441"
REFLECTIONS ON ALABAMA'S
POULTRY INDUSTRY____
T 
II 
lyf: 
Ff.O 
1E1MN'i 
of' 
Alaata
poultry indutstr, whviich paralleled that ttf
ft'e United State's, is th(e perfe'ct examlei
of Ameiiricani agribuisiniess suetss. The ila
tititis pouiltry' induhtstrv c'nsists mostly oii chickt'n
meitat (broilers), table-eggs, turkeys, anit duceks,
whil' Alabiamta mtainily produces b~roile'rs. Coat-
IIitci at dicklin g productItietoni is the iolde'st segmnt i
oif the poiutltry indullstry ini this coiunttr, butt it ha"
ne'ver bee'n' impor1) i'tat ini Ala1bamna. Alt hotugh wx
gtener'ally think of 1)ouli trty as at '"news" agiclturItial CLUEHMO E
comtllmiiiity , ii nomei frioni cliic'kenis atnd eggs ac'
cou ted'c for more farm incettme thtan aniy tither .S. tarm e'nte'rprise' ini the 1mid
1800's. lTh' e'volvemen('it tof vertical integratioin ini britil('rs, andc toi a le'sser et'ti
ini tatblie-eggs, has 1been t a noir contitribuiitin g factor iin the xi srival of' the faily I
fitltii inl ttit Soutthe(ast andh tio the brotilt'r inidutstry's rapid tde'eloipmeint.
P~outry' fprodtuc'tiont wvas iof littlc' valuec in Alabaima until the 19.50's. 1 liowever,
tti( Atahat Agricut tral E xperimnilt Statioii biegani ptoultry' rc'sc'arch in 1924
Sothi. Thiis facility xvas uisc'fit unttil 1977 wsheni it wxas recplaccd wsith aitin'w re'-
search'l tinlit that is niow' the etivv of' resc'arch sc'ie'ntists aroundlt thle woirld. tRe-
searchl at Atudiirn I as at tem p ted to) part
1
llet inee'ts of the intdut s tr ucsith itt th e
t'arly xwork ceti''rnied itpfgradtitng nui tri ition, imanaginigi far'ml flociks ( intctcluiing
seasont irdutin 'al 'ectigitiin that dixs'ase's andt p~arasitt's tmist be cioti
t'roiled~ influence t(i the it' re ' ction oil iton ginig rc'xeai'tch. Genetic r'csis tanice ti iis-
ease's an d par'asiftes wxas idi'ima iistriatedl lhe'ie anid foutinidat io n 1breedlintg s to ck f't'ilii
the Aubitn LefAgtitrn wias suippliedt tot comimtercial bre cedersx of' talIc-c'gg xtock.
NWithI liiimi ted' fitnatncial andit factul ty retsouires, re se'ar''lch emphas is b egan ti
stitt fitomt tatble-t'ggs to pulitry meat ini the 19.50's. This has conttintued to the
ptreseint, with current e'mpthasis lbeing til rep1rodttctive c'efficiec'yc', health main-
agi 'tnt ittitionii, and 11odycl comiipotsi titit. Thc' major pi ~rol emn it eggxhell1 ftor-
m at ioni ini tat tiet'gg prtdictctiton still is a itmajore thru'ttst. Wet ciiintiiin'e to sc i'apid
e'xpainsive( potultry meat pri'iduc'titoi and~ xvill c'onitinutie tii have' prioblc'ms evsolve c
as at re'su lt tif' e'xlpansioini. In at hiigly comipetitive intryi I sc the need'c for
r'e'steatrcli ti coin t iii it' tilertformincaiie puaamit'tetrs atnd tin wxastc' man age'int.
lIt retflectting oni ittly teinure't at Aubunt, I can truty say I am lhinoire'd to hias'
tbee'i assoctiatedi withi re'sc'arcti, teach intg, andt e'xtc'nsiton fac'ulty wxhio hasec
tiishowt ftui Iii dedicationii to the State's dtynam ic poiiltry indtustry.
SUMMH:R 1989 VOL.. :36, NO. 2
A quiar terly trepoirt tf r esiarel pulisihedl
bx the Al~laama~ Agiuetlturial Experimenit't
I A AXFl .1,T'I FRO()IS11 I........1)6 ectot
DID )A'11. TEEMF N ... Associate D~irector
114"F S'lF F NS( )N.............lditot
ROY ROBE( R3 1S( )N... Axxsociate' FIfitor
'11:3 IS \ 113( ) )31JFZ .. Art I )t'ignt't
Editorial Committee: Lowex ill T. Fit h l
1). I. Br tisltx A.soeiote Prof/essor ofI
Agronomyti t and Sils;5 N.R 131ollr It;. X o-
ciate Professxir of Ziiolog,
1 
aniii Wildlife
Scee; J. D. XAi'iti' Profexxot of Boiitany
anid Mii'riIiololgt/ P A. Du)tffx Asxistant
Prii'x xir of Agrietult iral LEcioomics andt
Rurtal Sociiot,y H.T Lofvieill, Profesxsor of
F'ixheri's antd AXllied Aiuattturti iT . . P
NMack, Asoijati Profexssor of Enituogtjoly
13. F. Kxieith, As 5iocia t' Proet o titoxiift Nutri
tiont anid F'oids; 1).B1. Soth AXxxixtat
Proifecs.siir of I'or.t-y DqI. A. S tin gfllowix
AXssistan~t Professor of Att ticr iologt/y andt
1R. F. Steven'tson.
CONGRATULATIONS TO...
Dri. ClaudHh'. Moorett Associate IX'.o fot
1(s5(arctb iii the Atbr Unliiveaixtrs ity ( A Ii ge of
Agiclture wht i'xio ret ires Julti I alt(r 3.3 ecars
of 's'rvice' to Auburni'st' agricultural teachlinig
and1( researcti p)1ogra.! i
Mlost of' Moorixs serxvtee (19.59-86) wxas as
htad of, the D epatmI ent of Po ~inty Sci('n te,
xxl',t e tlireed( Aitlai ii pouiltryx teachinig
and rexsearch actixvities. Sinee 1986 het hlas
x see ax Initer iml Associate l)eao lot- He-
xt'areit apjositiotn in xwhichl lie flax uixedl hix
exsper~tixe ini retsearc elortganiz/ationi andi mtan-
agemienit to hlplj coordjinatte resxearc eli(fotst
btw een the C ollege of A grictu ire anid AIa-
A ntivt'e of ( tllttaii Cout, NMoorte gr ad-
uiatted frtotm Aubu~trn in 1947, after wh icht lie
did( hix NM. S. xtudyl' at Kansxax State Untivxerxits
anid Ph.D1. wotrk at Puritdue Uivetrxitys. He
jinei td thet Aubur t f i acity in~ 1956 as Asxxote-
ate Ptrofexxsot, and was prtedttt( tot Ptrtfexxst
andt D~epartietit Head
1 
in 1959. Hlix 27-'stat
tenurite ax D~epatmetnt Head placex thtm
atmont g ati elite grouitp of long-xserv ing dlepat-
mtetit heatds iii Aubuhnt hisitutr'.
Ain act ivx m'tiembIer tof the Ptouil t r Scee e
Axsxociat it si ncie 1949, Nitoo re xwax (leIt'edt
Prtesidlt'nt of that xeienitific origatiziatiott iin
1980.
Bes't wixshes tort artexatrditng tetit etilit.
Diretour
ON THE COVER. Experimental ear tags gave
good control of horn flies in tests at the Lower
Coastal Plain Substation. (See story on page
4.)
FIl''1OWS NOTE. Mieni ttn ill trade
the Alalbamia Agrieculturtal F'xpeimenittt
exexx itf labeiletd amontstt in retsxtareci re-
if the itxe t ifici ix et' tigatiii n eessax xtot
ex aluate x at itits tatei' als. Nit ceicital
shou~tld be tuxed at r atix abitixe thoisxt pter-
tajinedl hereini ix axvailable to all xxitthtout it'
gardl to rae, color, sex, ori nattional oriigin.
K.A. CUMMINS and T.A. McCASKEY
CLOXACILLIN TREATMENT OF DRY 
COWS
EFFECTIVE AGAINST MASTITIS
M ASTITIS is the single biggest
cause of lost revenue for dairy-
men. Losses are estimated to
be as much as $1 billion per
year for the U. S. dairy industry.
Many cases of mastitis (inflammation
of the mammary gland) are caused by in-
fection with microorganisms that are re-
sistant to antibiotic treatment during lac-
tation. The result is chronic mastitis,
which alternates between signs of the
disease followed by periods of appar-
ently normal milk secretion.
The microorganisms responsible for
most chronic mastitis are Staphylococ-
cus aureus, which are resistant to peni-
cillin. They can imbed themselves in the
tissue of the mammary gland and "hide"
from antibiotics infused into the ducts of
the gland. In general, these infections
can only be treated during the dry pe-
riod when lactation has ceased. How-
ever, the dry period is also a time of high
risk of new infections developing.
