I I
p.
DIRECTORS COMMENTS
technology requires effective com-
munication. Webster defines the word
communicate as "to convey knowledge
of or information about" and communication
as "a process by which information is exchanged
between individuals..." Highlights is but one
means of communicating to you current research
of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station.
To complete the communication 
cycle, however,
we need your thoughts, comments, 
or concerns.
One goal of our communications is to create LOWELL T. FROBISH
a competitive edge for Alabamians and Alabama products. 
Because of a
broader world communication, technology 
that has allowed Alabama and
the United States to develop highly productive agricultural 
and forest in-
dustries is now more readily adopted by other countries 
than by our pro-
ducers. This is a major concern.
The future role of U.S. agricultural and forestry industries 
was effectively
communicated by Vernon M. 
Ruttan in an editorial in the February 
21, 1986,
issue of SCIENCE magazine, which I quote here to emphasize 
the critical
importance of continuing scientific research:
The capacity of American agriculture to expand its 
foreign markets and
retain its domestic markets depends on continued declines 
in the real
cost of production. American agriculture has achieved its 
preeminence
in the world by substituting 
knowledge for resources. 
This knowledge,
embodied in more productive biological, chemical, and mechanical
technologies and the managerial skills of farm operators, 
has given the
United States a world-class agricultural industry at a time when many
sectors of the U.S. economy are losing their preeminent position.
More than ever before producers need the newest technology 
to maintain
their competitive edge. Scientists must be investigating new 
ideas as well as
maintaining the current base of information. Unfortunately, 
most of our
research effort must be directed to just maintaining our current 
technological
base. Little time or funds are available to explore new ideas.
Producers receive information via many different means. It 
is difficult and
sometimes frustrating to sort 
fact from fiction. Through communications,
be it our research and extension reports, scientist and 
county extension agent
meetings, or whatever the means, it is our desire to encourage 
and develop
effective farm management skills in each of you through our research.
For every street running in one direction, another street goes in the 
op-
posite direction. Communication is not a one-way street from us to you. We
have communicated our research and now we need to hear from you.
FALI 1990 VOL. 37, NO. 3
A quarterly report of research published
by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station, Auburn University.
LOWELL T. FROBISH ................ Director
DAVID H. TEEM ........... Associate Director
RUSSELL B. MUNTIFERING.Associate Director
CHARLES W. BRUCE....... Assistant Director
R.E. STEVENSON... Assistant Director & Editor
ROY ROBERSON ............. Associate Editor
KATIE SMITH ................ Associate Editor
TERESA RODRIGUEZ .......... Art Designer
Editorial Committee: Lowell T. Frobish;
L.K. Lamke, Associate Professor of Family
and Child Development; E.W. 
Rochester,
Associate Professor of Agricultural Engi-
neering; S.P. Schmidt, Associate Professor of
Animal and Dairy Sciences; D.I. Bransby,
Associate Professor of Agronomy and Soils;
N.R. Holler, Associate Professor of Zool-
ogy and Wildlife Science; J. D. Weete, Pro-
fessor of Botany and Microbiology; P.A.
Duffy, Assistant Professor of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology; R.T.
Lovell, Professor of Fisheries and Allied
Aquacultures; T.P. Mack, Associate Pro-
fessor of Entomology; and R.E. Stevenson.
MAY WE INTRODUCE
Dr. Robert E.
Keith, Associate
Professor of Nutri- 
v i,
tion and Foods. He
came to Auburn as
Assistant Professor
in 1978 from Vir-
ginia Polytechnic In-
stitute and State
University, where he completed his Ph.D. in
human nutrition. Keith, who was promoted
to Associate Professor in 1983, also holds a
B.S. degree in biology and a master of
science degree in human nutrition from
Florida State University.
Since coming to Auburn, Keith has gained
national and international recognition for his
work with the effects of different car-
bohydrate levels on female athletes. This
pioneering research demonstrated some of
the mental, as well as physical performance,
effects of lowering and raising carbohydrate
levels.
Keith also has looked at the effects of dif-
ferent vitamins on different sex and age
groups of humans. His report on the effects
of vitamin C supplements on elderly women
is on page 6 of this issue of Highlights.
ON THE COVER. A Red Sunset red maple
cultivar exhibits its true colors in a variety test
conducted at the Piedmont Substation, Camp
Hill. (See story on page 3.)
EDITOR'S NOTE. Mention of trade
names does not indicate endorsement by
the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station or Auburn University of one brand
over another. Any use of pesticide rates in
excess of labeled amounts in research re-
ported does not constitute recommenda-
tion of such rate. Such use is simply part
of the scientific investigation necessary to
evaluate various materials. No chemical
should be used at rates above those per-
mitted by the label. Information con-
tained herein is available to all persons
without regard to race, color, sex, or na-
tional origin.
D.C. FARE, C.H. GILLIAM, and H.G. PONDER
VARIETY SELECTION IMPORTANT WITH 
RED MAPLES
EMPHASIS on tree plantings in
cities and residential areas has
been increasing in recent years,
resulting in more and more new
species and cultivars being introduced
into the ornamental industry. Red
maples, because of their brilliant fall
colors and handsome canopy shapes,
have been popular selections for urban
plantings. But a lack of information on
red maple varieties has resulted in in-
creased maintenance and removal costs
when varieties unsuitable for southern
landscapes are planted. As a result, an
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion project was initiated to provide in-
formation about fall coloration, shape,
and growth rate of red maple varieties.
Red maple plantings of Autumn
Flame, Tilford, Scarlet Sentinel, Red
Sunset, Gerling, Bowhall, and Arm-
strong varieties were made in December
1980 at the Piedmont Substation in
Camp Hill. Bareroot whips measuring
3 to 4 ft. tall were planted 25 ft. apart
within rows and 30 ft. apart between
rows. Each year, fall color development
was observed and rated based on the
date color appeared and peaked and the
amount of color present both in in-
dividual leaves and on the entire tree.
Tree growth also was measured annually
and canopy and leaf shape were
observed.
Detailed results of color-rating are
reported in the table. Autumn Flame
had the most consistent fall color
development and developed color more
rapidly over the entire tree than the
other cultivars, thus appearing to have
earlier fall color. Consistent color occur-
red with Tilford since 1985, with
83-100%
0 
of the trees exhibiting fall col-
or. Scarlet Sentinel's fall leaf color con-
sisted of mostly yellow and red hues and
has been inconsistent, ranging from
100% in 1985 to 25% in 1987. Red
Sunset, one of the most widely planted
red maples in the Southeast and highly
rated in the Ohio Shade Tree Evalua-
tion, exhibited inconsistent color
development and only average fall col-
or presentation. Gerling red maple
showed consistent fall color formation
with all of the trees developing color
during the past 4 years. Bowhall showed
excellent fall leaf color with hues of
yellow, red, and orange. From 1986 to
1988, only 50% of the Armstrong trees
had fall color.
Survivability was a problem for
Bowhall, which lost 5 of the 9 trees in
its planting from bud union incom-
patibility. Four of the 9 trees in the
Scarlet Sentinel planting died from bud
union incompatibility (which occurs in
grafted trees when the root stock and the
grafted stock do not successfully join)
and a fifth tree died of winter injury.
Two of the 9 Armstrong trees died from
bud union incompatibility. No bud
union incompatibility was exhibited with
Red Sunset in this study. Gerling trees
also exhibited good survivability.
The fastest growing cultivar in the
study was Scarlet Sentinel, which
averaged about 24 in. of growth annual-
ly. Tilford was also a fast-growing varie-
ty, averaging 22.3 in. height growth an-
nually. Bowhall was a moderate-
growing cultivar (21.7 in. per year),
while Gerling trees averaged 21.5 
in.
Autumn Flame was the slowest 
growing
tree in the test, averaging about 16.1 in.
of height growth annually.
Scarlet Sentinel exhibited an upright,
oval canopy, while Armstrong's canopy
tended to be cone shaped and upright.
Bowhall, usually attributed with 
a
pyramidal canopy, tended to be upright-
oval in form in this study, providing lit-
tle shade. Autumn Flame trees 
had
round to oval canopy shapes and Gerl-
ing tended to be broadly pyramidal 
and
densely branched. Red Sunset cultivar
displayed an oval, upright canopy which
provides excellent shade.
In this study, Autumn Flame, Tilford,
Gerling, and Bowhall varieties exhibited
consistent fall coloration. Bud union in-
compatibility was a problem with
Bowhall and Scarlet Sentinel varieties.
