AwwA
t~
Iz 
Am
'4r
F~
%-
+ '45 k ~ tr.r kr i + A : i \ .
.A-~i
A WORD WITH THE EDITOR
T I li itBF IS.1 
I I i~lIV ;11 ) l i 
)k (i di ii Nt
i t rai toS~ (1)1,, olIN ou~i1 X t lo (iXI ill a i lo t
XX eI 11 Xl iii1 dilatl (d li1 \X j i lt r Atil e'
a l i(ht I tut di I' (' l'It I N it I I o IXc rIin' Othiat
11 111 Ii Xl fo 
ahlIX (?11)11114 
01 1 t a N oi 
-Xtl
I.oINscrXdtion~ mud( cl'ii'lit XXlc dt(i (NI ItsN di(ilt R.E. STEVENSON
to to
1  
(tll lhr ii oni iiin tii liT 1 iri<I 'atio mI sX IimsI
M ic ( 'II I aI X kili ill 11111( motli of ile tiim Proht Iililusi othi tha II i , X tlir shor0 -
a<1,cs 'n i Itd l (14('tlilt yif i(kiNl OX I'~ to tilo t f I till list.
fInif il'IXI i l o tilop' lcl i NN spe ifi(iN(1(itc Ic'terr ldi Na se are alX 1(1(1 ((1 ill'-
XX 11) it i X( tI'ti pi at e t II i onlt111 .(lil 1(11o Nitilltill I I (lf thic~ l, i' o to ch'X 1 (XXi
o I(f ti5 ha NI XXon (i (o(Ijo I' f cll' Isin_ this IX or 1111'llill itk th ll I t
1
'd SiItas
A~tt f~t t san tl'I((Ii llnIXII ' tha som'N 1111ctn ar b'14Ii'(i X If I'lt lit i iilc INer aI'
XX ii ! onf' attention PrIIro illI'1 acds ('dINes andinsets ontni
MAY WE INTRODUCE
\NsiNtiilt PfesT ilN~
I il< 
sce 
cl 
t P (lil.to 
o' fNis
ti 1 i \ lbani t ( litp N-1h~i 'Xi(Ii
Iftk III I ndaa 3i ane 35 c.
Itsilil N I( NIIT('f 1'.011 IN es I \ l iT (T iN i IX 'i-
111 Nt I (I i iNXi (Ilk II (X i I N stt c ~ l '(Iiii. t aN T
"lO ar THE COER Turfgrsstlt prouction is IgI
busins es incAlabam s creatd storyon
page 9.Ilti (sll~ sA 1c(:h htallll
I \I I 19119 ML 11l. No. 3
Sta\ t ioI I ll n ) it I fl i it
II I'. sffI I'\NSON I..... lFlilot
fOt 141 lI il IsOt ...N \Nssociat' I'dliol
'IXtF_ III~ J~ ff1 ... :Ar~tn IIit111
E'ditoil C (0IntIittee: I'mXXIl I Ilrhih
I'( i/INoXI (f N III/ll an(il l I I. Illlll N 1111
ill(Ill P'XLI ,o h I/hll I I o lI l and 'ft /' i NNII i
Srir _ IN/I I ) ((' (111 Nil 1 nI(lIII ro Ro/(10 n
I'I li N i f1(11 II PA. I)ul\ N st s (Iiitant
ProfI'so ofI :('IiNi a ~e n ttrs(it
FI 1ItillS XNt'lIF Mnfltlion iof tradil
lit]11 II (' N Te lnlt indicitI ' I 'T l l ll lt 1 I
the Ii it'l l ((' Tg ((is u (t it TI rtI I; p II l Tilllit
Sta1 to orI II I It)' S(Ilicit NI' IN IIaitX ld
o4dIai ltl 11(1. 11A)1 use ofI TItiIcidcraf i( .11
J.L. ADRIAN, JR., and W.E. HARDY, 
JR.
HAVE LAND 
VALUES IN
ALABAMA "BOTTOMED 
OUT"?
DECLINES in the value of rural
land during the 1980's contrib-
uted to financial problems con-
fronting farmers and agricul-
tural lenders. Farmers' and lenders'
expectations of continued strong, 
appre-
ciating land markets were not 
fulfilled.
Changes in agricultural profitability 
oc-
curred in response to variations 
in prod-
uct prices, production costs, government
programs, weather conditions, and inter-
national events influencing markets.
While these conditions might not have
had as severe an impact in Alabama 
and
the Southeast as in other states and re-
gions, many farmers and financial insti-
tutions experienced extreme stress 
due
to the decline in farm asset values.
An Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station study was initiated to identify
and describe changes in the farm real 
es-
tate market caused by these circumstan-
ces. Data for the analysis were derived
from appraisal reports and bona 
fide
farm sales listings collected and com-
piled by representatives of the Farm
Credit System. A total of 13,438 obser-
vations for the period of 1976-87 was
available for analysis. These data were
analyzed on a statewide, county, and
land market area basis. A9 illustrated 
by
the map, land market areas represented
fairly homogeneous regions based on soil
type and the nature of agricultural activ-
ity conducted there. Analyses were con-
ducted for bare land values (i.e., real es-
tate value adjusted for the value of
improvements and marketable timber).
Values of farm real estate in Alabama
increased through the 1970's and peaked
in 1980 at $1,092 per acre. By 1987, val-
ues had declined to levels comparable to
the mid-1970's, about $750 per acre.
On a county basis, the highest average
values were noted for Baldwin, Jefferson,
Madison, Mobile, and Shelby counties,
areas with strong nonagricultural influ-
ences. Values in these counties ranged
from about $1,300 to $2,300 per acre in
the peak year to $1,100-$1,400 in 1986.
Counties which tended to have the low-
est average values were: Bullock, 
Cle-
burne, Coosa, Crenshaw, Randolph, 
and
Tallapoosa. Values in these counties
ranged from about $500 to $700 per acre
in the peak year to $300-$700 
during
1986.
Variability in average values was sim-
ilar among counties, with the 
majority
experiencing "peak" values in 1980 
(15
counties), 1981 (20 counties), and 1982
(11 counties). The greatest appreciation
of values between 1976 and the "peak"
year occurred in Bibb (205%), Colbert
(209%), Marion (239%), and Montgom-
ery (153%) counties.
By 1986, five counties (Cherokee,
Henry, Houston, Jackson, and Marengo)
had values which were basically the same
as those experienced in 1976. Blount,
Limestone, Monroe, Montgomery, 
St.
Clair, and Shelby counties showed the
most vitality in land markets. In these
counties, increases in value experienced
over the period were not totally dissi-
pated by the downturn in land markets.
Evaluation of values based on 
soil type
and the nature of agricultural activity in-
dicated similar patterns of variation. Av-
erage values tended to be highest in the
Tennessee and Coosa River valleys
($1,168 per acre at the peak in 1981) and
Appalachia ($1,162 per acre at peak in
1980) regions where substantial nonfarm
influences were present. The lowest av-
erage values ($518 per acre at the peak in
1981) were found in the Piedmont re-
gion.
For the Appalachia region, values in-
creased 64% between 1976 and 1980. In-
creases in value noted for other areas be-
tween 1976 and the 1981 "peak" year
were: 80% for the Upper Coastal Plain
region; 41% for the Lower Coastal Plain;
73% for the Black Belt; 51% for the Ten-
nessee and Coosa River valleys; and 54%
for the Piedmont region.
Between the peak year and 1986, val-
ues declined and counties in the Lower
Coastal Plain and Black Belt areas ex-
perienced declines almost severe enough
to drop them to 1976 levels. Land values
in the Upper Coastal Plain and Piedmont
areas had the least relative decline, with
Land market areas for Alabama based on soil
type and nature of agricultural activity.
respective values in 1986 being 47% and
43% higher than in 1976.
Statistical models were developed and
estimated to determine the impacts that
such factors as tract size, land use, loca-
tion, extent of nonfarm influences, and
quality of improvements have on value.
Also, a variable was included to evaluate
whether values were tending to bottom-
out and rise. Most of the state, county,
and land market models showed good
structural quality. Variables that were
significant served to explain an accepta-
ble level of the variations in land values.
The State, Upper and Lower Coastal
Plain land market areas, and Bibb, Chil-
ton, Dallas, Wilcox, and Winston county
models indicated a tendency toward
more favorable land values for these
areas.
USDA reports confirm these tenden-
cies, reporting average values being rel-
atively constant between 1987 and 1988
and showing an increase of about 4% for
the State between 1988 and 1989. Ex-
pectations are for statewide increases
that are comparable to the expected in-
flation rate (4-6%). Larger increases are
expected in counties and areas with sub-
stantial nonagricultural influences on ru-
ral land markets.
Adrian and Hardy are Professors of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural 
Experiment Station
3
R.S. BERGER
WHAT ATTRACTS HELIO THIS
MOTH TO
CROP PLANTS?
C OTTO1 N BOLLWVORM, dcorn
earworm, tomato frinItxvomil,
soyblean pouclxorm, sorghuiln
heaclxorm-are all names used
to describe the larxvae and cdamaging
stage of the moth, He'liothi~s zea. This one
pest is responsilble for mor e injury to cil-
tivated crops in Alabama than any other
insect. Not only does it attack sever al
major crops, it usually feeds on and de-
stroys the fruiting structures of the host
p~lant, the part that the grower intended
to harxcest and sell.