The primary antibiotic used to treat
mastitis during the dry period is cloxa-
cillin, a synthetic penicillin that is effec-
tive against the microorganisms that
cause chronic mastitis. It is adminis-
tered in a 
base that 
is slowly 
absorbed
and cleared from the mammary gland.
This allows time for the antibiotic to pen-
etrate the tissue and kill the infecting
microorganisms. Approximately 75% of
existing infections can be eliminated
during the dry period with this treat-
ment. Since the 2-3 weeks immediately
after drying off are high risk times for
new infections, repeated infusions of
cloxacillin during this period have been
suggested as a way to reduce occurrence
of infections.
Repeated infusions of cloxacillin dur-
ing the dry period were tried in an Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment Station
study. The purpose was to determine the
effectiveness in eliminating existing in-
fections and preventing the development
of new infections.
Ninety Holstein cows were divided
into 30-cow groups for these treatments:
(1) no treatment
of dry cows, (2)
one infusion of
cloxacillin, and
(3) three infu-
sions-one each
at the last milk-
ing, 1 week later,
and 2 weeks after
drying off. All in-
fusions were 500
mg (milligrams).
Milk samples
were collected
for analysis of so-
matic cell count
and culture of
EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF CLOXACILLIN INFUSIONS ON
MASTITIS OCCURRENCE
Result, by number of
Measurement 
infusions
None 1 3
Infected quarters per cow post-calving ....... .2.4 1.6 1.2
Number of cows with mastitis first month after
calving................................ 9 5 5
Number of quarters infected with coagulase-
positive staphylococcus
Drying off.......................... 11 13 13
Post-calving ......................... 10 4 4
Number of other species of microorganisms'
Drying off .......................... 40 40 43
Post-calving ........................ 44 38 24
'Streptococcus, Corynebacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and
coagulase-negative staphylococci.
bacteria 1 week before drying off, at
drying off, 3-5 days after calving, and 7-
10 days after calving. Milk production
was recorded each day and somatic cell
count once per month in the lactation fol-
lowing treatment. A given species of mi-
croorganisms had to be isolated twice
from two sequential quarter-samples for
the quarter to be considered infected.
There was no difference in milk pro-
duction or somatic cell count among the
treatment groups during the lactation
following the dry period. However, in-
creasing cloxacillin infusion decreased
the number of infected quarters per cow
immediately post-calving.
The number of cows per group with
mastitis in the first 30 days post-calving
was higher in the group that was not
treated in the dry period than the two
groups that did receive treatment, as
shown by data in the table. There was no
difference among groups in the number
of staphylococcus species-infected quar-
ters at drying off, but the treated cows
had a lower number of infected quarters
post-calving than those not treated with
cloxacillin. Multiple dry-cow treatment
also decreased the number of quarters
infected with various other species post-
calving, which resulted in fewer total in-
fected quarters in the multiple infusion
group post-calving.
The majority of the Staphylococcus in-
fections (7 of 10) post-calving in the un-
treated group were new infections that
developed during the dry period. Only
two of three infections persisted during
the dry period among all treatment
groups, including those that received no
cloxacillin treatment. The remainder
were eliminated by the cow's natural im-
mune process or by the antibiotic treat-
ment. Thus, the major effect of cloxacil-
lin treatment on number of infected
quarters appears to be the prevention of
new infections during the dry period.
Results of dry-cow treatment with
cloxacillin can be summarized by these
four statements:
1. Dry-cow treatment with cloxacillin
is an efficient way to reduce Staphylococ-
cus infections.
2. Dry-cow treatment decreases the
number of quarters post-calving that are
infected with other species of organisms.
3. Multiple, infusions do not give bet-
ter results than a single infusion as far as
number of infected quarters post-calv-
ing are concerned.
4. Multiple treatments do not provide
benefits to justify the added expenses
and labor required.
Cummins is Associate Professor and McCaskey
is Professor of Animal and Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
1.
G.R. STROTHER and J.A. LITTLE
NEW INSECTICIDAL EAR TAGS
Show Promise for Controlling
Pyrethroid-resistant Horn Flies
9',
j~. I.
'Is99
* S 55
* 91 *9 *I
9 I' P~ *
* 5 9 ~
* *~, .9 wIt
*5
9
9 5.
E1 B "FAG S impregnated xwith p
I itlrid in(1jsec~ticidl(s appeared
to he the solittioni for horn fly
conit rol ini 198(0 V len the tags
5(1!1 14 lael fot bee(f eatthc O ne tagz per
animital kept hotrn fix popu)ilationls under1(
contrIol fi1 .5- m)totths. Bitt such1 results
were shor0t-livedl. Resistaitee to p rc-
throids biegani shiow.ing upl by 1982, and
ts has coti uii(d to be( a probl)1(m for
cattl t 1111 i Alabama and~ otthier cattl("
p)roduintg states.
Severail tags have Ibeen l abeled in re-
cenit N eats, and( other (\J)(ritietal ones5
are being c\ alutat(l. Sonic( ot these have
gixeni goodl rsiults int Alabamta Agricuil-
ThC( Car tag tests were (Lone at the
Lowc. r (Coastail Plaitn Sublstatijolt, (Catm-
den The ti( b lab1,1l( (( tags w( eeN calut
411(1 w.ith fout Angius eowealf hetrds,
lour Chatolais cow/cl hdirls. Io flot y
prolblemis va~ry' amiong (055 1)1 (eds, S0 noi
dirlect cotparilisonts are m iade lletwdedt
ear tags. I lowsexel, results doi gixe vallid
cotmparisonls atiotg the (liffetent treat-
mtetits applied to (adh lbteed group.
Sotttol w.as tilasutd eby outtintg tlt(
hotrn flies that couildl be seen ott onte sidle
ofi (Cach of It) atimlials (reported as flies
per side). Iltioeilars were used it) cut-
itig. I're-t teat tietit tout ts wer(le tiade
\lax 24, 1988, atnd ear tags wdree piut ini
place the followinlg 2 dlays otn cowxs ini the
hierds. Tags wer no ht p)laced ont calves.
I )etails oIf thei tests arc eporultedl s(pa-
rately fot eacht cow brteed. As a poinit of,
tI f( t.( tee atn ax (rage (of 50) fl i(s pe s5idle
labelled tags) w. rI as folloxws:
herdt~ I lttiahaw.k ( P1imIoplius
tmetliyl), 2 tags/cowV
I Ierd 2_\la\ C(o ( Iutrsban, Cyx
permtittlurili, andu PBO3), 2 tags/cowV
H~erdl S-
tags/ciowV
I ford 4-
-lertin tator' (diazintoo), 2
-Tertin t)atort (d iazinto n), I tag/
CowV
'ItinalhaV.k an t~l\ax-C on lost conltrl
at the 10yvciek couintt withi atn ax(rage of
180 atnd 1-1l flies pcr1 side, I(spectix (lx
figure( I. BhIl were tertinlatedl at 12
w~eeks xw iet flies per sidle teached 250.
R~esistalice to itnsectiies~ "v.as sex ere at
thei LowVer ( oastal Plaitn locatiiin, as slig-
gested byx Ibetter Ctrolt~l ftotnt these txwo(
tags at other locations.
Tt. tin iat or
tags gax ( (el-
letnt cotrtil for
about 5 months
whenit ius(d at the
rate of twou per
coiV.. Onte tag pet
iulations beloxw 50
per side for 16
w~eeks, figiute 1.
1HRDS. Ev\1)r-
tiltal tags wdre
utsedl as fiolloxw :
lHcrd I-YT
609 ((diaziniotn), 2
tags/Coxx
Herd( 2-YT
60)9 (diainoni), I
tag/tCow
Hterd :3-YTI
6i07(::3 (diazi-
tnon). 2 tags eiixx
H~erdl 4-YT
80213 to(llalit
thfiotn ), 2 tags!
tag YT 609 gave
excelletnt con ttrol
fo r a loi I t.5
mionthts at both
iite and( tsvo( tags
pe(r cox, figitt( 2.
lfag YTl 607( :3 at
Horn fienssde, no.
300 
Torvahwk (2~
_---Man-Con 
(2 Ta
F Terminator (2
250 -- Terminator (11
txvo tags per t tvl\ gaxe com t parablle con-I
802B wiV.as terinai~tedl after 4 we ((ks
w.ith atn ax tiage of 91 flies pe(r side, itt
b~eloxw the threshold lex el.
Y-Tex Corpt1oratiotn treceiv ed F. TA la-
beling foll the( cxplritnettal tag YTI 609 in
Jatnuiarx 1989, V.hIich will be sld~ lind~et
the tradle tnatme 
(ptititerc
Subttion.
Tags
gs)
rags)
rag)
-
5/24 6/8 6/23
Horn fliessie, no.
