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IN T H IS ISS UE DIRECTO 
R'S COMMENTS
Farm Property Crime and Security Practices of Alabama Farmers_ 3 itswapgoote orltbackaon
Are There Weeds in Broiler Litter? 4 accomplishments of the past year and to
A New Aquaculture System to Produce Fish:and Remove Wastes _ 5 l
3 s For many Alabama 
farmers 1993 was
Marketing Alabama Apparel Pr"ducts in Mexo 6 not a good year. Drought, heat, and insects
Contol H rd-t -Kil played havoc with peanuts, cotton, corn, and
Rotating Disinfectants Hlps n 
soybeans. Though not as directly affected,
Germs in Hatcheries 
the state's livestock industry was also hurt
Assessing the y$tatusofthe Alabs aa Iver Paddlef _ _ 8 by the drought and higher than average tem-
Cutlss ontQ~s x~cssie Grwthof flh _________ peratures that extended in many parts of the
Cutless Contr o css~e Grot # ButteQtrfly-
uttr y9u state from 
early June to mid-August.
Growth Implants Pay Big Dividends_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10 The drought provided researchers in
Prduer ___________1 the Agricultural Experiment 
Station an
Marketing Choies of 'b C aCatle' Prducer = g a 11
Marktin Chocesof Aabaa Catleopportunity to investigate production prac-
Lean Beef Prodltion frorm-CullQws Treated with tices under these extreme conditions. Hope-
BoieSmttrpn__________________1 fully, the next time heat and drought come
Bovine SomatW 3~in : ai 
12
in such strong doses, producers will have
North Alabama To W9 Viri s i mi sA li d ! Y'e~~j 13
Nort Albam Tomto iru Epiemis Sudie ____________ 13 some management practices available to
Ensiling Broiler Litter and JohnsongrassForms soften the blow.
Quality Feedstuff_ _ _ __ _ _ 14 The North American Free Trade Agree-
ment (NAFTA), the General Agreement on
Lupin, a Potential New Crop for Alabama 
15 Tariffs andTrade(GATT), andtheopening
Ground Cover Around Your Home Can Influence debates on the 1995 Farm Bill all will have
Abundance of Cockroaches 16 direct impacts on Alabama agriculture in
1994 and beyond. If NAFTA and/or GATT
are approved by Congress, they will affect
ON THE COVER. White lupins are a promising winter crop 
for Alabama growers, see the way farmers produce their 
crops and raise
story on page 15. terlvsok
Those of us in the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station face the challenge of
U P C 0 M I N G E V E N T S keeping agricultural technology current and
helping our producers stay competitive on
a global basis. We likewise have to face the
January 25-26 Alabama Fertilizer and Pesticide 
Conference, Montgomery real challenge 
of doing this within a frame-
February 5-9 Southern Association of Agricultural Scientists, Nashville work that will not further degrade our envi-
February 8-9 Alabama Fish Farming Conference and Trade Show, Montgomery 
ronment.
February 25-26 Alabama Cattlemans 
Association Annual Meeting, Montgomery 
We will be up to the challenge!
Merry Christmas and the most prosper-
March 1 AU Ag Alumni Meeting and Hall of Honor, Auburn 
ous New Year yet!
W in t er 1 9 93 V o lu me 4 0 N um be r 4
A quarterly report of research published by the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station,
Auburn University.
LOWELL T. FROBISH ....... Director
DAVID H. TEEM .......... Associate Director
RUSSELL B. MUNTIFERING ... Associate Director
PAT GREEN.............. Assistant Director
ROY ROBERSON ............ Assistant Director
KATIE SMITH ............... Associate Editor
ROBYN HEARN .............. Associate Editor
TERESA RODRIGUEZ ..... Art Designer
Editorial Committee: Lowell T. Frobish; D.G.
Himelrick ,Associate Professor of Horticulture; K.L.
Bowen, Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology; E.T.
Moran, Professor of Poultry Science; L.A. Shanley,
AssistantProfessor of ConsumerAffairs; C.W. Wood,
Assistant Professor of Agronomy and Soils; H.W.
Kinnucan, Associate Professor of Agricultural Eco-
nomics and Rural Sociology; R.A. Tufts, Associate
Professor of Forestry; W.J. Moar, Assistant Professor
of Entomology; J.L. Sartin, Associate Professor of
Animal Health Research; and Roy Roberson.
EDITOR'S NOTE. Mention of trade names does not
indicate endorsement by the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station or Auburn University of one
brand over another. Any use of pesticide rates in
excess of labeled amounts in research reported does
not constitute recommendation of such rate. Such
use is simply part of the scientific investigation
necessary to evaluate various materials. No chemi-
cal should be used at rates above those permitted by
the label. Information contained herein is available
to all persons without regard to race, color, sex, or
national origin.
J.E. Dunkelberger, R.D. Lawler, and G.J. Lyles
FARM PROPERTY CRIME AND SECURITY
PRACTICES OF
ALABAMA FARMERS
Reported rural crimes in the U.S. in-
creased from 423 to almost 2,000
per 100,000 people from 1960-90. How-
ever, the actual amount of crime in rural
areas is believed to be even higher since
many of the offenses against farm property
are not considered in the computation of
rural crime rates.
For this reason, a statewide AAES sur-
vey was conducted to gather information
about the crime experiences of Alabama
farmers. More than 400 participating farm-
ers were asked to report any violations
during a single 12-month period and during
all their years of farming.
In one year alone, 19% of farms had
been victimized, with vandalism most of-
ten experienced, followed by theft of farm
property, and burglary of farm buildings.
Over their years in farming, almost 60%
had been victimized at least once. Theft
and vandalism were the most common
offenses. Large farms were much more
likely to be victims of all types of property
crimes, both recently and in the long term
(Table 1).
Theft of farm materials, such as gaso-
line, chemicals, seeds, and fertilizers, was
reported by 32% of farmers, while theft of
farm machines, equipment, and tools was
reported by 31%. Almost half the large
farms experienced material or equipment
theft, compared to 20% of small and me-
dium farms. Theft of harvested and unhar-
vested crops was reported for 14% of all
farms and 25% of large farms. Similarly,
12% of all farms and 28% of large farms
experienced the theft of cattle.
Attempted or actual burglary of barns or
other buildings was reported for 21% of all
farms and 34% of large farms. Vandalism
to machines, equipment, tools, livestock,
crops, or timber was reported for 25% of
all farms and 42% of large farms. Al-
though 15% of all farmers experienced
vandalism of their farm buildings, large
farmers were more likely to report such
incidents.
Farmers were asked how often they
used-each of 12 common security mea-
sures to protect their farm property. After
taking into account farm operations in
which there was no need for a particular
precaution, widespread failure to use many
of these security practices was observed
(Table 2). The survey found that
the most widely practiced secu-
rity measure was to have a neigh-
bor watch the farm during peri-
ods of extended absence. Farm Se
machinery insurance and live-
stock identification were used
Brands
with varying frequency by about 
or oth
two-thirds of applicable 
farm- livesto
ers. Large farmers 
more fre- 
Put na
numb
quently used 
most of the 
secu- 
ut
rity precautions, 
but they were 
numb
much more apt to leave farm and 
eq
machinery unprotected over- 
Keepr
night in fields 
where it was more 
numb
vulnerable to crime. 
Keep
Clearly, many Alabama 
lockec
farms are being and have been Keep
victims of property 
crime. Yet, 
locke
most of the 
state's farmers 
are Keep
Have
not doing all 
they can do to 
pro- Have
tect their 
property.Have
Have
out of
Dunkelberger is Professor of Ru- f
ral Sociology; Lawler 
is a Graduate Infarm 
f
Research Assistant in Community
Resource Development 
with the Ala- 
fieldseave
bama Cooperative Extension Service; house
and Lyles is Professor of Sociology, perc
Tuskegee University. 
2
The
TABLE 1. EXPERIENCE OF ALABAMA FARMERS
WITH FARM PROPERTY CRIME
1
Size of farm
2
pct. pct. pct.
In a Single Year:
Any property 
crime ...... 13.2 
16.0 30.1
Vandalism ................... 9.6 10.4 25.5
Burglary ....................... 4.8 9.4 11.8
Theft ............................. 5.6 8.8 17.5
Ever experienced:
Any property crime ...... 50.0 55.7 75.7
Vandalism..........31.9 42.3 59.4
Burglary ....................... 23.9 31.6 44.2
Theft ............................. 32.8 45.8 65.6
Number of farmers
3 
...... (148) (129) (104)
'Some farmers experienced multiple crimes.
2
Each farm was classified as small, medium, or large
based on gross farm income and acres farmed.
3
Number of farms adjusted for farm size variance from
U.S. Agricultural Census Profile for Alabama (1988).