Fare is Research Associate and Gilliam and
Ponder are Professors of Horticulture.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 3
S. YALCIN. G.R. McDANIEL, and J. WONG-VALLE
DIFFERENT LIGHI:L)ARK R(AI OS
O.K. FOR GOOD BROILEI
P c-~r Duvvr~r A * r -f
ROWING BIRDS on short
days and then exposing them
to long light periods each day
is well known for stimulating
onset of egg production. From this basic
principle has evolved the standard prac-
tice of rearing broiler breeder replace-
ments on a daily light regime of 8 hours
light and 16 hours dark from 2 to 20
weeks of age. It is not 
known, however,
if shorter days could be used without
reducing the benefits of the controlled
light system. Reducing the hours of light
would be desirable because this could
reduce energy requirements for lighting
and thereby lower cost of rearing
replacements.
An Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station study was done to determine if
different periods of daily light could be
used without detrimental effects on
broiler breeder replacements.
After I week in which all birds were
subjected to 23 hours of light and 1 hour
of darkness daily, these four light:dark
ratios were compared:
4 hours light:20 hours dark
6 hours light:18 hours dark
8 hours light:16 hours dark
10 hours light:14 hours dark
Each treatment involved 300 broiler
breeder females and 40 males. They re-
mained on the light treatments (with all
other management practices standard
for all) until 20 weeks old. They were
then moved to a breeder house and sub-
jected to a standard 15 hours of light:9
hours of dark regime for the next 30
weeks. Production was evaluated for the
30-week period to determine effects of
light treatment during rearing on
reproductive performance of the adult
birds.
Results show that females grown out
with 4 hours of light:20 hours of dark
daily matured 11 days later than those
raised on 6, 8, or 10 hours of light. As
a result, the 4-hour light females (1)
reached peak production later than the
others, 
(2) had 
lower 
produc. 
1
tion during weeks 23-30, and
(3) had lower total production
to 50 weeks of age. In contrast,
there was no difference in pro-
duction to 50 weeks among
those raised on 6, 8, or 10 hours
of light daily, as listed below:
Ligt ratio Egis to 50 nveeks
4 liahr:2t dark 123
6 lieht:18 dark.. 132
8 liht:I6 dark.. 13! 
Prod
10 light:I4 dark . 131
Hen-day egg production ssas 85
63.9, 68.4, 67.3, and 
67.007o,
respectively, for the 
4, 6, 8, and
10 hours daily light. Those rais-
ed on 6, 8, and 10 hours of light
peaked in production 
(reached 65
approximately 8007o lay) by 29
weeks of age. There wsas no dif
ference in average egg weight, 55
egg specific gravity, and bod\
weight of females as a result of
light regimes. 45
In males, sexual maturity was
delayed for 7 days 
by the
4-hour daily light regime. There
were no differences among the
6, 8, and 
10 hours 
daily light 
25
groups. Body weight, semen
concentration, and semen
volume were unaffected by 15
lighting.
Since the results show no dif-
ferences among the lighting 5
regimes using 6, 8. and 10 hours 2
of light per day, regimes other
than the standard 8 light:16
dark can be used for rearing How di
broiler breeder replacements. fects e
Where climate-controlled housing is us-
ed, the 6 light: 18 dark regime offers an
opportunity for reducing energy re-
quirements for lower uiility costs. 1or
operations using natural light and
natural ventilation, the 10 hours light:14
hours darkness regime would he more
economical, since there would he less
uction, pct.
4 hours
- -? 6 hours
8 hours
10 hours
4 28 32 36 40 44 48 50
Age, weeks
fferent periods of daily light during growing af-
gg production to 49 weeks of age is illustrated.
need to close houses and use torced %cn-
tilation than would he true with the use
of shorter light days.
\ alcin is\ Virin i'rofcssor tron Aciean
~lt\ ofat Irke\ \McIaniel is Prof esor and
\5 one-\alle is Graduate Research Assistant of
Pl'~itr Science.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment .Stuton
a * ~ -
D. W. PORCH, C.H. GILLIAM, J.E. BROWN, J.L. ADRIAN, and J.T. EASON
BROILER LITTER VS. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER
PRODUCES EARLIER, LARGER TOMATOES
HE USE of poultry litter as a
fertilizer for vegetable crops is
becoming more popular due to
public concern over the use of
inorganic fertilizers and the poultry in-
dustry's efforts to find environmental-
ly sound ways to dispose of large
amounts of waste. Results of recent
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion research indicate that poultry litter
is an ideal fertilizer for vegetable crops.
Application of 10 tons per acre of'
poultry litter produced about 11,629 lb.
per acre more tomatoes, and these were
harvested earlier than tomatoes grown
using conlercial fertilizer. In addition
to increased yields and earliness, other
benefits of using poultry litter on
vegetable crops include better water
holding capacity, increased 
aggregation,
and improved soil structure. The litter
is also a good source of major and
minor nutrient elements.
The objectives of the study at the
Sand Mountain Substation, Crossville,
were to determine the effects of poultry
litter rates, compared to commercial fer-
tilizers, on tomato growth and yield.
The tests were done on Wynnville sandy
loam soil, using Mountain Pride
tomatoes (transplants) spaced 15 in.
apart in 5-ft. rows.
Poultry litter rates of 10 and 20 tons
per acre were applied in the fall.
[Analysis indicated the litter contained
3.11070 N, 1.177o P, 1.7601o K, 1.73%7
Ca, and 0.40%0 Mg; minor element con-
centrations were 2,982 p.p.m. (parts per
million) Fe, 292 p.p.m. Cu, 186 p.p.m.
Zn, and 42 p.p.m. B]. All plots were
tilled to 6-in. depths after litter applica-
tion, 1 ton per acre of lime 
was applied,
and rye was planted as a winter cover
crop. Plots were irrigated to bring the
moisture level up to field capacity to en-
sure rye germination.
The commercial fertilizer treatments
consisted of 400 lb. per acre of 13-13-13
(according to soil test recommenda-
tions), applied in the spring. Nitrogen
sidedressing consisted of 68 lb. of N per
acre.
/bN
K\
In the spring, plots for all treatments
were prepared by applying Gramox-
one
" 
(paraquat) at the rate of 0.5 lb.
active ingredient (a.i.) per acre and disk-
ing. Irrigation was applied to bring soil
moisture up to field capacity, and pest-
icides were applied as needed through-
out the study.
Tomato yields in 1988 and 1989 were
enhanced by the addition of poultry lit-
ter at 10 and 20 tons per acre. Similar
yields occurred with each litter treat-
ment. Both broiler litter treatments
resulted in about 20% greater tomato
yields than from the commercial fer-
tilizer program. In 1989, poor growing
conditions prevailed and yields were
40-50%7 lower than yields given in the
table for 1988, which was an excellent
growing season.
An evaluation of to-
mato yield by standard
packaging sizes re-
vealed the numbers of
5 x 6 and 6 x 6 packs
(large and medium size
tomatoes, respectively)
were enhanced 
by ap-
plication of broiler lit-
ter at the 10 tons per
acre rate. Application
of 20 tons per acre
resulted in greater
number and weight of
all three package sizes.
There were no dif-
ferences among the
three treatments in
blossom end 
rot,
cracks, and other prob-
lems causing the tomatoes to be unsalable.
Tomatoes in plots receiving broiler lit-
ter matured earlier and were heavier
than those receiving commercial fer-
tilizer. Those plots receiving broiler lit-
ter had their greatest yield on July 26
and August 1, 1988, with no differences
between poultry litter rates. Plots fertil-
ized according to commercial standards
had their greatest yields in 1988 on
August 4 and August 10. Yield data in
1989 were similar to 1988. Earlier harv-
est in many instances would result in in-
creased profits to commercial producers.
These data reported here show that
broiler litter enhanced tomato yield by
about 20% compared to standard com-
mercial fertilization 
practices. In addition,
earlier harvest occurred when broiler lit-
ter was used as the fertilizer source.
TOMATO YIELD A AAFFECTED By APP'ICATION O BROILER LITTER, 1988
Marketable tomato
Treatment yield/acre, by size'
5x6 6x6 6x7 Total
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
Commercial fertilizer .................. 5,838 17,220 23,040 45,165
Broiler litter, 10 tons/acre .............. 11,376 22,428 19,986 56,794
Broiler litter, 20 tons/acre .............. 7,380 22,428 26,748 56,524
5 x 6 has a minimum diameter 2 11/16 in. and maximum diameter 3
3/16, 6 x 6 has minimum 2 8/16 and maximum 2 14/16, and 6 x 7 has
minimum 2 4/16 and maximum 2 10/16 in.
=Yield based on six harvests per season.