200 I-
76 7120 8/4 8119
Sample date
901 9,15 10/4 10117
____YT609 (I Tag)
---- YT609 (2 Tags)
- -YT607C3 (2 Tags)
-YT8O2B (2 Tags)
N
erminated
ue tn lack
conrl
50
. =i
911 9,15 10/4 10/175/24 6/8 6/23 7i6 7120 8/4 8/19
Sam pie date
FIG. 1 (top). Horn fly control on Angus cattle with recently labeled tags.
FIG. 2 (bottom). Horn fly control on Charolais cattle with experimental
tags.
n f
Alabamai~ A-1icttiua E' LXI))(tintii Stationi
99 5
S.
S 9
N
T
J.I. ORBAN and D.A. ROLAND, SR.
PHOSPHORUS SOURCE MAY BE
THE CAUSE OF SOME MYSTERIOUS
POULTRY LEG PROBLEMS
tri xChIickents tlint are fed nitii-
whicihl appea(ir normaitl, of ten cad1( Up wxithl
briokein itgs andlin gs in t(e processiing
or dloxxnigr ading (if poltr nu itat. Ala-
research1 suggests tihat the sioirce (If
phioisphloruts ini tihe dit (If cilickents ray
dIiseiase anit poior ittaiageitteit air( irtied
iiut as caiises.
Miost leg priioilemts assiociatedi with no-
hi itioni are attriteto( dei(ifienites (if
hienits. C alciumii andt pho~sphiorius arc ic-
(jiili him strong ibon fiirimation, ailt xi-
liese nuitrienlts.
phorul is cain Ie suitj cci(( froit cithci or-
AX5 x ii iiii i Si toxt t- x11m
I'- i .i ttr
Coarse .... 53.0 9(0.6
F~min .. .. .. (1 9(1.t
I-ti-r 2 1x ri (xiir- Piiiisiiiiiiiiii
ss liNi i i ~ I) Sot W
Pet
(hicke-n Ioini meial .. . . . 9J3.8
F ishi lone meal ................. 88.5
Swi ne horne meal.................)8
C attle hone me l..-. .. . . 9:3.2
Alabama A grieultu ral lxaperiuntnt Station
gamei or1 i 101 t~tic sou rces. Bone me(al is
dii 01ganit silitict anti its phosphioirus
has ibeen coinsidieredi to be1 
100
%
4 
ayal-
ablie to ciclkens1. (IS loeX t* thtre arct r-
porlts of x driatiolis rainging from .5e/ to
.30c in phlosphloruis axvailailitk fromh
bolo tcal. Becautse of, these x ariations,
errors nit lbe itatl h n l ol e iilocaiel is
inludited ill clicts for mleat-ty pe cicikens.
lIn the Aubioirn researcll particle size
alid soulrce of bone1 mlliS wer vaiiiatedl
as factors5 inifluiencing phosphol(rus 1 aail
ablilit. D~ata obltainedi wxere comparedi~
pholisphite an inlorganilc phiosphiorius sup-)
fpiltleilt of (\cteieint p~hosphloruis ax aii-
aiiitx that is commiloniy usedi iln p~oultry
di ets.
InI the fir-st and second expeimients,
tale I, bon ed xvclas prepared from
cickeni blones adi screieed int th tree
par ticle sires (coarse, graitoiar, and
fine). This wxas fed to chickens (mnaics and
It tait s ill (fexperiment 1 an~d iae onilSyii i
int experlimentt 2) hromn I day to 3 weeks (of
aget. Ini tihe third experimlent, taibie 2,
bne i oca itiiwas p~repfaredl separatelyi f rontt
b one~s of chlickeln, catfish, swinme, and cat-
tie. Theo no als xwere addtedi to corni-
soyb~ean (diets and
1 
fed to imale chiickents
front day old to :3 weeks of age. Bone cri
teria pride t thle mol st senIsitive I iIlasire
of' phtosphorus axvailailiit, so) tile resiults
r eportedI are biasedi onI ibon xweighit,
strtmngth, andt ash.
P'articie site (if hone meai inflieniced
phiosphioruis axvaiiabilityx to some etentlt inI
exp)erimentlt 1, buit the same trend wxas nlot
ob~seirx (d in experimlent 2. Therc w xas no(
dhifierene ini phiosphiorus axvailailiity
aing blone mltti sources. H oxeer,
p)11ospihorii s f iomii the difilerent I)on e ii eal
sources xvas 6-
12
%
4 
less axvaiiale than
that f romi (dicaiciumi phosphate. This
meanis that chickens fed organiic phios-
phllu Isupplemen111 ts lmtight b~e receixvin g
imarginai lex (Is of p~hosphorus, if ax ai-
abiiitx xvalies of 100%h are utse. The de-
gree of detficiencx xwould ib ie depenideint
upon01 tihe percenlt of total dlietary p~hos-
pihorius sulf~iedl
hx tie organic
SOul recs.
phiolsphoruts axvail-
ale~l liader these
ibodv xweightt andt
feucd tfliciemiex, it
mtighit not be ati-
equiate to sup-)
port maxiimumt
boine tice lop-
Intlt. Tihis max
soic Ieg prob-
r(oiers are
raiseti undter
steiimgix opti-
1man agemin lt
colitions.
,Iihis research
indiicates thadt
phiolspihorus axvail-
ailiity xvalues of
90-95%, isteadi
(If, 100%, may be
conitainIIing (Ir-
gan ic phosphorus
soulrctes to re-
ti lce otherxi se
iteplafineti leg
p~roibiells ill
cihickens.
Rstarch Assistat
and( Rladisjl~ Prols-
sii ofi Poultrs Sci-
ence-
FBMj
MBM
Calcium and phosphorous sources fed to
chickens: (from top) DCP, dicalcium phos-
phate; CBM, chicken bone meal; FBM, fish
bone meal; SBM, swine bone meal; BBM, cat-
tle bone meal; and MBM, mixed bone meal.
BBM
/-
H.L. STRIBLING, M.S. WALLACE, and H.A. CLONTS, JR.
HUNTING IS BIG BUSINESS IN ALABAMA
DEER AND TURKEY are more
plentiful in Alabama than in
many other states. However,
maintenance of such wildlife
populations requires conservation of
habitat on which they depend. Today's
high demand for converting land and
water resources to alternative uses
means wildlife must compete with other
uses of available land and water. There-
fore, it is essential to document the eco-
nomic value of Alabama wildlife before
these habitats are converted to other
land uses.
A recent study showed that more than
$600 million are spent each year in all
segments of the Alabama economy on
hunting and hunting-related activities.
Because hunting is only one aspect of
wildlife utilization, expenditures on
other wildlife-related activities, such as
bird watching or bird feeding, would
push this figure even higher. The study
by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station documented the amount spent,
location of expenditures, and merchan-
dise purchased relative to hunting and
hunting-related activities in the State.
Hunting expenditures were deter-
mined by surveying individuals who
purchased hunting licenses during the
1986-87 hunting season. A random sam-
ple of individuals holding resident or
nonresident hunting licenses was ques-
tioned by mail. Nonrespondents were
sent follow-up mailings. Questions on all
types of hunting expenditures and where
expenditures occurred were covered.
Final response was 40%.
Total hunting-related expenditures
amounted to $617,978,433. Specific ex-
penditures included:
Equipment ............ $90,217,192
Clothing ............... 27,063,694
Hunting dogs............39,394,188
4X4 trucks ............ 252,299,818
Off-road vehicles ........ 57,107,418
Vehicle operation ....... 56,945,798
Lodging ................ 4,592,227
Land lease/fees ......... 29,956,312
Food plots..............33,957,721
Other ................. 26,444,065
Expenditures were greatest in north
central Alabama (Region 3), with $148.7
million spent on hunting and related
items, figure 1. This region contains the
major population centers of Birmingham
and Tuscaloosa. Most expenditures fell
into the category of equipment (guns,
clothes, vehicles, etc.). There was little
difference among the other regions of the
State, with expenditures ranging from
about $68 million to $96 million an-
nually.
Deer and turkey hunting accounted
for most of the hunting effort across the
State, as reflected in the expenditures.
For example, most of the money spent on
hunting leases, fees, and food plots oc-
curred in west-central Alabama (regions
3 and 5) where the best deer and turkey
populations have traditionally occurred,
figure 2. The west-central Alabama area
ranked highest in hunting lease expen-
ditures. The 9-county Region 5 area
ranked well above other regions, with
more than $6.7 million spent annually on
hunting leases. Similar size areas of
northern Alabama (regions 1 and 2) ac-
counted for the smallest portion of hunt-
ing lease expenditures (from $1.9 to $2.7
million per year), but deer and turkey
populations in north Alabama are gen-
erally lower than other parts of the State.
The amount spent for hunting leases
across the State exceeded $25 million.