TABLE 2. FARM SECURITY MEASURES USED
AT DIFFERENT-SIZED FARMS
1
Size of Farm
ecurity practices
Small Medium Large
pct. pct. pct.
s, ear tags or notches,
er means to identify
ck ........................................... 41.7 65.2 85.9
me or identification
er on farm machinery ............... 22.9 29.4 36.4
me or identification
ers on farm tools
tuipment ................................... 33.7 31.4 41.8
records of all farm
nery and equipment serial
ers ............................................ 52.3 43.1 66.7
doors on farm buildings
d ................................................ 59.1 48.1 67.5
windows on farm buildings
d ................................................ 40.8 31.2 33.8
farm gates locked ..................... 42.3 43.4 70.1
insurance on farm machinery ... 58.5 61.9 85.4
theft insurance on livestock ..... 12.0 18.9 19.2
a neighbor watch farm when
town ........................................ 85.1 79.6 86.7
n sheriff when away from
or several days ................... 12.6 7.5 14.3
farm machinery overnight in
out of sight from your
2 ........................ ...................... 34.5 56.0 70.0
nt of responses "sometimes," "often," and "always."
desired practice is not to leave machinery unprotected.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
3
C.C. Mitchell, R.H. Walker and P.P. Shaw
ARE THERE WEEDS IN BROILER LITTER?
lahanta f armers5 and catt lemen
wA ho ha\ e used broilci litter as a soil
amendment are concerned that the', ma', he
intioducing weced seeds into their cropland
or pastures. Because they see a fluirry Of'
weed gr owtlh soon after broiler litter appli-
cation,. gro05 ers of'ten reason that the we eds
ar~e coming, froim the littr.
Howee r. seeds ini raw feed crain are not
likely, to SurirsISe processin init) poultry
feed, and Consumed seeds are not likely to
Surv ive digestion. But fe'A studies have
tested these beliefs. An AAES greenhouse
study was conducted to determ ine it broi lei
litter containus weedcc seeds, if the source of
litter at fects the piresence of wA eds, and
howA litter and plant nutrients af feet gcrmi-
nation and cioss th of' weeds Ci~itmoitly
found it the soil.
Samples of' fresh litter, wAhieh included
peanut hulks and pine shav ings, 'Aere col-
lected fromt 18 broiler houses tliroiihoat
Alabama. Fiach sample wAas anal\ zed to
deter minc nutrient content. Sanmples "e er
mixed wxith a Sterile potting rmcdiurn f fritted
clay) to appiroximate application rates off 16
and 32 tons of litter per acre. Additional
treatments included a non amended Con-
trol, urca, and circa plus diamitroniurn phoS-
phate at rates equivSalent to the av erage N
and P applied in the two broiler-litter tieat-
ments. The treated medium was placed in
trays, half of which were planted with seed
of spiny> pigwAced, pitted mori ngglory.
sick fepod. and large crabgrass. Soil 'Aas
kept moist for six 'Aeeks. Weed seed germi-
nation and dri w Aeight yield after six weceks
'Aerec measured.
After a six-'Aeek incubation period,
weeds 'Aerc found only in trays 'Ahere seeds
had been planttedl. This fact, alone, is con-
clusix e eviderwe that broiler litter does not
introduce 'A ed Seed into pastures or crop-
land.
L itter source arid rate had v aryinig effects
-t 'YI
Ai
Figure 1 (above). No weeds grew in any of the broiler-litter treated pots after 6 weeks.
Figure 2 (below). Large-seeded weeds such as morningglory and sicklepod thrived
when planted into broiler litter treated soil. Crabgrass and spiny amaranth growth
were inhibited by some litter sources and enhanced by others.
on 'Aced ger miniationi and performance. The
large-seeded 'Aeeds. rior nintwglorv and
sicklepod. appeared to be more tolerant to
high rates of broiler litter. C'raberass arnd
spiny pigwe ccl germination arnd girowAth 'Aere
inhibited by some sources andf enhanced by
others compared to ferti lined conriols. Some
litter actually killed or prey ented germina-
ti()n of crabgrass and spiny~ pig'Aeed. pro~b-
ably dlue to hi eh ammonia lev els iin the
sterile soil mrediumil.
Where broiler litter is applied to the
land.' weed infestations arc l ikely to occur
because ol indigenous Seeds alr eady' present
in the soil, not seed toundf in litter. The fhigh
leS el Of fertility, pfarticulfar l amtmonium
conicent ration11s, miay inrduce geirm ination of
sonmc species but could inhibit germination
arid grosstl of others.
Mitichefl is \associate Professor. Wsalker is
Professor. and Shawx is Studtent Assistant in
\igr lonu\ arid Soits.
Aa1unu A gi( i/lu-l FUIAA/1i-i'lll .Sitioii
M.P. Masser, B.A Hawcroft, and K.H. Yoo
A NEW AQUACULTURE SYSTEM TO PRODUTCF
FISHj 1NI) RFM\OXTF W~cTFS
iim ankmn 
t and 
xxatci sh 
ed ponds
E are coimmonly used for fish f aring
in Alabanma, but can he difficult to harv est.
AAES research is finding that a ncew sys-
tern. cal led rin-Pond Raceways (I PR), may
put producers on a faster track for harv est-
ing.
Embankmrent and wxater shed ponds are
usuallx- dcc P and may conta in hiottomu ir-
eguliinties that rcequ ire themii to be co m-
pletely drai ned during harxvcst. Dr aining1
not only is a poor water conserxvation pr ac-
tice, hut may hc restricted by discharge
reeirlations in the ncar f'utdrre. A fcxx farm-i
ers xxith this ty pe pond hax e triedl cages or,.
in rare cases. ear then or concrete racewxay s,
burt these systems haxve not been xxidely
accepted because of' associated problems.
Cagces, for example, r equdire a much loxxer
density of f i per acre (cormpared to open-
ponds) arid comimonly haxve disease and
local izci wxater qudal ity problems. Race-
wxays are rnot econormically feasible becaduse
of the construction and pumping costs. The
IPR system was dev eloped to acddress these
p roblemirs.
The IPR is a hybridized culture system
that combines desirable characteristics of
both cages and racewxax s. The IPR has the
po tenitialI to be acdaptablIe to anyx typC of
pond and confIi nes fish for easy feeding.,
observation, arid harvest. The system also
aerates, i mpiroves overall xxater quality. simii
pl if ics and/or recduces costs of disease treat-
ments, andc reiiix Cs a portion (of tihe fish
waste before it enters the pond.
Exper imenitationi wxith tihe IPR be-
gan in 1991 with one racewxay . was
expandceci to four in 1992. and to six ini
1 993. 1 xperiinental IPRs at the Nor tl
Auburn lisheries Experimient Stat ion
are I 6x4x4 foot boxes ( racexxays) N
Suspended betwxeen 
floatinlg piers. 
1
Pond1 (1 ater is puiipecd iilto the IP~R F
by mleanis of' air-lift 
plumips and ex\its H
through an openinig at the taril of the race-
xxax'. Before beine( released back into the
pond. howe cxer. tile wxater passes thriough a
eddie shaped settlinlg basin. Solids that
settle to tile apex if the coneC are removlxed by
pumping. Water flow rates iii the 11PR carn
be conltrolledI froml I1Of to 500 gallons per
miinute xxitih twxo IPRs supplied by a clie-
ilcrsepoxxer blowe r. At tile htigher floxx
rates xxater is comlpletely excihanged xxithlin
the IPR ini four to six inrutes.
The I PR hlas a backup Systemii simiilar to
systems in fisih hadling tanks, that del ixers
Sdipplemnlital pure oxy gen to eacih racexxax
andc keeps the fish alixve in case (if a powxer
failure. Tihis backup Sy steml also is used
during therapeutic bath treatmienlts for cer-
tainl disease outbreaks. This greatly in-
creases the eff ectix eiess of mlost bath treat-
menlts arid conisiderably reduces costs com-l
pared to xxhodle-ponid or cage treatmlents.
In three years of research, fingerling
channlel catfish haxe been stocked into the
IPRs at approximlately 12 fish per cubic
toot. This is mol~re than txxice tile coiiimonf
stolcking denlsity for cages and makes two
IPRs the equixvalent olf onle acre of intensive
open- pondc culture. Groxxtih, Surx ival. and
feed conx ersionl of the IPR hlaxe beenl comn-
parable to thlat in flclatnlzcages ini spite cof
the iieher stockinL, densities.
Research on~ the IPRs has riot beenl xxith-
out problemis, however. Dili ficdiltieS hlave
cdcurre~d xxithl predators, the xxaste collec-
tionl sy stemi, xxater tlowx rates, arid disease.
Potenitiallx the cirratest bernetit of tile
S ax KiNa R iirs. I~iN n \(i or
(Coxsin c.\,v H\ii'rI si
RvINnvs.
umbe oihic ldi h sitocked/I PR 2
991t 93
t99t 1992 199
me~th of ,row-ou (idas.. 137 124 146
ii kiad (" ._ .......... 71.8 83.6 5;.9
ced iisioci 1( R) .... 2. 19 15
arreCst weight (Ito........ .45 .38 .88
In-Pondi HaCceway during harvest.
IPR coudic be its waste removal system.
Remoinrg xxastes before they enlter the podld
could increase overall productioil iii the pond
to lexvels above those eommlnon xxithl cages.
Also. remoxving the xxastes xxoulcd enihane
the quality of xxater leaxvinig the pond ddrrirlg
rainl evenits anld draining, thus enhiancing
oxer all xxater qudality in receivinig streams.
