed that the BWE program has
resulted in yield increases of roughly
100 pounds per acre. The average num-
ber of insecticide applications for boll
weevils fell over the study period, and
the average number of cotton acres per
farm increased. The most dramatic in-
creases have occurred in Southwest
Alabama, where acreage has nearly
doubled.
To assess the full economic impact
of the program, AAES researchers used
a whole-farm computer model to de-
velop a five-year profit-maximizing plan
for arepresentative cotton farm in South-
west Alabama. Crops on the hypotheti-
cal 1,692-acre farm included cotton,
soybeans, and winter wheat. Informa-
tion on yields, prices, and costs of pro-
duction was taken from Alabama Coop-
erative Extension Service (ACES) bud-
gets. Information on the appropriate
structure of a representative farm was
obtained from the Alabama Farm Analy-
sis Association. The model included
full representation of 1990 Farm Bill
provisions.
Cotton acreage "base," or acreage eli-
gible for enrollment in the Farm Bill com-
modity program, is calculated as a moving
average of acres planted or "considered
planted" in cotton for the previous three
years. If a farmer elects to participate in the
commodity program in any year, cotton
planting must be limited to a portion of the
base. In return, the farmer receives a defi-
ciency payment if market price falls below
the legislatively set target price. The repre-
sentative cotton farm used in this study was
assumed to have cotton base on half its
acres.
The farm planning model was first used
on a "no eradication" scenario. For this
CROP-MIX AND RETURNS FOR SOUTH ALABAMA FARM
1
No Boll Weevil Eradication
Objective Function: $155,9702
Cotton Wheat-Soybeans Soybeans
Acres Acres Acres
Year 1 8463 846 0
Year 2 8463 846 0
Year 3 8463 846 0
Year 4 8463 846 0
Year 5 8463 846 0
Boll Weevil Eradication
Objective Function: $431,653
Cotton Wheat-Soybeans Soybeans
Acres Acres Acres
Year 1 1,692 0 0
Year2 1,692 0 0
Year 3 1,4103 282 0
Year 4 1,5983 94 0
Year 5 1,5673 125 0
'This hypothetical farm has 1,692 acres of cropland with
50% initial cotton base. Cotton base is calculated as a
three-year moving average of acreage planted or consid-
ered planted in cotton. The farm is assumed to have 846
acres planted or considered planted in each of the three
years preceding this computer model analysis.
2Objective function is defined as five-year discounted
returns above variable costs and machinery depreciation
costs.
3
Total acres enrolled in commodity program for cotton,
including land set aside under the Acres Reserved Pro-
gram.
simulation, budgeted ACES yields were
decreased by 100 pounds per acre the
amount of the increase attributed to BWE.
A $12 per acre charge for the confirmation
phase of the BWE program was also re-
moved from variable production costs. The
optimal crop-mix for this scenario involves
commodity program participation for cot-
ton every year, with the remainder of the
farm planted in wheat and soybeans double
cropped (see table).
To reflect the actual situation after imple-
mentation of BWE, the cotton yield was
returned to current ACES levels 100
pounds higher than in the no-eradication
scenario. With this change, the farm shifts
heavily into cotton production, staying out
of the program for two years in order to
build base for the future. In years three
through five, cotton is planted within pro-
gram limits with some cropland planted in
the alternative crops. Results indicate that
the BWE program was the probable cause
of the increased cotton acreage in South-
west Alabama.
Profits for the entire farm also rose
after BWE. Because BWE start-up costs
which are not considered explicitly
in the models - depended on acreage
planted in cotton during the early pro-
gram years, the net benefit to individual
producers varied considerably.
Results of this study should not be
generalized to other areas of Alabama,
where different growing conditions
may result in different outcomes of the
program. Northeast Alabama cotton
farmers voted to participate in the pro-
gram in 1992, and farmers in central and
West Alabama joined in 1993. Since
insect pressures are not as great in
North Alabama, the BWE program will
probably result in lower yield gains.
Even so, expected gains will most likely
far outweigh the producer costs of the
program.
Duffy and Young are Associate Professors
of Agricultural Economics. Wetzstein is a
Professor of Agricultural and Applied Eco-
nomics at the University of Georgia. Cain is a
County Extension Agent and former Gradu-
ate Research Assistant.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 3
E. van Santen, J. T. Eason, J. L. Holliman, M. D. Pegues, and D.M. Ball
GRAZING ILTENS11X joh NL ru 1 AL\A' S
CHANGE PERSISTENCE OF TALL FESCUE
on)0]o 00wi sdomn dictates 
that graz-
C n_ intenlsity changesi the persistence
of tall fesee hut a twxo-year AAES
study found this beliel to be (nly partiall)
true. Alahama has more than 1.1 million
acres ol tall fescue, wxhich lor m the forage
base f or the beet cattle i ndustrv in the
norther n part of' the state. For sexveral de-
cades, i rttal ly all the fescue aereage in
Alabama xxas Kentucky 31, a hardy eulti-
var of teni infected wxi th a toxie endophx tie
fungus.
AU riunmph, developed at Autbutrn Urni
ver sity. wxas the tfirst of numerous endo-
ph1)te- f teecult ixars marketed 1(11lowxi ng the
den titte atio II fIfthe Airc-eno, tO 1iit edophyte
as thle causal agent of health disorders in
cattle grazing tall fescue. Unfortunately.
there have beet] continual reports that all (of
these new endophyte-tree cultix ars haxve
froblems with stand persistence.
AAE S reseatrcher s are com]mitted to de-
termuinin~g the precise cause of these stand
declines. A recent study, conducted at the
Sand Moinitaini B lack Belt. and Gulf Coast
suhl~sat ions. i tlx sti eated factors inufluenc-
it]g stand fpercentage oxver time. Th~e plan~t
material consisted of' thrtee pairs ot endo-
phyte-it]fIected and endophiyte-tree fescue
experimrrentat populations. To) exel ude all
unrtelated effects on the outcom~e of' the
trat. th~e seed for the three pairis wxas pro0
duced at a comm]non location,. the seed wxas
genetically identical except for the pres-
ence or absence 1)1 the f utgus, and seedinge
rates were adjusted for difet etnces in ger-
iinat ion. Stands xxere establ isthed in au-
tumn~t 19901. Grarinwe at twxo~ inltensities be-
,at] it] Match 1991I
Withini otie year (If seeding, the heaxvily
grazed pasture had atlI but disappeared at
the GulIf Coast Substatiln it] Fairthope (see
figiure ) regardless of plopulation] or endo-
phyte lexvel. ILess than 50I1'/ ot the stand
remnainied ini the leniently grazed pasture,
anld endophyte-in-
fected cult ixars had
appro)xim]ately 101/
mlore stanld that] the
etidophy te -ft ee
populationis. The
trial wxas discontin
tied at this location
in early 1992 due to
the dramiatic decline
it] stanid.
The best stand
percenitage after
two years (It graz-
ing remiainled at the
Black Belt Substa-
tion] itn Marion Junc-
tioln, wxhere stanid
exceeded 8Wli
There. en~dophyte-
it]fIectedl populIa-
tionis had '7-10,-/
stand adx antages
over endophy te-fr-ee
conlfirtils obserxva-
tionis from a prexvi-
(his study at that to-
cation. xxhere the en-
W.;
Ground cover ratings of endophyte-free (left) and endophyte-
infected (right) tall fescue were evaluated under grazing at three
locations in Alabama. The trial at Fairhope was discontinued after
one year.
dophy te-inftected cutti xan had approxi-
mlately I10 / miore plants than the endo-
fphyte-tree populationi. regar dl ess ot gral-
itig in~tensity. This dif fererice was obserxved
during the first year arid did not change
throughout the tour-year duration (It that
study.
Endophyte-infected and etidophyte-tree
popuilationis had x irtially identical staind
percentages at the Sand Mountain Substa-
tiont in Crossxville. Stanld percentages
unider heavy grazing xxere 25x7 less thatn
undertlenietit graz'i ng. The heaxvily grazed
pasture xxas slowlyI conx erted to a m]ixture
(It white cloxer. Kentucky bluegrass,
bertiudagrass, atid some orelhardgrass.