WVhy does this insect choose to attack
these crops'? H ow does the female mnoth
know to lay her eggs only on these plants
and not on cocklcebur or mnorningglorxy? Is
thcere somethinlg special aboult themn that
she recognizes and is a signal to her that
they oiler at faxvorable p~lace for the larxvae
that will hatch fromn her eggs to feed and
thrive'? These are some of the qutestions
heing examined hy Alahamna Agricul-
tural Experimnent Station research.
It is suspected that thce oxviposition
(egg laying) of the femnale Heiothmis moth
is triggered by the recognition of specific
messenger chemicals promduced~ by fa-
xored hoist plants. By studying the ovi-
position habits of this insect and deter-
iniung on what p~arts of host p~lanmt eggs
are laid
1
, A~uurni researchers hope to lo-
cate the source of such mnessenger chemn-
icals so that they can he isolated for icden-
tificat ion.
By using a "purge and trap'' tech-
liue, thce volatile chemicals p~rodu~ced
by various plant parts, such as corni tas-
sels, corn silk, cotton blossoms, and
blooming grain sorghum heads, were
collected. Each plant samp~le was placed
in a large container and clrv nitrogen was
circullated through the container. Tihe
gasses exiting from the container were
passed through a small trapping device
ahout the size of a cigarette filter. Any
volatile chemicals being given ofi by the
plant parts were collected in the trap-
p~ing device. The chemicals were then
Tassel
Leaf 90
Leaf 8 '
ef8Leaf 
7
Leaf 6
2nd ear
1st ear
Leaf 5
Leaf 4
Leaf 3
Leaf 1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 
140 160
Total number of eggs
Distribution of Heliothis eggs on corn plant and (inset) Heliothis moth on corn tassel.
flu shed from the trap wxith ita small
amounlt of solAven t. The resut inm g solut ion
wxas anialyzecd on at gas chi oiatograph,
which separates the many chemicals that
might he p~resenit in a samplle and deter-
mines the amount of each. The pousitin
of the "peak" for each chemical on the in-
strumnt record of teni allows for idlenti-
fication of the chemical.
WVhen the gas chn romatograph record
from the volatifles collected from corn
tassels was exam ined, once par ticular
"peak" wxas esp~ecially p~rominenlt. This
peak corresponcded to one p~roduced hy a
chemical known as ethylI phenxyl acetate.
The samne chemical was found in cotton
1blossoms and hloomnig grain sorghum 
heads, butt was not detected in corn silk.
This compound has at characteristic odor
and also is knoxxn to he p)resenut iln hone.
Presomahlx_ bees collect this chemical
along wvithm the nectar and pollen they
gather fromt various flowers thmey visit.
Unifort umnatcely, on most host plants,
there does nuot appcear to he anuy one p~art
that is selected exclusively for egg laying.
The corn plant, hoxvecr, doies hax e sex
oral distinct and separate p~arts xwhere
eggs canl he found. Because the larv ae
ar e almost alwvs found in the ear, and
some eggs are found on the silk, many as-
si inc that the coirn earw.ormn mast prefer
the dlexveloping ear shoot and silk for- oxi
positioni. Studies of the location of eggs
on the v arious p~arts of the corn plant,
howexver, have revealed that the pre-
ferredl site for deposition of eggs is on the
b~looming tassel-xvhich is the~ miale p~art
of the corn bliossom. As shoxvn hy the
graph, more eggs were founid on the tas-
sel than on the rest of the plant.
Research by other investigators re-
vealed that the Helioth is female laxys
more eggs on plants that are blossomning
than on plants younger or older. These
studies inchuded cotton, tohacco, and
soybleans, as well as corn. It xvould seem
there is something in the flower or some-
thing is produced hy the plant at the
time of hlossoming that is especially at-
tractive to the fernale moth that is look-
ing for a place to lay her ceggs.
Bcirger is Profe~ssor ot Ii itomoulogy
Alnaama Agricultural Experiment Station
M.B. BAIN
STERILE GRASS 
CARP
MAY CONTROL 
=
HYDRILLA
IN GUNTERSVILLE 
RESERVOIR
Typical hydrilla growth on
Guntersville Reservoir
GUNTESVI 
LLE RESER-
VO( IR, the largest lake in Ala-
ibamla, hias a long history of se-
It is nioxbin rapidly ooizdb
nexv exotie p~lant called yrlaDept
water level manipulation and use of large
amnonnts of herbicides, officials haxve
been unable to curtail the spread of 
by-
drilla in the reserv oi. 1Hydrilla has (level-
oped impenetrable colonies ini some.
high-priority recreational areas of 
Guii-
tersville Reservoir andl continuies to (loll
ble in abuindance exery x ear, threatening
a major recreational i ndustr.
The grass carp (white armur) is a 
xvora-
cious, herbivorous fish from Asia that can
effecti vely control nu isauce aqu0atic
p~lants, especially hydlrilla, 
with a single,
high density stocking. Use of grass carp
finr U.. S. aquiat ic weedl control was 
i ni-
tial ly proposed in 19.57 by Auburn re-
searchers. I owever, its use has been
limited b~ecause of fe~ar that the fish
would reproduce andl develop) large, un-
controlled popuolations.
In 1983, methods were dlevelopedl 
to
produce sterile, triploid (three sets of
chromosomes) grass carp that pose no~
long-term threat. As a result, interest 
in
using this fish is greater than ever. Until
sterile grass carp b~ecame readlily av ail-
able, research and trial use of this fish ini
large, open waters bad nt been at-
templtedl. Consequentl, significant 
on-
certainties exist about the ability to man-
age weedls with grass carp, when 
no
constraints are pilaced on movement 
of
these fish in large bodlies of water.
In a cooperative research project be-
tween the TVA and the Alabama Agri-
cultutral Experiment Station (AAES5), 25
sterile juvenile grass carp were released
into Guiitersxville Reservoir in 1987 and
10 sterile adults in 1988. Both group~s
were surgically implanted with radio
transmitters, allowing researchers to
dlocum oent their moxemtent aiid (lisper-
sion patterns and~ to) determine ifhlix dilla
iiifestedl areas xvere p~refered byll the 
fish.
Radio signal receixvers wvere used 
to lo-
cate the exp~erimniltal fish from summier
through spring in 1987 and 1988.
The smaller 1987 gr ass carp mov ed an
axerage of 1.4 miles (luring summliter 
and
reduced mroxemeint xvhen xvater templler-
atures de(leined in fall (average, 
1/4
mile). The 1987 gr ass carp tended 
to
moxve upstreami and typjically remnained
in hx (rilla-domiinated areas (axverage
size, 25 acres). Behaxvior of the 1987
grass carp indlicated 
juvxeiiile grass carp,
like those stocked for weed conitrol, will
remaini near release sites in hvydrillIa-in-
fested areas for at least a growing season.
Surprisingly, the adult 1988 grass carp
mo vedl an axverage of 2t0 miiles sooni after
stocking, (lid not redulce miovemeiits
wh leu wxater tem;)eratiire declined, tray-
elled both upstream and 
d
1
own stream,
and rn ged well hexyond hydrlill a col10
nies. Three radio-tagged fish crossedl 
the
Tennessee Iborder s oon after lein g 
r-
leased niear Scottsb~oro. Behavior of 
the
1988 grass carp xxas ntot comp;atib~le wxith
weed control needs andl wxoul1( suiggest
that mature adullt grass carp could1( not 
be
used in large, open wvaters.
Research indicated that small, stock-
ing-site sterile grass carp) caii be used 
in
large, open waters, but as stocked fish
grow they will dlisp)erse widlel. Reserxvoir
inagers caii consider grass carp) to 
be at
potenitial tool, but they probaly wxill
haxve difficu lty mainitaining densities
high enough for selectixve wveed conitrol.
C:oit roi ing dense and ab iundan t xxeed
colonies in Guintersville Reservoir iiay
reqifi re large numb1 lers of grass carp
(possibly oxvcr 100, 00t0) aiid repeated
stockings b~ecauise the stocked fish will
grow and leave weedl control areas. Even
withiout reproduction, siuccessive stock-
ing of large numbmers of grass carp could1
h axe (om un) 0 dlesirlalle enironmiil en tal
conlsequienices. Thierefore, potential 
imo
p~acts wer e assessed in the stud.
Initroduiction of fish (diseases, changes
in wxater qulalit, and shoreline eirosion
are potential problems associated wxith
stockinig large populations of grass carp).
Th'lese arle not exp~ected to he a probllem
at (;untc'rsville Recserxoir b~ecaulse of 
the
lake's size, topograph, and~ water move-
ment Significant losses of fish habitat
(xweedyx cover) xvould not he expectedl
wxith modlerate grass carp) stockings be-
cause molst shallow water planits in the
r eservoir are not preferred by girass car p.
There is clear exvidlcnce that grass carp
can have a significant impiact (on some
xxaterfowl populations by destroying 
hy-
dlrilla, wvhich is a highly p~referred plant
for waterfowl. Case stuidies 
in Florida,
aind changes ill the waterfowl dlistribui-
tionls iof the Southeast, inidicate that grass
carp) conisuimptioni oft ix (rilla reduces 11)
cal xvaterfowxl populatioins. This is imp~or-
tanit blecause (Xiitersxville Reserxvoir
su ppo rts more watt rfowl than any other
enl essee Valley reservoir.
Guintersxville Reservoir supp)lorts a
lar ge andl regionally iimplortant recrea-
tioln indullstry that is bleing threatenedl 
by
an expandi~ing infestation of hyd(rilla. The
TVA-AAE S study iindicates that grass
carp) are a p)otenitiallyv xaliable tooil for
conitrlling hy dri lla, although repeated
stocking xvill b~e neededl because adult
fish disperse xwidel. Potential aind signif-
icanit impIacts from stocking sterile, tri-
p~loidl grass carp appear limited; how-
exver, dlegr adation of xvaterfowl habitat 
is
a potential ly sign ificanlt impact 
that
needls to he co~nsidlered xvhen dexveloping
specific grass carp stocking plans.