Wastes (if particular interest are nlitrogen
anld phosphlorus. Based on biweekly analy-
ses in 19921 this sy steml remuox ed only I1.8%/
of the initiroden anld 1.(r oif tile phlospho-
odiS that wx rc iii the wastes. Hoxxexvei, in
1993 the redesigned systeml removed an
estimlated 3.4% of the phosphorous fr-om
the xxastes.
As a nlew ty pe of fish culture Systemii
ilucih researchl still needs to be cdone cn the
I PR. Ini tile iexttexx years researcil oil
the I PR xxiii continlue to conlcenltrate
on imriproving fish perf ormanlce and
incr easing the efficiency of the waste
c rnimoval sy steml.
()0 MaLsser is Associate Professor and
It L crofit is Graduate Research Assistant of
~icries an~d Allied Aquacurlicres. Yoo is
\.sc ate Protessor ot Ae_1i cilicral Fngi-
ipx-iinc.
Alabama,( Ar~ricural Evrjeritnewt Statjin
S. M. Forsythe
MARKETING ALABAMA APPAREL
PRODUCTS IN MEXICO:
OipoRUNITiES FOR ALABAMA
Mexico 
is already a major 
consumer
of Alabama-produced textile
products. An AAES study indicates the
best way to continue growth in apparel
exports is for U.S. producers to understand
and meet the needs of Mexican consumers.
Mexican apparel imports from Alabama
accounted for $23 million in 1992. Contin-
ued growth in apparel exports to Mexico is
promising. In the next decade, the Mexi-
can population, age 20 - 49 is projected to
increase by 42% vs. 4% in the U.S. The
total Mexican apparel market is expected to
increase at an average annual rate of about
15%.
The success of Alabama apparel manu-
facturers in Mexican markets will depend
on how well they meet the needs of
Mexican consumers. Preliminary
survey results indicate that what
sells in Alabama and the U.S. may
not sell 
in Mexico, 
and what 
sells 
3
in Mexico City may not sell in
Monterrey or other Mexican cities.
Likewise, product and marketing
strategies that are successful in the
U.S. may not be successful in
Mexico City.
A case study approach which
included surveys ofretail store buy-
ers from Mexico, a survey of ven-
dors who sell apparel products to
buyers in Mexico, and interviews
with Mexican buyers and retail ex-
ecutives was used to collect data on
the apparel purchase attitudes and
behaviors of Mexican consumers.
Surveys of buyers in Mexico
found that Mexican consumers have very
positive attitudes toward U.S. apparel brands
and typically seek high quality products.
Brand name is used as an indicator of prod-
uct quality by Mexican consumers. Most
middle and upper income Mexican con-
sumers are extremely brand and fashion
conscious and display purchase patterns
similar to U.S. consumers. However, middle
and upper income Mexican consumers are
not as price conscious for U.S. brands as
they are for Mexican brands. Aesthetic
reasons are most important in the decision
to purchase apparel. Although price is
important, it generally follows style and
quality.
Mexican buyers rated the importance of
-----
---- -
---
II II I~Y CI
el mn- - -ity
- - - _.I
II-_
selected apparel attributes. Although all
attributes were important to the buyers,
quality was consideredmost important, fol-
lowed closely by price and style. Ratings of
U.S. brands by Mexican buyers were very
favorable. On a ten point scale (where 0 =
poor and 10 = excellent), U.S. apparel
products were rated highly (8 or above) on
each of the following attributes - price,
quality, style, color, size, fiber, care re-
quired, brand name (see figure). They
believed U.S. brands were better made and
would last longer than Mexican brands.
Results of an additional survey of selected
retail buyers representing department and
specialty stores in Mexico were generally
consistent with the results of the initial sur-
vey. In both surveys of Mexican buyers,
the U.S. was the most favored country
for apparel products.
There are significant market oppor-
tunities for Alabama apparel producers
who are interested in exporting to
Mexico. However, Mexican consumers
have different tastes and needs than
U.S. consumers. Accurate and current
market information will be required to
make effective product and marketing
decisions about selling U.S. products in
Mexico. Because of Mexico's expand-
ing demand for apparel products and the
favorable images that U.S. apparel
brands enjoy in Mexico, the prospects
for Alabama's apparel manufacturing
firms to export more product to our
southern neighbors appear very good.
Forsythe is Wrangler Professor of Consumer
Affairs.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
?L
App,
D.E. Conner and M.K. Eckman
ROTATING DISINFECTANTS HELPS CONTROL
HARD-TO-KILL GERMS IN HATCHERIES
Alabama is home to 35 poultry
hatcheries which produce more than
900 million chicks annually. This high-
intensity industry depends on the regular
use of chemical disinfectants to control
disease and maintain chick quality, but
problems arise when bacteria develop re-
sistance to a frequently used germicide.
Bacteria adhere to floors, walls, incuba-
tors, hatchers, and other surface areas, in-
creasing the microorganisms' ability to re-
sist the killing effects of disinfectants. The
development of "biofilms" resistant,
adhered populations of bacteria - is a
significant obstacle to any hatchery sanita-
tion program. These layers of resistant bac-
teria are persistent sources of contamina-
tion.
Previous AAES research showed that
rotating compatible phenolic disinfectants
slowed the development of resistant bacte-
ria in culture dishes. Follow-up research
was conducted to determine if this proce-
dure affected bacteria adhered to stainless
steel. This is important because biofilms
adhered to hard, nonporous surfaces are
typically more germicide-resistantthanbac-
teria grown in laboratory media.
As in the first study, an alkaline phe-
nolic detergent (pH 10.4) and an acidic
phenolic detergent (pH 2.6) were used to
control the bacterium Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. Researchers used cotton swabs
to coat sterilized stainless steel coupons
(10-centimeter squares) withP. aeruginosa
until biofilms of the bacteria were estab-
lished. Four disinfectant treatments were
tested: a distilled water control; repeated
applications of the alkaline disinfectant;
repeated applications of the acidic disin-
fectant; and rotating applications of both
disinfectants.
Two, six-coupon support frames were
dipped into 0.4% diluted solutions of each
treatment. Each test apparatus was then
drained, dipped into sterile water, and
drained again. Coupons were sampled 24
hours later to count surviving biofilm bacte-
ria and were immediately reinoculated.
Disinfectant treatments were repeated af-
ter another 24 hours, with the rotation
treatment alternating between the alkaline
and acidic phenols. This procedure was
repeated 24 consecutive times.
Resulting data verified that the rotation
of the two phenolic disinfectants signifi-
cantly increased the ability of both disinfec-
tants to kill biofilm bacteria (Figures 1, 2).
This effect was more pronounced with the
alkaline detergent. When applied alone, the
alkaline phenol had a limited effect on at-
tached P. aeruginosa, but it was fully active
for six consecutive applications when used
in rotation with the acidic disinfectant (Fig-
ure 1). The effect of rotational application
was less pronounced with the acidic disin-
fectant, primarily because it was already
more active than the alkaline phenol when
used alone on a repeated basis (Figure 2).
Rotational applications may therefore
be of value in reducing the development of
adhered, resistant bacterial populations in
high-intensity hatchery operations. Further-
more, rotational application of compatible
disinfectants may be a more effective means
of eliminating established biofilms.
Conner is Assistant Professor and Eckman is
Professor of Poultry Science.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Number of successive tretm ts
Fig. 1. Germicidal effect of the alkaline phenolic disinfectant against
biofilm bacteria when the disinfectant was applied on a rotation vs.
repeated basis.
Fig. 2. Germicidal effect of the acidic phenolic disinfectant against
biofilm bacteria when the disinfectant was applied on a rotation vs.
repeated basis.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Biofim bacterial killed, %
100 - - -
Biofilm bacteria killed, %
100tant, F-i IItatig p ni m
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Number of successive treatments
7
G.M. Lein, D.R. DeVries, and J.G. Knight
ASSESSING THE STATUS OF THE
la ing iii elpieseitatisc o1 aii anlcient
lineage of fishes that have become special-
ized inhabitants oft resh wvaters. Paddle? ish
inhabit large risers and often reach lengths
of seven feet. Though paddlefish once
were abundant throughout the MIississippi
and Mobil ive rs, their rance has decreased
dramatically in the last 50 years. due prima-
rily to habitat alteration, such as impound-
ment of rixvers. diredging of giaxel spawni-
ing sites, and ov erharxvest.
I ittle is known about this species in the
Mobile di ainace. xxhere it is found predloi-
nan tly in the Alabama Riveri aind its maj or
tributaries. Studies in the 1 980s revealed
that Alabama Rivser paddlefish populations
bad decli ned to extremely loxx levels.
prompting place mciit of a mo ratori um on its
possession aiid barv est. Because this species
is so w5idely distributed, and little is knowsn
about its biology in Alabama, more informa-
tion is needed on the Alabama paddlefish
population to ensure they are effectixely
i mmaaed in the state.
An AAES project, with support from the
Alabamrna De partminnt ofI Coniiserxvatioin' s
Game and Fish Dixvision. is helping to as-
sess the status of the currently-protected
paddlef ishl population in Alabama.