Porch is former
Graduate Research
Assistant, Gilliam is
Professor, and Brown
is Assistant Professor
of Horticulture; Eason
is Superintendent of
the Sand Mountain
Substation; Adrian is
Professor of Agri-
cultural Economics
and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
R. E. KEITH and W. L. McKENZIE
VITAMIN C SUPPLEMENT 
SHOWS LITTLE EFFECT 
ON
IMMUNITY OF ELDERLY 
WOMEN
MMUNIY has been described 
as
the capacity of an organism to iden-
tify and reject material 
that is
foreign to itself. It has 
been sug-
gested that vitamin C supplements 
in-
crease immunity in humans; however, 
in
recent Alabama Agricultural 
Experi-
ment Station studies, such supplements
had no known effect on immune 
func-
tions of a group of elderly 
women.
Vitamin C levels in the body, 
as well
as immune function, are known 
to
decline as the body ages. If part 
of the
immune function decline 
is due to the
reduction in vitamin C status, 
then
perhaps immune function in the 
elderly
could be enhanced by increasing their in-
take of vitamin C. Therefore, 
the pur-
pose of the Auburn study wsas 
to deter-
mine if vitamin C supplementation
I IDI) 1 I I \I \I I Si I . RI I Iv \t
:: \\I!\ SL I'I I NIE \ I I
V P I -B
blood
Ill, 
da 
t .
mel 100 fill1
Pio tll t
blood
ill 10( m
Pliebo 56 11
BlIo v .alues iyloxi 0. -4 me ti Ill 
II con-
sideted to by o dyt ly I
T xii 2. \ it \t\\ t
Si I Icl it Fut I
I ood Cei sire '/ \ itlltiit 
C ci)lt in
,ltr
ii i t l !sit nl I-l
13( c I yel whole I tl.6
( til ilupe I m Ielon~ 90t
(1ltit yuce 1ty 2 ylip 601
it tin etycli I 2 ti
1)1111111' greens I cup h(
S tIi1\tbyle 1 2 cup. 44
I'01atc (ht I 42"I
'it ,itx klo I 
lice
IIimilll 30i
\itc o I et poll I
li0mgdy Rxrt, itlyI retit \ hucT, it. l
could enhance immune function in a
group of elderly women.
Women chosen for the study were
between 67 and 95 years of age, ap-
patently healthy, and living on their own
or with relatives. The women were con
suming adequate, but not large 
(less
than twice the recommended 
amount),
quantities of vitamin C in their diets.
The women in the study were divided
into two groups. One group (seven
women) received a vitamin C supple-
ment of 1,000 mg (milligrams) per day
for a period of 1 month. The other
group (eight women) received a placebo
tablet that contained no vitamin C.
Neither the study investigators nor the
women knew which tablets were given
until the study was complete.
Daily dietary intakes were recorded
approximately twice per week through-
out the study. Blood was drawn initially
and at the end of the study and analyzed
for vitamin C content and the concen-
tration of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and
M (1gM), which are markers of humoral
immunity. In addition, delayed cu-
taneous hypersensitivity (DCH) tests
were given at the beginning and end of
the study. These are skin-scratch tests 
in
wxhich a small amount of a toreign
substance is injected under the skin. The
resulting level of redness and swselling
can be measured and used as an in-
dicator ot cell-mediated iinmunity.
Results showsing the vitamin C intakes
and blood concentrations of the subjects
can be seen in table I. Dietary vitamin
C intakes were 183070 of the Recom-
mended Dietary Allowance in 
the sup-
plemented group and 1430"o 
in the
placebo group. Despite the apparently
normal vitamin C intakes, both groups'
initial blood concentrations 
of the
vitamin were low. [Values belows 
0.4 mg
per 100 ml (milliliters) of blood are con-
sidered low.] Vitamin C concentrations
analyzed from blood taken at the end of
the study remained low in the placebo
group. However, the vitamin C sup-
plemented group showed a significant
increase in blood vitamin C concentra-
tion at the end of the study such that
their values wxere above 0. 4 mg per 100
ml.
IgG and IgM values and the DCH
skin test results were within normal
limits in both groups of subjects at the
beginning of the study. Vitamin C sup-
plementation for 1 month had no etfect
on the immune system components as
measured in the Auburn study. Thus,
contrary to some previous studies,
vitamin C supplementation did not seem
to iinprove immunity among elderly
females in the present stud. This lack
of immune response was somewhat sur-
prising considering that blood vitamin
C concentrations were initially lows in the
group. However, the immune system is
complex. Either the supplements had no
real effect on immune function in this
group of females or the immune values
measured were not sensitive enough to
pick up possible changes in immunity.
As a result of supplementation dur-
ing the study, blood concentrations ot
vitamin C rose to normal. Howev 
er,
vitamin C supplementation had no ef-
fects on immune function.
While vitamin C tablets wxere given in
the current study so that doses could be
controlled, it is easy to obtain ample
amounts of vitamin C from foods. Ex-
amples of toods wxith their vitamin C
content are shown in table 2. Choosing
one or two of these foods each day
would more than meet normal body
needs. In addition to supplying vitamin
C, natural foods contain other nutrients
and components that are beneficial to
health, giving them an obvious advan-
tage over supplemental vitamin C pills.
Keith is\Asociate Prote or and \t.Kencie is
(raduate Situdent ot Nutrition and Ioods.
.1luhaan Agricultural Lxperimient Station
A.G. APPEL and R.C. SPONSLER
GEL AND PASTE BAIT FORMULATIONS EFFECTIVE FOR
GERMAN COCKROACH CONTROL
T HE GERMAN cockroach is the
most prevalent insect pest in
apartments, food handling
facilities, and hospitals. Since
cockroaches can transmit diseases, foul
food, and cause allergies, their control
is important in both homes and
businesses. Insecticidal bait formula-
tions have several advantages over con-
ventional sprays and foggers. Baits
allow for precise placement, minimum
disruption of the application site, and
little odor. While baits available to con-
sumers are usually child resistant, they
have disadvantages. Bait containers are
large and obvious, and they are difficult
to fit into cracks and crevices where
cockroaches are likely to hide.
To allow for greater coverage of
cockroach harborage areas, several
companies have developed gel or paste
formulations of their cockroach baits.
The effectiveness of these gel and paste
bait formulations is being determined in
research by the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station.
The studies were conducted in apart-
ments managed by a public housing
authority in both small and moderate
size cities in Alabama. The design of
these complexes provided 
one, two,
four, six, and eight apartment units. A
total of 40 apartments was used in the
study.
Sticky traps (Mr. Sticky' ) were used
to monitor cockroach populations. Two
traps were placed in the kitchen of each
apartment-one in a rear corner under
the sink and the other behind the stove
or refrigerator-so they contacted a ver-
tical surface such as a wall or part of an
appliance. These traps were left in place
for 7 days before the treatments were
applied to evaluate cockroach popula-
tions. Treatments were applied to in-
dividual apartments based on the
number of insects caught so the initial
cockroach population size and distribu-
tion were equivalent among treatments.
Beginning in August of 1988, treat-
ments of Maxforce" gel (containing
20o hydramethylnon) and It Works
"
'
and Blue Diamonds pastes (containing
52 and 330 boric acid, respectively)
were applied to various apartments. It
Works and Blue Diamond are now
available for use by pest control
operators. Maxforce is currently under
evaluation for use by these operators.
Each product was placed in 10 apart-
ments, and 10 apartments were left un-
treated as a control. Dabs of the
treatments were placed in each apart-
ment as directed on the label, using a
putty knife or a caulking gun. Each
apartment received 11 dabs in the kit-
chen, 2 dabs in the rear corners under
the sink, 2 dabs behind the stove, 2
behind the refrigerator, 2 in upper
cabinets, 2 in lower cabinets, and 1 in
a pantry or cabinet above the
refrigerator. A dab was also placed in
each bathroom on the floor behind the
toilet. Apartments treated with Max-
force received 0.7 oz. of 
the bait each,
apartments receiving It Works received
5.5 oz. each, and apartments treated
with Blue Diamond received a total of
9.5 oz. each.
The results of the
ment, expressed as the
mean number of cock-
roaches per apart-
ment, displayed no
significant differences
among the treatments
at the beginning of the
study, as seen in the
table. One week after
treatment, Maxforce
reduced cockroach
trap catch by 
50%,
while the untreated
control apartments
showed a 47.6% in-
crease in cockroach
numbers.
At 2 weeks, there
were no differences
between Maxforce and
the boric acid paste
treatments, but all
field experi-
three treatments had fewer cockroaches
than the control, a trend that continued
at 4 weeks. Maxforce displayed the
greatest reduction in cockroach numbers
(75.270o) at 4 weeks. Apartments treated
with Blue Diamond bait had the fewest
cockroaches at 8 weeks, with a 75.1%
reduction. The number of cockroaches
in the Maxforce treatments began to in-
crease after the fourth week to only
51.1 %. Examination of these treatments
revealed that all of the Maxforce gel had
been consumed by the cockroaches. It
Works performed poorly throughout
the study, with no more than a 41.5%
reduction in cockroaches after 4 weeks.