Bainis Ass,'istani t Poless)I of /.ooloig\ and! XX h
haloa C oopet ative FihanliltjlVIdlife Research
''Iit
Alabama Agricultural Experimnent Station
L.U. HATCH, W.E. ZIDACK, T.A. BARNES, and T.K. THORPE
CATFISH ACCEPTANCE VARIES ACROSS U. S.
MARKET INFORMATION is a
critical need for the catfish
production industry. Because
of this need, the USDA South-
ern Regional Aquaculture Center com-
missioned a cooperative university re-
search group to assist in developing a
more comprehensive picture of catfish
markets. The Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station joined experiment sta-
tions in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missis-
sippi, South Carolina, and Texas in a
study that focused on consumer and
product characteristics, substitutability,
and market constraints.
Results of a national survey of 3,600
consumers provided insights into con-
sumer attitudes toward fish in general
and catfish specifically. Differences in at-
titudes were identified among individu-
als who eat both catfish and other fish
and those who do not eat catfish but eat
other fish. Each of nine census subdivi-
sions was equally represented.
As a food group, fish and seafood are
well accepted; 87% of respondents re-
ported consumption. The range was
from 91% in East North Central and West
South Central states to 84% in West
North Central States. Lowest fish eating
rates were reported by the under-30 age
group and people in agricultural occu-
pations, 80% and 77%, respectively.
Sixty percent of respondents who eat
fish or seafood reported they had eaten
catfish. New England and Middle Atlan-
tic consumers were lowest, 31% and
36%, respectively. The South Central
states led catfish consumption with ap-
proximately 87% of consumers who eat
fish and seafood. In general, character-
istics associated with having tried catfish
include nonsuburban, male, Protestant,
and black.
In the respondents' list of "favorite fish
or seafood," catfish ranked third (7%) be-
hind shrimp (22%) and lobster (9%). Cat-
fish ranked second to shrimp in the retail
grocer survey and third to shrimp and
NATIO]
cod in the restau-
rant survey. Catfish Perception of charac
received the high-
est number of
"favorite fish" re- Availability .......
sponses (15%), fol- Quality ..........
lowed by its closest 
Packaging.
Smell ...........
competitor, floun- Flavor ...........
der, with 6% in the 
Nutrition ........
Bones ...........
consumer survey. 
Home preparation.
Consumer atti- Cost ............
tudes and percep- 'Group 1 = consu
tions about avail- 
sumers who have eat
ability, 
quality, 
sumers who 
rate catf
packaging, odor, fla-
vor, nutrition, boniness, home prepara-
tion, and relative cost in comparison to
other fish were determined. Of those
who had eaten catfish, 60% rated catfish
6 or higher on a 1 to 10 scale, as reported
in the table. Nutrition, ease of home
preparation, flavor, and consistent qual-
ity were assets among catfish consumers.
Packaging, smell, and product availabil-
ity were considered liabilities.
It is important to note that smell was
rated as less of a problem with catfish rel-
ative to other fish. In addition, relative
cost to meat and fewer bones were found
to be distinct advantages of catfish over
other fish. These attributes might be
stressed in advertising and promotional
campaigns.
Packaging and nutrition perceptions
are slight disadvantages to catfish com-
pared to other fish. Both catfish con-
sumers and the "have eaten catfish"
group rated appearance and packaging
of catfish lower than fish. On nutrition,
both catfish consumer groups rated cat-
fish lower than fish consumers rated fish.
There was no clear advantage to cat-
fish or other fish in ratings of quality, fla-
vor, and ease of home preparation. For
each of these attributes, catfish con-
sumers rated catfish higher than fish
consumers rated other fish, but the
"have eaten catfish" group rated catfish
lower.
Most consumers do not appear to per-
NAL CONSUMER ATTITUDES RELATED
TO CATFISH
Rating, by consumer group'
teristic Fish Have 
Catfish
rt ceaten
only, catfish, consumer,
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
....... 8.32 6.75 7.20
....... 7.66 7.30 7.88
6.88 6.20 6.71
....... 5.53 6.01 6.55
....... 7.38 7.22 7.91
....... 8.92 8.15 8.58
....... 6.18 6.58 7.13
....... 7.81 7.62 8.14
....... 5.43 6.61 7.09
mers who eat fish but not catfish; Group 2 = con-
en catfish at least once; and Group 3 = catfish con-
Fish favorably
ceive a difference between farm-raised
and other catfish. Only blue collar and
agricultural occupations indicated such a
perception. The larger degree of envi-
ronmental control associated with farm-
raised catfish production might be useful
in dealing with health concerns about
fish harvested from polluted oceans and
streams.
Some attitudes among catfish con-
sumers show distinct regional variations.
However, nutrition and ease of home
preparation are both highly rated in all
regions of the nation. In general, the
central regions rate quality high and do
not rate availability a problem nor flavor
an asset. In contrast, the North-Central
States rate flavor high and availability
low and do not rate consistent quality
high. Cost is not a problem for catfish
marketing in New England, Mountain,
and Pacific regions. Smell and packaging
are problems in all regions except New
England.
Promotion might include: (1) less
smell and fewer bones of catfish relative
to other fish; (2) relatively low cost with
respect to meat; (3) blind taste tests that
establish high quality; and (4) the high
quality of water in which farm-raised
catfish are produced.
Hatch is Associate Professor and Zidack,
ricultural Economics and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
R.R. HITCHCOCK and R.E. MIRARCHI
MOVEMENTS OF FLEDGLING 
MOURNING DOVES
SUGGEST LAND MANAGEMENT 
PRACTICES
M OURNING DOVES are
among the most popular game
birds in the State. They are
able to maintain almost con-
tinuous production of young during the
primary breeding season (February
through September). Because of this,
Alabama hunters are able to harvest
some 3 million birds each year. To main-
tain such a liberal harvest, the reproduc-
tive potential of the birds must be maxi-
mized.
This high reproductive rate of mourn-
ing doves is made possible by their nest-
ing habits which allow them to raise five
to six broods a year. Male and female
doves share the incubation of a two-egg
clutch for 14 days, as well as the brooding
and feeding of the nestlings until they
leave the nest at 15 days of age. From 15
to 17 days, as the young birds are im-
proving their flight and survival skills,
the male parent feeds the fledglings
close to their former nest site. At this
time the female parent begins initiating
a new nest. When the fledglings become
independent, the male bird rejoins the
female and helps with the new brood.
One way to maximize the reproduc-
tive potential of mourning dove popula-
tions is to ensure the survival of fledg-
lings as they become self-sufficient.
Little information was available concern-
ing the movements of fledglings during
the period of dependence on parental
care, so research was begun by the Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment Station to
investigate the movements of juvenile
mourning doves from nest sites.
Mourning dove nests were located in
east-central Alabama from March
through October. Nestlings were
equipped with radio transmitters which
were attached to their backs at 7 to 8
days of age with a harness made from
surgical tubing. Movement data were
collected from 24 fledglings. Each was
located and observed for approximately 2
hours, three times daily, at 15-21, 24-27,
and 30 days of age. Roost checks were
conducted 30 minutes after dark on ob-
servation days.
Locations
used for feed-
ing interactions
with parents
and where
fledglings were found for three or more
observation periods, were designated as
reference areas. Distances from the nest
tree to reference areas were averaged by
age for each fledgling. The maximum
distance that fledglings were found from
the nest tree on any given day and the
daily distance from roost site to nest tree
also were recorded. Distances of less
than 275 yd. were measured by pacing
and longer distances were measured us-
ing aerial photographs.
Fledglings generally loafed in refer-
ence areas within 50 yd. of nest trees un-
til they were 27 days old. They used ref-
erence areas farther from the nest tree as
they grew older, table 1. Fledglings used
an average of three different reference
areas during their period of dependence
on parents. Reference areas were located
in trees (often on particular limbs) and
on the ground. Both areas had dense
overhead cover interspersed with open-
ings that facilitated parent-young feed-
ing interactions.
The maximum distance fledglings
moved each day increased with age. The
rate of increase was greatest after they
reached 21 days old, table 2.
Distance moved from nest trees to
roost sites also increased with age.
Fledglings seldom used the same roost
site, probably to avoid nocturnal preda-
tors, and often moved relatively great
distances to seek out new roost sites.
Consequently, the maximum distance
that dependent fledglings (15-17 days
old) moved each day was usually to the
roost site.
In summary, fledgling mourning
doves 21 days of age or younger have lim-
ited flight capabilities and usually stay
within refer-
ence areas
...... where they are
parents. By 21
to 24 days of age, fledglings are capable
of feeding themselves and, when de-
prived of parental care, will fly moderate
distances to abundant food sources.
Fledglings 27 to 30 days of age are ca-
pable of flying with flocks of juvenile and
adult mourning doves, and travel great
distances to food sources. Fledglings
usually abandon reference areas and be-
come independent of their parents when
they attain this level of flight capability.
These results suggest that landowners
should conduct certain land management
practices, such as bushhogging and pre-
scribed burning, to periods when the
fledgling populations would be least af-
fected by such activities (October to
March).
Hitchcock is former Graduate Student and Mir-
archi is Professor of Zoology and Wildlife Science.