Thrtee coniclusions may~ be reached from
this study: ( I) intensive grazing does nlot
nlecessarily lead to stand dlecline: (2) exven
high-endofphyte xvarieties miay lot persist in
South Alabama: and (3) foIr the remainder
(If the state, particularly thle Black Belt arid
Sand MountainI atreas, endophflyte-ftee xvart-
eties oIffer producers the chance to take
adxvantage oIf better animat performanice
using endophyte free Iopulati(Ins.
van Santen is an Associate Pirofessor oft
Ag roniomyl and Sotils, Easo Iis Suiperntn idet oif
the Sand Mountaini Suhstaioln. HI)!linian is u
tperinitendenit of the Black Belt Substation, Pegues
isAssistant Suapeiri ntendent of t he CGiilI Coast
S ubstatio(n. aind Ball is a Piriofessor of AgOronoimy
and Soils.
Alacbamac A i-icultu,'al E xpcriinent Stat ion
JMOL
Yom- 
,";f 
.
r
C.C. Mitchell
4XI~rnw'~
caI\ spin Il"a infall canl rtut>a loss
Hof 
nitrtogen 
(N) ertilizer 
through
leahin ad other processes. Wet
soil conditionis pliay lorce corn growxers into
considering expensivxe, aerial application
of fertilizers to salxvage the crops, but there
are many uincertainties ahont this practice.
An expei ment at E.V. Smith Reseairch
Center in Shorter wxas designed to help corn
proiducers decide hoxx to respond to wet
weather problems.
Reseaichers Simulated the effects of
excessiv e rainf all by using fr equent irr iga-
tions to keep the soil relativ ely wxet. An
aerial application wxas Simulated using aml
molniul nlitrate (3~4-0-), uiea(46-(0-0)L and
a liquid urea-ainmnoniuml nitrate (UIAN)
solution. Materials were applied at rates of
801 and 16(0 pounds ot nitrogen per acre. The
airions tieatmcnts xx cie applied oxvei the
-'1 laity apled urea itup) is ithe matderl ut
choice when salvaging a corn crop in a wet
year. UAN solution (30%o) (bottom) can com-
pletely desiccate a crop and reduce grain
yield to half what would have been made if no
additional N was applied.
top of cotn at txwo stages of gioxxth: the
eighit-leaf' stage (), wSxhich occurs 6-8
xweeks after planting: or laterat early silking.
As expected, leaf buirn was sexvcre xxhen
the UAN Solution xxas used. Although the
damace looked bad at the VS stage, the crop
LCi cx out of it. Hloss CxC
LAN wxas applied at
yields werei almost halt
plots not supplemented
Ammoninm nitrate a~
the V8 stage resulted in4
burn. At eairly silking, tI
age from ammonium niti
less because leaxves wxe
expanded and not likely
lect the falling fertilizer
Dr y ureca, the mtatt
choice for aerial appl ica
SuIlted in little or no le
regardless of wxhen it
plied.
The Source of N. the
application, and the
rate used had dra-
matic effects on grain
y ield at harv est (see
table). Theie Wads a
slight yield adxvan-
tage to using moie
than S0 pounds N per
acire as urea or am1-
Ittoniuni itrate
ss hen applied at the
VS stage. At silking.
the higher rates mlay
not be as efficiently
used by the crop.
This experiment
demonstrates the im-
portaonce of timely
Lise of niti ocen
wxhether it is applied
wxith ground equip-
moent or by airplane.
Delaying urea appli-
cation until silking
resulted in ai 251
r. xvh
silki n,
that o'
wxith N.
iplied al
401c leci I
he damn
*ate wxa,
re fully
to col
pellet,
erial o'i
tion. i-C
af burl
was ap
timie of
yeld loss oxer wxhat could haxve been made
if the same rate wxas applied at the VS stage.
On the o~ther hand, the silIking application
resulted in about txxice aS much grain as
xxould haxve been made if the crop wxas
abandoned wxith no N applied.
If urea is unavailable, ammonium iii-
:,c 0.Y I'I", ,, Lit cn v. . rn
leaves. Plants will recover from damage at this stage
but not if UAN is applied at silking.
trate was found to be an acceptable alteirna-
tivxe for aerial application. Nitrogen st)1 -
tions Should be ax oided because of f oliar
burn pari fculairly if the application is late.
Mlitchell is an Associte Professor ot
A etonomli and Soits.
/l uuo A l-ici,1tiuni Exlperime nt Stutiont
Source Time oi applicationl N rate' G(in yield 
L eal hurn'
v8' Sulkinge
Lb./a. In,. I.
'.o e ....... 71 01 0
Uiea'............. V8 80 1I5>
Urea ........ V8 160 I 1 0.
U.rea............ silking 80 98- 0
tUrea.......... silkit' 160 111
nlit) aie...... V8 80) 12 1(1
niii ate...... V8 1601 142 2. -
nin te.......... silking 80 100 - 1 07
Amliumlii
initrate........... silkirii 1601 96 -
UAN........... V8 8(0 128 2
UAN ....... v8 160) 117 3.0)
UAN .......... silkiit' 801 36- 3.5
UAN ....... silking 160 24 - 4.8
Forty pouinds N pei ac e eie applied pi eplaut The dites r epor ted in ituis table
arc sulpplem~enital.
0 =little oi nou lea) htii it = 80-1 00 ( leat rlaiaee.
'The v8 stage ot gotis approxsiiately 6-8 wteeks aftei planting.
irea applied in tis ileatiteit was prilled.
FOLIC ACID SUPPLEMENTATION
CAN IMPROVE REPRODUCTIVE
PERFORMANCE OF Sows
Improving the reproductive efficiency
of sows is important because it is a
primary factor determining the profit-
ability of most swine operations. Many
producers are weaning pigs earlier and fol-
lowing intensive production schedules in
an effort to increase reproductive efficiency.
Obviously, these management practices
place high biological demands on sows.
Addition of folic acid to the sow diet
might be one way to increase litter size and
the performance of baby pigs during the
nursing phase. Folic acid is a vitamin found
EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTAL FOLIC ACID
ON REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF Sows
1
Supplemental folic acid
2
Variables
3  
0 1 2
Litter size
Totalpigs atbirth.. 9.51 9.97 10.12 10
Pigs at day 21 ........ 8.59 9.09 8.76 9.
Litter weight (lb.)
At birth .................. 34.6 31.4 33.6 33
Atday21 ........ 97.8 100.8 98.3 10
Piglet survival rate
to day 21 (pct.) ...... 92.9 95.3 92.2 93
Sow weight loss during
lactation (lb.) ......... 2.9 7.9 10.4 19
Return to estrus after
weaning (day)........ 6.0 6.3 6.4 6
1
Gilts and sows were placed on dietary treatments 21
before breeding and remained on their respective treat:
continuously throughout gestation and lactation for
parities.
2
Folic acid supplements are expressed in parts per m
(ppm).
3
There were 41, 37, 43, and 39 litters for diets supplem
with 0, 1, 2, and 4 ppm of folic acid, respectively.
in feedstuffs in variable amounts, and it can
be produced by bacteria in the intestine of
various species. Until recently, the folic
acid content of practical diets and bacterial
synthesis were believed to be adequate to
meet the pig's requirement. Since the early
1980s, however, there have been several
reports indicating that folic acid supple-
mentation can have beneficial effects on
the reproductive efficiency of swine.
As part of a collaborative project involv-
ing experiment station researchers in five
southern states, a study was conducted to
evaluate the effect of folic acid supplemen-
tation on the reproductive performance of
sows. The basal diet was calculated to con-
tain 0.34 parts per million (ppm) folic acid.
This diet was supplemented with 0-4 ppm
folic acid. Sixty-six crossbred gilts and
multiparous sows (sows that had produced
several litters) were assigned to dietary
treatments at least 21 days before
breeding. They remained on their
respective treatments continuously
throughout gestation and lactation
4 for three reproductive cycles.
The total number of pigs born
.59 increased as supplemental dietary
folic acid increased (see table). Baby
3.2 pig survival rate was not influenced
9.7 by the dietary treatment, conse-
.9 quently the advantage in litter size
.7 obtained 
at birth was 
maintained
throughout the 21-day lactation
.0 phase. Similarly, although there was
l days no difference at birth, total litter
ments weight at 
day 21 of lactation 
in-
creased as the folic acid content of
Zillion diets 
increased.
tented Sow weight loss during lacta-
tion increased as dietary folic acid
increased, most likely because of
the larger litters being nursed. However,
days required to return to estrus after wean-
ing were not affected by the addition of
folic acid. This and other findings indicate
that the increase in weight loss during lac-
tation had no immediate or even long-term
adverse effects on the reproductive perfor-
mance of sows.