However, the amount spent on planting
crops for wildlife was even greater, $34
million. In every region, more money
was spent to provide food for wildlife
than was spent on hunting leases. This is
because many landowners who do not
lease their land to others for hunting
spend money to feed, attract, and hold
wildlife on their property for themselves,
their families, and friends. Most of the
$34 million spent on food plantings prob-
ably flowed into local economies near a
hunting area because of associated trans-
portation costs of bulky items such as
seed, lime, and fertilizer, as well as large
pieces of planting equipment.
Stribling is Assistant Professor and Wallace is
Graduate Research Assistant of Zoology and Wild-
life Science; Clonts is Professor of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
C.E. FAUPEL, L.C. BAILEY, S.F. HOLLAND, and V.A. WAREN
ALABAMIANS CONCERNED ABOUT
HAZARDOUS WASTE
E VERY YEAR, approximately
300 million tons of hazardous
waste are generated in the
United States. This is approxi-
mately 1 ton for every man, woman, and
child in this country. Disposing of this
material is a serious national problem.
The hazardous waste issue is of partic-
ular relevance to Alabamians since the
State hosts the nation's largest off-site
commercial landfill in the United States.
This facility, located near Emelle in
Sumter County, accepted over 500,000
tons of hazardous waste for disposal in
1987.
As part of a larger, ongoing study con-
ducted by the Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Alabama residents
were surveyed to determine public
awareness and opinion on the hazardous
waste issue. Some 1,600 questionnaires
were mailed in the summer and fall of
1988 to three target populations: a ran-
dom statewide sample; a smaller sample
of Sumter County residents; and mem-
bers of the Alabama Chapter of the
Sierra Club, a conservation organization
presumed to have above average envi-
ronmental awareness. Of these, 595
questionnaires were returned.
The responses reflect the relative se-
riousness with which Alabama residents
regard hazardous waste and general en-
vironmental issues compared with other
issues of national concern. Nearly 80% of
Alabama residents responded that haz-
ardous wastes are either "very serious"
or extremely serious" problems at the
national level, far surpassing concerns
over unemployment, the budget deficit,
or the arms race. Only drugs (93%) were
regarded as more serious national prob-
lems by Alabama residents. A similar
pattern emerged among Sumter County
residents, though both drugs and crime
were regarded more seriously than haz-
ardous wastes by this group. But, when
asked how serious a threat hazardous
waste was to their specific community,
Sumter County residents were much
more likely to consider
this an extremely serious
or very serious threat than
were respondents from
the state-wide sample Agei
(77% versus 66%). More
than 81% of the Sierra EPA .......
Club sample believed 
U.S. Congres
Alabama Coy
hazardous waste to be an Alabama 
Atto
extremely serious or a General..
very serious 
threat to 
ADEM.
their communteState Legislal
their community. Local Govern
Respondents also 
were 'A 
five-poii
asked which government answers inclu
agency they thought 
approve;Stro
2Number ol
should make decisions on
hazardous waste manage-
ment affecting their own county, see ta-
ble. Interestingly, despite the criticism
received by the regulatory agencies in
recent years, all three samples indicated
stronger approval for both Federal (En-
vironmental Protection Agency) and
State (Alabama Department of Environ-
mental Management) regulatory agen-
cies making such decisions than any
other governmental bodies. Further-
more, when asked who should be re-
sponsible for making decisions regarding
A labamians are
evidently unwilling to
relegate all power
and authority to
others outside the local
community.
the location of treatment facilities, sci-
entific experts were strongly favored over
other decision makers. Virtually no one
approved of private industry being re-
sponsible for site selection.
Respondents also were asked how
strongly they would favor or oppose a
hazardous waste facility locating in their
community under specific circumstan-
OF AGENCIES FOR MAKING HAZARDOUS WASTE
MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
Percentages approving or
strongly approving
1
ncy State Sumter Co. Sierra Club
(N= 399)4 (N= 69) (N= 127)
........... 58.5 66.1 57.8
s ......... 30.0 25.0 33.9
ernor ..... 
52.0 
47.7 
32.3
rney
........... 41.1 39.7 45.0
........... 78.2 64.5 61.7
ture ....... 34.9 44.2 21.7
ment ..... 56.7 49.2 51.6
nt Likert scale was used with the range of possible
ding: Strongly Approve; Approve; Undecided; Dis-
ngly Disapprove.
f respondents.
ces. Those circumstances included the
creation of new jobs by the facility, low-
ering of property taxes, paying for fire
protection, provisions for local monitor-
ing of the facility, and having the facility
operated by various Federal, State, and
private agencies.
In none of the three samples did a ma-
jority favor the location of such a facility
in their community under any specified
circumstances. Sierra Club respondents
characteristically oppose such a facility
more strongly than do the other two sam-
ples regardless of the circumstances. All
three samples, however, were least op-
posed if a local committee monitored
safety precautions. Hence, in spite of the
apparent trust in scientific experts re-
ported above, Alabamians are evidently
unwilling to relegate all power and au-
thority to these experts and others out-
side the local community.
These public opinion highlights sug-
gest that, while the environment and
hazardous waste are regarded as serious
national issues, there are other national
concerns, particularly drug abuse,
which are regarded as substantially
more serious by Alabama residents.
Faupel is Assistant Professor of Sociology; Bailey
is Associate Professor of Agricultural Economics
and Rural Sociology; Holland and Waren are Grad-
uate Students in the interdepartmental Sociology/
Rural Sociology graduate program.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
7
M.K. MILLER and J.D. HARPER
NEWLY DISCOVERED FUNGAL
PATHOGEN MAY HELP CONTROL
THREECORNERED
ALFALFA HOPPEF
A 
\ INSI;(:"I'INI 
RC"tN( 
funi-
thii thri oeret alfatfa hioppeitr, thas
is tha~t it giras ofhor new' cntriiol imi'tholls
for one~ of th' State's moiist dtestructix e
icllii feedls oni soben l(~i ste'inss ('X'ituadll
girin ig the steil aiind re'duiniig thie fIiXX
ttn' irededir ied al d hincjlreXXasea
fInii it (-cstudydctificiaii the atu-
lhi o istx fprtii lIr l'il' fctaiitf
thei i ~diif tieionce lfl'rfaki fhuiiir twasoa
ficigts (intiic nXameai Eiii 1985 an
t98(i is 'I' s t'fir st hicad ii Xee iltted
pious y oftll ro'l'iothlr speiiiit of'ln-
toprsc)d til' fpeius'(i ofit l'ahopes
anit inpidso'tssia
Wh'oenkthe funguits of fun inco itrt'l -
conee aflfa h oppers XXl' 1 takenit'i from twox
filds saild ttin tAtabama oing 985at
1986, thistvate iers \assoiaiitiuoith i
19mbe. Adflth tr'(''(uiilr't ifasif hopc-
Ien'r wneNre
1
t't'A'er iat is r s pc ilts
Weklt ai ples i f th nreetorncedal
talliX ihoppets of'reachltagc'ed r'rhm'ldyi
till' ildatr tii lntii BtradinUi-
An adult threecornered alfalfa hopper infected with pathogenic fungus.
aili ty Lictors Se'Xeral adutlts cotlle('ct
typJical of an inisect p)athiogeniic fiingus in-
also himilil to tbe iinfectei lby the' samet
fi iguis. These in sects werCi founid at-
tachedl to) plants bix thei1r clawXs and
iioiithlparts, as well as by iintcrtwXincd
g.~rowXXt Is of fin gal I ixphac uinder thir
blodies.
Subhsequeint field samplits rteve(aled
that tin' infection conltinuiedi in thlreecor-
incried aliala ho pper po pl atijo ns t hroungh
lhe cind( of' Setpteimber 198.5 and from
September it 18 through O ctobe ir 10. 1986.
Pe'riod ic samle~ls of icitd-collectedl in-
secits taiken tinrough the growXXing season
shoe fiiX('Iiunguinidu1(1 cedl mor(itatlity lexvels
rcachiing approximlately 
2 0
ck. Tiic high-
cst insect mnortality occurred at the end
of' Septeimber in iboith 1985 and 1986.
The finguis wXas isiilatedi ini the laho-
ratory oin agar uasing fuingal propagiilcs
extractedl from decad insects. Infecction of
ault threecoiriirrd aifalfa hoppeirs was
achicve by1i~ exposing the insects to fin-
gus froim the culture oirfield-infccted in-
sects fir 48 huris.
Adutlt t hriee co rn red~ al fala i hoip per s
iinfected( in the lab~oratoiry wX ri usedt in a
grecnhus sC tuidy to ob~serve tiiffereces
b~etwX'cci infected aind noi ifected in-
sects. This stuidv revealedi that infectedt
insects positionecd ttheimselve ('moiust oftein
loxw (meian height 7.3 ?4.2 in.) on the
ltaint and iess than :3 iii. fromn the main-
stciii In contrast, tin fected insects
wecre imost oftcin found higher on the
plaint (ieni height 10.7 ? 6.1 ini.) andt
imore thain :3 in. from till miainstei.