TABLE 1. AVERAGE DISTANCES BETWEEN
REFERENCE AREAS AND NEST TREES
RELATIVE TO AGE OF FLEDGLING
Age, Fledglings Distance
days sampled ac
No. Yd.
15 .............. 22 6.5
16 .............. 23 12
17 .............. 23 18
18 .............. 23 22
19 .............. . 22 23
20 .............. 22 25
21 .............. 22 30
24 .............. 20 42
27 .............. 15 45
TABLE 2. MAXIMUM DISTANCE MOVED FROM
NEST TREE BY DIFFERENT AGED
FLEDGLINGS
Age, Fledglings wMaximum
ag Fedgpin distance
ddays sampled from nest tree
No. Yd.
15 ........... 24 96
16 ........... 23 176
17 ........... 21 78
18 ........... 24 98
19 ........... 23 281
20 ........... 22 132
21 ........... . 23 279
30 ........... 19 1,609
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
P.M. ESTES, G.D. GRAY, and W.C. JOHNSON
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS 
AVAILABLE
FOR HESSIAN FLY 
CONTROL
IN 1989, wheat yields of 5-10 bci. per
acrce were common ini some fields in
central and south Alabama. Thcese
poor yields were mostly a result of
severe infestation of' the Hessian fly,
Maychtola dlest ructor. Prior to 1980, out-
breaks of Hessian fly occurred only every
7 or 8 years, b~ut during the last dcecade
this spcecies has becen a regular p)est of'
small grains in Alabama. Research in the
Alabama Agricultural Experimcent Sta-
tion was initiated to cxvaluatc' various
methods of' Hcessian fly managemcent.
The Hessian fly is common in all of the
wheat-growiiig arceas of' the Unitced
States. It goes through thce summcer in
whceat straw. Adults eme'rge in the fall,
usually after a cooling trend and rain,
andl lay eggs on the leavces of xvhceat, bar-
lex, rx(, 0o' triticale. Eggs hatch in a fewx
CULTI VAR
Comptorr
Pioneer 2550
Stacy
Massey
Saluada
Auburn
Fillmore
Caldweli
Mc~air 1003
Coker 9766
Tyler
Florida 302
Florida 301
Goker 916
Terral 817
0
Hessian fly infestal
South Alaba
FIG. 2
2 33
Av,
tionl CULTIVAR
~ma Stacy
989 Compton
Pioneer 2550
Massey
Florida 301 H
Salud a
Mc~air 100.3
Auburn
Coker 9766
Caldwell
Coker 916
Hunter
Fillmore
Florida 302
Pioneer 2548
Floi da 301
erage flies per stem
(lays and larvae crawl dlown the leaf and
b~egin feediing witlini the leaf sheath.
Feeding resuliits in stand
1 
redu cetion,
weakened no(des, locigin g, andl reduled
grain fill. In Alabama there may he' as
mlainy as five generations per year and
dulrinig mildI winters aduilts c'ani he found
from September to Junte.
Hess ian fly contriol ini the wxinter
wheat-growing regions of the U~nitedl
States has been ob~tai nedl by delaying
planting until the period for fly ov iposi-
tion (egg laying) has p~assedi. I Ioxve r, in
Alabama adlllts may he p)reseint throutgh-
ot the fll, winter, and spr1ing. In tests at
the P~lant Breeding Unit near 1lidlassee,
x ielcs Of untreated suisceptib~le wheat
eultix ars wxere about the same regardless
of' planting (late.
Ini these tests, in- firrowx treatments of,
It
FIG. 1
Heu
Cer
198
4
3 4 5
Average flien per stem
ssian fly infestation
ntral Alabama
9
disulfotoji at planting increased y ield of'
suscepltib~le xvarieties (Florida :302 and
Terral 817) 10-12 hit. per acre. H-oweveri,
misc of insecticidles on nonsuiseeptib~le va-
rieties (Mlassey and Stacey) had little ef-
fect on y ield. Susceptible xvarieties eon-
tained an axverage of eight flies per stem,
compared to zero for non susc'eptib~le
on es.
Because of the se'vere H essian fix in-
festation (luring 1988-89, records were
taken of crop damage ini small gmrain xva-
riety trials at the Loxwer Coastal Plain
Substation in Camden (c'entr'al Alabama)
and at the Gulf' Coast Substation in Fair-
hope (south Alabama). In bo0th locations,
sexveral varieties were ottstandipg in
their resistance to fly infestation, f'igumres
1-2. Varieties listed that hav e txwo or
f'eweir flies~ per1 ste in tain prob aly bx c t(oi-
sidered resistant to modleratexy tolerant.
Ili some cases, smsceptilec v arieties such
as Term'al 817 and Florida :301 had as mnyi
as 25 to :30 I lessian fly 1)litaria in a single
steis.
Numbecr of flies per stein is not alwas
am acel urate iindic'ator' of' recs istancce, be-
canuse some' c'mltix'ars, such as Coker
9766, can tolerate a loxx to mnodeirate in-
festation and shoxv littlce viceld redction
or laimia {e. Planting xvheat varicties rc-
sistamt to thce fly has been complicatced by
its abiility to dev elop iraces that xwill at-
tack previously resistant svarietices. Con-
seqctemtlx; varietices that hasve a low imfes-
tatioin one xycar max be' hcaxvily infested
tie next, andl groxwecrs should bce axxarce of'
th is xwhcem scelectimng a v ariety to plant.
F flectise m naigcement of' Hessian fly
requiiies thce c'onsideration of all axvailable
techniques. In Experimecnt S tationi tests,
the choice of 'a recsistant cultix ar that has
thc reftmuirc'd agronomic chlamrac'teri stics
to piroducie good yields has been the( best
approach. Recsearch also indicatc's thle
potential v alu' of' plainting timce treat-
nents of' inseccticidecs and/or latcer plant-
ing datc's.
rstc visitaint Prorf'',',rr ol l'.rorrtlop rad
hil111 ("t Graduater Studetr andl Jolns~orn is, Pr olh''
Aulabamafl( Agrienlttoral Lxpe riou'ot S tation
J.L. ADRIAN, JR., R. WHITE, and R. DICKENS
ALABAMA'S TURFGRASS-SOD INDUSTRY
SHOWS STEADY GROWTH
T tllFCIASS-SO1D product ion
eme'rgedl as an important farm
ciitrpIrise in Alahama (luring the
last dlecadec. Littlce wxas kmmoxwn
albout thc' nature andl ecoinlmic status of'
th e in d ustm'y un tiI ain Ala1ma Agricu l-
tural Expc'rimc'nt Station study in the
latc' 1970's proxvided' tecimnical and~ eco-
nomic' infor'imationi about this agricul-
tural entcerprisce and i nduhstr. About 10
years later, the Experiment Station mmi-
(lertook a followx-up study to ascertain
prmogress of' the induostr.
Comparison of' surxveys of' Statc' sod
p~rodceccrs in 1978 and 1987 shoxvs Ala-
lbama's turfgr'ass-sod indulmstry has growxn
at a rap~id pa~ce over thc' last dec'adc'. It in-
creasedl f'mi ahout 3,300 ac'rc's and :30
producers in 1978-79 to 14,000 acrecs and
85 pr'oduers in 1987-88.
Tuirfgrass-s0(d operations arc' cu rr'cntly
located in 41 otf Alabama's 67 counties.
B~aldwvii County has thce most ac'r('ag(',
ahout :3,500 ac'rc's. Calhoun, Lc'c, St.
C:lair', and Tallc'dega counties are also
production eentcers. These top fixve cou-
tic's contributc' almost two-thirds of' th(e
total acreage in the Statc'.
llcrmumdagrass is the dlolminlant spc'cic's
prodcedc''c inl the Statc', comprising 56%
(If' the identified aceagc' in 1978-79 and
52% in 1987-88. Nc'xt in importance for
1987-88 are zoy siagrass with 2.5% (:3,375
ac'rc's) and cent ipc'dc'grass with 22%
(2,97t0 ac'rces) (of the total. The p~roportionm
of' total production for both of' thesc'
grasses increased slightly from 1978-79
tol 1987- 88.
Over thc' timc' p)criold analyzed, farm
level gross salc's expanded f'rom alb(out $4
million in 1978 to approximatc'y $28 mil-
lion in 1988. 13crinucagrass xvas the pri-
marx c'ltiiuttor to rcccipts in both pe-
riodls, xith ('0% of tliec total in 1978-79
and 6'1% in 1987-88. Zoysiagrass and cen-
tip)edegrass were of' about equal impor-
tance, ch comprising 20% of sales in
each p)eriod. In relativc' terms, sales (If
zoysiagrass declined slightly whilc' sales
of cecntipc'dlc, St. Augustinc' and fescue
increasedc slightly betxween thc' two timc'
pecriods.
Landscape a11d bldlig co1)Itrac(tors
are the niajor market outlet hon tumrfgrass-
sod1 in Alabamna. The(se eijties phi'-
chasedI almoi~st tw\o-tlhirds1 of th e 1)rodlIet
in 1978-79 and half in 1987-88. In the lat-
ter peri od, laltdscap~e c'ontrac'tors pm-
chased :30% of the grass, wh ile builidinig
(on t rac'to rs pu re
1
hased 20%/c. 'The deel in e
in purhases by conitractors between the
two time periods w~as offset by\ inlcrIeases
ini purc hases byx gardlen ceers (18 to
24?k(), homeowners (12 to 20%), and golf,
cotmrses (4 to (6%).
Mlost of the( tudi'grass-sodl op'rationis in
Alabama arc' relatix ely smmall. Sixtx-one(
pereent of thme piroduers (52) had opera-
tiois of less thani 100 acres in 1987-88.