L.I. Chiba, J.T. Eason, and R.A. Dawkins
Mid-gestation is a critical period for
sows because placental and fetal tissues
develop very rapidly during this phase.
Virginia researchers collaborating in this
project have shown that blood folic acid
concentrations decreased progressively
from weaning to late gestation, and this
depression can be attenuated by supple-
mental folic acid. Along with other func-
tions, folic acid is essential for the synthesis
of important genetic substances that are
involved in proper development and growth
of various tissues and organs. This aspect of
folic acid might be especially important for
unborn animals. Attenuating this decline in
blood folic acid concentrations in sows
during the gestation phase by dietary supple-
mentation, therefore, could have a positive
effect on litter size, possibly by decreasing
embryonic mortality.
Unexpectedly, although the beneficial
effect of folic acid on litter size has been
observed in many previous studies, it was
not observed at other stations in this current
regional study. However, considering the
preponderance of data supporting the ben-
efits of the vitamin, litter size is likely to be
improved by supplemental folic acid. In a
comprehensive review of published folic
acid investigations, a collaborator in the
regional project reported that all studies
showed a positive response to the vitamin
in reproductive efficiency.
It has been suggested that folic acid
should be included routinely in the breed-
ing herd vitamin premix, which can be
accomplished with a minimal cost, even
though the need for supplementation dur-
ing lactation has not been demonstrated and
the sow's body can store only a limited
amount of this vitamin. In addition, folic
acid supplementation might be more ben-
eficial in some instances where the ovula-
tion rate in the female is greater, such as
breeds that ovulate more, sow herds in
advanced parities, and flushed gilts or sows.
Consequently, the embryonic mortality rate
might be reduced with the addition of folic
acid in the sow diet.
Chiba is an Assistant Professor of Animal and
Dairy Sciences; Eason is Superintendent and
Dawkins is a Herdsman of the Sand Mountain
Substation.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station6
D.D. Bradford, D.L. Huffman, and J.M. Britt
ROSEMARY EXTRACT SHOWN
TO IMPROVE SHELF LIFE OF
FRESH PORK SAUSAGE
Rancidity is one of the most signifi-
cant factors affecting the shelf life of
fresh pork sausage products. The
breakdown of fats during storage causes a
disagreeable odor, taste, and color. Chemi-
cals such as butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA), butylated hydroxytolulene (BHT),
and propyl gallate are generally used to
prevent such problems, but consumers are
becoming increasingly concerned about
chemical food additives. However, they
still want consistent high quality.
Rosemary extract contains natural com-
pounds that could replace these common
chemical preservatives. A combination of
rosemary extract and potassium lactate or
sodium lactate could provide a product
with acceptable storage quality and more
natural ingredients. Potassium and sodium
lactates, which are widely used in the meat
industry to improve shelf life, are reported
to be effective in controlling bacterial
growth and preventing development of
unpleasant flavor, odor, and color.
Six fresh pork sausage treatments were
formulated in an AAES study to test use of
these compounds. All treatments consisted
of 25%-fat pork sausage with seasonings
and 3% added water, along with various
combinations of preservatives: (1) 3% so-
dium lactate; (2) 3.4% potassium lactate;
(3) 3% sodium lactate and 500 parts per
million (ppm) rosemary extract; (4) 3.4%
potassium lactate and 500 ppm rosemary
extract; (5) BHT and propyl gallate; (6)
BHA and propyl gallate; and (7) control
pork sausage with no additives.
Fresh sausage patties were frozen for 12
weeks to simulate storage conditions en-
countered prior to retail display. "Fresh" in
this sense means that the products were not
cured. Patties were evaluated for fat break-
down, or lipid oxidation, during that time
using a rancidity measurement known as
"TBARS." Color stability was evaluated
with a Hunter color difference monitor, as
well as by a visual appraisal panel, over an
eight-week period.
During frozen storage, redness value
decreased, while percent discoloration in-
creased for all sausage treatments. There
were no differences among treatments in
color properties.
The control sausage had the highest
level of rancidity
among the treat-
ments tested (fig- Rancidity
ure). Treatments
with potassium 
2.0 -
and sodium lac-
tates alone were
less rancid than
the control sau-
sage, but they 1.5
were more rancid
than treatments
that included
BHA, BHT, or
propyl gallate. 
1.0
This indicates
that potassium
and sodium lac-
tates do have
some preserva- 
0.5
tive properties.
The treatments
with rosemary
extract andpotas- 
0.0I
sium or sodium 0 2
lactate performed Weeks 
c
as well as treat-
ments with BHA, Effects of frozen stora!
BHT and propyl seven pork sausage 
ti
BHT and propyl pressed 
as milligrams
gallate added. higher the concentratic
The results of this study indicate that
fresh pork sausage produced with rosemary
extract and potassium or sodium lactate has
the same storage quality as products con-
taining the more traditional chemical addi-
tives. This information could be used to
give consumers a product with fewer addi-
tives and more natural ingredients.
Bradford is a former Research Associate,
Huffman is a Professor, and Britt is a former
Graduate Research Assistant in Animal and Dairy
Sciences.
Treatments
I I I I I I I I I
4 6 8 10 12
f frozen storage
ge on TBARS, a measurement of rancidity, on
reatments (described in text). TBARS is ex-
of Malonaldehyde per kilogram of meat; the
n, the more rancid the meat.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
7
:
C.F. Deneke, B.K. Behe, J.D. Williams, and J.S. Bannon
ALL-AMERICAN SELECTIONS DISPLAY
GARDEN YIELDING INFORMATION ON
rVD"JTC\T PT V, -V
an eetahle plants for breeders.
arowxers, landscapers, retai lers, and hohhy-
ists. AAES research has been helping sup-
ply that information to Alabamians lor sex-
eral years and has nowx
joined an international TPROMN
ex aluation effor t. 
AT E.V.
Since 1990, the Al
Depart ment of 
Hor ti- Color
culture has evaluated Red grandiflora
cool- and wxarmn}-season Red multiflora
annual fliowerinug 
plants Rose 
muanltlor
at the Patterson Green- Salmon granditle
salmon muitifior
house Complex in Au- 
Pink grandif lore
burn to help meet the Pink multiflora
univrsiy's eacing 
Purple grandiflio
unix rsit teahing Lllac grandiflor
and landscaping needs. Lllac multlf lore
Throgh cooeraive 
Blue multiflora
Thi ugha to~etat x e Star multihlora
eli ort o I the department
and the AAES, these
cx aluat ions wxere expanded in tall 1991 to
the E.V. Smith Research Center in Shorter,
wxher e land and technical assistance were
more readily axvailable for the garden wxhich
steadily grexx in size. In .Iannary 1993, this
expanded garden was designated as an All-
American Seleetions (AAS) Display Gar-
den.
AAS wxas established in 1933 to exvalu-
ate and publicize new, improved xvarieties
of seed-propagated dlowers and xvegetables.
Since 1933, 565 plant xvarieties haxve been
designated as AAXS Winners, indicating
supeirioi perf01rmance compaired to existing
xvarieties in dixverse locations actross the
United States and Canada. The other AAS
Display Gardens in Alabama are Birming-
ham Botanical Garden and Bellingrath
Gardens and Home. There also is an
official "Trial Garden at Callaxway Gardens,
i co H 1,.
Results of
these exvalua-
tions at Au-
burn and the
E.V. Smith
PETUNIAS IN leeS AAS TEST
SMITH RESEARCH CENTER
Cuitivar
Candy Pops Burgundy
Celebrity Burgundy
a Flash Hose
Primetime Rose
ora Dreams Saimon
a Primetime Salmon
Fiash Pink
Carpet Flame
ra Flash Velvet
a Daddy Drchid
Celebrity Lllac
Primetime Blue
Celebrity Hose Star
a.
(Cuntci have
identified sex-
eral superior
annuals tor
both xwarm-
and cool-sea-
sotn planting.
From May to
October 1992,
sonic 230 xariteties of sulmmler annuals xxere
display ed at the center. Panda Pink torenia
and Dazzler Red, Accent Orange. Accent
Deep Pink, Impact White, and Dazzler
Punch impatiens all display ed superior pet-
tormance as annuals tor planting in shaded
areas. Encore begonia. Volcano coleus.
Buddy Pittpie and Buddy White gotuphretia.