The Ichainge in relat ive posit Pion oin the
plant causedl by infection wXithi this fii-
gus woumld iiiake tile iinsects less acccssi-
ble' to sweepneiit sampi~linig antd couildi lead
to) uindirestimiatioin of' the' pertcent of' in-
fccted in sect s present in the field . It
cotuld also hell) expllajin Wh l tie fungus
hals inot b)een reported p~revxioiust.
This fungus may' have an evei greatei
impact oin reduiction oi f' tihre'lcorineired al-
falfa thoppecr p)opui atioins iln soybeain
fids in Aiabama. Its impact iiiight in'
increasedi hy using narrow rowX sp~acing
andi aii early plianting dlate to cause plaiit
canopy closure earieir iin the groini g
seasoin. Tihe resultinlg increase' in humid-
ity wXitihin tthe cainoip, a conid(itioni that f t
voirs dieveilpment of this group of' fungi,
shouldt~ prom oite inf'ct ion iandi resuilt in
higher andl earlier le'vels of natural infc-
tioin iii thr'etorlered alfalfii hloppe~r pop
uilatioiis. But, this practice' can alsoi pro-
mote the growth of plant p~arasitic fungi
and biacteria.
\1 iller i Laboratorv It'chuiicianu and F a~rpe'ri
formeor Profe'ssor ofl Entiomology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
A.G. APPEL and R.C. SPONSLER
FORMOSAN TERMITES Now IN ALABAMA
Tolerance to High Temperatures Makes These Termites a Threat
to South Alabama
T I I iI? )Ii( S \N sublterramtean
miinitt has at tix (I in Alalbatia,
bitiginig niew (uctetns fhomie-i
(155tils. 'ibis tetrmite fortlis faister
g11 tk iw" mud~it lit get clolniis andi~ fctds
motre ately t lan) other tettmite spectes,
tiakitig it ontt of tile tiiist dlesttrutctive tet-
mtite splecies xxorhdx ide. It ts ali imipor-
tatnt pe(st ittn toical adti sitrop
1
ical
attas sutth as ( uat, Taiwan iti li Pil-
ipines iand I iixxaii. It is estimtittd that
itn I Iaxx aii alotie, tmor( t hatt $60i(tlilionl is
sptt t ocotoltc omoa
th'is imporlttat pe(st has bettn ic-
at scatttired siles alhonlg tit( Cll Coast
andl froimi( listim Souitht Caruolina, to
\Ietliilis, iennmessee. thelre are tio csti-
ttncs of, IFormositt sutttratneatn trniiltc
iti 198 its fit tnoth as Auiiurnt.
was proibably itloduced ittic u Soiti
(ast wix loit mfstedl nit itt catrgo itn shipfs
rtuintg ftoe otIli iPacific Tltualum at tI i
Ilit. 'utlisofucni itnfestationts lin( betet
f'tstcd wvood. All trpots (If liltrmosantt
Untitcl Statts, txcet the Aituttti ittcs-
Alluooc .Xg-iu turtaI 1p xeiincit Station
Soldier stages of Formosan
(left) and eastern (right) sub-
terranean termites.
tat ion, hax e lhceti near
p)orts or inlad xx atcr
xx waxv The Aubuorn inifes-
tationi was caused b'y the
movem tlent of infested rail-
thought to lbe er adchatedi.
Becautse ofi its ec on ic
imp1ortane, the Forinio
San sublterraniean termlit(
xwas studc(1 einit re search
byx tit(e A Ilaama Agrictil-
Its dlistributtiont int Ala-
bamia wxas dletermuined by samp)intg pop-
uilation~s itt the States coastal reg.ionls. lIn
aditioni, phy siological factors that nmax
re(flect the hehax br and dlistriblut ion of,
this pest we re cont rastedh with those of
tlc tnatixe easterti sutetrranteant termfitd
throughout the Untitedl States.
F'ormosani atnd eastern sutetrranieani
t I i appear atnce alt bhI ior i of, thI i sol-
diet and
1 
alate (wxingu.ed reproduictix es)
soldiers haixe llools pear-slhapedh ltads
atl 1(1-cr fairtiy aggress ive. They( ap pear ini
larg( niumtilrs whe ixt(1 colourx is openied.
haxve rectan guliar Ihi(ad s atndc ate tp
1
icai Ix
less aggre(ssixve. In niatix e atr(as, tertitts
stat tntew colonlies lby swxarmoing. Alatc
reliroililtix es are formued in thet colonli
allot swxarm wxhen etuxit otiiettal condi-1
Sxwaltm ini the earx exventng. frequtentix
after sontnte rains, and flx to lights its
mianix tmoths dIo. Eaisterni subhterratieati
alatts swarmi (luirinig the dlax in thi(
spintg, uisullyx ini the motrninog oit catrl
afterntoont.
Sine Fotrmosani sutbtetrraneatn tert
mtites flx to lights, thtex cal lbe eiptuire(l
xwithi mosqjuiito light taps. With help
fron the MIobile Counit I iealth I )epart
tuient Butreaut of Vector (Cotitrol, samrples
xwere obtained fromt light trap lcations
throuighiout Miobile Count. Tlmittes
wxere also olit aintcd fr om itnisict satm ples
sent to the C ooperatixve Extensiotn So-
xvicc. As shoxwnt otn the miap, Formiosatn
sutertraneant tcrnuiitc alates xxere cap-
tin ed at nttan locations iti Mobile and
Baldxxin co ut ie(s. "Tere are likelx mitany
more itifestatiotns ttatn jutst those found
by the light trap~s. Anotlter ifestationt
xxas idenitified in Aubihutrni Nli 6. 1989,
also fotm usedi railroad ties.
Because tihit F iruosani sublterranteatn
tctnititc is dlisttribute(d ini xwarmi, utsutail
huid regionts anid f'reiunttlx tiear
xwater, aspects of their tetperatnire re-
lations xwere invxestigatecd antd compared
tol the tnativ e easterni sutbterratneani ter-
miite. Termiites wxere hieatedl or ceid~it at
at contstant rate (3.4'F pet inute) to de-
terite the tetnpetatutres at xxhicht they
lost the ability to molvx (knock doxn tien-
perat it e). Formo l( san i S ilt ( rani(att tr-
mites xwere kniockecd dhoxwn at abuit :1.4T
holtter tcemperatures than the natixve east-
ctrn suihtcritneatn tetrmtites. I lowxevcr, the
Foirtnlisani tttititcs wetre tmor sutscep~ti-
le tio cildc teipctatittes. iThis itmplics
that Folrtmosatt sublterratneatt termites
nmay lbe betterm adlapted tio xwarni cliates
than (isttrt suterrtanteani tettmites atnd
maxy nott becomne estali shed int the
ntht rntt climuates of Alabatma antd the
Uitcl states llecautse oIf, their vulnmera-
lilitx to cold.
Ape sAsitn Prfesso and Sponskl is Lab-
oratonx Tlic ianu IIl in Fntomouilot>,
C.J. BRUNNER
REDUCING HANDLING STRESS
AIDS IMMUNE FUNCTION
IN CALVES
S TRESS is a physiologic condi-
tion produced by the actions of
corticosteroids and other hor-
mones that are released when an
animal senses a potential threat to its
safety. Stress hormones are beneficial
under most circumstances because they
cause biochemical changes that increase
the likelihood of survival in life-threat-
ening situations. However, stress hor-
mones, particularly corticosteroids, can
interfere with the ability of the animal's
immune system to protect against harm-
ful viruses and bacteria. Routine live-
stock management practices that trigger
a stress response in calves may tempo-
rarily decrease their natural resistance
to infection.
In the current feeder calf marketing
system, calves are weaned, transported
to a sale barn, and then shipped to dis-
tant feedlots where they are processed
and started on feed. Sickness and death
are highest within 2 weeks after the
calves arrive at a feedlot. Most deaths
are attributable to respiratory disease.
Feeder calves encounter many potential
stressors during the first few days after
weaning. It is widely believed that stress
predisposes those calves to infectious
disease by impairing their immune sys-
tem. However, few studies have actually
demonstrated a correlation between a
naturally induced stress response and a
decrease in the competence of the im-
mune system.
Results of research underway at the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion have shown that the rise in cortico-
steroid hormone level in calves exposed
to a stressful stimulus lasts only a few
hours. As expected, the high corticoste-
roid concentration coincides with a re-
duced activity of an important immune
cell type (lymphocyte), resulting in an
increased susceptibility to infections.
One study examined the effects of rou-
tine surgical castration of 5-month-old
beef calves on blood hormone concentra-
tions. Corticosteroid concentration, leu-
kocyte (white blood cell) concentration,
and the ability of lymphocytes (white
blood cells with immune functions) to re-
spond to a chemical stimulus were mea-
sured in blood samples collected before
and after castration.