Ninecteem p('r '('lt of thn' pl'ocl1i(els (16)
had farms in the 100t-250) ace' gr ouping,
while 16 and 4%c were' in1cluded'( in the
250-1, 000 and gireate'r thanm 1,0t0 ac'res
Wile the in dustry is comnprisedl pri-
marily of small operations, a fewx firms
conmtrod most (If the acreage'. the titree
largest firms had 45% (If the total acreage
n the 1987-88 peilod and the largest
20% of the firmns (17 wxith more than 25t0
acre s) 'out rollled 80%c of' thc' acreage.
Thus, the indu11stry is highly conep-
t ated among the fc'w largest firms.
Prelimnary estimates indicat(' that
pmroduoction cost s per aecre of sodl mar-
keted'c incere as ed frolm abou0 t $2,700 in
1978-79 to 8:3,150) in 1987-88. Similar es-
tmates for aninve (st ment ouitlay for a
150-acre farm increasedl from $550,000
in 1978-79 to $800),000 in 1987-88, a 45%
increase. Given these input levels, it ap-
peairs obv ions that mnanagememit skills are
important inl infuencing the success of
turfgrass-sod operations.
Adia an.id 
white aiu 
Proul''sso anid 
mi mur
44 '
1i
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
J.C. McKISSICK, N.R. MARTIN, and E.F. KOLAJO
ALTERNATIVE PRICING METHODS
REDUCE RISKS WITH STOCKER CATTLE
A LABAMA CATTLEMEN pro-
duce an estimated 800,000 to
900,000 head of feeder cattle
annually. Most of these are
shipped to feedlots outside the South-
east, primarily in Texas, Oklahoma, and
Kansas.
Alabama's long growing season for for-
age and a large supply of lightweight
calves offer opportunities for profitable
stocker production. However, producers
face significant management problems
because of price risk associated with
unstable buying and selling prices. In
addition, there is a large cash outlay for
the major input, the feeder calves.
Therefore, stocker operators must con-
sider more complex forms of pricing
strategies than crop producers who are
influenced by government price support
programs.
Several alternatives are available to
help reduce price risk. Forward pricing
through the futures market provides a
way of transferring price risk (hedging)
from producers to speculators. The rel-
atively new options market for fed and
feeder cattle also provides an outlet, but
little information is available to adapt the
options market for stocker operations.
Therefore, this alternative was included
in an Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station evaluation of alternative pricing
strategies for Alabama stocker produc-
ers. The alternatives studied were the
cash market, the feeder cattle futures
market, and the feeder cattle options
market.
Only the cash market was available for
Alabama cattlemen prior to 1971, the
year the feeder cattle futures market was
introduced. Options on feeder cattle fu-
tures were added to the pricing alterna-
tives in January 1987.
A fall/spring stocker system, using
350-lb. steer calves grown out on winter
grazing until May, was chosen as the pro-
duction system for the Auburn analysis.
Production costs which affect short-term
decisions, representing approximately
86% of all nonland, labor, and manage-
ment costs for such operations, were
used.
Three pricing methods were com-
pared:
1. Cash market price-Existing price
for 600- to 800-lb. steers during the sec-
ond full week of May in various Alabama
markets.
2. Futures market (hedging)-Cattle
placed on pasture in November and con-
tracted for sale (at a specified price) in
the second week of May. The cost of this
hedging transaction was the brokerage
commission and the interest charge (or
lost interest income) of the margin
money required to cover the transaction.
3. Options market (simulated)-A
forward pricing method whereby cattle
producers can (by paying a premium) es-
tablish a price floor in November for
stocker cattle to be sold in May. If May
cash prices are lower than the floor price
already established, the producer exer-
cises the option established in November
and receives the guaranteed price. If the
May cash price is above the price floor
set by the option, the producer lets the
option expire and sells for the higher
cash price.
Using one or more of the pricing meth-
ods along with one or more pricing indi-
cators, such as economic forecasts, con-
stitutes a pricing strategy. Comparisons
of many such strategies indicate that for-
ward pricing is an important part of a
successful pricing strategy for Alabama
stocker producers. Furthermore, the
feeder cattle options market alternative
offers risk and return characteristics sim-
ilar to more sophisticated hedging strat-
egies.
When the only available forward pric-
ing method is hedging, producers typi-
cally use the cash sales with no forward
pricing (the maximum risk/return strat-
egy). In contrast, the options-only strat-
egy would be expected to return an ad-
ditional 2.0%, and with about half the
expected risk.
At comparable risk levels, efficient op-
tion marketing offered 2.0-2.4% greater
returns than hedging. This amounts to
about $1.00-$1.20 per hundredweight
more than when only hedging strategies
were used (based on $49 per hundred-
weight cost of production).
The options-only strategies eliminated
less risk than hedging. For those unwill-
ing to accept risk, strict hedging is the
best alternative. Producers willing to ac-
cept moderate to high risk can use the
option strategies satisfactorily. Its risk/
return pattern is similar to the most ef-
ficient pricing strategies, and at a cost of
only about $1 per hundredweight in re-
duced returns.
Most Alabama cattlemen probably are
unaware of how to access the futures
market and of the potential trade-off be-
tween risks and returns. Many produc-
ers are new to the stockering enterprise
and are more familiar with other enter-
prises in which income risk is dominated
by yield uncertainty rather than market-
ing uncertainty. Results of this study-
should provide motivation for consider-
ing use of the futures market. The re-
sults indicate that hedging used with
price indicators offers significant oppor-
tunities for reduced risk and increased
return as opposed to routine hedging
only.
Producers who cannot use the futures
market should benefit from learning
about using the feeder cattle options
market. The use of option pricing pro-
vides a simple forward pricing alterna-
tive that overcomes transactional prob-
lems associated with futures contracts.
Small operations might make use of al-
ternative marketing methods by group-
ing together through marketing associa-
tions or other cooperative organizations
to capture the benefits from effective
pricing strategies.
McKissick is former Graduate Research Assis-
tant, Martin is Professor, and Kolajo is former Re-
Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station10
B.R. MOSS, J.L. HOLLIMAN, S. SOLAIMAN, and D.I. BRANSBY
AU TRIUMPH FESCUE PROMISING
As DAIRY COW PASTURE
PERENNIAL PASTURES that
support high milk production
would be welcomed by Alabama
dairymen. Such pasture has
generally been considered an impossibil-
ity, with only cool season annuals provid-
ing forage quality needed by high pro-
ducing cows. Now there is research
evidence that AU Triumph tall fescue can
support milk production similar to win-
ter annuals if a higher level of concen-
trate feed is provided.
Following the discovery at the Black
Belt Substation in the late 1970's of the
association between an endophytic fun-
gus, Acremonium coenophialum, in tall
fescue and poor weight gains in beef cat-
tle, it became evident why milk produc-
tion on fescue was so poor. Since that
time, many studies have compared beef
production on infected and fungus-free
fescue, and several fungus-free varieties
of tall fescue have been released. For
dairy cattle, however, a more useful
comparison would be between fungus-
free fescue and winter annuals (which
constitute the current alternative), but
little is known about the potential of fun-
gus-free fescue as a dairy pasture. The
purpose of this Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station study was to com-
pare milk production from a mixed pas-
ture of wheat and annual ryegrass with
that from AU Triumph, a fungus-free va-
riety of tall fescue released several years
ago by the AAES.
In March 1988, 18 Holstein cows were
assigned to one of three treatment
groups for a 6-week study. The treat-
ments were (1) AU Triumph stocked at
one cow per acre, (2) AU Triumph
stocked at two cows per acre, and (3)
wheat and ryegrass pasture stocked at
two cows per acre. The cows remained
on pasture day and night, except for
milking, and for about an hour following
milking, during which time they were
fed a 20% protein/grain mix. The grain
mix was given to individual cows at the
rate of 1 lb. for each 2.5 lb. of 4% fat-
corrected milk they produced during the
2 weeks before the study began.
Milk was weighed at each milking,
and a morning and afternoon milking was
sampled weekly for butterfat and protein
analysis.
Pastures were subdivided into three
equal sections by an electric fence, and
each section was grazed for i week at a
time. The amount of forage available was
measured before and after grazing to es-
timate forage consumption. Forage sam-
ples were taken weekly for quality anal-
ysis.
Results in the table show that the
wheat/ryegrass pasture was a little taller
than AU Triumph, but all pastures were
grazed down to about the same level by
the time the cows were moved to the
next section. Moisture, protein, and total
digestible nutrients contents were higher
and acid detergent fiber was lower for
winter annuals. Pasture consumption
per cow on AU Triumph was higher on
the low stocking rate compared to the
high stocking rate, presumably due to
available forage per cow. Consumption of
wheat/ryegrass pasture was higher than
for AU Triumph at equivalent stocking
rates. Cows on AU Triumph consumed
PASTURE DESCRIPTION, FEED AND PASTURE CONSUMPTION, AND MILK
PRODUCTION ON AU TRIUMPH AND WINTER ANNUAL PASTURE
Result, by pasture and stocking rate
Performance measure Fescue
Scow/ 2 cows! 2 cows/acre
acre acre
Pasture description
Av. height before grazing, in. 11.0 10.4 13.3
Av. height after grazing, in ... 4.3 3.8 4.1
Moisture content, pet. ....... 71.4 73.5 81.5
Protein content, pct. ......... 19.0 17.8 22.3
Acid detergent fiber, pct...... 27.1 26.6 23.5
Total digestible nutrients, pet. 70.9 71.3 73.8
Daily consumption per cow
Pasture, wet weight, lb. ....... 114 91 142
Pasture, dry weight, lb. ....... 32.5 24.1 26.2
Grain mix, lb ................ 20.0 20.0 13.9
Daily production per cow
Milk, lb. ................... 55.6 58.0 59.0
Butterfat, pct................ 3.47 3.47 3.15
Protein, pct................. . 3.18 3.25 3.18
Fat-corrected milk, lb. ........ 55.3 57.8 55.5
Average daily gain, lb. ............ 10 .47 .03
Feed and pasture cost/cwt.
of milk' .................... $3.66 $3.11 $2.54
'Estimated by assuming pasture production costs of $120 and $70 per acre
for winter annuals and AU Triumph, respectively, a 150-day grazing period
for both pastures, and a price of $170 per ton of grain mix.
price depends on butterfat content; how-
ever, feeding 3 to 6 lb. of hay before re-
leasing cows onto pasture each day
should limit this problem. Buffers have
been tried for this purpose with rye-
grass, but provided no benefit.