Showxstar tuelampodium. Ri eida Polaris
verbena, and White Star narrow- leaf zininia
were excellenit heat-toleratnt plants for suntny
areas in this exvalutation.
From Noxvember 1992 to April 1993.
about 130 xvarieties of cool-season bedding
plants xxere exvalutated. Some of the sutperior
performuing pansies xxere LUnixversal Red.
Maxim Yellow, Melody Yellowx Blotch.
Cry stal Boxx Deep Blue. Unix ersal Purple.
and Melodx White Blotch.
In 1993. ex aluations xxere made for 231I
4t
varieties of summer annuals, neatrlx 200 of
xxhich xxere petunias. The best performets
in each color category of petunias are listed
in the table.
Of the species other than petunias. x inca
Blush Cooler. Tropicana B Iuish, Grape
Cooler, and Peppermint Cooler pe rored
xxelI throughout the season. Melampodium~l
Showxstar. ni rembergia Mont Blanc. and
zinnia linearis Orange and White Classic
also perforued xxelI all summer long.
Few x arieties performed xxelI in the
purple multif bra, blue gi andil ra. xxhite
erand iftiora and muIt iflora, star erIand dif tI1a.
and mixed erandiflbra and multi flora cat-
econie s.
These results cannot be used to make
recommendations since weather. hardiness
zone, soil. exposure, and cultural practices
can affect the growxth of Iplants from season
to season. Comparison ot results ttotm this
AAS Display Garden xxith others itn Ala-
bama and the Southeast xxill imptroxe the
tel iability of recommendations reseatrcher s
make f rotm theit obscrxations tin the garden.
Deneke is ai totmet Assistant Ptrotessor. Belhe
is an Asststant Professor. and Wtilliatms is an
A ssi stanlt Ptrofessot of Hotrtt iturae: B an non is
Director of the E.V. Smith Reci Center.
A labama AugriciItiul L xI) riluent ,Station
f
AA 
.. 
s
AIR POLLUTIO 
% x T "
OBSERVED I
N ATTO\TA 
I I
p?
A.H. Chappelka and D.J. Wergowske
FM
G illlIi l x i onclii I'. LC lii.idlred an
Iiiiportant air polluntant toxic to
platnts, since it can he transported
10it, dLl.nItCe from urb1-an Solurcex to rural.
forlesxted ar eas . Conce ntriat ionsx ofI the pol-
lutant are hichest durimc the cr1-OI\ in Sea-
son, because the Chemical reactions. that
cireate ioione aire Iight- and teiitperatuie-
d riv\en, and SItac niant air massxes arec m ore
Coit1i1ioi1 in the Spring and xnrei. El-
e\ ated ozone conentrations are knowAn to
exist in Alabama. but their effct on the
s~tate 's foirests is not yet knox\ it.
As par til a long-term s.tudy . AAb S and
U.S. IDeparttnt ol Agriultuie Forext Ser-
\ ice rexearchers f ound that Nvisihble (ozone-
related inlury is prey alent in national for-
estx in Alabama and Mississippi. Injury
prcxvalence anid xeveirity v aried in each of
the thItrie N earxs 1f tudx . and xomC ai eax
wAere more damaced than otheirs. The
ITalladcua National Foiest suf fered the
itoiit injur.
Iln 1991, thircc rexearch plots we re extah-
Ilished in 'Ial ladeca. along wAith ximilar plots
ini MIixxixxippi'x Holly Springx and IDeSoto
national forests.. Each plot incinded npto 50)
plant'. of four selected species. black-
bet N, hlac k chertrN. SwAeetciiu. and yel lox
poplai. Thexe speciex are known ito he xen-
xitiv e to ozone injuiry and therefore Can
I191
'.Ct xC .1'. l j)il nI1LiLattlix ill fpru\ lie -
early 'Aa ruing of probIe mx Canuxed
by the pollutant. Rexearcherx xur-
veyed each plot for v isihle oizone
injury in late xummer 1 991-3 9
IThe moxt common xNymptoii
of (I/One inj ury are dot-like lexion-l
of tan, red. btoxxn. pur-ple. or blac k
Other xymiiptolmx include small Iat .
eax of dead tixxsiC and loxx (If colo a
In xe\ cie Caxex. IevscncLCp
mattui lIN and fall off. Befr I il I
'Aork began. laboi atory ie cxihi fZ
'Aax uixed tol Netrif 
these dixtinctiv\e 
Figur
ozoIne xsytmptolmx. See the Igcure'. Ozon
Ozone in jury 'Aax greatext in
1992 and leaxt in 1993. Thix varniation is
explained byte.~ that plaiit rexponise toi
o/Ione ix mot~derated by (lthereii\irllinicital
fatctor'.. Ozone is a "as wAhich enterx leaNvex
through the same pore'. that conitroll cx
chairce of carbon dioxide. (xAgni and 'Aa-
tet \ apor. I)urinup the 1993 grolAi ng '.eaxon.
these polrexs,(Ii "xtomata., 'Aerc of tein pairtly
cloxed due to a regional drouc2ht. In 1992.
hoAev er, adequate xoil moxsture al lowAed
them to remain fully open.
In 199?, 66%. 58 k. and 34'4 of the
observed plantx at Talladeca. Holly Spiringx.
aiid D~esoto natiotial foiestx, texpectiNvely.
'.hi wxed 1,11i giix of111 e ijry . In ceneral.
199?
A2
es 1.2. Ozone stippling on yellow-poplar (top).
e stippling on black cherry (bottom).
hlackherriy Nax lound to he the most
N eree- 
injured plant.
Ozone is created 'Ahen Lh drocat bonx
and nitrocen oixides trom iiiannlactuiii in
and automobile exhauxtx react in the atmo-
s.pheire. The T alladega National [Fi est '.uf
fered greater ozone injury miost likely' be-
cau'e it liex hetwAecu A~tlanta and Biirmine-
ham. 'Ahich haN e ample Sourcex of' these
poll utanix. Other inv\estigators obsei ed
ozone injy LiiNn the Bankhead National For-
est in Alabamna and the Cohutta National
Foirest in Geria.
Resu lxts fom this stuidy indicate that
ozone is ptrevalent in forested aieas in this
c-ion. However, more
991-93' research is needed to
1993 letermine 
if the polluit-
ant 1'. affttingc the
dPct. injuied
I o'A th and prodictiN-
P1.111' Leve i '. t of these ecosN 
steims.
lI~ftk hctx ..... 149) 49 47 10 
74 52 194 52 2-7 hp 
lkisaAs-
Ilit k (Itetr i.... 41) 5 3 55 63 57 23 Itl 16 14 C~pek xitA..
Sxxetgta ....... 1001 3(1 31 100) 57 4 144 24 1I itie Piale'.'.riil I lrexiiv.
Y1ellow-ppxx -I.. I1I3 65 39 131) 618 32 108S 12 17 and Wei dlx 'ke i'. an Air
I is ihle sho11''.s thle numt~ber oI plattt' 11h'.elxel tfro eaclh oll itur ltt .te '.peces'. the paetatge lot the'.e p1lants thait '.teieli R'areSe.i. xl
Il/hue injtntl du11ilng thle '.tudy perid and1.111 thle alxerage petettlae oll the leaxe'. liamaged It each plant.1 the tSDA Forte'.t 
Seixice.
Av[ R-NGE INC ID] N(F AND Sl v L irnUP OZONI LNJI RV ruin nn: TALtADGG,1 Nm osni. Fuitrsr. 
I 991-93' research is needed to
1/uf:umu .l, rirulnuul Lt/ ciimc n .S u iun
K.L. Bowen and J.F. Adams
MANAGING PEANUTS FOR
MINIMIZING AFLATOXINS
Calcium has long been known to af-
fect peanut crop quality and yield.
Recent AAES research has shown
that calcium can also lessen the risk of
contamination of peanuts with carcino-
genic compounds called aflatoxins. In tests
in the Wiregrass area of Alabama, peanuts
grown in soil with extractable calcium con-
centrations of 400 pounds per acre [200
parts per million (ppm)] or greater had less
invasion by the fungi that produce aflatox-
ins.