Results revealed significant reductions
in German cockroach populations dur-
ing the entire period of the field study
from use of Maxforce and Blue Dia-
mond treatments. While these formula-
tions are not available to homeowners,
they are available or should soon be
available to professional pest control
operators and may provide a new way
to effectively use baits for cockroach
control.
Appel is Assistant Professor and Sponsler is
Laboratory Technician III of Entomology.
Ni \Tii i O xKR()\( itl Ai iit i RIk 1 Xi N I
\ ca umher of cockroache arter treatmenti
I ir I vs A _2 c k, 4 \ s 8 e1
11 irc134 6' - 33 66
It AI 112 6S 69
1Iic Diamrnid- 10I4 91 s6 46 26
trli ...r-l 113 i 7 1% 188 128
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
D 7AVF, R.T1 LOVELL, R.0 SMITHERMAN. and M A REZK
CowP TILAPIA MORE MARKETABLI
fl F r-0 I WTJTFP F E.St 4 
(010
ILAPIA are aiong the rost
popular Iarmied food fish iii the
xorld, with total production of
6(X)-700 million lb. annually.
Though comniercial Production it the
United States is only about 2 nillion lb.
annually, it could jurmp to 33-44 million
lb. by the year 2000-if production and
marketing problems of tilapia carl be
over come.
Normal skin color of 
tilapia is dark,
with iietlanin (black) being the pr edomi-
; I:
''' 1:; i
,:l.i::::::.:;:
Flesh color differences evident in (from
lop) gold. bronze, and black tilapia.
rarit pigment. Wherr tilapia are
rirarketed whole or as skin-oil
fillets, tre dark skirt color can be
a triar ketirig liability in the United
States arid other areas where con-
isurners prefer lightly colored fish.
Research in the Alabama Agri
cultural Experiment Station in
dicares recently dexeloped "all'
gold tilapia irray elitririnate this
black pigrirenration.
Recent Exper rimret Station
research deternrined the genetics
of three bodv colors (gold, hrrize,
ard black) iii Iilap1a inossuiuicu.
Body color is deter rioied bx a
Siiigle antosoiial gene, ilaking it
possible to devccop arid prodtrce a
it urebreeding gold population (see
fIhgh/ights, Vol.36, No. 1, Spring
1989). Gold tilapra nave virtually
rio mielarin in their skin. If'
melanin production iii gold tilapra
also is rediced internially, their
fillets could be lighter than those
Ifrorn black tilapia. Ihis xould
make the gold tilapia more
marketable, even wx hen sold as
skinless fillets.
An internal reduction in
nielarin productiron also could
change pigrenrttation of the
peritoreal (abdominal cavity) lin-
ing. T he peritoreal lining of black
7. mossutubica is black ard often
must be rerioved dtrring 1rocess-
ing to irake this fish r eo appeal-
ing to conisuIrters. If gold tilapia
produce less nielairri in their per irorreal
lining, they would be easier to process
and sell.
In the Auburn test, flesh color of
fillets of gold, brot/c, arid black tilapia
was evaltated visually by 10 judges who
assigned a riurirerreal scote to fillets on
the basis of* lightiness. Ihe scoring
systcn was: 10 x er x light; 8
iediurn light; 6 medium; 4
medium dark; 2 very dark. Pigein-
tation of the pen itoieal inring was
A labuina Agricultural Experiment Station
evaltated by removing the abdominal
wall.
flesh of black and bronze triapia
fillets was white xith a grayish tint, as
shown in photo. Microscopic exarnina-
tion of the flesh revealed that some of
the grayish color xas due to
urelariophores (black pigment cells)
associated with blood vessels. 
However,
flesh that was lree of blood vessels still
had a grayish tint. Remnants of the der-
ntis that rerriained on the flesh after
skinning were a silver-gray. 1The red
niuscle, which runs along the side of the
isir between the upper arid lower mus-
cle riasses, was a brownsh-tan color in
both bronze and black fish.
Flesh color in gold tilapra was ruch
lighter tian in bronze ard 
black tilapia,
as exideiced by a mean flesh score of
8.9. Bronze arid black tilapia were 5.1
and 5.0, respectively. G~old tilapia had
white flesh with few to rio nielanophores
associated with blood vessels. Remnants
of the derrnis left on the flesh after skin-
nirig were silver-white. IThe red muscle
ii gold tilapra was pink.
ligrgnentaiori of ttIe peritorneal lining
was strikingiy diff ererit among the three
tilapra pncnotypes. Black tilapia had
uniforrmly black peritoneal linings, com-
pared to sliny white peritoneal linings
in gold rilapia which gave a silver-white
appeararce.
Peritorreal lining ot bronze tilapra ex-
hibited a broad range of color variation.
1The basic color was white, but all in-
dividuals had some melaristic areas.
Some fish had large black patches that
coeredc almost half the lining. Others
were spotted; the sizes aid shapes of the
spots and the degree of spotting varied
greatly. 'There was rio pigment symmetry
between thc right and left sides. Some
bronze rilapia had small areas of irides-
cent greenish spots on the lining adja-
cent to the ribs.
Results from this study indicate that
flesh color of gold T. mossambica is
sigiificant ly lighter than that of norinal
pigentedrit fish arid should irave greater
consumer appeal. Additionally, the
whire peritoreal lining mieans that gold
tilapia will be easier to process, because
the lining does not haxe to be removed.
Ias is a former Visiting Scienistb, Loevell and
SiItIheI Inman are Protessors, and Rezk is G~raduate
Sr unuet o ishries and Allied Aquacultures.
J.L. ADRIAN, N.A.D. THOMPSON, and A.M. MIMS
FOREIGN OWNERSHIP 01
ALABAMA LAND LITTL
REASON FOR CONCERN
OREIGN OWNERSHIP of
America's agricultural land has
been the subject of concern in
recent years. Since such con-
cerns are shared by many 
Alabamians,
the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station regularly compiles information
from compliance forms required by the
1978 Foreign investment Disclosure Act
(AFIDA). Periodic analyses of these
data are conducted to determine (1)
ownership (both full and partial) and (2)
other foreign interests that include both
ownership and other activity, such as
long-term timoer management and cut-
ting contracts.
Based on an analysis through January
1989, only about 170 (316,000 acres) of
Alabama's land is owned by foreign en-
tities. About twice this much (626,000
acres) is involved with foreign interests.
Foreign entities own agricultural land
in 51 Alabama counties and have in-
terests in 55 counties. Wilcox, Choctaw,
Perry, Monroe, and Jackson counties
account for 450o of the acreage involv-
ing foreign interests and about 38%7 of
the ownership.
In terms of land area involved in
foreign interests, Wilcox County ac-
counts for 15.570, Perry 9.807, Choc-
taw 9.370, Monroe 7.707, and Jackson
5.607o. Monroe County leads in foreign
ownership, with 5.8070 of the acreage,
followed by Jackson (5.6%0), Wilcox
(4.6%), Russell (4.500), and Chambers
(3.2%).
Changes in foreign activity patterns
between 1984 and 1989 were also noted
in the analyses. Declines of more than
15,000 acres were noted in 
Baldwin,
Choctaw, Clarke, Conecuh, 
Covington,
Escanibia, and Monroe counties. Dur-
ing the same period, Chilton, 
Shelby,
and Talladega counties had large in-
creases in foreign interest. These
changes reflected long-term timber
management and cutting contracts
established by one firm in Shelby and
Chilton counties
and the purchase of
three tracts by
another firm in
Talladega County.
No foreign activity
in either 1984 or
1989 was reported
for Calhoun, 
Clay,
Elmore, Franklin,
Geneva, Henry,
Houston, Lamar,
Lauderdale, and
Montgomery counties.
There were 597 entities reporting
foreign ownership in 1989. Most of
these (451) reported single (whole-fee)
ownership. Tract size of whole-fee
ownerships averaged 698 acres. Among
those reporting partial ownership
(partial-fee interest), interest ranged
from 6%o to 50%, and tract size aver-
aged 2,275 acres.
Long-term timber 
leasing, cutting,
and management contracts accounted
for most of the foreign interests in
Alabama's agricultural 
land. In fact,
forestry or timber activities accounted
for two-thirds of the total acreage in-
volving foreign interests. Nonagri-
cultural uses accounted for 29% of
foreign land usage, with traditional crop
production using only about 0.5% of
the total.
Organizations, primarily corpora-
tions, were the dominant foreign entities
involved with Alabama's agricultural
land. Average size of tracts reported by
corporations was 1,267 acres.
Individual owners accounted for less
than 1% of acreage owned by foreign-
ers. Citizens of Canada, the United
Kingdom, and West Germany made up
three-fourths of the individual owners.