Tbhis researchl xxas coinduieted in twso up-
pei tiribuitaries of the Alabama River, the
Tall apoosa anld Cahlaba rivxers. The
Tall apoiosa R i e r, located in east-central
Alahamina, is im~p )Linded by fouir damils anid
sampling for this pioject was conducted
belosw thle lowermost dam (Tlbu rloss Dam).
The Cahlaba Rixver is the largest tree I loss
ing, riser in Alabania, aind is located iin west-
ceintral Alabama.
Sampling began iin Jaiiuaiy 1I992. as
paddlef ish began to imov e upstireaim to
spawn, and continued into June 1992, aftei
fi sh hlad imoxved back doss iistram. S ami-
pling wsas resumnedl in Decembem 1992 and
1993. The~
risers wsere ';,_
sailpl ed
weekly using
bothl cill nets
amid e lectiro
fish1ing (l eai
All collected
fishl weie
tacced for ideintification in f uture col lec-
tionls.
A total ot 906 fish xwas collected from
these risers (404 in 1992. 502 in 1993).
most of wshich camie trom the Tal lapoosa
Risver. Paddlefish spasiniig activ ity wayl
documnleled iin both iisers. and f ish ws ci
tound iin the Cahlaba Riser ats tar upstireamn
as 32 riser miles belows Centersville. adja-
ceint to the Marioin fish hatchery (or 52 ri xci
mliles upstreaim f roim the 
conflueince wxith l
the Alabama River). Duriing the study. 55 Map of Ala
fishl we rc recaptured. 
The loilgest period of 
Caf hb
tulle betwseein capture aild recapture wsas conductei
50)7 dlays for a imale and 454 days for a
feimale. and no fish mloved betwseeil risers, fish. sciei
Ot thle fish thlat wsere collected. 442 wxere coimposit
identified as male and 2611 as fenmale. Males fishl. Bec
sscre g*eneral ly both simaIlIer aind lighter fish is thlo
thlan temales. Durinlc 1992 males as eraced be distinl
35 inches in length and 22 pounds in wseight. sippi Ris
sshIile femlales asveraced 38 inches aind 32 aspects o]
pouniids. isec oil
Thlough thle f ield work for this project is All of
comlplete, two aspectscoiitiilue. Fiirst. ages biined wi
of a subsample (1 1I3 fish) of the collected illeits of
paddlef ish are being determimned by count- will help
ing ainnual in lgs on thle fish's losser lass thlese fi sh
bone. This appr oach is siililar to usinc the Alabz
I iilcs in a tie ccriumnk as x early imarks, and cointinue
xxill al loss iresearchlers to qjuantify paddle- possessio
fishl age struetui e and ainiual imortal ity rates. Lein is
Second. usming tissue saimples fr om a itant Profes
subsample (161 fish)I of collected paddle- ai? 
Iisheiie
bama, indicating the two tributaries
abama River (the Tallapoosa and
Rivers) in which this research was
d1.
nltists are quiaintifying the geinetic
ion ot the Alabamla Riser paddle-
cause the Alabamla Rixvci paddle-
utght to represeint a stock thlat may~
ct froim the better-studied Missis-
er stock, both ot these ongoing
f this research wsillI alloss a dcl iii
lai isoil of these populationls.
tile results fr om this wxoirk, coil
th prev'ious research on~ movec-
thle Alabama Riser paddlefishl.
determine thle currenlt status of
* in addition, thle results wsill help
ia Gaime aind Fish Dix isionl to
to re-cx aluate tile imoratoim Oil
ii aind harv est of paddlefish.
Research Icnclian. DeVries is Assis-
sor. and Knighi is Reseairch Associaie
sand AlIlied Aquacultuics
Ala/bama Alit-i(Iltitrl kspte-ilnewz .Station
G.J. Keever and C.H. Gilliam
C'vLESS CONTOLS EXCESSI\E GROW /.
OF-a BTTTPF v~~rBi~rr-iiai
V igorous shoot 
growvth during con-
tainer production of butterfly-bush
a large, last-groWing shrub, requires many
prlunings to develop a well branched, mar-
ketable plant. AAES research has identi-
lied a chemical growth retardant that re-
duces the need for time-consuming labor
andi itproves the quality of this popular
landscape shrub.
Gutless, a growth retardant labeled for
turfgrass use, was shown to effectively
control shoot elongation of butterfly-bush.
making the plant more compact and uni-
form. Cutless treatments enhanced plant
appearance even more by promoting darker
green foliage. Flowering of treated plants
was minimally affected.
In two related experiments. Royal Red
bttterly-hush liners (young plants) were
transplanted into three-galIon pots of an
amended pine bark:sand growth medium,
placed in lull sun with overhead irrigation,
and later pruned to a uniform height of six
inches. In the second experiment, the shrub
also was tip-pruned lif unifornity. Foliar
spray Gutless treatments o ()-2,500 parts
per million (ppm) were applied in Experi-
ment I ;62.5-2,000 ppm in Experiment 2.
Foliar color of Cutless-treated plants
was noticeably darker at 3() days alter treat-
ment. Darkergren tliage oltreated plants
was apparent throughout the season. This
response is most likely caused by an in-
creased chlorophyll content in the foliage.
The tables summarize Cutless' effects
on plant growth ;
suppression. Be-
cause ofsi milar size
and foliar color o f .f
Cutless-treated "
plants in Experi- 7. - c4F
ment I, there ap- & -
peared to be little
reason to use rates . .+
above 500 ppm.
The lower rates
(62.5, 125, and 250 The butterfly-bush 
on
ppm) tested in Ex- caused by treatment w
at left was not treated
periment 2 pro-
vided shorter periods of growth inhibition
and less growth retardation over time. Data
from both studies show that rates ot 500
ppm or less have minimal effects on plant
size the following growing season.
Shoots ot treated plants - measured
after the 1993 spring growth flush -tended
to be as long or longer than those of control
plants, suggesting similar or greater vigor.
Much ot the new growth that developed in
1993 was upright, rank shoots formed near
the base of the plant.
In both experiments, flower cluster num-
her and size de-
creased with in- TABI 2. PiER( FNTA(G RiI
INDEX FOR Ci II 5ss-TRFAFI-C
creasing Gutless 
45-286 DYs AITER 
TREAT
rate, but rates of
250 ppm or 
less Cutless 
Rate 45 DAT'
minimally af- ppm pct.
fected these 0
characteristics. 
62.5 ..................... 
9
the right shows signs ol growth suppression
ith Cutless 90 days after application. The plant
with growth retardant.
In Experiment 1, flower cluster numbers
decreased 16-43c/(. and the clusters of
treated plants were noticeably shorter nar-
rower at the base, and more rounded at the
apex. In Experiment 2. most of the de-
creases in flower cluster growth and num-
her occurred with plants treated with 500-
2,000 ppm Cutless. Stage of development
- a measurement of the number of flowers
unopened. opened, or faded 30 days after
Gutless application was not affected in
either experiment.
These data show the potential for using
Cutless in container pro-
FF1 FN GROWTH duction 
and landscape
FE, IxF FpiiF NT 2' plantings wher~e vigor-
ous growth requires ex
20 DAT 286 DAT
tensive hand pruning to
pct. p0. maintain 
plant size.
Magnitude and duration
2 3
11 6 of growth suppression
16 9 
was rate dependent
25 9
39 I0 with rates of 500 ppm
46 2 or higher eonsidered
on Apil 28. 1992, 
excessive for container
ended after the 1993 production. Researchers
s aftier treatment in
after treatment in are now testing Gutless
defined as (heieht+ in landscape plantings.
th, was measured at Keeer and Gilliam
IsAidth, wasperpen 
K
are Professors of Horti-
culture.
Alabama Agricuillura/ Eeriment Station
tm,,ii I. Pi RIoIN I AW RHDIi (TON IN GROiWTH INDEX FOR CFTIiEsTRATIED
Bt I t EY-lBtI I F Al' 3-360 DAYS At-iF I TRA1MEINT, EXPERIMENsT I
Cutless Rate 30 DAT 60 DAT 90 DAT 120 DAT 36) DAT
Ipm pt. Pt. pcI. P0. Pct.
5001 .................. 28 20 17 15 3
1,0( ................. .27 28 29 30 7
1,5001_ ............. 29 33 33 28 8
2,00( ................. .27 29 25 27 12
2,500 ................. 26 31 27 28 8
ii
12.................. ..... II
250 ....................... 19
500 ....................... 24
1,000 .................... 43
2,000 ............. 46
Experiment I was initiated
Experiment 2 on June 313. Bith
spring growth flush 36 dal
Experiment I, and 286 days
Experiment 2. Growth index is
width, + width,)/3. where widt
the widest piini of the plant and
dicula to width,.
Days Alter Treatment.
D.R. Mulvaney, J.D. Hough, W.H. McElhenney, and J.L. Holliman
GROWTH IMPLANTS PAY BIG DIVIDENDS
profitability and sustainability of beef
production is highly related to cutting
costs. A recent Auburn University study
demonstrated the relationship between ma-
turity patterns of cattle and use of commer-
cially available growth promotants, both
of which can have a direct impact on prof-
itability.