Corticosteroid concentration in-
creased sharply immediately after sur-
gery, but dropped back to nearly normal
by the next day. Concentration of neutro-
Clinical illness in transported and control calves following ex-
perimental respiratory infection. The score is based on sever-
ity of specified disease signs (0= none, 25= severe).
Clinical illness score
25 Transported and infected
o----o Infected only
20 o- - -o Transported only
15
10
-- - .- - - -,o - 0.:
0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Days after infection
phils (white blood cells
that battle bacteria) was
higher in the blood after
castration, while lympho-
cytes were lower, proba-
bly caused by a rerouting
of leukocytes to different
areas of the body. Lym-
phocytes responded nor-
mally to a chemical stim-
ulus 30 minutes after
surgery, but displayed de-
pressed activity in most
castrated calves within 24
hours. Within 48 hours
after castration, lympho-
cyte responses were
nearly normal again.
Lymphocyte activity re-
mained within normal limits in uncas-
trated calves.
The second study evaluated transpor-
tation's impact on calves' resistance to
experimentally induced respiratory dis-
ease. Five-month-old Holstein steers
were hauled in a stock trailer for 2 hours
on country roads. After being returned
to their pens, the calves were given aer-
osol inoculations of infectious bovine
rhinotracheitis (IBR) virus and Pasteu-
rella haemolytica bacteria, two microor-
ganisms commonly associated with feed-
lot respiratory diseases in calves. A
group of control calves that had not been
transported but had been experimen-
tally infected were used for comparison.
Corticosteroid concentration in the
blood was high in the transported calves
during the journey and immediately
after unloading, but returned to normal
by the next day. A stress-associated in-
crease in neutrophils was observed in
the blood samples taken after unloading
calves. Clinical illness (signs of illness
such as watery eyes and runny noses)
was more severe in the transported
calves than in the control calves, as
shown in the figure. Peak corticosteroid
concentration was only slightly higher
after castration than after trucking.
In both studies, calves were haltered
and handled daily for a week before sam-
ple collection began. This conditioning
helped reduce the added stress response
animals typically have to unaccustomed
handling, even when it is gentle.
The endocrine and immune changes
observed in these studies suggest that
immune function is briefly suppressed
following common livestock handling
practices. An association between the
release of stress hormones and tempo-
rary depression of immune function
helps to explain the high incidence of
respiratory disease in newly received
feeder calves. Since this stress response
is unavoidable but predictable, possible
control measures may include prewean-
ing or preconditioning calves before ad-
ditional stress is added. Special attention
to infectious disease control when hand-
ling stressed calves and judicial use of
prophylactic antibiotics are measures
currently available. In the future, calves
will probably be given short-acting drugs
that stimulate the immune system dur-
ing the immediate post-stress period.
Brunner is Assistant Professor of Pathobiology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
10
J.J. MOLNAR and L.S. WU
SOME FARMERS DON'T SHARE PUBLIC CONCERN
ABOUT ANIMAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
FARMERS FACE an increasingly
critical public as the environ-
mental consequences of many
present day farm practices, in-
cluding animal waste treatment and dis-
posal, are measured and recognized.
Concerns about environmental pollution
and runoff into streams from animal
housing and confinement areas and over-
loaded waste treatment and storage fa-
cilities are causing greater scrutiny of
the way farmers manage animal waste.
Despite this increased awareness, some
farmers don't share the public's concern,
according to a recent Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station survey.
In the summer of 1988, 753 question-
naires were sent to a random sample of
farmers in Cullman and Blount counties
in north Alabama. The 357 farmers who
responded to the survey described the
animal waste disposal facilities on their
farms and the way they usually managed
their animal waste. From these re-
sponses, researchers developed consen-
sus perceptions by farmers on several
waste management issues.
The table shows the percentage distri-
bution of the 357 responses to several
statements about the animal waste issue.
Results reveal that few respondents saw
a need to make changes in the way ani-
mal waste is handled on their farms,
since only 7.7% acknowledged the need
for action. About 14% saw farm animal
waste as a major pollution problem in the
county's streams and rivers and 18% re-
garded animal waste as a serious water
quality problem. Similarly, 19% felt that
the government should pay farmers to
practice pollution control.
New regulations for drinking water
and waste treatment are causing signifi-
cant new costs for animal producers, and
this was evident in the survey. Although
about one-third of the respondents felt
that new regulations are badly needed,
about the same percentage felt that en-
vironmental controls are making it
harder to run a farm. And, about 47%
felt that concern for pollution control is
often carried too far. However, about
65% agreed that farmers
who pollute streams
should be financially 
pen- Sta
alized. Over 68% be-
lieved that their neigh- I know I must
bors properly dispose of changes in
their animal waste, 
while waste 
is hay
74% responded 
that farm- Farm 
animal
source of p
ers in the surveyed coun- 
county's riv
ties generally do 
a good Farm 
animal
job of managing their ani- water quali
mal waste. The governm
farmers to ]
The results illustrate a control...
gradient of opinion about Laws regulati
on-farm 
environmental 
pollution fr
are badly n
management that is con- Environment
sistent with previous re- making it h
search on conservation run my far
practices. Only a few 
re- Given the ec
spondents 
acknowledged 
concern wi
the necessity of making far.......
changes in the way animal Farmers who
waste is handled 
on their 
should be f
penalized.
farms. Most farm opera- penalized.
tors have an optimistic dispos of my n
perspective for 
them- Farmers in th
selves and their peers, generally d
and they do not recognize 
managing
the potential of their pres-
ent management practices
to generate pollution.
Moreover, many are un-
sure about the impor-
tance of environmental
measures, which not only
benefit the general public,
but also farmers, their spq
families, 
and surrounding 
eqt
communities.
Other industries have
achieved high levels of
compliance with environ-
mental regulations,
whereas farmers have long
been able to forestall constraints on the
way they grow crops and raise animals.
Today, concerns about public health,
water quality, and species diversity have
at least equal footing with the farmer's
right to make a profit. New rules about
how agriculture can affect the environ-
CEPTIONS OF ANIMAL WASTE ISSUES, BLOUNT AND
CULLMAN COUNTIES, 1988
tement Agree Uncertain Disagree
Pct. Pct. Pct.
t make some
the way animal
ndled on my farm 7.7 18.0 74.3
waste is a major
ollution in this
vers and streams 14.6 28.6 56.8
waste is a serious
ty problem ...... 18.4 42.1 39.5
ent should pay
practice pollution
19.2 29.2 51.6
ing water
'om farm animals
eeded .......... 32.9 41.0 26.1
al controls are
arder for me to
m .............. 34.5 34.2 31.3
onomic realities,
th pollution
ften carried too
................ 47.2 26.4 26.4
pollute streams
financially
................ 65.0 25.8 9.2
eighbors properly
their animal waste 68.5 21.1 10.4
his county
1o a good job of
heir animal waste 74.0 21.5 4.5
oday, concerns about public
health, water quality, and
ecies diversity have at least
ual footing with the farmer's
right to make a profit.
ment and better enforcement of the old
ones are facts of life for today's farm op-
Molnar is Professor and Wu is Resarch Assis-
tant of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociol-
ogy
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 11
R.H. SMITH, J.D. HARPER, and M.J. GAYLOR
DISEASES, PARASITES HELP CONTROL
BEET ARMYWORMS IN COTTON
Beet armyworms hatching on underside of cotton leaf. Beet armyworm killed by a viral disease.
T H1:F BEET ARMYWORM has
bee wi sp)oradlic p~est of cotton for
luath w ats, with large populla-
tioni oultbreaks oftent occurring in
years with dirysumm11 ers. IDuring these
dryS years, bleet ariiworts attack cotton
as early as the seedllinlg stage of the crop.
H owev er, there is tisually little damage
becauise the insects mnainly feed on foli-
age and1( are 'on t ro lled Iby natura l biolog-
ical agents.
It w~as a (lif'leretit story ini 1988, with
miajor damnage from the pest occuirri ng
ont large acreages in the State. Beet ar-
mywormns were first ob)served fe'eding on
seedling cottoni ini Monroe County on
May 18. By id-
1
June, this pest had se-
verely (dolijated several fields in Lee
Cont. Duirinig the last 2 weeks of June,
these worms wei'e feeding on 1)oth foli-
age andI squ ares in imos t fields in the
sandyI soil areas of soultheastern Ala-
I ania.
Th'le first 1988 ouitbreaks in most corn-
mnitics were in fields with sandy soils,
where the plants were u~nder stress from
the dIrouight. These infestations declined
1
slightly in early July, only to reappear 2
wee ks later. G;rowers imm nedliately tried
to control the voting worms, but insecti-
cidlal treatments were less effective than
those appl iedl in Junie. No in sect icidle
consistently reduncedl populations to be-
low ec( oomiiic inljuItry levels.