A large portion of individual purchases
were pecan groves in Macon and
Bullock counties.
Although the analyses showed a 29%
decline in foreign activity of Alabama
FOREIGN
INTERESTS
Percent
of Total
Land,
1989
I Less than 
1%o 5%- 
10%
D 1% - 5% o 
More than 10%
agricultural land, much of this adjust-
ment simply reflected a change in defini-
tion. (Formerly, only 50% foreign owner-
ship was required to define the interest
as "foreign," but the new definition re-
quired 10% ownership to meet the
foreign classification.) Changing status
of two firms accounted for 23% of the
adjustment noted. One firm with large
State interest had its foreign ownership
component purchased by domestic in-
terests, while another was deleted from
the foreign list because its interest was
more than 5070 but less than 10%.
Without the change in definition, the ex-
tent of foreign interest was largely un-
changed (a 670 decrease) between 1984
and 1989, rather than the 29% decline
resulting from the new definition.
Based on the ongoing 
Auburn study,
there seems to be little reason for con-
cern about foreign activity with
Alabama agricultural land. Much of the
activity is by firms that have been tradi-
tional entities in the State. Since most
of the acreage involves the forest and
timber sector, there is little effect on
traditional production agriculture.
About half of the activity is by lease
rather than ownership, and many ac-
tivities involve large domestic interests
along with foreign owners.
Adrian is Professor of Agricultural Econonmics
and Rural Sociology; Thompson is Extension Data
Analyst; Mims is Extension Specialist-Micro-
computer.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
D.H. SUMMERFORD, J.E. DUNKELBERGER, D.L. HUFFMAN, and W.R. EGBERT
NEW LEAN GROUND BEEF GETS
HIGH CONSUMER RATING
GROUND BEEF has been a
popular American meat pro-
duct for a long time.
Tastiness, ease of preparation,
versatility, and value are several of the
positive attributes consumers like about
ground beef. In recent years, however,
American consumers have given in-
creased attention to their eating habits,
especially with respect to the fat content
of foods. This change in consumer
preference has created a challenge for
the red meat industry because removing
fat from ground beef results in a pro-
duct that tends to be dry and flavorless.
Motivated by consumer demand,
research at the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station has developed a lean
ground beef product that contains less
than 10% fat while maintaining com-
parable quality with currently marketed
ground beef products containing ap-
proximately 20% fat.
In 1989 and 1990, household taste and
attitudinal surveys were conducted to
determine consumer acceptability of this
newly developed product. Some 90
households representative of all racial
and income segments found in a
medium- size Alabama city were selected
and randomly assigned to one of three
independent test groups.
Three ground beef products were in-
cluded in the taste test: Product A, the
current market product containing 20%
or more fat; Product B, a very lean pro-
duct containing less than 10
0
% fat; and
Product C, the developed test product
containing less than 10% fat. Product
C, the developed product, consists of
the same beef materials as the two com-
parative products plus nonmeat ingre-
dients to improve juiciness, flavor, and
texture of the product (water, salt,
hydrolyzed vegetable protein, and car-
rageenan).
The three ground beef products were
home-delivered in different sequences to
each household for 3 weeks with a
separate evaluation completed for each
week's product. A fourth week involved
delivery to all households of only the
developed test product.
Each week the household food
preparer rated the ground beef products
according to a variety of observable
traits. These involved the sensory and
physical characteristics of the three pro-
ducts at three distinct consumption
stages: (1) preparation, (2) cooking, and
(3) eating.
Preparation traits are those noticeable
prior to the actual cooking of the pro-
duct, such as overall product ap-
pearance, leanness, color, aroma, and
workability. The cooking stage evalua-
tion focused on such traits as the
amount of grease, shrinkage, and
overall appearance of the product as it
cooked. Finally, the eating stage
centered on the qualities of flavor-
fulness, tenderness, and juiciness.
The figure shows a comparison of the
three products on the basis of one at-
tribute from each stage: workability,
amount of grease, and flavorfulness.
The developed test product (Product C)
was rated better than the current market
ground beef product (Product A) on all
attributes. Product B (the 10%-fat pro-
duct) and Product C were rated good to
very good at all stages. Product A (the
20%-fat product) was rated con-
siderably lower than the very lean pro-
duct or the developed test product at all
stages except the eating stage where the
ratings were about the same for the three
products.
The lean products, B and C, were
rated similarly for general likability,
with Product C receiving a rating of
"very much liked" 
slightly more often
than Product B.
When choosing a ground beef pro-
duct, leanness, tenderness, and freshness
were concerns most often mentioned by
participants in the taste test. Only a few
indicated low cost was a concern. In a
separate follow-up questionnaire, the
household couples (food preparer and
spouse, if married) were asked to give
their feelings concerning their nutrition
nail Amount Fat/Grease
AN Sn
Market/
20% Fat
BM
Lean/
10% Fat
cE
Test/
10% Fat
PRODUCT
COMPOSITION
Very Workable
CONSUMER
RATINGS
Consumers' rankings of various attributes in
three ground beef products.
and dietary habits. Most (540) said they
had reduced or completely eliminated
particular fatty foods. In addition, near-
ly 70% of the household food preparers
and 50% of spouses indicated a desire
to lose weight. Among household
couples, 86% said they served ground
beef at least once a week. However, ap-
proximately 20% indicated they were
eating less ground beef now compared
to 1 year ago, primarily because of
health and nutritional concerns.
The survey showed that the majority
of these households were more con-
cerned about nutritional factors in their
meat consumption than about the cost
of the meat. Some 40% of the par-
ticipants indicated that nutritional value
was highly important and another 55%
said it was somewhat important. Only
50%6 said nutritional value was of no con-
cern when purchasing ground beef.
More than half of the household food
preparers indicated that they regularly
purchased ground chuck, a product
generally rated leaner but more expen-
sive than regular ground beef.
Current buying practices indicate con-
sumers' willingness to purchase a leaner
ground beef product when desired quali-
ty factors are present. The developed
test product (Product C), which has less
than 10% fat, possesses sensory and
physical qualities rated superior to the
current market product containing 20%
or more fat.
Summerford is Graduate Research Assistant and
Dunkelberger is Professor of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology; Huffman is Pro-
fessor and Egbert is Research Associate of Animal
and Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station10
J.C WRIGHT, SD. BECKETT. and J G FLOYD
MANAGEMENT DEFICIENCIES, 
HEALTH PROBLEMS LIMIT
BEEF PRODUCTION IN ALABAMA
T HE NEED for improved
management on Alabama beef
farms was emphasized in results
from a 1989 surxev of cattlemen
and veterinarians. The objective ot the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion survex wsas to identity health pro-
blems as perceived by cattlemen and
veterinarians. While the survey was suc-
cessful in identifying specific health pro-
blems, the most striktng information
concerned management practices used.
The high percentage using year-round
calving and the failure of most to check
bulls for breeding soundness point 
out
areas of improvement that could boost
productivity.
Of the 372 producers wsho returned
questionnaires (790 sent), 470"o had a
herd size of fewer than 50 animals. Only
Ilw reported having more than 200
animals. Most respondents (68?7o)
owned cow- calf operations. Only 180
raised purebred cattle. Those reporting
feedlot, stocker calf, and backgrounding
operations totaled 407o, 7%o, and 30%o,
respectively, of the total returned.
Angus (180o) and Hereford (130"o) were
the breeds most often reported.
Responses concerning management
practices resealed that 71%7o obtained
their bulls through private purchase, and
58%1o never evaluated their bulls for
breeding soundness. Onl\ 12%~ of the
respondents evaluated their bulls before
the breeding season, while 18%
evaluated them before sale or after pur-
chase and 6%10 if they had noted 
fertility
problems.
Surprisingly, 49(ro reported a 
year-
round breeding season. Twenty-eight
percent reported a breeding season 
of 2
to 4 months and 190%o a 4- to 6-month
season. Nearly halt (430%) indicated that
most of their calves were born in the
spring. Estrous synchronization was
reported by 31 0o of those responding to
the survey. Artificial insemination and
embryo transfer were used infrequent-
ly, by 1707o and 4%1, respectively.
Most of the producers said they used
a veterinarian, with 45%1 reporting 
ser-
vice every 6-12 months. Only 7% never
employed a veterinarian.
Foot lameness was the leading prob-
lem among 25 disease and health prob
lems from which producers selected the
most prevalent, table I. Skin conditions
ranked second, while diarrhea in calves,
pinkeye, pneumonia in calves, intestinal
parasites, cancer eve, grass tetany,
dystocia, and fescue toxicity also were
reported to occur frequently.