Peanut quality and marketability are
commonly affected by the presence of afla-
toxins, which are produced by the fungi
Aspergillus flavus andA. parasiticus. Afla-
toxin-producing fungi are commonly found
in the light sandy soils in which peanuts are
grown and most frequently occur when hot,
dry conditions prevail. High temperatures
favor growth of these fungi, limit growth of
competing organisms, and stress peanut
plants, thereby making infection more
likely. Since these fungi are found in the
soil and invade peanut tis-
sue throughout plant
growth, controlling 
this Incdenc
problem is difficult. How- 80
ever, proper peanut crop
management can lead to re-
duction of peanut seed in- 60
vasion by aflatoxigenic
fungi.
Peanuts produced 
under 
40
conditions of severe cal-
cium deficiency have de-
creased yield. Severe cal-
cium deficiency can make 20
peanuts more susceptible
to drought stress due to de-
creased root development. O0
Even under moderate lev- 1 00
els of calcium deficiency,
peanuts may be produced
with a greater incidence of Incidence of A
concentratior
"pops" or immature seeds. invasion of sq
10
In addition, soil calcium at concentrations
of 400 pounds per acre has been shown to
be optimal for seed germination. However,
this concentration exceeds calcium needed
for optimal yield.
Six on-farm experiments in 1991 and
four in 1992 were initiated on Coastal Plain
soils of Southeast Alabama. Cultivars
planted were Florunner, Sunrunner, and
GK 7 in both years, and Georgia Runner in
one trial in 1992. At each site, two treat-
ments were applied- a no-gypsum treat-
ment and 500 pounds per acre of gypsum
(calcium source) applied over the row at
early bloom. This provided two soil cal-
cium concentrations at each site, with in-
herent differences among sites. Plots were
harvested, graded, and subsampled for el-
emental analysis, germination, and inci-
dence of fungal invasion. Aflatoxins were
determined by fluorescence on an HPLC.
In the two years of the trials, rainfall
during the growing season was such that
aflatoxins were not a problem. However, A.
e of A. Flavus, %
200 300 400 500 60
Soil calcium, Ib./A
.flavusas soil calcium concentration increases.,
n of 440 pounds per acre, presence of A. flavu
eed reached a minimum.
flavus-type fungi did invade the peanut
seed. As shown in the figure, invasion of
peanut seed by aflatoxigenic fungi may be
quite high when soil calcium is low. How-
ever, at the critical concentration of 440
pounds per acre of calcium in the soil,
presence of A. flavus-type fungi reached a
minimum. This concentration is higher than
the 300 pounds per acre of calcium required
for maximum yield.
In addition, calcium concentrations in
seed were determined relative to fungal
invasion. At 230 ppm seed calcium, seed
invasion by aflatoxigenic fungi was mini-
mized. The minimum seed calcium required
for maximum germination is 320 ppm.
Fewer data points were used for determin-
ing the critical seed calcium to invasion by
A. flavus than for determining the seed
calcium needed for optimum germination.
Further research may show that the critical
seed calcium concentration for germina-
tion is similar to that for invasion by A.
flavus, as they are for soil calcium relative
to germination and incidence
of A. flavus.
Since it is currently not
possible to treat a peanut
field with fungicides to con-
trol A. flavus, it is important
to understand the relation-
ship between seed contami-
nation and seed quality. Crop
quality can be optimized
through certain management
practices that may differ
from optimizing yield pro-
duction, including supple-
mental calcium even when
existing soil calcium is ad-
equate for maximum yield.
)0 700
Bowen is an Associate Pro-
fessor of Plant Pathology and
At the critical Adams is an Associate Profes-
s-type fungal sor of Agronomy and Soils.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
J.J. Giambrone. F.J. Hoerr, anid J.S. Cruz-Coy
IMPROVED DIAGNOSTIC TOOL DEVELOPED FOR
MAJOR POULTRY DISEASE
vcrvconn~nandA highN conta1_ronx
I atlioecri atffets all axfpects OIi pioultry
liid eLL prllduirtron.eting produicers~ hun-
direds of ni I lin ot dol lars per \ car xxmdl-
vide. 1HID affects the hursa, a gland il ain
the immnnlie systemi ot chickens. reCiritine
in poor licaith, slowx growxth, imtune Sup-
lpresini anid hiigh mor tality. The x irux is
diffieult to kill, arnd it can also intertere xxithi
vaccriation aegainst otlier diseases.
Thec diaanoxix o 01 INi difficult he-
caus~e iNs N\ mpltomsi are easi ly contfuxed
wxitlh those ot other diseaxes. A r april. Nensi-
tive ilia'-rostic test wxaN needed lor im-
provedi control oftisi ecoroionnally~ im-
por tant point v disease. To meet thiN riced.
-\nhnr 1l rexearchierx dce eloped a ricxx tech-
riqiure that can qunickly proxide acenirate
diacrioxix ol 1131. I lie technique iN lot (irly
more Nerirtn\ than tr adrtional rmethodx. it
can prox ile a dragrioxiN within 24 hourN.
coiip~ared to three or rmorec days N ithi other
iliariNstre toolN.
mNI I IIN \ \ N' Ni I oI tIm IN I not t i \ i DimI
Is \II (i 1 a h. N>
tI i) NiIIN-copic NeionsN NiA\t Slaillil
N IiI l i l ...... - t 3
x' NNII C ..... i. IIt
G1(u1 01))N&i 1-dayn I-ll. ikenx Nw I li inc latei NN ill p
IN\ sIorIIof 0 CNI caIN IalnoI II>NioC wupcct
N i Nl IC Ni t IIN.ICl I liiie tiNNsu INCN NNeIN
Rexcaircher, piiondurced iiioriclOnarl anti-
hoics re MA 3) __netical Ixcu rnieci-ed
ivioleenlCexixgiied to xeek Outi arid riark
xlpecifi IL ir liceN (ithler tIIici (Icopic ageiitN
tin idetect the liteseiice Ol the 1131) x iruN in
chtickerix. [lie M,\13 are xvcry Nhiccil ic i-
,ieeritN that hiiid Onlx to the 1131) \iiwi.
T hey xx rc uxeid to nmodi lx a comnier
cially availahle iriiiiirioperoxidaxe text
kit. alloxx inc, rescrcher N to idlcrtitx darii
aCd tissuie arni quirckly con l'ii ni\ hethet
the daniaCe xxaN caireid h\x the 1 13D x irux
TissueN li-rori chickernx Nurpeeteid to
car ry the x rirx ate picxerxeid wxith toIlld
ilelixde arid i mheilded in paratti in. The
xx ax-erncaseid Narmples are Nliced rito one-
cell-thick sectioin arid mortetd on rii
croscoe~pe Slidile. Slrdes are treated wxithi a
xolttori contairiric the MA13N. wh ichl
xeek oirt arid hinil to) IBD1 xiral proteins
ini the ccllIN. Whler the Niluitior is applice1.
a ceiciial reactrori Ntairns infected cellN
wxith a x eiloxx hroxxn color.
All x eteririary xiiacriostic lahoratotiL
rourtineixli ur "frialir-i nxerl. paraft in-
eruheilied"' tisxiie xariplcx to exainte
or)] the miicroscopic lesions causreid bx
1131). AuhurnN tciiiue alloxx N lot a
miore definrtix c iiacnoxix h} corilirming
the presence Of the xiiirN., in addition to
detectine the lexioins.
ISN To iletci mine the accurracx ot the
test, inescaclierx injecteil Noiie clck-
ens xxith a mild IBD1 x ir us xacctiie
U'arid others xxithi a higll pathogenic.
drxeaxC-cansing* x irus. Inrjectiornx
xx crc done xx hen the hirN xxerc 21
daysx olid. arid trssue xariples xxerc
IeN taken three dax s later.
Chickens- xxhrch receri ed the xverx
ilc 4 x iirerit 113D xirux hail sexcrc ni-
N N croscopic lesionx 
(see tahla ) Thc~c
INIcI\ hii ils io cxiihited othetNriiluiorii
and experriceild nio rti rtheNchar-
acterixtict of the isease. IThere xx ax a
direct assocratior hetxxeecn the sex er ity of
lesrornx arii the irnternitx andi nimrrie of
positix cli tairiei cellN riar keil in the cx-
pierimenrtal dtautroxtic test. I iNSreN ftii
hirls iritectedl xx itli pathogenic x iruireN had
ritricroiirx idar k-taiined cellN, riiiicatrinc
~Ar~
p
areaN Ot 1131) x ir uN iclication.
In ciin~axt hiindx iiiectcilxxitli mildl xac-
cinie x rrurSex had rno clinical iiease Or 2ruixN
lesiorns anid orily miild imiroscix rc lesiorns.