Commercially-available growth im-
plants contain naturally occurring hormones
which improve growth rate prior to wean-
ing and from weaning to slaughter. A de-
veloping trend in breeding decisions of
beef cattle has been toward earlier matur-
ing, smaller mature size biological types of
cattle to capitalize on potentially lower per
unit input costs.
To examine the influence of implant and
maturity pattern on traits important to beef
production, a series of Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station studies were con-
ducted at the Black Belt Substation (BBSS)
in Marion Junction. Cattle used in one of the
studies were early and late maturing lines of
Angus and Charolais. Both steer and heifer
calves were implanted with Synovex-C?
during the pre-weaning and post-weaning
growth periods. Calves were weaned at 240
days and immediately programmed into a
confmnement feedlot. Cattle were slaughtered
when ultrasound backfat measurements in-
dicated .45 inch of backfat.
The two-year study showed that late
maturing cattle were 30 pounds heavier at
weaning and 37 pounds heavier as well as
2.4 inches taller at one year of age compared
to the earlymaturing cattle. Charolais
gained 0.5 pound per day faster in the feed-
lot, were 54 pounds heavier at weaning, 2.9
inches taller at weaning, and 125 pounds
heavier and 3.7 inches taller at one year than
Angus. While Charolais had 2.9 square inch
larger ribeye areas and 0.8 lower numerical
Yield Grades than Angus, the ribeye area per
hundred pounds (cwt) of carcass weight was
slightly higher and marbling was one full
degree higher in the Angus.
Implanting calves prior to weaning re-
sulted in 16 to 46 pounds of additional calf
at weaning, depending on breed or maturity
line, with an overall average of 24 pounds.
If producers receive $85 per cwt for weaned
calves, the preweaning implant would have
increased returns by $13-39 per calf. The
benefit was more noticeable for cattle hav-
ing an earlier maturity pattern of growth,
but was not dependent on breed. Implant-
ing prior to weaning increased yearling
weight by 26 pounds and actual carcass
ribeye area, but had no effect on degree of
marbling.
Implanting after weaning increased av-
erage daily gain by 0.27 pound per day,
yearling weight by 37 pounds and actual
ribeye size by 6%. Although the marbling
score was slightly reduced, the average mar-
bling scores of both implanted and non-
implanted cattle qualified them for USDA
Choice.
In another implant study at the BBSS,
34 crossbred steers weighing 748 pounds
were placed in the feedlot after weaning
and either implanted with Finaplix
? 
plus
Synovex-S? in opposite ears or not im-
planted with any promotant. All sires of
calves were represented in both groups to
avoid confounding sire and treatment ef-
fects. Calves were fed for approximately
150 days before slaughter and reimplanted
once with Finaplix?. Calves receiving the
implants weighed more at slaughter (1,203
versus 1,120 pounds), and had 28% larger
average daily gains (3.85 versus 3.03) com-
pared to the non-implanted steers. Im-
planted steers gained 462.1 pounds and non-
implanted steers gained 363.7 pounds for a
difference of over 98 pounds. There were no
effects of implant on maturity, marbling,
color, texture, or firmness of lean. This
indicates that implanting can have signifi-
cant impact on feedlot performance and
profit. Based on this study, at $85 per cwt
live for cattle at slaughter, a producer would
receive an additional $83 per head.
Results of these studies reinforce the
need for caution in selecting cattle for ear-
lier maturity patterns as pre- and post-wean-
ing performance may be negatively affected.
The series of studies also indicate that the
benefits in calf performance pre-weaning
and in the feedlot favor implanting regard-
less of breed or maturity pattern. Response
toimplanting cattle both pre-and postwean-
ing with Synovex? was more evident in the
lines which were genetically slower grow-
ing. Implant program strategies should be
an important part of programs designed for
production of lean beef.
Mulvaney is Associate Professor and McEl-
henney is Research Fellow in the Department of
Animal and Dairy Sciences, Holliman is Superin-
tendent of the Black Belt Substation, and Hough
is a former faculty member.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
EFFECTS OF LINE, BREED AND IMPLANT TREATMENT ON MEASURES OF GROWTH AND CARCASS CHARACTERS
Line Breed Preweaning Postweaning
Late Early Charolais Angus Implanted No Implanted No
implant implant
Weaning
Weight wt. lb ........... 537 5071 549 4951 509 5351
Weaning ht. in........... 44.2 41.9 44.5 41.6 43.1 43.0
Yearling
Postweaning ADG, lb. 2.7 2.7 2.9 2.51 2.7 2.7 2.9 2.61
Yearling wt. lb........... 919 882 963 8381 913 8371 918 8821
Yearling ht., lb........... 48.8 46.41 49.4 45.71 47.6 47.6 47.9 47.11
REA, in.
2 
................... 12.7 12.6 14.1 11.21 12.8 12.51 12.9 12.31
REA/cwt .................... 1.15 1.21 1.2 1.21 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
Yield Grade...............2.3 2.3 1.9 2.71 2.2 2.41 2.2 2.41
Marbling....................595 546 506 6361 575 567 558 5841
1 Results in a row for paired columns differed significantly.
10
R.J. Travnichek, J.W. Prevatt, and N.R. Martin, Jr.
MARKETING CHOICES OF ALABAMA
CATTLE PRODUCERS
I the past. livestock aUctions and di-
rect selling to buyers were the only
marketing choices available to producers.
Transportation and handling costs at auc-
tions, and time required tor 
direct sales.
make these options costly. Today, heef
cattle marketing has become more innova-
tive, as well as more efficient. However.
the adoption of new alternatives has not
been well studied
A regional project, involving Land Grant
universities in Alabama. Georgia, Ken-
tucky, Mississippi. and Tennessee, is at-
tempting to determine the marketing needs,
and contribute to meeting these needs of
Southeastern feeder cattle producers. Re-
searchers coipiled producer attitudes re-
garding. and reasons for adopting, five dif-
ferent marketing alternatives- weekly
atictions. graded feeder sales, video board
(often referred to as tele-auctions) sales,
satellite sales, and direct to buyer sales.
Weekly auction market and the graded
feedei sale alternatives are different from
the video board sale, satellite sale, and
direct to buyer alternatives in that cattle
must be transported to a market site for the
former but not for the latter. This differ-
ence has led to a general consensus that the
weekly auction alternative may not be cost
effective. However, the assembly cost for
the graded feeder sale is generally consid-
ered to be offset by the buyer advantages of
bidding on graded cattle. The direct to
buyer option may stffer from limited ac-
cess to competitive bidding on small groups
of cattle. In place of live cattle at a market
site, video board and satellite sales tise re-
corded pictures and verbal descriptions of
the cattle. Buyers assemble at one place for
the video board sale, while biyers may be
linked only by satellite and telecommuni
cation for the satellite sale.
I)escriptiv e indicators obtained from 228
Alabama cattle producers were quite di-
verse. Two-thirds ot Alabama producers
reported herds of less than 50 brood cows
on less than 100 acres of owned and/or
leased land. Respondents reported herd
sizes ranging from 0 head (a stocker opera-
tion) to 700 head.
Age of producer ranged 
from 27 to 91,
with an average age of 65. Most producers
were nearing retirement or were already
partially retired. More than 75% ofproduc-
ers were older than 50 and 23% were over
70 years of age. Amount
of formal education av-
eraged 12 years. There
was no correlation be
tween age 
and herd size.
Age did not affect the
herd size of responding
producers.
Alabama cattle prof
ducers are dispersed
throughout the state's 67
counties. The survey
showed a 60/40% split
in the number of survey respondents be-
tween the northern and southern regions of
Alabama. Census data show that 63% ot
Alabama beef farms are located in the north-
ern region and 371% in the sotthern region.
Thus, the survey reflects a suitable repre-
sentation ot the state's producers according
to locations.
The survey indicated that most Alabama
producers marketed their livestock through
weekly auction markets. Less than three
percent of respondents indicated that they
did not use weekly auctions for any of their
cattle. More than 75% used this type ot
market for almost all of their cattle. There
was a very small difference between farms
with small (1-49 head), meditm (50-99
head), and large ( 100+) beef herds concern-
ing the use of weekly atctions. Prodtcers
with small and medium sized herds used
weekly auctions more than farms with laree
herds. There was little regional difference
in frequency of tse of weekly atctions.
Reasons given by respondents for their
choice of weekly auction markets included
tradition, lower commissions, expected
higher price, closeness to fart, good mar
ket management open bidding, less effort,
small lots, favorable weighing, and assur-
ance of payment. Expected higher 
prices,
closeness to farm, open bidding, selling in
small lots, and assurance of payment were
considered very important to responding
producers.
Another market alternative used by Ala-
bama cattle prodtcers was direct to buyer
selling. Twenty percent indicated using this
marketing method, usually for less than one-
fourth of their cattle. Only six percent of
respondents marketed more than half of
their cattle direct to btyer. Ability to sell at
any time, btilding a reputation, and high
price expectations were considered very im-
portant to prodtcers who use direct selling.
The only other type of market alternative
reported to be used by three percent of
respondent cattle prodtcers was graded
feeder cattle sales. Additionally, one re-
spondent reported use of the satellite mar-
keting alternative.
Tra vnichek is Graduate Research Assistant,
Prevati is Associate Professor, and Martin is Pro-
fesor ot Agricultural Economics and Rural Soci-
ology.