Foot disease was also the leading
problem reported by the 68 responding
xeterinarians (out of 113 receiving ques-
tionnaires). Rounding out their list of
the five most important disease and
health problems encountered in their
practice were respiratory disease, repro-
ductive disease, intestinal parasites, and
dvstocia, table 2.
The veterinarians, 850o of wshom
reported less than half of their practice
to involve beef cattle, also were ques-
FBI i I. Dimysi -Ni) FIr Al COD IONS
losT FRI OI I N.r REPi Il ii[) 268
AI %11 VM; 13 it C \YTIF I'RuOMI. ERS
RILSNDINiGN( li A MAll ID SI R5 EN
Prevalence reported
Disease/conditionNumber Percent
Ioot lameness... II ) 41
Skin condition 1(14 39
t)iarrhea ill calves.. 77 29
I'inke . ..e . I5 78
I'neunonia in caltes 68 25
Intestinal parasites . 68 
25
(ancer eve 66 24
(rass tetans 64 24
)sstocia ...... ...... 52 19
I-escue toxicity........ 40 iS
I SllI 2. Dr xrstNNi Hi 1t Ii C(iNi)Ius
lersi RIOL1 IN ',It Rt Hp i ii BN THE 68
Al xii xxt x VI II r iRIMV, RI sEPNOIN(I
iii A MAIIi oD Si,~ )s
Disease conditiroi
Iooi disease
Respirators disease
Reproductive disease
Ilestinal parasites
t) s i.c-ia i
Prevalence reported
Number Percent
4) 9
39 57
36 53
34 50
33 48
tioned about their impressions of the
most important causes of beef produc-
tion shortfalls in Alabama. Reasons,
ranked in order of importance, were
management (63%), nutrition (48%io),
reproductive programs (34%10), parasites
(25%o), and genetics (18%1).
Although responses to the surveys are
not directly comparable because of dif-
ferent disease and health problem
classifications between the two groups,
similar problems were noted by pro-
ducers and veterinarians. Foot disease,
respiratory disease, intestinal parasites,
and dystocia were reported with high
frequency bs both groups. The veteri-
narians' assessment of management
problems as a limiting factor obviously
related to the management practices
reported by the producers. Following
better management procedures clearly
offers opportunities for improving pro-
ductivits of Alabama beef herds.
Wright is \ssciaie 'rofessor of Pathobioloizs
B~cckett is Associate I)ean ot Veterinary Mecdicine;
I lovd is Extension Veterinarian.
Vlabanu .ericultural Experiment Starion
Steers
eating hay
in fall,
despite
ample
high-
quality
pasture.
- 1.. ~ .
' ~~ ~ f "t' *~dr;. -'; ;l *:~ A' '
D.I BRANSBY, S.E SLADDEN, and W.H. GREGORY
El DING HAY to cattle grazing
lushx winter pastures appears il-
logical, since such pastures are
thought to proside the best
possible nutrition. T he general belief is
that cattle grazing lush xinter pastures
would not eat hay it it were ottered.
Both these ideas are disputed by ear-
ly results of Alabama Agricultural Ex
periment Station tests ii which hay sup-
plements xwere used on xwinter pastures.
Despite au abundance of lush pastures,
steers regularly consumed hay, arid the
hay feeding increased rate of 
gain,
especially at high stocking rates.
In the tall of 1988 and 1989, pastures
at the E.V. Smith Research Center xwere
planted xxith 90 lb. per acre of Winter-
grazer 70 ixe ard 25 lb. per acre ot Mar-
shall ryegi ass. Because of differing plant-
ing depth requirements, these twso species
were plarrted in separate passes over the
experimenial paddocks to dexelop a
mixed pasture. Nitrogen sas applied as
ammoniuur nitrate at a rate of 100 lb.
per acre at planting and 60 lb. per acre
iin late February ard P arid K xwere ap-
plied according to soil test at planting.
Grazing commrenrced when pastures
were about 6 to 8 in. tall. This occurred
on Noveriber 9, 1988, and on December
5, 1989. 1he delayed start in 1989 was
due to late planting caused by lox rain-
tall in the tall. A rixed group of fall- arid
spring-born Angus x Heretord x Gelb ieh
steers grazed 2-acre pastures continuously
for 140 days in 1988-89 arid 169 days in
1989-90. In 1988, steers xsere not iin good
condition arid aseraged 495 lb. at the
start of grazing, while in 1989 they xere
in better condition arid axeraged 597 lb.
Steers were weighed and pasture height
was measured every 28 days.
1The experiment insolved grazing
pastures xith and without berniudagrass
hay available to animals. Each of these ability aid 
consumption associated with
treatrients was applied at tour stocking slightly 
taller pastures (especially in
rates: 1.0, 1.3, 1.7, and 2.0 steers 
per wxrter).
acre. Iarge round bales of hay were pro (ain per acre was 
highest at the high
sided tree choice oni the supplement 
stocking rate in both years for the 
hay
treatment trom the day that grazing supplement treatment. However, for the
began. The hay contained approximate- no-hay tireatnent, 
gain per acre was
ly 100'o protein aid was about 5007o highest at the high stocking 
rate in
digestible. Annmals remained on p~asture 1988-89, but was highest at the 
low
throughout the winter with or without 
stocking rate in 1989-90. 1The highest
hay. 1This difters from traditiorial graz- gain per acre 
for the hay supplement
ing on pastures in tall, reniovixg animals tr eatrment was 470,o 
ard 400<0 higher
for feeding in urid-wiiter, arid return- than that for the no-hay 
treatment in
irg them to pasture in spring. 
1988-89 arid 1989-90 
treatments,
Gains in 1989-90 wcrc loswer tlianr in respectively.
1988-89. 1This was probably because II this experimeit, supplementation
aninials were thin wxhen grazirng began of stockers with hay was extremely ef-
in 1988, resultiig in sonic compensatory tect xce in extending winter annual
groth, arid because the late planting ini pastires to carry siore animals at in-
1989 resulted it less pasture gi 055tIi in creased gairns, arid removing animals
fall arid xxiruter. fronr pasture 
in uid-winter wxas riot
Steers with hay supplements star ted necessary. However, it proved critical to
eating hay troin the fiirst day of grazing, provide the hay Irc n the day grazing
despite excess availability ot the high 
started in fall. In the Auburn test,
quality pasture. Hay consumption con- aninals usually ate the hay because they
tinued throughout the experimental appeared to erase dry matter, exert wxhile
period, although it reached a peak in grazing high-moisture pasture.
mid-witier xhen pasturies were siort,
especially at hcaxv stockirng rates. On tra .iisoS is \ssociate Protessoi and Sladden is
Rcseaic~h Assistant of \Rrnnn and Soils:
axerage, hay conisumiptiori was 5-91 b. per 
Greim is Superinendent of die Beet Lnit. I
head per day, depeindiig on siockirng rate. Siith Reseai i (enter.
Hay supplerrienta-
tioni pro vided tie great- ;\\ R SF t \ ( iN, (; sIN PrR 7rR. SNIu Ps Rie HE i( iOR
Sinr R5 GR(;s/io ?ii\IR Pssit Rf- Vi1iH AND SHiiiiOLT Hx\
est advanitage in axer 
F H SIHrKIN R sis
age dails an at the ~Resnlt, b number of sicers acre
high stocking rate: 2.8 
Treatment 1988189 
_989/90
vs. 1.9 lb., or a 47
0
7o in- t0 1.3 1.7 2.0 
1.0 1.3 1.7 2.0
crease in 1988-89, ard Average daiIN gain, lb.
1.4 vs. 0.2 lb., or a I lHa' supplement ........... 3.2 3.t 2.9 2.8 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.4
No had.................29 2.6 2.2 1.9 2.0 1.5 
.7 .2
seven fold increase in
Gain per acre. lb.
1989-90, see table. 1This taS 
supplemnt .44....... 448 564 690 
784 372 417 46(0 473
is probably due to ani- No lai ..... ....... 406 473 524 532 338 330 201 68
mals substituting hay Pastnre height, in.
for pasture, resulting ilaN sipplenent .......... 5.3 4.5 4.7 3.4 4.3 3.0 2.9 2.8
g 
No h s .... 
... .... 
7.4 4.4 
3.3 27 4.3 
2.6 2.4 2.3
in greater fora ae av ail-
A labama Agricultural Esperrnent Station
I
d.D. HOUGH, D.R MUIVANEY, and J.L HOLIMAN
ULIRASOUND AcCUAE IN PREDICTING (
COMPlSTh OF I IVF CA.I
HE USE of ultrasound
technology is proving to be an
accurate tool for predicting car-
cass traits of live cattle. This
was demonstrated in an Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station test in
wshich ultrasound readings for tat
thickness, ribeve area, and yield grade
from live animals were within 0.05 in.,
0.69 sq. in., and 0.25 unit, respectively,
of actual readines after the animals were
slaughtered.