Feed and pasture cost was highest for
the low stocking rate on AU Triumph, in-
termediate for the high stocking rate,
and lowest for winter annuals. The high
stocking rate on AU Triumph clearly re-
duced pasture costs per cow compared
to the low stocking rate. The low feed
costs for milk production observed on
winter annuals is attributed mainly to re-
duced composition of the grain mix.
Results from this study show that both
AU Triumph fescue and wheat/ryegrass
pastures can support high milk produc-
tion when stocked at two cows per acre.
However, higher consumption of grain
mix is required for AU Triumph.
Moss is Professor of Animal and Dairy Sciences;
Holliman is Superintendent of the Black Belt Sub-
station; Solaiman is Assistant Professor of Agricul-
tural Sciences at Tuskegee University; and Bransby
is Associate Professor of Agronomy and Soils.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station
all the grain mix
offered to them,
but those on win-
ter annuals re-
fused some.
Total milk pro-
duction, butter-
fat, protein con-
tent, and fat-
corrected milk
differed among
treatments. But-
terfat was lower
on winter an-
nuals, but was
partially com-
pensated for by
slightly higher
milk production
as indicated by
the fat-corrected
milk level. The
lower butterfat
content is of con-
cern to produc-
ers because milk
11
ry p ;" "' R.R. HARRIS, D.I. BRANSBY, N.R. 
MARTIN, N.R. McDANIEL, and W.B. WEBSTER
MODERATE PASTURE STOCKING RATE BEST
JUST AS moderation is adx isal:
1in manyfl areas of lix ing, so is mo(
orationt a u seful guide in sit
things as steer stocking rate
winter annual pastures. To(o many an
orals per acre result in low per anini
daily gain, whbile too fewX animals c
beef gain per acre. Best overall p~roduo
tion comes from an intermnediate (mo
crate) stocking rate that makes efficie
use of availalble forage for good gains p
animal andl per acre.
That is the obviou s lesson coming fro
new Alabama Agricultural Experi me
Station research u~nderway at the Ci
Coast and Tennessee Vallev substation:
The study was begun in the fall of 19~
to determine the effect of stocking ra
on performance of steers grazing cn
season annual p~astures.
Four test pastures were planted to r
(90 lb). seed. per acre), rvegrass (30 1
seedl), and a mixture of arrowleal, la
ino, and red clovers (3 lb. seed of eat
per acre). Ainother four p~astuires we
p~lantedl to rye andi rvegrass without cl
ver. The pastures were fertilized in ti
fall with phosphorus andl potassium t
cording to soil test. Nitrogen was addi
at the rate of 100 lb). per acre in the f
andI another 601lb. per acre in the sprin
The pastures were grazed at fo
stocking rates, ranging from 1 to 3 yep
ling steers per acre. Steers were Her
ford, Antgus, and IHereford-Angu
crosses at the Tennessee Valley Subsi
tion and British-Brahman crosses at ti
Gulf Coast Substation. Average weight
steers was 518 lb). when stocked Janua
20 at the Gulf Coast and Noxemnber 14 at
the Tennessee Valley Substation. Graz-
ing wxas startedl late at the Guilf ( Cost be-
cause pastures xwere planted fiblloxxitig a
soyblean crop, and drxy fall wxeathuer
slowved pastuire deve(lopment.
Average daily gain was highest at a
stocking rate of about 1.6 steers per acre.
As shown t by (data in the table, however,
gain per acrie wxas maximized at slightly
above 2 steers per acr e. "Thterefore, the
best comnpromise appears to be between
1.8 and 2.0 steers per acre.
The lowest stocking rates resulted in
aie lowx av erage dlaily gains per animal and
d-liowx production per acre. These p~astuires
ch vere dl(finitely under-utilized, resulting
11n in a dlominance of lowx quiality rye ando
ii- wastedl forage ini spring. At the interae-
ial diate stocking rates, more of thle high
lit qual ity ry egrass forage wxas axvailable,
no- which coni trilhuitedl to h igh er gains.
d- At the highest stocking trates, cattle
lit had only limited amounts of forage axvail-
er able. This cautsedl poor animal dlaily
gains.
in Clover made up) only at smnaIl1 propor-
lit tion oif forage in the grass-cloxver pas-
11f tiuie s. Thnis, it did( not coutibuhote muchel
is. to i-ate oil gain or total gain per acre.
87 With high quiality ry e and ryxegrass, c lo-
ate v er shoumld tnt be expectedl to imiprove
col rate of gaini. Howvever, additng cloxver to
the pasture mix would typically lengthen
ye the grazinig season.
b. The Tenntessee Valley Substation had
d- similar axverage daily gains but higher
ch per acre gaimns than fpastuires at the G;ulf,
re Coast Substation. Tbhis probably re-
0-
vie
ac-
ed
9.
uir
ir-
is
ta-
he
oif
rv
flec-ted the longer grazing season at the
Tennesscee Valley (170 day s vs. 119 dlays at
thte Gulf Coast). Under normal wXeather
contditionts, hiowever, 150 to 180 dax s of'
grazing can be expected in smuth Ala-
batma.
Followxing grazing, the cattle wer(ei
fill-fed a blended fattetning mixture until
soltl for slaughter at an axverage grade of
high Select to low Choice. At t he Gutlf
Coast Substation, the feedlot period xwas
14 daxys longer for steers fronm heaxvily
grazedl pastuiirc becausce thex we cre
shifted to the feedlot xwhen forage wxas ex-
hausted. The feedlot pert id wxas the
same for all treatments at the Tentnessee
Vallex Substation.
Nate of gain in the feedlot generallx
was inverselx related to dlailx gain otn
grazing at the Gulf Coast Substation, but
itot at the Te'nnessee allex Substation.
In other wvordls, cattlce ft om thce heavily
grazedl pastiires (titat gained slowly otn
pasturce) tended to comtpenisate during
thc' feedlot period. Compensatory gaint
was lowver at thce Tc'nnessee Vallex Sub-
station where grazimng gaitns wxere less
xvariable (1.7 to 2.3 lb). pc'r dlay) than at
the Gulf Coast location (1.0 to 2.5 lb. per
day ). As expected, feed convetrsiomn wxas
itnxversely correlatetd to rate of gain, xx itlt
xvalt t s be'ing xwithin a normal ran ge of 8
to 11 lb). feed per poundt (of gain.
I Liii is is Pr ofessor of Aim~al and D)irii Scit
enies; 19 att',lt is Associte Pr ofessor of Agi toii\
and
1 
Soils; Martint is P'rotf(ssor ot \gricultural Eco-
noics and1( ulu. Sociologvs Mcbielt t- is Associteo
Supein tentI of' the (;ulf Coast Stubstatitoo and
Webl ster is Si upeinjitendentt of the- t-inesse.e V alle
Substation.
Alabama Agricultural Exvperiment Station
IMLUFi C No S) IOC(KIN), RAMSi Ox Si EIR PFHOH nt XNxtx ANDx SlIVt ; COO POSx~ITION
lResult, by steer stoked/acre
NIeasuire Cul~f Co3 ast hi incssc( \ iiks
1.0 1.7 2.3 3.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.1
ACon pasture, lb. ......... 2.3 2..5 2.:3 1.0 2.:3 2.:3 2.0 1.7
G incr from grazing, l1. 288 538 582 350 46:3 623 6901 67:3
Feedlot At( 1)C l............2.0 2.1 2 .3 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.4
Feed/Ilb. tof gain.............. 11.1 10.0 9.6 8.3 9.1 9.8 9.5 9.3
D~ays in f'Cellot ............ 152 152 166 166 98 98 98 98
PauIrt' comipositiont
it'c pct .................. 66 28 2 0 76 62 18 2
Rycgrass pct...... 2.3 71 97 99 20 .35 80 9.5
D.L. HUFFMAN, T.F WHITE, and W.R. EGBERT
NEW METHOD FOR BREAKING
BEEF CARCASSES PROVIDES
BETTER CUTS, MORE PROFIT
A N ALTERNAIVE method for
lbreaking b~eef carcasses mfay
help provide higher qulality cuts
of meat for consumers while in-
cr('asinig profits for b~eef p~rodulcers.
After slaughter, becef carcasses are
chilledi and tlhen div ided (or f abriecited)
into primal cuts (round, loin, rib, and
chuck), stul)Iriinal cuts (sirloin, rib~eve
roll, tenderloin), and fabrication prod-
ucts such as lean trimmnin gs, fat, and
h~one. The distribution of weight amng
the primal andl suilpriinai cuts, as well as
the possib~le resulting cuts, depends on
howx the carcass is hroken andl the orien-
tation of, the cuts madk dur11ing fabrica-
tion. Cu~ts resultinug from the rib and loin
primials are typically higher priced cuts.