Dutriiig id- to late July, beet army-
worms fed heav ily on squares and
blooms. At this time, somic growers be-
gan ahanidoning fields in which all fruit
had beeni destroyed.
Beet arinyworm s spread throughout
Alahama and the Midsouth in early Au-
gust. Ultimatel, this pest causedl eco-
nom ic loss on approxi mately 50,000
acres of cotton in southeastern Alabama,
and smaller p~opulations infested the rest
of' the State's acreage.
Because of poor control obtained with
insecticidles, and hecause natural mor-
tality factors have prev iously controlled
beet armyworms effectively, research on
niatural control was begun lby the Ala-
lbama Agricultural Experiment Station.
The studies were meant to idenitify nat-
ural mortality factors impacting the p~est
and
1 
to seek methods of using them to ad-
vantage. In many of the most heavily at-
tacked fields in east-central Alabama,
many worms were attackedl by a dlisease
andl by small, parasitic wasps. Incidence
of, the disease, which was cauisedI by an
insect virus, was extremely variable.
In late July, over 70% of beet army-
worms in some fields died from disease,
but by the time their populations de-
clined in early August, only about 30%h of
the worms were infected. lIn southeast-
ern Alabama, only ab~out 10% of the
worms were infe~cted in August.
A field test conducted near Dothan
providled preliminary info~rmation on the
eflicacy of the virus. lIn this test, treat-
muent with any of' three rates of the virus,
which was isolated from field-collected
wormrs, causedl significantly higher beet
army worm mortality (range =31% to
45% and .51%'/ to 69% at 1 and 5 (lays post-
treatmnt, respectively) than in uin-
treatedl plots (5% and 10%4 at I and 5 (lays
post-treatment). Mortality due to para-
sites in these plots ranged from 8% to
24%.
Several species of parasites were
reared from field-collected worms, buht
only two sp~ecies wer e comuimion. Thmese
have no common names, hut are known
by the scientific names C'otesia miargi-
niventris aiid Meteorus rubens. In areas
where the virus was most prevalent,
ahout 11% of' the worms were also par-
asitized by these wasps. In southern Ala-
hama, where the virus was less pre'va-
lent, 23% to 43% of the worms were
parasitized.
logether, the virus and parasites con-
trolled most hect armyxworm p)opuilation s
in August. Unfortunately, this was too
late to prevent substantial dlamage to
many fields. Thus, although the coinbi-
nation of dlisease and parasites offers
comnsidlerab~le promise f'or controlling this
pest on cotton, b~etter ways of' utilizing
these factors are needed.
Smith is Professor, liar per is formier Professor,
arid Gaylor is Associate. Professor of Entormology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
K.C. SANDERSON and J.A. McGUIRE
GROWTH REGULATORS FOR AFRICAN VIOLETS
Use In creases Number of Plantlets and Weight of Propagated Plants
tolrs arc xid ue to iniproxc
qial its of' numilerouls floist
cIoops Noxx thlere is reearch
cidex ,(1( that such~l eheniids can b
used1 to adlxailtagl in priopagatinig African
violets, one1 of Ani-iia s iiost 
1
)0tiliai
hiouiseplanits. Both numberihl~ of fplait
and~ (lry we ighit of propaf~gatedl p)lait
(eeirasedl by growxthi regijlatol
.spasin A 0.laliaiia Agriicultuiial i'\pei1
((Iase li diii inl plaints), xere
wxeir spriaye onI dev ~xeloping shoots fron11
tix at. C ompiari sons wxere tiat
1  
xx ithi
shoots fron1 r ootedl leaf cuit Iings that re-
the leal xxas broken. (D~etails aiboult Abi-
scibiod in the box.)
'Rvo cuttings.~ wx're p~lac(d init teint-like
p)ositio in aI 1-tini. pot con~tainling e(fial
x ollines of spl agniliu p~eat mloss aind pcr-
hitc aoeild xxithl fertilizer and it awxt-
tinig ageint. Cuttinigs xxr pi fropagatedl
.5,001 It anles illiuinatioi. Spira lng
(If(Axelping shoots ('/ in. long) fotlloxxed
oin [iiniiry 29.
Spirax trealtmlents xweie: (1) spr!ayinug
xwithi 50 p pim. (pairts per million ) ;A,
(2) spiraxing xwithl l1ft p. p.mi. PHBA, and
(:3) sprax ing xxith 50 ).1).p. G A fhdloxxed
bx l10t p). p). in. PBA. Sprax xwas applliedl
loxw-pressuire spraxei.
manuaiilly reiInig thIn leaf ar-ea bx o1e-
hall aecr0s5 th ll(iidin(i.
Spin tg xxithi the comiOnation1 of .50
p.n. gibbeirellie acid and~ 10t) f).pl~ui
and~ plant let (diX wx ight imor 1 thanl ainx
N-(phl clitix j -) 1t1i l ix(i -'? 11 rn2-xl-
*CHECKr
Growth differences illustrate effects of growth regulator treatments: left-no treatment; mid-
dle-leaf break; right-50 ppm. GA then 100 pp.m. PBA.
Nt r(ii ( ' N (r i i (xx IIIr 141 ( .nnn luls i
lo \\ IC11.11 Il Pr l i i 14(11(1 (I
Al I,( I\ \11)11 I 1,1 : F
511 i C ( . .. .. . 7.5 I. l
lul .) .1 P IH SA .. . . S 1 1.4
50 P Iiit (. A + IN) 10.2 1.5
Ll breaik .. . .. . . S5 1-
oIthlr treatmen~it. Ex\tent of, this increase
1(1straltedi bx the pho~ltograph. GA alon01
aind PBA ailone cau~sedi so)ic increase ini
fpiaitiet nunthller~ ad xxeight, as dlid tihl
labnor-intinsive leaf bieaking treatmnet.
lbh (GA treatmen~its tended(( to elongate
leaxls and~ stem~s, resuiltin~g ini talilr
1)iaitlets. Inl one or txxo in~stances, (A-
treatedi plianlts produceed flowxers.
R(sulits of, this ir(seairch indicate that
the comin~~iationl GA- PBA sprayx canib
slucessflulix usedl to increase tihl ilulllli
of fpantiets produlIcedi i hi Afiall x ilct
leaf, bliade cuttin~gs. This treatmleint xwas
mlol ( (ifeelix than tihe leaf hi eaking
me)thod,( aind labior requlirieents shold~
ibe I(55 xxithl the spray treatmneit.
Sailii soji is Piiilix.ui of i ot10 1 11 aulii 111
511,1(11i ii .uedf R sexarchi Datal~ Aasis.
P ropagation of
African Violets
African violets are
propagated by leaf cuttings,
with or without a stem. Those
propagated without stems
produce more small plants
(plantlets) or crowns.
One method used to
increase plantlet numbers is to
break the leaf blade in half at
rooting as the new shoots
emerge.
Developing plantlets
and shoots with roots are
usually divided into young
plants.
Some growers remove
the roots from shoots, and the
graded shoots are rerooted to
obtain uniform plants.
Atalmincr A-,cultural 1,1'xj)er-inwnf Station
H.S. LARSEN, D.B. SOUTH, and H.M. WILLIAMS
PINE SEEDLING ROOT GROWTH IS REDUCED BY
DEFOLIATION AND SHADING
GOOD SURVIVAL after trans-
planting depends largely on a
pine seedling's ability to
quickly produce new roots to
reestablish an intimate root/soil contact.
Therefore, many seedlings that die dur-
ing the first year after transplanting do so
because they cannot extract sufficient
soil water. Pine seedling physiology re-
search at the Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station indicates that both
shading and defoliation reduce the pro-
duction of new roots.
Many tree planters mistakenly believe
that growth of pine roots depends only
on existing food reserves stored in the
root system. Though a large, fibrous root
system is important, it does not always
guarantee abundant root production
RGP, no. of new roots New shoo
140 -
RGP
120 -Shoot 
grc
100
80 -
60 -
40 -
20
None Lower half All
Amount of foliage removed
RGP, no. of new roots New shoc
1 RGP
80 
Shoo
60
40
20 -.
Light Shade Dark
soon after transplanting, which is vital
for seedling survival.
Auburn greenhouse studies were used
to determine some of the factors that af-
fect the potential of seedlings to produce
new roots. The number (or weight) of
new roots produced during a 3- or 4-
week period in the greenhouse is re-
ferred to as the root growth potential
(RGP) of the seedling. This technique
was used to determine the effect of de-
foliation and shading on RGP.
For the defoliation study, seedlings
(root collar diameter larger than 1/8 in.)
were sampled from a loblolly pine nurs-
ery in December 1986. All the foliage
was stripped from 40 seedlings, while
none was removed from 80 seedlings.
Another 80 seedlings had the lower half
(52%) of the foliage re-
t growth, in. moved. 
All seedlings
-0.7 were 
root-pruned to 
7 in.
below the root collar and
owth - 0.6 any 
new white root 
tips
-0.5 were removed prior to
0.4 
potting. 