Alabama Agricultural EL veritnent Station
W.B. Mikel, D.R. Mulvaney, W.R. Jones, B.S. Smith and K.W. McMillin
L EAN B4E EFL
TREATED WITH BOVINAE SOMNATOTROPIN
ver
4 4
( of today's beet],
(Irounid bet prodluetx. In addition-
a ei1oxxInc xe1cinent of the popula-
tioll is denmaninc the foods titex
eat be htealthflii and itutritiotus. Cut
renit technloghty existsxin the meat
prcssing industry to provxide con-
xiilerx xxith leaner proessxed nical
prodiucts. Howxever, 
due to an i nad fe
equate supply ot ena hec
large cjuantitiex of etms ber
moxved and iscxarded fronm carca, *mI~I~
xex to protduce leaner neat 
prodiuct,. dose
A l arge po rt ionI ot the r aw inate-
rials used for produeing grounld beef comes
forin cutll cows (olide r ecows remnoxved f romi
production herdx. Uxually,. these aninmals
contain excess fat which nay hav e an unde-
xirabie ci ioxw color due to the f'I exu It
they eat. In ordei to better utilize this
xource of raw mnaterials for lean grouiid
beet. researchers at tie Alabama Agricii-
tuiral 1xperinent Station conducted a Study
to deterine the effects of recombinant
boxvine somatotropin (fibSl) on the produe-
t in ot lean meat tfrom cull 120w .
[lie Food and Drug Administration aii
nounced appiox al of rbST fo tiIncreasinli
ml k pirodiiction iin dairy coxws. The public
can be con fidentt that inilk and neat friom
rbST-treated cows is safe to consiumie. Re-
cent Studies have revealed that rbST im-
proves growxth rate and carcass composi-
tion itt groxxing cattle. Studies wxith hu-
mans. indicate that stomatotropini may be
usetful as an "agingc reversal agent" in eld-
erly men anid wxomen. Therefoie, the goal
(ot th is reseaircih was to determinie it boviite
xoniatotiopin ctould act in Siuch a wxay as tit
rexveirse the agings process in cull COxxS to
improtve caircass coniposxition and its use ax
a rawx inatcii al foi lcan meat productsx.
Forty-txsttciii beet ctwxwere randoitly
assicited to receive either 0, 25, or 50 mul
aB
7*f
1%%
1, of ObST of , on_ Carcass 1 -control.
rbST; carcass 3 - high dose rbST.
I igraiti of rbSTI each day for 21 otr 42 dlay
betfore procexsing at the Aiuburii U nixverxit
Meat Laboratotry . Aftcr a 24 lit inr Chl
perioid, carcaxxex were fabricateid itito xiib
prnital cuts. aiid y ieldx determinied. Chiie
Roil aiid Inxiide Rounid prinial ciuts. Con
moii raw materialx iixed iii ground bee
production, xxerc x aciiim packaged alit
xtoredi at 40" F for1 txxo days xunitil process
ing. Grounil beet proiluctx were formulate
tr-ot chiuckx aiid rouiidx tf coxx iii cad
treatmtenit girttip of rbST aiid timite on treat
mieiit. Siibprimnal ciutx xxeire groni, formaie
intit tiiir ounce pattie, fritzeni anid x aciii
packageid titi xtorage. Pattiex xxerc thaxxoe
later tfor chemical anid physical anlysxc
and cotokedl to deterniIte cook loxs ant
sheai force ax an indication of teindernexx
Adlminixtration of rbST at botth lexvci
idecreaxed 1 3?i rib backftat of carcaxxex h
up to 251c xxiieI at the xame tiime icreaxi iv
ribey e muixcie size by I 2% compared tt
conli coxxs. Yield tif lean itiat ali
increased by fixe percenit in rbST treatot
COxx xvxersiux toiitreated coxxs. Thiexe idat
Siig ge xtx that procexxstrx xxouild beiiefit xiib
xtantial ly fromn the additional yield it
grinialabe aitd xxhole-itiiicie protidictx.
Giround beef patties made frotii rondi
and chiickx fritm all hST-treated cows hat
19 i s. f)( cx Iat adii t per cet
litte istiture thtan pattiex
niade frittm coxxs nt ee
r c 
i-in 
g irbS 
. A 
lso. 
pattiex 
mtade
q hfrtm chiuckx ofi cowx that re-
ceixved irbST for 42 daxs xhaid
I (4c lexx tat than thiioxe frtomi
/ tcows which receixvei rbST tor
Pttie coloi xxax poxi-
tivlyafecedby rbST and
lenigth iot treatmtenit. Patties
made wxithi raxx materi ais fitoti
cap .dasy 
b , rST-treated 
cows had a
dar ker. less y ellox\ colorii
~i-dicatiitc 
that lexx fat wxax 
prexenit. 
Ax timie
v on treatment i ncreased. pattiex also had a
I redider coloiInidicatixe ot a greater percent-
- age iot leaii meat and lexss yello fix at. Thiexe
k coilor changsx stuggc'st that iraxw miaterials
-frtiit cull cowxs treated xwith rhST for 42
I'dayx itay be iuxed in grounid beet produc-
:1 tioni xxithoiut adxverxely aft ectiiic cont'.umter
- appeal.
J T here xxere nit diifferenicex betweenci pat-
hi tiex from rbST-treated anid conitrol coxs forti
- pattie cooikin lioxx, xshear force (as ait iniii-
J cator tfor teniierniexxs), or percent chanige ini
ni patty thiicknexx. lime otn treatmtet had nit
J adx cixe attectx on patt iccotkiiiglos shx.eai
x tiorce. or pattic thiickntexs.
J1 In concluxion. box inc xomtatotropini ad-
mi nixtration to cull ctoxx' had no negativxc
x effectx on the pitysical characterixticx tot
y i gronid beet patties. Thie uxe tfri ST, xxhlichi
Shax been proxeii xafe ftii use on animnalx and
.i products for iiimaiix. iii ciiil coxws can Iit-
aprox e their xvalue to the procesxor wxhile
,I proviiding a xafe and nutritioux fooud prtod-
a uct for the conuumer.
Nlikcl is Asxocuie Protcssor, Mulx aney ix Ax-
x oc i ie Protcssor, atd Jttiex is Prtttexxttr v Anima
andt Dis Scicnccx: Sithl is Research Associatec
x anid MlcMillint is Associate Profesxor otf Animital
J Science at [LSU.
Alabamia Ai-'iomuuI EvJwi-inme t 0 ion
E.J. Sikora. R.T. Gudauskas, K.B. Burch, J.F. Murphy, G.W. Zehnder. and J.W. Everest
NORTH ALAi-J','IAIA - MA i0
EPIDEMICS STUDIED
Re- ~ ;.
't~E -
usiing the Suimmer of 1992, a sexvere
viral epidemic reduced production
throiighout the ilajor tomato glroxxn ture-
gion ol the state. Estimates indicated that
more than 25'/ of the 4,300) acres dexvoted
to tomatoes in inoith Aliaana were lost due
to the epidemic. AAFS research has helped
toiidentify the causes ol this epidemic and
proxvide con trol iiieas ures Ifor Ifututre crops.
The most common symptom of the epi-
demic xwas teirmi nal Stunting of the plant.
Leaf syinptoims xec xvaied and i ncludedl:
ty pical mosaic patternus. sexvere interxvei nal
chlorosis, Ical curiling or crinklins. anLd
mari enal leaf roil ( see fiegire). Plants in-
fected at an early, stage of dev elopment
rarelI pro duLced li-nit. Lahoiratoiry anLd green-
houise tests showed that cuicuimber mosaic
tius (MV ) alone or ini comhination with
potato virus Y ( PV Y) anLd/or tobacco etch
viu 1(EV). was respoinsihle for the to-
mato crop failure (see table). Disease inci-
dence raii ed fi im a fecx plants Lip to I100(1
in somic ieldls of 2)) oi noie acres. Sy mp-
tomis wer crieproduced in the gi cenhouise
Lin ii"i ruis-infIectedl miate rialI collected f rom
the field as at Souiic o1' inociluim.
CMV, PVY, anLd I LV are vectored by
aphids. Both the greeni peach aphid and the
potato aphlid we rc identifited in tomato fields
in the affected areas.
Mild winters in Alabama in 1990 anLd
1991 may haxve allowed the aphid vctoirs
and xx ccd hosts of the x iruLses to ox erwxinter
more read iIy, prox idin g the ar ca wxi th a Ilarvac
source of x ector s and v iruis inociluim. May
and June of 1992 xwecte relatix ely cool andL
dlry for Alabanma, lav ornn an early season
buiild-tip of aphidl populations and suibse-
Lquiit imoxvemuent to tomatoes. Also. toma-
toes hiax been groxvn continuiously in the
regio foWh r morwe than 4(0 years in mniocuL-
tuiral-ty pe settings. This, along with standlard
practices ofI staggered plantings. proxvided
field condlitions fax orable for ani epidemic.