TiSxSiex f romri thexe hirclxs innludeid orii a
fexx lichlix tarined cell,. ,\lxo~corittol hirdxs,
xxhich xxerc riot in jecteid wxith either x iral
treatment, had rno clinrcal iseaxe. ino Ic-
siion, ot aiix kiriii arni no plisitix cli stairici
cells.
These rexults iriicate that the riewxila
tilitic technique is riot ornly accurate ini
iletectiric 11BD, it iN Nensitix e enoricli to
irtrnitriixh hetxecii xvaccinieN aiii nul Ihloxx i
clinical casex oi the isease. ThiN text N niowx
usxed hv' the Alabaria State Veteriiiarx Di-
a c hNot ic I ah iiati ii-x in iiliiin arni at Nimi-
lar_ lahs at oiund the xxor ld tol aiii in the
iagriosis of 1131.
CGlnlhiIlii IN i PiloteNsor (N! POalti x Scicnic.
Hoer ii INt)ircctilro the \llahIni. %itate 'eieinilai
DiI Noic . ,hNI ,tIrx anmd ( irl! (ov IS N kc-
Neirii ILeader wNiti itie Main iii o1lo!ic ILahora-
toix in iainesx ile., G.
-A /lbamat A iPi If mad(1 Ii~x/eiimia tat uism
J
K
H.P. Phelps, C.A. Walser, and S.T.J. Tamassia
CIATF~t EGc ArNr') FINCEPTTNC
attIisi c''hatchinii siiceC and
C i ngetIi ng surx i al can range fr om
U0-100 /. depending upon a variety
of id actine factors that can leaxve 
larm-
ers p~erplexed. An often oxverlooked aspcct
of catfishi pr oduction is the accuracy of
techniques used to i nxentorx' eggs and fin-
gerlings.
AAES researchers, found many of' the
traditional enumneration methods used by
catfish farmers to be inaccurate. Studies
xxere conducted to develop general guide-
lintes for more accurately counting catfish
eggs and fry.
One traditiotial assumption is ifiat tfhere
Wipoiiiicf mlCcc
Assuintg a 10Ut)'
hatch. 22 poutids ot
the otie- to two-dli-
old( egg masses
wxould yield ap-
p r o ximna t e I
230,000U fryx the
older egg masses.
a ppro ximtia telyx
300.U00. If the
overall mean mium-
bet of eggs wxas used
- not cotisidem inL
c"" iiass agethe
is a stanidard 1itt ii
her of eggs pet
poittd of eg"
mass. but thiis as-
suttmption does not
accouttt f ot the
age of the tiass.
Duringo iticitbi
tion,. the amioutt
of material hind-
in the eggs de-
cicases as ciii
hryois dev elop. As
a result. the 1rium11
Eggs/gram of egg mass
36 r
20r
1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8
Age of egg mass, days
Figure 1. As an egg mass ages, the number of
eggs it contains increases.
ber of eggs is actually greater iii masses
thrit c ays and older than ini xoungver miasses
(Figurte I)
Egg masses are general I y birought to the
hiatcherx at otie to four dlays. Researchers
studied 97 egg masses iii this age ratige
wh lich wxeighed a total (if approximtiately
9)UU piiundis. They determined that the meani
iiumber of eggs pcr pounid xxas 1 2.258. Bit
whetn the masses xxere dixvicded accorditig to
age. reseacher s determniited that one- to
twxo-day-old mlasses conttainted 1,442 ecgs
per pounid, while three- to tour-day-olcf
miasses cotitainied 1 3.62(0.
Fggs ate typically incubated in
pacdclexxheel troughs. xwhichi hold about 22
Figure 2. Estimate tne total number of fry by the change 
in water
volume in a graduated wide-mouthed container.
farnmer wuld cx-
pect 270.000) fry.
Thus, it xx tuld ap-
peat that the
younger eggs
yielded only an
851k hatch. xwhile
the older otnes
yielded I I I /
CatfIish fry\ are
of ten itnxetntotried
by cdeteriingiii hoxw mitch wxater they dis-
place. Traditional ly,. it xxas assimied that
1,0U0U otic-cay-old try displaced otie tfluid
ountce. Hcowecxer. researchers determitied
that the count can ratige frtom 1 .853 to 2. 191
fry per ounce. Traditionial mnethcids xxould
utidetesti mate the invxetitotry by 46-541/(.
resultinug ini ovxersto~cked potnds atid false
estimates if siirxvixval at liarx est.
Researchers dletertiined that a more ac-
curate itixetory of fry cati be obtainted b
usitic a balance xxith a precisioin of (1.3
ouceiictoixweigh six 50fry samiples and then
applyitig a cortect ion (actor to adjust foir the
amountt of xxater in each sample. A pan
containiinc a kniowxn amountt of' xxater is
placed on the balance. Somie additiotnal
wxater is introduced wxheti fty are 
aidded to
the pan. The amoutit of extra wxater is abocit
the same xxhlethier 5(0 or 1,0UUU frx are added.
xwhich meanis the we ii_*t of this wxater is
ptroportioniallx creater in smaller samples.
To cotrect forthiis imtibalanice. fatrmers should
wxeigh sexveral samiples raniii ini suze frotm
50 to 1,0UUU frx to determiine the we icgit of
the suirpl us wxatct (Fig'u 2). Once thiis
factor is knoxwni the f armier cani wxei ch the
six 50-fry samples. subtract the wxeighit 
of
the extira water f roti each samiple, anid ar-
rivxe at art accurate inixentory of y oung fishi.
Ideally . catfish fry ate remioxved from
inicuibationi and enutnerated the day they
hatch. but ofteti that is niot possible. Re-
searchers founid that the numiber (if fty Per
fluid outice decreased 9(4 each day 
past
hatching. ITbetrclotre, if fry are tnot collected
daily, f armers should alloxx for a 9(k reduc-
tioti in the ncimber of fry per ounice each day
the collectioti is delayedc.
Phelps is aii Associate Pr ofessor, aiid WAalser
aid Tam ass ia ate (Grtad uate ResearchI As 
sistants
ini Fishieries anid Allicd Aqutaultures.
A1lbama AgiriculI/uraIl EvI)eri,,ient S ;iatit
J.T. Owen, J.B. Armstrong, H.L. Stribling, and M.K. Causey
MAX-FLEX FAST FENCETM EVALUATED FOR
REDUCING DEER DAMAGE
D ci ofte Crine 
xex et
Ittagc toi ii it arld xc'a
etahierripx iilco iii llir
CI Ai arid 
hom 
e xettringx 
. A A 
I 
tu i 
S S 
g t 
h a 
x
(leer with xpecial tericex riax &
pritdeI the hext lng-terml ap
proiachl to conrl thisx damage.
Woxe ciotr elcctric xxire
Scnice Can he uxed to exclude
deer bu moe inormtio is Soybean 
plots protected by a two-strand electric 
polytape fence. Typical deer
dcc. ht rttne riirniatoritx damage on an apple tree (inset).
')o)Iytape exeloxure
increased. control
ot deer wxas reduced
to) the point that the
fenced area re-
ceiv ed hea\vy deer
damiage.
These oherx a-
tionx suggtest that.
xxhen startinig wxith
miinimial electric
needed on tihe Ct tecti xenexx
anid proper arrarntemernt of these tencex to
achiex e riaxrimumu control. A two-y xarxtirdx
axsessed the ceftectix eness Max-Flex I ast
Fence I ' electric fecinrg materialsx
(polytape). ()hjectivecs of tihe study we rc to
(leterineri the efflectiv eness of diffierent
Coni ficlnationx (if poly tape for excluding
Wxhi te-tailed deer f rorn agrcu tural plots
arnd to determne tihe plot size xxhIere a
xrsigle xtrarid oni poly tape Ceaxex to he effec-
tix ve. T[he xtudy wax corndurcted rn txwo phaxex
on areax wi thi hixtorrealhighlrl deer derli-
ries at tile Piedrmornt Suhstatiloll in Camp
Hill.
In the f irxt phase, plotx oi approxiriiatel\
4
5
x25 feet (1/4l0 oi an acre) wxere estah-
lixliel arnd planted wxith xoyheanx. Ferncing
Coriiuratiornx tested included a xirntle
xtarid oi poly tape placed 30) richex ahov e
tile gr onnd: a thlree-w ire (ottxet icrice uxinre
poly tape: two( xtraridx oi polytape pliaced 18
arnd 36 inrchex ahoxve the ground; arid at fix-
wxire IlC erCeornxtrtrcted (if poly tape.