These account for thce majority of the
price diflerences lbetween carcasses with
respect to carcass quiality grade.
A stucdy conducted through the Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment S tat ion
TAL 1. Piiii NI A(CI (IF RF'1IL Cc i's FRO %I
mi: PIoUAS or) -iit BI I. :sI A',
Prial Al~'\terniative 
Co ( 05 tionl
Lean Ty pical Lean T pical
Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct.
Ch: k .. 22.3 23. 28.1 28.3
Rib . . . 14.3 15.6 11.2 12.4
Loin . ... 22.:3 20.9 20.4 21.0
Round .... :35.6 34.8 :35.4 .33.2
O~ther'.........5 .5.3 4.9 5.1
Boneless biisket ad f(1lanik steak.
[slo~t 2. 1)ISiltRIR ION of CARCA SS
(OsirOsNIS [FR0M FsHKH AIION
Pet. carcass,' weight of0
comiipoiient, by bn eakinig
Alterniative ('on',entioinal
Lea~n Ty pical Lean TypIic'dI
't. Pc(t. Pct. Pct.
Re'tail cot', 30.96 28.93 :34.61 31.06
Leani ti im .. 3.84 2.95 1.66 1.901
Groundi(
beel . 28.011 27.11 27.43 26.8(1
W~aste Lit . . 19.72 25.92 18.91 25(06
Bone ... 17.47 15.11 17.39 15.18
c'onsider'cd an alternate c'arcass, hbeakinig
mc'thocd which wouldl prov ide imore high
quality cuts for c'onsumcers wxhilc' makinug
heef carcasses more vahuablc' to thc' pro-
duocei'. It insvolvedt (1) breaking thc' fore-
oquartc'r and hincdoiarter (loin from the
rib) of the carcaoss betwxeeni the tenth an~d
eeventh rib i'athc'r than thc' twe clfth and
thirteenth rilb and (2) separating the pi-
mnal rib fromn the ('buck primal between
thc' scondl and third rib ratheri than the
fif'th aincd sixth rib.
Thc' altc'rnative pr1occs sing inethod
also calle'd fmr sc'parating the' primal
round into subprimal c'tts by foll1owing
natural mnuscle' seams. This approach in-
c're'ases the proportion of high priccd
cuts in the' carcass and therefore adds
svaluc' to the heef' carcass.
Eight lc'an and c'ight typlical 650)1lb.
c'arcasse's we trt' se'lec'ted from a packing
plant on thc' basis of y ic'ld gradet and
oquality gradc'. L eani carcasses had an av-
erage yie'ld gradl( of' 1.7 and a oqutality
gracdc of high U SDA Select. Ty'spical car-
casstes had at yie'ld gradle o~f :3.0 and a
quality grade( oIf lowx U~SDlA Choice. One
sidle of c'ach carcass was broken lby the A-
terinatise m'ei(thiod while thle ot her sidec
was bruo ken co nvc'nt ion ally.
Results shosw that thc' two brc'aking
imethods y ie'ld'el diflerent Prioplort ions o(f
i'etail cuts f'roimi the clhiuck, iil, litdn , and
rouindl primnal s, tall i. Thce rih~eye roll
and loin strip (high valute cuts) acc'ountedl
folr a greater p)erceintage' of re'tail c(uits
when the altrn ative fab ricatuin mei(thod
was uised
1 
(36.6%4 for lc'an c'arc'assces,
36.5%4 for ty pical ) as c'omipared( to the
conventional method (31.60 lcean, :33. 4%/
for typ~ical).
Typ~ic'al carcasses werce fatter than lean
c'arcassc's, with approximiately (6% inure
waste fat, table. 2. Thnus, lean carcasses
p~rovidlc'd greater p)erc'entages of sal('alec
mc'at tprodclucts. Then alternate imethod~
p~rovided'( lcess total cetail cuts (2.90%4)
though this dliflerence was accounted for
by grceatcer pcercc'ntagces oIf lcean trim
(1.62%), ground bcef (0.450/c), and
Shaded area indicates increase in high value
cuts obtained by using alternative breaking
method.
trim unahilc fat (0. 
8 3
%/) as c'omparedl to
the consventional method. This svariane
occurred bcecause the altcernativce
me'thod( of cutting beef, included closer
tmiming (If thn' cuts.
Market value of' carcasses andI result-
ing prodtuicts of fabrication were assignlc'd
values and uised to (deterinine p)rofitab~il-
ity dlifferences between carcass tvypes
using both fabrication mcethodts.
Lcean carcasses werc' substantially
moIrc priftab~le than typical c'arc'assc's
($3.60 pc'r c'wt .) and thce altcernative
me'thod( w5as colnsistently mnure p~rofitalec
($1. 43 pecr cwst. ) than thce consventiounal
mecthod . The alternative breaking
method has the potential to add $9.:30 to
thce value of 'a (65011b. carcass.
This study shows that Ican carcasses
are m(Ire p)rofitab~le for fabricationi than
typical c'arc'assces and that the alternativec
carcass brceaking method will cenhancce
the overall return from thce beef carcass.
I Iiilliiiiis Profess,' Wh ite is Ionie Giira~duiate
Rleseac Asli ~''stanit, and~ Egbert i', Rtesearceh Asso-
cite ol Xi il and D~airy Sc ienes.
Alabamna Agricultural Experiment Station
T.A. McCASKEY, A.H. STEPHENSON, and B.G. RUFFIN
GOOD MANAGEMENT NECESSARY TO
CASH IN ON BROILER LITTER RESOURCE
ANIMAL WASTES derived from
poultry, beef, and swine pro-
duction contain nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potassium (N-P-K)
which can be used as a source of low-cost
fertilizer nutrients, or as a source of
crude protein, fiber, and minerals for
ruminant animals. However, the same
nutrients that make these agricultural
by-products valuable also make them
sources of environmental pollutants.
Hence, animal wastes can be a resource
or a liability, depending on how they are
managed.
In Alabama, the major collectable an-
imal waste is broiler chicken litter. An-
nual production of broiler litter in the
State is estimated at 2 million tons (wet
basis). Essentially all of the litter is col-
lectable and is easily managed as a solid
ranged from 14.4 to 37.5% and averaged
24.9%. Ash content (total minerals) of
the samples ranged from 8.9% to 54.4%.
Dirt collected inadvertently from the
broiler house floor when litter is removed
will raise ash content. Litter that has
19.5% moisture (average) and 54.4% ash
contains 73.9% of non-organic nutrients.
Therefore, moisture and ash dilute lit-
ter's nutrient components such as crude
protein.
If litter is being considered for use as
a low-cost fertilizer or as an alternative
crude protein source for ruminants, it is
important to have the litter analyzed to
determine its nutrient content. Based on
the survey results, broiler litter of aver-
age composition has an estimated value
as a fertilizer replacement of $27.59 per
wet ton of litter, table 2. The value of lit-
Litter samples showed great variation in nutrient content.
material. Much of the litter is treated as
a waste for disposal, usually deposited
directly on land. When application of lit-
ter exceeds 10-12 tons per acre per year,
excessive nutrient loading of the soil can
cause concern for surface and ground-
water contamination.
Expanding the use of litter as a nu-
trient resource would be a prudent way
to regain some of the fixed costs of han-
dling litter, cut down on the use of more
expensive nutrient sources, and alleviate
some concerns about its impact on
water quality. But litter nutrient content
and quality have proven to be limiting
factors in the use of litter as a resource.
A recent Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station study investigated these is-
sues by analyzing 106 samples of broiler
litter collected at several locations in Ala-
bama, some collected from broiler
houses and some from stacks of litter
held for various periods of time.
These litter samples showed great var-
iations in nutrient content.The nitrogen
content (dry basis) ranged from a low of
2.3% up to 6.0%, with an average of
4.0%, table 1. Crude protein (N x 6.25)
ter in an 80% litter, 20% ground corn
diet for beef cattle to replace a diet of
corn, Coastal hay, and soybean meal is
estimated at $104.95 per wet ton of litter,
based on current feed prices.
Good quality litter purchased for use
as a fertilizer should contain in excess of
3% nitrogen on a dry basis. If used as an
alternative, low-cost crude protein
source for ruminants, litter should have
3% or more nitrogen (18.8% crude pro-
tein). Less than 25% of the nitrogen
should be insoluble, and the ash content
should not exceed 30 percent.
Management of litter has a great im-
pact on the by-product's nutrient value.
If dirt is mixed with the litter when it is
collected from the broiler house floor,
ash content will be higher. Management
of the litter after it is removed from
broiler houses and stored, usually by
stacking, can affect its value as a crude
protein source for ruminants. Previous
research has shown that if litter heats ex-
cessively in a stack, which is evident by
its dark, crumbly appearance, much of
the litter's crude protein will become in-
soluble and unavailable to ruminants.
TABLE 1. ANALYSIS OF BROILER LITTER
COLLECTED IN ALABAMA'
Component Minimum Maximum Mean
Dry matter,
pct.......... 61.0 95.3 80.5
Pct. of dry matter
Nitrogen (N) ... 2.3 6.0 4.0
Crude protein .. 14.4 37.5 24.9
Crude fiber .... 10.8 51.6 23.6
Acid detergent
fiber ........ 18.0 69.1 41.1
Bound nitrogen
2  
5.1 64.3 15.0
Ash (minerals) 8.9 54.4 24.7
Ca ........... . 81 6.13 2.31
K ............ .73 5.17 2.32
Mg........... .19 .88 .52
P ............ . 56 3.92 1.56
S ............ .22 .83 .50
Cu (p.p.m.) ... 25 1,003 473
'Minimum, maximum, and mean of 106 sam-
ples.