In response to this epidemic.
early, iin 1993 the AAES and
the Alabama Cooperativec Ex-
tension Serx ice launched apro-
g1ram of laboratory research.
on-f arm tests anid demnonstra-
tionis, and grower edlucationi to
reduce the effects of similar
ouitbrecaks that appeared likely
to occur in the f uture.
One objectixve was to deter-
muine potential oxverw intering 
Virus-infec
hosts of the x iruises. Samples
f rom m niiore than 20 di fferiect planit species
collected thrtou1ighouit the tomato productionm
at-ca wet-c tested in January and Febr-Lary.
CMV, PVY, and/or TEV were dletected in
collatrds, trnip. mutstard, bh-oadleaf dock,
wxhiteeclox ci, honey suckle, wild garlic. henbit,
and wild geranliumi.
Tomato fields was monitored lot virus
inicidenice throuighout the 1993 growing
season. Fields xwerc sampled xxeekly, fromn
the timen of transplanting thirough hatrxest.
A total of 23 fields wxetc monitored for
CMV, PVY, and TEV, as well as tobacco
miosaic x irts (TM V) and to~mato spotted
wiltx iruis (TSWV). As of September 1993,
more than 6,000 plants had been tested for
the hive viruises.
Results inidicate that the xviruses werct-
not introduced into the area on inIfected
transplanits. Viruis incidenice Lsually i-
miainied loxx Luttl three weeks after trails-
platiing iii the earliest Settings. Incidence
itictreased r apidly thereafter arid ofteni cx-
ceeded 90% by harxvest. Howexer, symip-
toms xxect- mild and often did not appear
Luntil late in crop dcevelopment, and yields
Ifromi these early settitngs were not ad-
versely affected. All five x iruses werct-
detected at xvaryirig lexvels, with CMV beinge
the most commnton.
All the x iruses were detected earlier anid
inicidenice increased more rapidly in fields
cted tomato plant in North Alabama field.
tranisplanted afterJuite I1. The x ituses xxetc
often detected within one to two weeks
after tranisplantinig and symiptoms appeared
earlier and were mLore severe thani iii earlier
settings. In maniy cases the crop was tnot
harvestable -
Aphid popuilatiotns were lo1w to moder-
ate throuighouit the season anid genetrally
contsisted oif green peach anid potatuo aphids.
Although the x ius epidectii occedc
agaitn iii north Alabamia ini 1993, ox crallI
losses were fewer than iii 1992 because the
tomato acreage was reduiced anid there xxas
inicreased awareness of the problem.
Sikora is Assistant Professor, G udau~skas is
Pro)fessor Emnerituis. and Burc icis Reseatrch Techi-
ciani of Platit Paotiology; Mmt pli is Reseatreh Asso-
ciate of Platnt Biceditiet. Cotrnell Univerisit', -Ithaca,
N.Y.: Zehnder is Associate P'totessoi of tEntomtol-
ogy: anid ExCrest is ProfIessor olI Agironomtt and
Soils.
VIMo S tFTLT-LF\ tINs DI5iI1 I- l ii Pi~n xIS IN
NFFRr F F i 5F 555 \ t 1992
No. pIaFnts
Viiu Ti ested. Pt'ieF Inftiixed
M' t.
CMV ailon ........ 317 140) 44.1
PVY al)oni ........ 29 14 5.
tt aln ............ 259) h 3.0
CMVY+PVY ....... 29 2' 8.4
CMV\?tt ....... 59 R 3.0
CMtV+tPVYi+TFEV .. 29 37 14.2
PVY+TEV........... 29 11 4.
Alabama Ai'-ictultlf (al Exlwi-iimwnt Station
B.J. Rude and D.L. Rankins, Jr.
ENSILING BROILER LITTER AND
JOHNSONGRASS FORMS QUALITY FEEDSTUFF
Broiler litter and johnsongrass oftenare considered liabilities for Ala-
bama agriculture. However AAES research
has shown that the two can be combined to
produce a palatable and nutritious feedstuff.
Approximately two million tons of
broiler litter (a combination of feed, manure,
and bedding material that collects on the
floor of broiler houses) are produced annu-
ally in Alabama alone. Though there are
several uses for litter, such as applying it to
land as a fertilizer or using it as an inexpen-
sive protein source for beef cattle, addi-
tional uses for this by-product are needed.
Johnsongrass, which can be a noxious
weed in row crops, grows abundantly in the
state and is sometimes used as a forage.
However, some of the nutritional value of
the forage can be lost when it is baled for
TABLE 1. NUTRITIONAL CONTENT OF SLAGES
Corn silage Johnsong
Variable 10 20 10
Pct. Pct. Pct.
Dry matter, pct ...................... 43 46 40
pH, pct ................................... 4.1 4.3 4.5
Ash, pet ............................... 8.7 12.8 16.8
Crude protein, pct .................. 12.5 14.4 14.4
Gross energy, Mcal/lb .......... 2.0 1.9 1.8
NDF, pct................................ 58 55 60
ADF, pet................24 24 42
Hemicellulose, pct................. 34 31 19
Lignin, pet. .......................... 5.2 5.6 8.3
TABLE 2. DIGESTIBILITY VALUES OF SILAGES
Corn silage Johnsonl
Variable 10 20 10
Pct. Pct. Pct.
Digestibility
Dry matter, pet............69 65 56
Organic matter, pet ................ 72 68 60
Energy, pct ............................ 71 67 59
Crude protein, pct ................. 62 60 59
Retention
Nitrogen, g/day ... ........ 13.8 11.1 5.6
Energy, Meal/day ............. 3.8 2.8 1.6
hay under Alabama's humid weather con-
ditions.
An AAES study looked at ensiling broiler
litter withj ohnsongrass, amethodthat would
optimize the nutritional quality of the grass
and also eliminate pathogenic organisms in
the broiler litter, making it safe as a live-
stock feed.
For the AAES study, johnsongrass-
broiler litter silage was compared to corn-
broiler litter silage. Johnsongrass was har-
vested in early June at 65% moisture and
ensiled with 10 or 20% added broiler litter
(wet basis). Corn was harvested in late July
at 65% moisture and ensiled with broiler
litter added at 10 or 20%. On a dry matter
basis, these mixtures contained 18.5 and
37% litter. In mid-September, the silages
were fed to growing lambs weighing an
average of 64 pounds each.
The crude protein con-
tent and the mineral content of
;rass silage both corn and 
johnsongrass
20 silages were enhanced by the
t. addition 
of broiler litter 
(Table
44 1). Lignin and acid detergent
4.7 fiber values were greater for
18.5 
the johnsongrass 
silages, 
as
16.3
1.8 was the pH for these silages.
57 This indicates 
that the
42
16 johnsongrass mixes ensiled to
8.3 a lesser extent 
than the corn
mixes, probably because of the
greater fiber content. How-
grass silage ever, the pH of all silages were
rass silage less 
than or equal 
to 4.7, which
20 indicates 
they were appropri-
Pct. ately processed.
56 All four silages 
were
60 readily consumed when of-
60
60 fered to 
lambs. Average con-
sumption was 2.25% of body
7.3 weight. Digestibility values
were acceptable for all silages
(Table 2); however, johnsongrass silage
with added broiler litter was less digestible
than corn-broiler litter silage. Again, this
was probably aresult ofjohnsongrass being
more fibrous than the corn forage. Stage of
maturity at harvest influences the fiber con-
tent of forages. However, thejohnsongrass
was harvested at the boot stage, indicating
that it would be difficult to obtain accept-
able yields that would contain less fiber.
Nonetheless, johnson-grass still produced
acceptable digestibilities and was palat-
able. Addition of either 10 or 20% broiler
litter had no effect on nutrient digestibilities.
Addition of more than 20% litter would
raise the pH above 4.7, which would be
unacceptable.
By correlating the estimated nutrient
requirement tables for beef cattle to these
results with sheep, a few conclusions can be
drawn. The johnsongrass silages were ad-
equate in crude protein content for all types
of cattle. However, the silages were lack-
ing in energy content. Based on energy
retention values in these sheep, a 600-pound
steer would gain only 1 to 1.2 pounds per
day. As a feedstuff for early-pregnant brood
cows the johnsongrass silages would be
nutritionally adequate.
Corn silage yields typically are 10 to 15
tons per acre in Alabama. At 65% mois-
ture, this equates to 3.5 to 5.25 tons of dry
matter per acre. Johnsongrass will typi-
cally yield 2 to 5 tons of dry matter per acre.
Because planting corn would be more costly
than utilizing existing stands of johnson-
grass, the economic benefits ofjohnsongrass
are clear. Johnsongrass silage, although not
equal to the corn silage, was acceptable and
when economic factors are considered, it
offers a viable alternative for ensiling broiler
litter.
Rude is Graduate Research Assistant and
Rankin s Assistant Professor of Animal and Dairy
Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station14
E. van Santen, D.W. Reeves, and G.L. Mullins
LUPIN, A POTENTIAL NEW
CROP FOR ALABAMA
The southern region of the United
States is fortunate to have a climate
that allows two cropping seasons per year.
However, the choice of winter crops is
rather limited at present. Wheat has been the
traditional winter crop choice, but acreage
of wheat grown for grain has decreased
during the past decade because of increas-
ing production costs and declining grain
prices. One crop with a potential to fill this
void is sweet white lupin, a winter-grown
annual legume.