Iltrasound technology has been
utilized for several years in the medical
profession. The ultrasound machine
used in AAES beef cattle research is
similar to those used by many obstetri-
cians to view fetuses ot pregnant
women. With ultrasound, a transducer
continuously emits high frequency
(16.000 cycles per second) sound waves.
The sound waves are reflected different-
lv oft tissues of different densities.
Reflected sound waves are captured by
the transducer and converted into a
video image which can then be
measured. Recent technological ad-
vances hav e made it practical to measure
cattle in normal production env iron-
ments.
In tests at the Black Belt Substation,
Miarion Junction, ultrasound measure-
ments of fat thickness and ribeve area
\liNti lsxi i si. Al NDL Ar)Ai RA(A VSM i s As
55 R 51! Ncn ,vCiv Si) A
BEI lnt' N i I R,51S
CASRL %SS Ni ASU
leasuremnen
Carcass measurements
Fat ihickness, in.....
Ribeye area, sq. in....
Yield grade. score ..
Ultrasound measurements
Fat hickness, in........
Ribeye area, sq. in..
Yi eld grade, score ....
Ultrasound error'
tat i hicknes. In.........
Ribee area, sq. in...
Yield giade, score......
Absolute %alue of ihe differenn
and ultrasound measurements.
were taken 2 or 3 days pliot
to slaughter on 152 Angus
and Charolais animals.
After slaughter, acttal fat
thickness and ribeve
measurements were record- == .
ed. In addition, carcass
wseight and kidney, 
pelvic,
and heart (KPH) fat percen- _-
tage were recorded to
calculate yield grade. Cattle
wsere slaughtered wshen ultra-
sound tat thickness measure-
ments averaged 0.4 in.
Average weight of the cattle
was 1,0)57 Ih. and the
average age was 442 days.
Correlation between ultra
sound and actual carcass
values is a way of measuring
the accuracy of 
live animal Ultrasound
ultrasound measurements. carcass con
Correlations range from I
to + I, where a correlation of t) indicates
no relation betwxeen twso measurements
and a correlation close to I indicates tswo
measurements are nearly the same. The
correlation between lise animal ultra-
sound fat thickness and carcass tat
thickness ws as .70, shile correlation in
ribeye area sswas miuch higher at .93.
An impoitant tactor in pricing
slaughter cattle is yield grade, swhich is
a function of tat tIickness,
of ribeve area, carcass sveight,
ND )i ii -NA \nand K PH tat percentage.
Di n NI-KL 1 W len 
replacing actual car-
X ND Nil
lEsSt Niass 
tat thickness and rih
inirnum \taxmum rN%. eye area wxith IIlt rasounud
measurements, the correla
0.1) (.53 0.38 lion between ultrasound and
7.90 19.50 12.30 
actuial xicld irade 
was .79.
.49 3.40 2.31
Even though the correlations
.20 .59 .41 sere high, a perfect 
correla-
8 20 185 6 12.34 tion of I is not expected
.88 3.34 
_.36 because 
differences 
exist inl
.00 19 ~~ t le shane aiid diniensioti ot
.01 235 .69 ribee and tat thickness bet-
0.00 10(0 .25 
sween the live aniial in 
ai
ce beik 'een actual carcass 
upright standing position 
as
it is monitored by iiltrasound
technology has proven effective in predicting
?position of live cattle.
aind lie carc.ass hanging on the tail.
Shos n in the table are the minimum,
maximum, and aserage slaughter and
tltrasound ineasiirements for tat
thickness, ribeye area, and yield grade.
Also gix en are the ultrasound error
xalies which are the absolute values of
the differences betseen actual carcass
imeasureients of cact slaughtered
animal and the ultrasotind measure-
ments taken prior to slaughter. On
average for tat thickness, the ultrasound
measurements ssere sithin 0.05 in. of
actual carcass tat. [or ribeye area, ultra-
sound estimates sere ssithin 0.69 sq. in.
ot carcass measurements on aserage and
yield grade estimates sere xithin ).25
uit on average.
Based on these preliminary 
findings,
the future of ultrasound use by beet cat-
tle producers appears to be promising.
Never before in the lisestock industry
has there been a swas to evaluate carcass
merit with the ohiectivity and accuracy
that ultrasound technology provides.
tHough and \titsIIC\ are A.,.isani P'rofessors
o \nimal and tFair} S n t tllimn Is
Sup)erintiendentiofithe Bltack Belt Niihtioml
Aloahlu iAgIriculturul LEperimen Stution
MI
J.L. ADRIAN, T.E. JOHNSON, and B.K. BEHE
RETAIL NURSERIES AND GARDEN CENTERS IMPORTANT
TO ORNAMENTALS INDUSTRY
T HE ORNAMENTALS industry
has become an important con-
tributor to Alabama's economy,
with producer revenues amount-
ing to $162 million in 1988, an 18% in-
crease from 1987 and an 800 increase
from 1980. The industry is comprised of
numerous sizes and types of business
operations. An important component of
the total system is retail nurseries and
garden centers which facilitate distribu-
tion of ornamental products.
To provide information about the
nature and status of retail nursery firms
in Alabama, the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station contacted 56 opera-
tions in the State. Detailed information
concerning the nature of firms, sources
and types of plants marketed, opera-
tional practices, and problems en-
countered was received from 31 of these
firms. The data were summarized to
provide a base of information for use by
managers of existing and potential retail
firms and nursery managers who might
wish to better serve these outlets for
their products.
Responding retail nursery and garden
centers had been in operation an average
of 13 years (from 1 to 60) and the
average time of involvement with some
aspect of the nursery business was 15
years. About half of the firms classified
their locations as being in the suburbs,
while a fourth noted location outside
city limits. Suburban operations ac-
counted for 61% of the total business
volume reported, while firms outside
city limits had 24% and businesses in
downtown areas had 15%.
Average sales per firm in 1987 were
$334,000, a 20% increase over 1982.
Fifty-four percent of the sales revenues
was generated by plants and plant
materials, while 46
0
/0 came from services
and nonplant sales. Woody ornamentals
(19%) and bedding and vegetable plants
(9%) were dominant items in the former
grouping, with the balance being about
equally distributed among foliage
plants, potted flowering plants, seeds
and bulbs, sod, hanging baskets, fruit
trees, roses, and perennials.
For services and nonplant 
sales, land-
scape design and installation (11%
0
), fer-
tilizer and soil conditioners (10%), in-
secticides, herbicides, and fungicides
(8%), plant containers (8%
0
), and
mulches (6%) were major components
contributing to sales. Firms which pro-
vided landscaping service indicated that
47% of their sales came from landscap-
ing-related activities.
Three-fourths of the firms accepted
credit cards for payment, accounting for
about 10% of their sales. Sixty-two per-
cent provided in-store credit, and this
accounted for about 12% of their total
sales. Three firms reported collection
problems and 18 firms reported dif-
ficulties with bad checks and uncollec-
tible accounts. However, losses amounted
to 1% or less of sales for three-fourths
of the firms reporting such losses.
The average estimated value of retail
facilities was $339,000, with 80% of the
total representing sales facilities and the
balance production facilities. On
average, 2.12 acres of retail display was
devoted to plant materials. Two-thirds
of the firms had heated greenhouses
while 40% had unheated greenhouses.
These were used for retail display, pro-
duction, and winter protection of plants.
Forty-five percent of the firms grew
all or some of the greenhouse crops they
marketed and 13% produced some of
the woody ornamentals sold (primarily
1-gal. and larger hollies). Reasons of-
fered for production of plants were to
guarantee availability of better quality
plants, lower costs, and promote more
efficient utilization of labor.
Firms sold a wide variety of plants
from several source areas. Of the azaleas
purchased for resale, 58% of those
smaller than 1-gal. and 41% of the
1-gal. size were from Alabama; all of the
2-gal. size were from Alabama; and all
of 7- and 14-gal. sizes came from Loui-
siana. All of the 1-gal. or smaller
camellias came from Georgia. Over 90%
of the 1-gal. or larger hollies came from
Alabama, while the smaller than 1-gal.
hollies came from Georgia. Ninety-one
percent of the junipers purchased for
resale were from Alabama operations.
All of the larger than 3-gal. roses were
from Alabama, while the smaller sizes
came from Georgia, Texas, and Oregon.
Of the field-grown shade trees, 38%
were from Alabama, 29% were from
Tennessee, and 24% were from Georgia.
Three-fourths of the fruit trees came
from Tennessee.
Woody plants generating the most
sales included all sizes of container-
grown azaleas, hollies, junipers, maples,
dogwoods, and roses. One-gal., con-
tainer-grown photinias and golden
euonymous were also highly demanded,
as were 2-gal. dwarf nandina and crim-
son pygmy barberries.