2
Percent of total nitrogen.
TABLE 2. REPLACEMENT VALUE OF AVERAGE
QUALITY BROILER LITTER, 1989 PRICES'
Com onent Amount Value
replaced replacedpeto
rep per ton per ton
Lb. Dol.
As fertilizer
Nitrogen .............. 64 15.36
P
2
0
5  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  
58 6.38
K20 ............... . . 45 5.85
Total ................ 27.59
As feed
2
Corn ................ 550 30.94
Soybean meal......... 273 36.31
Coastal hay........... .1,178 37.70
Total ................ .104.95
'Based on regional prices of nitrogen ($0.24/
lb.), P
2
0
5 
($0.11/lb.), K20 ($0.13/lb.), corn
grain ($3.15/bu.), soybean meal ($266/ton), and
Coastal bermudagrass hay ($64/ton).
2
Based on a ration containing 80% broiler lit-
ter and 20% corn compared to a ration contain-
ing 41.5% corn, 47.6% Coastal hay, and 10.9%
soybean meal.
The study illustrated the need for
careful litter management practices to
ensure that quality characteristics are
preserved. By enhancing the economic
value of this by-product, producers can
help promote economy in plant and ru-
minant animal production and reduce
the impact of this nutrient resource on
the environment.
McCaskey is Professor and Stephenson is Grad-
uate Student of Animal and Dairy Sciences and
Ruffin is Extension Animal Scientist.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station14
C.C. MITCHELL and A.E. HILTBOLD
INDUSTRIAL WASTE PRODUCTS
PROVIDE CROP NUTRIENTS
LANDFILLS are filling, public
resistance to new ones is increas-
ing, yet wastes continue to accu-
mulate. But is it all waste? Plant
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium, and sulfur are valuable com-
ponents of industrial "wastes" which
may be used to advantage by hungry
crops. Now industrial manufacturers and
agricultural researchers are exploring
economical ways to salvage these nu-
trients and turn wastes into valuable
products.
When officials with a Mobile-area
company noticed their waste products
were promoting the growth of bahiagrass
at disposal sites, an Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station study was in-
stituted to help evaluate this waste as a
potential crop nutrient source.
The waste product, produced during
the manufacturing of methionine (an
amino acid) as a livestock feed supple-
ment, is a water solution of potassium bi-
carbonate with smaller amounts of amino
acids and organic sulfur compounds.
Analysis of this product on a fertilizer ba-
sis showed a nutrient content of 2-0-12
(N-P
2
0
5
-K
2
0) and 3% sulfur, suggesting it
is potentially a valuable source of potas-
sium for crops with fringe benefits of ni-
trogen and sulfur.
AAES studies compared this waste
product, known as Degussa's Potassium
Fertilizer (DPF?), with commercial fer-
tilizers in field experiments at the E.V.
Smith Research Center in Shorter. DPF
was applied at planting to millet in 1985,
to wheat in 1986, and to corn in 1988.
Rates used included 
a control rate (120
lb. K
2
0 per acre) to provide potassium as
recommended by the initial 
soil test, as
well as a double rate (240 lb. K
2
0) and a
quadruple rate (480 lb. K
2
0). Other
treatments used muriate of potash 
(KCl),
ammonium nitrate, and gypsum as
sources of potassium, nitrogen, and sul-
fur, respectively. Supplemental fertilizer
nitrogen was used with the DPF treat-
ments to ensure equal concentrations of
nitrogen on all tests. Soybeans were
grown in 1987, utilizing residues of 1985
and 1986 applications.
Crop yields with DPF did not differ
from those with commercial fertilizer, 
as
illustrated by the graph. These results
were verified in a greenhouse 
experi-
ment comparing DPF with equivalent
rates of ammonium nitrate and muriate
of potash. In a soil deficient in nitrogen
and potassium, yields of sorghum-su-
dangrass and corn responded equally to
DPF and fertilizer salts. Plants re-
covered 65% of the nitrogen and 59% of
the potassium in DPF, the same as they
absorbed from the fertilizer salts. Rates
of DPF up to four times the recom-
mended rate of potassium had no detri-
mental effects on crops grown in the field
or greenhouse.
These results were not surprising. Po-
tassium carbonate has long been recog-
nized as an excellent source of fertilizer
potassium, but it is not generally used by
growers because of its cost and availabil-
ity. DPF is a liquid which makes it con-
venient for applicators who are familiar
with handling liquids. Its main drawback
is a disagreeable odor, but this may 
be
minimized by injection into the soil or
incorporation immediately after applica-
tion.
All the DPF now produced is being
used by farmers in the five-county 
area
around Mobile. Though it is not available
statewide, its popularity illustrates the
possibility that other industrial wastes
could be an alternative source of plant
nutrients. By exploring these possibili-
ties, these wastes may become valuable
resources rather than expensive disposal
problems.
Mitchell is Assistant Professor and Hiltbold is
Professor of Agronomy and Soils.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station
Crop yields with DPF compared to equivalent commercial fertilizer, 1985-88.
15
R.T. LOVELL
LOWER FEED ENERGY
NEEDED FOR CATFISH
THAN OTHER
FOP ANIMALS-
C( MNtE.RCIAL CATFISHI
Ieeds contain abou )tt :32% crudle
prote in, comipared to 12-20%
for pouiltry and swine feedls.
I Iiim (cir all contain nearly the same
amo11011nt of avail al e (digest ib le or metal)-
olizab~le ) enlergy, 2.8 to :3.0 keal (ki local-
onies) per graill. Thuis, it is generally as-
sumiled that fish have at higher p)rotein
requiiremnt thani farm aimiials, hut re-
cent Alabama Agrieiiltiiral Experimnt
Station tests indicate this is not the ease.
A study wa ~s conlducted to determine
energy and p)rote in reqireimen ts of'
channel catfish for imaxiimum1 growvth
(protein gain). Nine sernipurified diets,
containing three p)ercentages of protein
at three digestib~le energy (lE) concen-
trations, were each fed to diflereilt sizes
of channel catfish. Fish were fedl as imuch
as they Xwo1111d consume for 10 we eks and
con sumption andl gains5 of proteinl and
energy were mneasuiredf.
As showvn in talble 1, dly protein re-
qutiremnt pe' 100 grams (g) of' fish1 for
mnaximfitm growth is 1.64 g for 3-g fish,
decreasing to 0.43 g for 266-g fish. The
DE requiremnent dlecreasedl from 16.8
kcal for :3-g fish to '5.0 kcal for 266-g fish.
Thus, as fish size incr'easedl from 3 to 266
g, the protein requirement dlecreasedl by
73% and the enlergy reqfuiremlenlt dc-'
creased hy 70%. This indicates that the
dlietary r'atio) of' digestible energy to pro-
tein (DlE/P) changed irelatively little,
from 10.2 kcal to 11.6 kcal of digestihfe
energy per gramn of' protein, as fish size
inicreasedl.
These lE/P ratios for optimum
growth of channel catfish are much lower
than those for poultry (14-16 kcal of' l)E
per gram of' protein) and swine (18-20
kcal lE per gram of' protein). National
Research Council (NRC) data show that
the amoumnt of' dietary protein required
per gramn (If b)ody protein gain is approx-
imiately :3.2 for fishI andI :3.4
for wxari'blloodl(d aimials,
indficati ng that the proteill
requLiiremnit for' growxxth
woul h1111e albou t t he same f)or
fish and farim anlimials. Thus,
thle pri mary difference he-
tween fish and farmn anlimal s
iln pr'oteiin anid einergy nlutri-
tionl app1ears to he ia lower en-
er'gy reqiriemIenlt r ather
than ia higher proteini re-
Using data from p)o1n(
feedilng experimients lor- cat-
fish and NRC valuies for live-
stock, c'oimp arisons11 iln feed,
p)rote in, and
1 
enlergy effi -
cimeincy are made ini table 2.
Th~e proIte ill i'e liiii'n'iet fo1r
prioteinl gain is aboumt equIal
for catfish andi brii'iler's, hiut
teinl gain is much less for cat-
fish.
Loveln XIi Prof r of Fishllies
1h~r 1.n D I ) Pirri N D'oIniv,i it,: ENI ia.I ()E)
[Ii QI utyirN XIi mb i \ urns It] 'ori C I (IiNNia i ( \itSti
Full k1 U\xi %i PliiiriN SXvNIUI.is
Fish ize- 
100 g of'
........ 1.64
)h . . . . .52
6 . .. .. .43
liE pei 100 
8 I )ietai
of ish/Ii 
lDE/prirn
ratiii
Kcanl Kcaliigirami
WS 1(.2
11.4 10.3
9.0 11.4
6.1 11.7
5(1 11.6
Tit 2'.i rtillN( oll 1.1I/iION ori F'i ill. Pliiiii N
\NI) INiw; In. Vmo s Foo151~nio ANIMALS
Foodnima 
Feed/girain
I~iiil .11urial w ight gain
I'iiiltr .. . 2.0)
Sw~ilr(. .. . :3.2
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
D ictarv\
grami piotin
gain
Gramis
:3.2
:3.4
116
Dictarv
gain
Kcal
21
4:3
8.3
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. 9
AUBURN, ALA.