Sweet white lupin is naturally adapted to
well-drained, low-fertility, coarse-textured,
neutral to acidic soils, such as those in the
southern Coastal Plain of the United States.
Because it is a nitrogen (N) fixing legume,
it does not require nitrogen fertilizer. De-
velopment of cropping systems utilizing
winter-grown lupin would: (1) provide a
rotation yield response to subsequent sum-
mer crops; (2) reduce or eliminate N fertil-
izer requirements; and (3) produce high
protein feed grain or high quality silage. A
cropping system involving sweetwhitelupin
as a component would fit particularly well
into a diversified crop/livestock system.
Lupin also offers other advantages. As a/
cover crop it would reduce erosion, improve
soil tilth, and reduce the danger of ground
and surface water pollution. It would have
all the advantages of current legume cover
crop systems in conserving soil and water
resources, but could be more profitable than
current systems due to the value of grain or
silage produced. Sweet white lupin seed
does not contain trypsin inhibitors or other
antinutritive factors that require heat pro-
cessing, such as soybeans. Lupin seed there-
fore can be used without special precautions
and the crop does not require that a market-
ing or trading system be in place.
An AAES research project to evaluate
lupin as a potential crop for Alabama was
initiated in 1991. The project is a collabo-
rative interdisciplinary research and exten-
sion effort and is funded in part by the
Wheat and Feed Grain Committee of the
Alabama Farmers Federation.
One of the requirements for commer-
cialization of a new crop is that it can be
grown reliably. Thus, research focused on
basic agronomic practices, such as planting
method, seed treatments, planting date, and
seeding rate. Furthermore, most leguminous
crops such as lupin become weak and are
susceptible to soil-borne disease organisms
if exposed to water-saturated soils. There-
fore, other work has focused on planting
lupin on raised beds, which is the most
effective method of reducing attack by
soil-borne disease organisms and improv-
ing stand percentage.
White lupin is a cold-hardy species that
tolerates low temperatures during the veg-
etative stage. In December 1989,
Tifwhite-78 whitelupinin AAES plots G
was subjected to five consecutive 
days bi
of freezing (temperatures), during
which temperatures did not exceed
28
0
F and daily lows were 12, 8, 3, 3, 3
and 24
0
F. Some plants were killed 2
during this period, but damage was
minimal in elevated and well-drained 
2
sites. However, lupin is cold-sensitive 1
during flowering and seed set. The 1
late-winter snow storm on March 13,
1993, severely damaged the French
variety Lunoble that was flowering at
the Plant Breeding Unit, Tallassee, but
no harm was done to the same variety
at the Tennessee Valley Substation,
BelleMina, because itwas stillvegeta- Ave
tive. ture
These findings suggest that planting
dates need to be adjusted to match varieties
to local environmental conditions. Maxi-
mum grain yields have been obtained when
lupin was planted in late-September in north-
ern Alabama and late-October in southern
Alabama. In 1988-1993 trials, average grain
yields ranged from nine to 30 bushels per
acre (see figure), with top yields exceeding
60 bushels per acre. The low yield during
the 1990/91 cropping season was caused by
severe disease brought on by excessive
rainfalls during pod set in April and May
1991. Silage yields at 65% moisture during
the same years ranged from nine to 26 tons
of dry matter per acre.
Is there a future for lupin in Alabama's
agriculture? Based on research conducted
during the last five years, there definitely is.
But don't look for thousands of acres of
flowering lupins within the next three years.
Developing a new crop is a long, arduous
process. Many details need to be addressed
before the crop can be grown commercially.
One important aspect is determination of
the value of the resulting grain or silage in
animal diets, including cattle, hogs, poultry,
and fish. Studies to determine this have
begun but will take three to four years to
complete. Another need is the development
of varieties that are better adapted to climatic
conditions in Alabama. Promising parental
lines have been obtained from collaborators
abroad with which varietal development
Silage yield,
tons/acre
-35
-.30
25
20
5I 15
tack o
rain yield,
u/acre
15-
10-
15 
--
15
0
5
0 i
88-89 89-90 90-91 91-92 92-93
Cropping year
rage white lupin grain and silage (at 65% mois-
) yields from trials conducted from 1988-1993.
has started, but it will take five to seven years
before a pew variety can be released.
van Santen is Associate Professor, Reeves is
Affiliate Associate Professor (andResearchAgrono-
mist with USDA-ARS-NSDL), and Mullins is As-
sociate Professor of Agronomy and Soils.
E Grain
[LI Silage
~nism7']
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
_ _ _ _ _ AI
_
15
L.M. Smith, A.G. Appel, T.P. Mack, and G.J. Keever
GROUND COVER AROUND YOUR HoNIE CAN
INFLUENCE ABUNDANCE OF COCKROACHES
rnokN hi own cockroaches can li xc in
mulches Such as pine strax and other
ou nnd co) \er near h(ome s, hut thley hfeni
become unwxanied honseguests. AAE-S re-
search has I on d that chan ci ng the grouin d
coxver next to homes can help esict the
pests.
A faxorablIc
cockiroach habitat
nmust proxvide yeai-
round hidinL
places, because the
insects isluiie txxo
y eairs oi nmoire to
conmplete theii lifIe
cycle. Faxvoiable
groui id cover al so
prxvides moisture.
protects coick-
roaches fr om the
suimmiei heat, and
keeps them Ifroim
Fieezing in the
wxintet . AAES re-
41,
Smokybrown cockro~
can thrive in many ty~
ground cover comn
found near homes. (
Eric Benson)
seaircheirs compared sex cial cornmon
" rondni covxers to Ilearn xxhi ch are less Suit-
able I or cockroaches.
At the F.V. Smith Rcseaich Center in
Shoirter, reseai chers placed x arious grouitd
cox ci son each side ot tour simulated houses
in ciiitiguous 
3
x6 toot plots. Ground cox-
critnclutded pine straxx, bare soil. centipede
girass, dethatched centipede grass, white
gard. ci stolnes, periwxinukle, and blue-ru,-
jtipci. E-ach ground cox er xxas rCgularl'
maintained Ibr xxeed Control.
L icht intensity. temperature. and 'i
moistutre xxere irecorded f oi each girouncd
coxvci txype xxith electironic sensors installed
at the centei ot each plot at the soil surface.
T~hCSC meaSUi rnntS xxeire taken cx et x hotii
for txxo xeais by a cornputci.
Researcheirs then calculated the percent-
age oh, t ime each season xxhen Ifactors wxere
f axorable to cockroaches for each arocind
cov er. Fax orable limits include soil tem-
peratnres 41-951-: moistures 75-95(/ ofl
soil wxater-holding capacity; and light less
than I 100 lix (approximately equixaleint to
pie-dawn light).
Pine strawx proved to be capable of snp-
porting the greatest abundance ot'
-i cockiroac.hes thr oughout the \ eair: it
piroxided a taxvorable climate an ax
crage ot 75(7( of the time. Pine strawx
ftx\ as fof loxwed by thatched 
(7(/ ) and
l ethatched 68% ) grass. carden
,os 65cc I. blue rug (61 ( ). and
, are oil(45(-/).
Pine strawx is faxvorable because it
' maintains soil moisture and insu-
l ates the soil f rom Suimmer heat.
'AJ propeirties that alIso 
make it a god
laindsca pe mulch. Pine straw also
proxvides cockroaches hiding places
ac hes during the day. Similar ground cox-
pes of cr5. such as 
oak-leat li tteir, holly 
lit-
nonly
Photo: ter, or ixxc an also prox ide sirnilairly
faxorable habitats. Observxat ions
made bx the researchers at Acibmi-n homes
support this assumption.
Thatched -crass xxas a -ood habitat ex-
cept wxhen it became xxaterlogged in the
tall. Iethatchlid ''rass xx as a le~s lxo able
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT ST/
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY. ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T. Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
ground cox erdcie to wxide tenmperattire lcc
tuations. Gairden stones and lixve plant coxver
wxere subject to extreme temperature flutc-
tuiations and lowxer Soil moistuie at times.
Bare soil not only expeiencced the xxidest
daily temperature fluctuations and exteime
soil dliy ing betxxeen rains, but also xxas
exposed to sunlIight xxhen the nocturnally
actix e cockroaches xxeire in hidin,.
Diffeirential shadinuc cr eated bx orienta-
tion of plots ( north, south, east, and wxest ),
did not greatly affect these results. Hoxx
ex eir. the monthly percentages of tax oirable
conditions xweie higher on the eastern aiid
southein iixposui eS.
(Giound coxver that maximizes seasonal
temperature IIluctuations, such as de-
thatched grass oi gairden Stones, should be
used next to homes to reduce cockiroach
abundance. Howxexver, this alone wxill not
control the insects, because many other
f actors contribute to cockroach abundance.
Yet. reducing suitabilIity of cockroach habi-
tat is highly etfectixve xxhen used in inte-
grated pest management xxith other control
mieasuiies.
Sniith is Post Doctoral Fellow, A ppcl is \sso-
ciate Piocessoi. and Miack is Pi otessoi ot I ntoinil-
\TION 1
INON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT NO. 9
ABRALA.