Plants that were identified as being
demanded by consumers but not readi-
ly available included 2- to 3-gal. field-
grown azaleas, camellias, and hollies.
Shade trees, including 1 1/2-in. caliper
and larger dogwoods, were difficult to
locate and purchase, as were ferns,
hydrangeas, and rhododendrons.
Several firm managers noted that low
quality of delivery services and variable
quality of plants were problems. Other
important problems identified by
managers were difficulty in hiring skilled
employees (35%), seasonality of business
(23
0
/0), management of a variable cash
flow (19%), competition from mass-
merchandising retail firms (19%), book-
keeping (16%), and weather (16%).
The ornamentals industry is an in-
creasingly important component of the
State's economy. Improved information
and coordination among segments of
the industry can enhance efficiency of
the industry and further promote the
State's economy.
Adrian is Professor and Johnson is former
Economics and Rural Sociology; Behe is Assistant
Professor of Horticulture.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
14
W.R. EGBERT, D.L. HUFFMAN, and J.C. REEVES
FAT CONTENT IS MAJOR FACTOR IN ACCEPTABILITY OF
FRESH PORK SAUSAGE
T HE NUTRITIONAL quality
and safety of the food supply
has emerged as a major concern
of today's consumers and hence
food processors. The relationship be-
tween dietary fat and the development
of coronary heart disease exemplifies
this concern. Meat products and other
animal food products have been at-
tacked for their possible role in the
atherogenic process. The American
Cancer Society and the American Heart
Association have recommended that
calories from fat account for no more
than 30% of total caloric intake. In light
of these trends, commodity support
organizations have identified the
assurance of the nutritional role and
safety of animal food products as a high
priority area for food animal research.
Traditionally, fresh pork sausage has
been a high-fat product, but an
economical and highly accepted meat
selection. High fat content not only
lowers the cost of the product, but also
increases palatability and decreases the
time required for cooking. USDA stan-
dards for fresh pork sausage allow it to
contain 50% fat (raw basis) which, when
cooked by the consumer, can contain
more than 340 calories per 3-oz. serving
on an "as eaten" basis. As the
American public becomes increasingly
concerned about the healthfulness of the
foods they eat, it is imperative that the
meat industry develop low-fat sausage
products tailored to meet the needs of
today's diet-conscious consumers.
A study conducted at the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station
evaluated the influence of fat level on
the overall acceptability of fresh pork
sausage. Fresh pork sausage patties were
formulated to contain 10, 20, 30, 40, or
50% fat using closely trimmed boneless
pork leg and backfat. Frozen sausage
patties were griddle broiled and
evaluated by a 50-member untrained,
consumer-type panel. Panelists were in-
structed to evaluate the sausage products
for overall acceptability on a 10-number
Higher fat content in fresh pork sausage increases consumer acceptability of the product.
descriptive analysis scale (0 = dislike ex-
tremely and 10 = like extremely).
Moisture and fat content of raw sausage
patties were determined. Commercial
fresh pork sausage products from 10 dif-
ferent manufacturers were obtained and
moisture and fat content determined.
Fat level had a significant effect on
the overall acceptability of fresh pork
sausage patties, as shown in the figure.
Sausage patties with 10% fat were rated
as being least acceptable by consumer
panelists. Panelists found patties with
20, 30, and 40% fat to be similar for
overall acceptability and to have a
greater overall acceptability than patties
with 10% fat. Consumer panelists found
sausage patties with 50%06 fat to be most
acceptable.
Actual fat content of the sausage pat-
ties as determined by petroleum-ether
extraction were 9, 18, 28, 37, and 47%
(formulated at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%,
respectively). Moisture content was in-
versely related to fat content with values
of 69, 63, 55, 48, and 40%0 (correspon-
ding to 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% fat pat-
ties, respectively).
The raw composition of fresh pork
sausage products from various meat
processing companies was also deter-
mined. Fat content of the commercial
sausage products ranged from 35 to
50%0, with average fat content of 41%.
Moisture content ranged from 38 to
50%
0
, with an average of 45%.
As today's consumers become in-
creasingly concerned about the nutri-
tional quality of the food they eat, com-
mercial sausage products like those in
the test (average of 41%o fat) may not
be included in their diets. Therefore, the
development of reduced-fat, fresh
sausage products tailored to the needs
of the diet conscious consumer must be
the priority of the meat industry.
It is evident from the results reported
that the acceptability of fresh pork
sausage is highly related to the amount
of fat it contains. Based on consumer
ratings, fresh pork sausage with 50o fat
could be used as the consumer accept-
ability standard in the development of
fresh pork sausage products with re-
duced fat levels.
Egbert is Research Associate, Huffman is Pro-
fessor, and Reeves is a student of Animal and
Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 15
J W EVEREST. M.6 PATTERSON, R DUFFIELD, and C.H GILLIAM
HERBICIDES REDUCE NUISEDGE
POPULATIONS AHEAD OF
PLANTING ORNAMENTALS
UTSEDGE is considered one
of the world's worst weeds,
and Alabama has its share of
the pest. Although it is a prob-
lem in many crops, nutsedge is especially
troiblesome in fields planted to or-
namentals. Its ability to reproduce by
both tubers ("nuts") and seed con
tributes to its fast spreading ability.
Control measures for nutsedge are
both costly and generally unsuccessful.
For ornamental crops, the big need is to
reduce the nutsedge population prior to
planting in areas known to be infested.
Soil fumigants are expensive options
and are only effective to the depth of
tillage. Use of nonselective herbicides
offers opportunities for control if
treated land can be fallowsed for 1-2
years.
The potential for successful control
with nonselective herbicides is apparent
from results of field experiments during
1987-89 at the E. V. Smith Research
Center, Shorter. Sev eral control pro
grams were evaluated on a Norfolk
sandy loam soil that was heavily infested
with both purple and yellow nutsedge
(200 shoots per square yard). The test
plots (10 ft. by 30 ft.) received the same
treatment in both 1987 ard 1988.
Treatments included preplant incor-
porated (PPI) and postemergence over-
the-top (POT) herbicide applications-
alone, in combinatior, and along with
diskings, as listed iri the table. PPI
treatments were apptied in May 1987
and May 1988. Postemergence herbicide
applications and diskings wsere staggered
to obtain maximum effectiveness in
combined programs. One program con-
sisted of three diskings alone timed ap-
proximately 6 weeks apart during each
growing season.
Good to excellent nutsedge control
was obtained both years from all her-
bicidal treatments except Zorial alone
and Zorial or Scepter? plus three disk-
ings in 1987. Disking alone gave poor
control during both growing seasons.
To determine if there was herbicidal
carryover after 2 years 
of treatments,
forsythia, Foster's holly, Compacta
.Japanese holly, and althea were planted
in Zorial and Scepter plots in May 1989.
There was no reduction in plant height
or dry matter of any ornamental 
species.
except althca wxas reduced in height bx
the annual Scepter treatments.
Some measure ot control wxas
achieved with all treatments over the
2-year period, as indicated by data in the
table. However. the primary goal was to
reduce nutsedge populations. Success ot
this attempt is indicated by the column
showing nutsedge shoots in September
1989 following the two treatment years.
Zorial treatments, either alone or sup-
piemented with either disking, 
MSMA,
or Roundup', reduced nutsedge pop-
Zorial treatments (right and left) flank un-
treated plot of nutsedge.
ilations to the point of elimination. In
contrast, control programs inolving
Scepter PPI treatments or POT applica-
tions of either MSMA or Roundup
allowed substantial numbers of nutsedge
plants to remain in the treated plots.
ycar ly herbicidc and application cost
ranged from $48 to $135 per acre for the
effective treatments. The combination
of one PPI Zorial plus three POT
MSMA applications virtually eliminated
nutsedge for a cost of $65.50 per acre
per year ($131.00 over the 2 years).
Everest is Associate Professor and Patterson is
Assistant Professor of Agrononts and Soils; Duf-
field is Superintendent of the I icd (rops t nlit.
F.'. Snmith Research (entcr; (Gilliam is Profesor
of Horriculture.
Si , I ~ .s n ( i i s I I ' iN I 1 PR sr
1 ( 1 i i ..li . . .
Scepterii~ (11'1)t I aipp. 3 diskings . . .
' ) 3 app..
11') 1 3 app.
tu lin i p WOiiI I) 3 
aii.I 3
diskiii,,
\1S\t-\ P1 t1 -3 app . 3.1 d ikiu ...
3 di kin', . . . .
\ 11111. I 1
ft ~ ~ ~ ~ I I i i.) 11)
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T. Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
tiutreee conlnl 
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NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. 9
AUBURN, ALA.
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