Thexe tour treatrmerntx arnd a Control plot
wxere rarndomly} axxigried to plots. W\itin
cacti plot. xix-toot-wide strrps of tied
gr ouind we re Chlecked ior the prexencee of
deer tr ackx. Fenrce x oltage wax riantairied
hctxx cr 3,0)0)0 arld 5.500 x otx. Fiherulaxx
poxsts. one-hlalf incil inr diameter, we re uxed
io lice postx, and fiherglaxx t-poxtx w~erec
uxed ifor Corn1cr poixtx.
Thie secorid phlase of the xtudy texted tile
etiectixeriexx of at sirile-xtarid poly tape
icence 30) irichex ahox c tile grournd ior cx-
Ci tdi hg_ deer iromri plots if varioux xrzex irp
to oine acre. Tihese ploitx we rc planted xxitih
xsixhean x arid miainritai ned ax inI Ph1axe I.
Rexsrltx oi the firxt phaxe xhow.xed that a
xinle xtrarid (iipol> tape wxax ax cifiectiv e ini
preverntinrg deer frorm entering tile plotx ax
tile riore elahorate fernce Coiurrationx.
[his xrtax he a rexult oi the x ixual repellericy
ofitile xmll 25 x45 i oot plot in CornjIrinttion
wxitih the electric Ciharge (if the iernce. D~eer
we rc rout inIely xeern erntering tither larLCr
erncitsurtl fxienced xx ith tile xarmi arnd xx ithi
dlitfterent Conigclrationsx anld mlater ialx ini
fieldx adjacenlt to thlix text.
The eifectix enexx of the xirlie xtranid
wxax miuchl lesx Coniluxixe in the xecornd
pihase, xitih deer cnterirng all plotx at xorme
timie durig the xtudy (xee tahle). Hoxx cxer.
thecre doex appear to he a direct relat ionxsiip
hctxwecci plot size aind
nliilhcr oi deer tracks
(ihxerxved ini the plot.
Tile conltrol (if deer
wasi highexti the islmaxlla-
ext plot aiid dccrcaxed
ax pilot size inicreaxed.
Thix inidicatex thlat
xrialler poly tape
exCioxut cx max ci ice
ti x ei\ prex cnt (leer tiroml
eriteriri. Ax xize of
fernee xtructuires,
xuccecdi nc years ill tile xanme location oiften
requirze 110e Ccorlex electric iernce xt-iC-
WIVc toi pr excnt deer erntr.
Rexaultx tii phaxe onle indicate that a
xrigle xtrarid oi polytape electr ic ieciniri if
plroplerlinsrtalled and riairitarined, Can he a
xuitahle deterrernt to deer in a smiall I arderi
or oirrnamntal planting. The quick. easy,
arid relativel inirexperivxe irnxtallatiorn oi
polytape electrrc ferncex wiii ernharnce tiheir
dexrirabirt byi hxlormeownmerx arnd gardenris.
A terice riade oit a xtrle polytape xtanld
Can he hlended irntoi manx horme arid garden
xettinrigc arnd oifferx xomle decree of deer
corntro wi xitih iim ial aextihetic irnterieenrce
to tile laridxcape settinlO.
Deer popirlatiori. dixtarice iromri coixer,
attract ivenexs xf ithtie plant tmiaterialI thIlat hlax
heern erncloxed. the axvailahility oit alternate
food( miiateri aix arnd Coxver, and ithle r re pel-
lirig oir attractirng tactoirx are additional coiri
siderationsx thlat willr
Plot Fiie t-I.t teiteess
140) 70
1/0 28
1 26
the rond wal \ u.i ned
Indicate, the pieulcent ot lviei \ itioni in U huch
inluence tile lexe ci i
deer control.
Own is Suipetrinteni
detnt oft the Piedmnti
Substtiin: A.\trione,
is ani Assistaiit tPt fii -
sor. Stribtirig ix aniis
soitre Profso ai xiitnd
Cauxex is a Ptrofexsot
oi Zoologi\ and~ iId-
life Scice.
AIabamau Ai-'i~lur-aI E-yet-imuent Station
R.T. Lovell, S. Lumlertdacha, B.W. Kemppainen, S.D. Lenz, and R.A. Shelby
CORN MOLD TOXINS REDUCE
GROWTH AND DISEASE
RESISTANCE IN CATFISH
Fusarium moniliforme, a corn mold
commonly found in North America,
produces mycotoxins called
fumonisins (B
1
, B
2 
and B3). Fumonisin B
1
has recently been established as an animal
toxin. AAES research indicates that these
mycotoxins can affect channel catfish per-
formance.
The toxin's effects vary with species
and dosage. Diet concentrations of 10 parts
per million (ppm) have caused leuco-
encephalomalacia in horses; 30 ppm can
cause pulmonary edema in pigs; and 50
ppm can result in liver cancer in rats. Chick-
ens and cattle seem to be less sensitive than
other species to fumonisins.
Large amounts of corn and corn screen-
ings are used in commercial catfish feeds
Weight gain, g/fish
12
1 2 3 4 5 6
Week
Average weight gain of year one channel cc
containing various concentrations of fumonis
in the South, but no data were available on
sensitivity of fish to fumonisins. The AAES
study was conducted to determine the sen-
sitivity of channel catfish to toxins from F.
moniliforme. Strain 826 of the mold is a
prolific producer of fumonisins and was
originally isolated in South Africa from
corn associated with leucoencepha-
lomalacia in horses. This strain was used to
inoculate sterilized corn to produce a cul-
ture of toxic corn.
Fumonisin B
1 
concentration of the cul-
tured corn was measured at Auburn's Plant
Pathology Diagnostic Laboratory. Differ-
ent combinations of clean and toxic corn
were used to formulate diets containing
various concentrations of fumonisin rang-
ing from 0-720 ppm. A wide range of
fumonisin concentrations
were used because of the
uncertainty of the sensi-
tivity of channel catfish
to the toxin. Year-one,
two-gram catfish and
year-two, 30-gramcatfish
were fed the experimen-
tal diets for 12 weeks.
A decrease in weight
gain was observed as
fumonisin concentration
increased in the diet.
There was a significant
reduction in weight gain
by year-one fish fed the
lowest dose of fumonis-
in, which was 20 ppm (see
figure). Weight gain by
year-two fish also was
I reduced at the lowest
7 8 dose concentration but
not as much as that of
tfish fed diets the smaller 
fish. Fish fed
in. diets with 80 ppm of
fumonisin were lighter in color and had
yellow spots (lipoid bodies) in the liver.
At the end of the feeding trial, year-two
fish fed the control, 20 ppm, and 80 ppm
fumonisin treatments were challenged with
the bacterial pathogenEdwardsiella ictaluri,
which causes enteric septicemia in channel
catfish. Based on 12-day mortality counts,
fumonisin reduced resistance to the bacte-
rial infection in relation to diet concentra-
tion (see table).
Fumonisins have a chemical structure
similar to sphingosine, a component of cell
membranes and nerve tissue. The myc-
otoxins cause toxicity by altering metabo-
lism of sphingosine in animal tissues. Sph-
ingosine levels in the serum, head kidney,
and liver were reduced in fish consuming as
little as 20 ppm of fumonisin.
Measurement of fumonisin concentra-
tion in feed mixes before and after extru-
sion pelleting showed that fumonisins are
heat tolerant and are not destroyed during
processing. A limited survey of grains and
grain byproducts used in catfish feeds in the
South found fumonisins in these products,
especially corn and corn screenings. How-
ever, amounts did not exceed 10 ppm. Much
higher concentrations have been reported
in animal feedstuffs in the United States.
The fact that the lowest dose of fumonisin
used in the study, 20 ppm, affected the
performance of the fish indicates that lower
dietary doses should be examined. This
also indicates that ingredients used in com-
mercial catfish feeds should be monitored
for occurrence and concentration of
fumonisins just as they are for aflatoxins.
Lovell is a Professor and Lumlertdacha is a
Graduate Research Assistant of Fisheries and
Allied Aquacultures; Kemppainen is an Associ-
ate Professor of Physiology and Pharmacology;
Lenz is an Assistant Professor of Pathobiology;
and Shelby is a Research Associate of Plant
Pathology.
MORTALITY OF YEAR-TWO CATFISH FED DIETS
WITH FUMONISIN AND INFECTED WITH
EDWARDSIELLA ICTALURI
Fumonisin Pct. mortality
ppm
0 ....................... ............. 2 7 .8
20 ....................... ............. 44 .4
80 ....................... ............ 88 .9
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station14
E.J. Sikora, E.M. Bauske, G.W. Zehnder, and M.H. Hollingsworth
EVALUATION OF LOW-INPUT
FUNGICIDE SPRAY
PROGRAMS FOR CONTROL
program. The LV-CC and TOM-CAST
treatments used 38% and 49% less fungi-
cide material, respectively, compared to
the standard. TOM-CAST recommended
four fewer sprays than the standard spray
program.
In both tests in 1993, no differences
were observed in disease severity or yield
among treatments. In the spring test, the
OF EARLY BLIGI
ON TOMATOES
Controlling early blight in Alabama's
$15 million commercial tomato crop
is a major concern, but growers also
are concerned with reducing the amount of
fungicide they use. Auburn research indi-
cates that two low-input fungicide pro-
grams may help growers accomplish these
goals.
Early blight, caused by the fungus
Alternaria solani, can cause severe defolia-
tion, resulting in reduced fruit yield and
quality. Conventional calendar-based spray
schedules usually call for the fungicide
mancozeb to be applied at seven- to 10-day
intervals, beginning at transplanting and
continuing through harvest. Using this
schedule, growers may make 10 or more
fungicide applications during the growing
season.
Some pesticide labels recommend a
range of rates that change with the size of
the crop. These rates often are written in a
way that results in a large concentration of
material being applied when the crop is
young and prone to pesticide injury.
Assuming that the recommended
mancozeb concentration controls early
blight on mature tomatoes, that same con-
centration should control the disease on
young tomatoes. A low-volume, constant-
concentration (LV-CC) fungicide spray
program has been developed based on us-
ing reduced amounts of fungicide early in
the season, when less water is necessary for
complete coverage, without reducing the
concentration of the product.
TOM-CAST (Tomato Disease Fore-
caster) is a w eather- ST' .odel for the 13
based model for the TC
3  
9
timing of foliar fun- LV CC+TC
gicide applications 
IT tandard fungici
on field-grown to- LV CC ow voli
matoes. The pro- 
LCC+TC combina
gram was developed CAST.
to control foliar dis-
eases, such as early blight, anthracnose,
and Septoria leaf spot. TOM-CAST uses
two weather measurements: leaf wetness
and air temperature (during the wetness
period) to assess disease risk and determine
optimum fungicide spray intervals. TOM-
CAST has been successfully implemented
in tomato production areas in the United
States and other countries.
A two-year study was conducted to
evaluate a LV-CC fungicide spray program
and the TOM-CAST program, both alone
and in combination, for control of early
blight on fresh markettomatoes. Field evalu-
ations were conducted on spring-trans-
planted tomatoes in 1992 and a spring and
fall tomato crop in 1993 at the North Ala-
bama Horticulture Substation in Cullman.
Early blight severity was assessed weekly
and total yield (number and weight) by
grade was determined at harvest.
In 1992, more early blight was observed
in plots sprayed using the TOM-CAST
program. However, there was no difference
in yield between TOM-CAST plots and
plots treated with the standard calendar-
based spray program. No differences were
observed in disease severity or yield be-
tween the LV-CC and the standard spray
LV-CC, TOM-CAST, and LV-CC plus
TOM-CAST treatments used 23%, 59%,
and 63% less fungicide material than the
standard spray program. TOM-CAST rec-
ommended seven fewer sprays than the
standard. In the fall test, the LV-CC, TOM-
CAST, and LV-CC plus TOM-CAST treat-
ments used 35%, 59%, and 61% less fungi-
cide material, respectively, than the stan-
dard spray program. TOM-CAST recom-
mended six fewer sprays than the standard.
In response to higher production costs,
increased public awareness ofpesticide resi-
dues on food products, and contamination
of the environment, growers are actively
seeking methods to reduce pesticide usage.
Both low-input spray programs evaluated
in this study appear to be viable alternatives
for tomato growers in Alabama. Each re-
duced the amount of fungicide material
applied without reducing yield or fruit qual-
ity. Further reductions in the amount of
fungicides required were obtained when
the TOM-CAST and LV-CC programs were
combined.
Sikora is an Assistant Professor and Bauske is
a Post-Doctoral Fellow of Plant Pathology;
Zehnder is an Associate Professor of Entomol-
ogy; and Hollingsworth is Superintendent of the
North Alabama Horticulture Substation.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
15
S.E. Taylor
WIDTH AF,'Ec-' S R
produced in Alabaia is an impor-
tant incredient in lued-laminated
(gluilain tiinbei pioducts manulactured here
and in othei states. Glulam timbers are
frequentliy used as beams, columns, or
arches in residential and commercial con-
struct ion. Comnon examples include ga-
ra.e door headers andi arches in religious
buildings.
To make gin lam products, structural f'in-
cer joints are cut into the ends of individnal
laminated boards. One board is spliced and
g'luedl toanothir by joining the finger joints.
ILayers of spliced boards are then glued
togethei to piroduce wood members of prac-
tically any size and length. The strength of
ciulam beams is detetmined by the strength
of the lumber. as welf a' the strencth of the
adhesion at the joints.
Recently. iesearchers fonnd that tradi-
tional methoCs did not always aceurately
predict the strengths of w ide finger joints
and giilam heams. An AAF S study, with
support Irom the A meriean Intit nte ofT ini
bei Construction, was conducted to gain a
better undcrstandi nc of the effects of xidth
on the strength of single finger joints and
eomplete giulam timbei beams.
For the first phase of the prioject. 10
manuacturers supplied fi nger joints made
fm sev eral grades of 2x8. 2x 10. and 2x 12
southern pine and )ouglas fir lumber. Re-
searehers determnined each speeimen's ten-
sile streingth, the aount of stress that a
joint can withstand before breaking in ten-
sion. A testing device was sed to pull hart.
sets of glued joints.
Results shoed that finger-joint IcrisiIc1
strength decreased as width increased. For
example, the average tensile strengths of
No. I sothern pine Iingcrjoints decreased
by 1(0% when the width increased fiom
eight inches to 10 inches. They decreased
another 4(/r when the width increased from
10 inches to i2 inches. As width increases.
there is a greater probability that the finger
stirength-ieducinL,
characteristic. Thr
wiidth effects in tlh
southern pine finger
joints were slightly
less than those ob
serxved in the Douglas
fir lumber.
In the second phase of
the study, researchers fabri 4
cated Douglas fir glulam
beams six and 10 inches
xxide. Thex also assembled
finger joints that matched 
Glued-laminatec
the ones used to make the boards with 
stri
giulam beams. The beams were tested by
bending them wxith increasing force nntil
they failed, while the joints xere tested in
tension as described in the first phase.
Results showed that increasing xidths
had a greater impact on the tensile strength
of the finger joints than on the bending
strength of the glulam beams. Forexample.
the axerage tensile strength of one grade of
Douglas fir finger joints decreased 2614,
when the width increased trom six inches to
10 inches. However, the axerage bending
strength of entire beams made of the same
giade of wood decreased only 4% for the
same increase in xidth. This difference
indicates that the process of gluing together
several laminations allows load sharinc
ALABAMA AGfICULTU HAL EXP JJA1FIST
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSI
Lowell T. Frobish, rector
POSTMASTER-Address Cof~eteon 
FkAqubsted
"S c
Cy.. C l~ygC
A
d beams used in building construction. Laminated
uctural finger points cut into the ends 
(inset).
across the width of the beam, thereby com-
pensating for most of the width effects in
the finger joints.
This information significantly aids in
understanding the behavior of lumber and
structural finger joints in wide gluiam ti m-
ber beams. Although the study confirmed
that giulam timbers are a strong product.
the results aire being used in new quality
control procedures for manuf acturing wider
finger joints and the resulting glued-lami
nated timber beams. The end result will be
safer and more economical wood structures
for the consumei and more xaluable prod-
uets from Alabama's forests.
Taylor is an \ssisti Professor of ALericul
tural Fni iic r In
ATION
NON-PROFIT ORG.
' , POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT NO. 9
AUBURN, ALA.
I1.