The containers
were kept on a heated
0.3 rooting bed (at about
0.2 77?F) for 
28 days. After
removal from the cartons,
0.1 the number 
and weight of
0o all new roots were re-
corded.
FIG. 1 (top). Effect of defoliation on root growth potential and
shoot growth of loblolly pine seedlings. FIG. 2 (bottom). Ef-
fect of light intensity on root growth potential and shoot
growth of loblolly pine seedlings.
For the shading study,
30 container-grown seed-
lings (root collar diameter
greater than 3/1 in.) were
placed in a hydroponic
RGP tank in March 1987.
One-third of the seed-
lings were placed in the
dark, while another one-
third were placed in a
shaded area. The temper-
ature of the seedlings was
maintained at 77?F.E The
amount of new shoot
growth and the number of
new roots were recorded
after 21 days.
Removing foliage from
the lower half of the seedling reduced
the number of new roots by 19%, figure
1, and the dry weight of new roots by
35%. Removal of all the foliage resulted
in almost no new root or shoot growth.
Previous studies have demonstrated that
girdling loblolly pine seedlings at the
root collar also will prevent new root
growth. These results suggest that new
root growth of loblolly pine is dependent
on current photosynthate instead of
stored carbohydrates in the root system.
Therefore, a second study was con-
ducted to determine if seedlings with in-
tact foliage would produce new roots in
total darkness.
Shading seedlings reduced RGP by
44%, figure 2. Although seedlings kept
in total darkness did produce a few new
roots, these roots could have been pro-
duced from photosynthate produced
during the few days before seedlings
were placed in the dark. In contrast, new
shoot growth was reduced by only 13%
by shading or 38% by complete dark-
ness. The differential effect of shade on
new shoot growth indicates that new
shoot growth is not as dependent on cur-
rent photosynthate as is root growth.
It is important that tree planters un-
derstand how loblolly pine seedlings pro-
duce new roots. Photosynthesis and new
root growth can be reduced if the seed-
lings are chlorotic, if the stem is injured
to the point of inhibiting translocation, if
seedlings are allowed to dry out before
planting, or if lateral roots are removed
prior to planting. Root growth also will
be reduced if the seedling is planted un-
der tall weeds that provide dense shade
or if foliage is eaten by rabbits, deer, or
insects. Avoiding such abuses should
help improve survival when seedlings
are planted on marginal crop land or in
years of below normal rainfall.
Larsen is Associate Professor, South is Associate
Professor, and Williams is Research Specialist of
Forestry.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
)t growth, in.
7.0
t growth 5.6
4.2
2.8
1.4
k
14
- A.K. HAGAN, R.T. GUDAUSKAS, W.S. GAZAWAY, R.A. SHELBY,J.M. MULLEN, J.R. WEEKS, and J.C. FRENCH
TOMATO SPOTTED WILT VIRUS STILL
A THREAT TO PEANUTS
T O\1AT \I)S
1
TII I) wXill v ill's
( XS X' vas fo1und( tol the fir st
tim lin pl Ieanults ill Alabalia ini
T1986 (as reported 
ini tilt Springi.
19S7 i sstue (If IligIIli~ 1hs.5 A . \\ con- '5((l
cause signiificanit damiiage toI tilt peanult
crop,) 51115155 we(r( ctiiledi iln 1987
aid 1988. So far-, hlow~ever, TS\VV has nolt
Simiilar to 198(6, one fi('ld for (ah
5,00(0 acelo') peaiuts p1(r counllty XXas
Faci area conlsistedl of 100 ft. of twoI ad-
jaecnI rowXs for a total of 1,000) rowX-ft. per'
field. I ('aX I' andthoo1((ts of plan1ts, sus-
re'tuirned' tIo Aubiurn foIr te'sting for 1'SyW
Stand tielsilX inl (achlfield Xwa', (sti-
iln (ahIl fieli.
Symilptomsl 5obIservXed oin dI',isased
planits ini 1987 andt 1988 Xwer( simlilar tol
spoin lg and~ miottlihng of filiagc, stunting
In 1987, 'iS\VV-infeCcted p~eanuits were
1(11111( inl 33 (If 68 fields, aiid ill at least
11n1 field inl 1) of, the 11 clollntics sull
V('\ed, talte I. Inid~en~e oI! virusis,-
cahsed l )anits was lowV ranlginig fromn 0 to
0.27%4 Xwithin fields' andt ave (raginlg oly~
0.024% acoss' all filds(1 andt counl~ties.
'tile sulrXv was e'xpanded'( to 81 fields
in 12 couluties in 1988. Pe'annt plan~ts inl-
fetled XXith1 the Xvirlus Xwere fouind in 73 of
thie81 fiettds, ilIvolvin~g all 12 colltltics, ta-
il1 1. Inclidience oIf diseased plants, al-
tihoulgh ihighier tihani in 1987, was againi
Though occurrence of tomato
spotted wilt virus is widespread,
damage from the disease re-
mains low in Alabama.
low(X ill 1988, aXveraginig ft.20'%
for- all fieldis andl~ lalwgilg fron11
I0 to I.57ek wXitin fields,.
Stnmliari.'ing the iesults
(If all su rv (X s taken to date,
TS\Vinlfttdt peanut
planlts 5wX (rt foundlt iln 157 (If
20:3 fields, or 77% of the
fildls sillX (S (d (1111-ilng 1986-
88. The hiighiest inlcidience (If
dIiseasedi planlts ilS fields
94(Y 1t XXd witin fields (0-
3.11 Ie av (rage 01) 9%) oc-'
curredh ini 1986, the ve'ar that
XXV was dis(ove(redl ill
p)(anults in tihe State, tablle 2.
Fo~rtunlatelS, ihavy losses
to I SX'V, hai no ' I t Ioccue d t
('v (', tihe plotenltial fia- a Xwidle
sprl ati disease ou~tibreak
tiedaryx(Xi sts giS enI tilt geni-
that carrl tile (distast, pri-
mlarily westerni flow~er thiils
lossest" ill pe(anults ill Te'xas iln
1985 and~ 1986. Consc-'
cies (If, thi popuI(I~llationls iln
tAlaama XXill con~ltillul tol lbe
W."K
I J 
y
..
,.
I(tr III Icc (H1R11 I VI OlI 1-(XIXl d11111 I\\IIha AVi' 1115s
IN. Pl1 X\(I I\, :N i XIIXsI
Pr,11 I'll
( :r n s .........
Ilen e ... ... ..
1 988u
Bulle111.............
(11111'......
11111 u ... .. ..
i ng o ........III
( n ns a I .........
DI ... .. .. ..
CcnI a...IX..1
Ilen e' .. . ..X
1111 o ...... ...
Pi'ke . . .. . . .
FiIld 11t11 disese plnt/otlXild lIcvd
1/5
2.3
2/8
1/5
2/3
2/6
7/ 1
2/10I
S I(I
.3/5
(0/3
5/ 6
2/.3
2/3
5/9
3/33
4/1
.3,3
6/6
11/12
11 '11
14/15
6/6
Xlahooia Xric ual Ex1~pt'rimnit S tationl
TI ~ti 2. ( J ru EM F~l Ni I'o c S OX XII '1) W \iii V'iiws
i\ l'i- %%I IX isi Al XHIt\t 1986-88~
1987 . . . . . .. 1 0) .27 .02
1988 . . .. . . . 90) 0 I 157 19
Counh Fields with
and hear diseased plants
J.E. BROWN, M.G. PATTERSON, and M.C. CALDWELL
SOIL SoLARIzATIoN/CHIcKEN MANURE POSSIBLE
ALTERNATIVE WEED CONTROL
Effects of different lengths of solarization
and chicken manure on germination of
sicklepod and morningglory seed.
SOIL SOLARIZATION is the
p~rocess of' isinig clear poly ethyl-
('le plastic filiei dulrinig summe
falloss periodls to captuire solai
(1n(1gs andl~ produlice soil telOJpciatlires
high~I eiiouigh to cont rol many annuoal
w~eedls and kill sonic1 (disease-causinig or-
ganlismis. In tests at the Alabamiia Agri-
cuiltuiial Experiient Station, Soil Soli-
ztio io n o mbOinaii!tioni w~ith chicken
mainire eflectiscix contriolled sicklepod
adil iii(rniiigglors.
lIn the I":x~perin ilet S tatioin tests,
chicken iianiure was mixed with steril-
ized soil at the rate of,8 tons pcr acr e.
TIhe Inialll re g(I eicratcd high con ceint ra-
tioins of aiiiooia for better soil pest (con-
trol and providled fer tilizer for siihse-
(lielit crop~s. 'I'li( chicken mianire/soil
solaiziatioin treatments wseie suilse-
(licil rated for- sicklepod and morning-
glor con01trnol.
'Iss ('ts5 weed seedls for each species
wsere planted ini the chI icken mianuri -soil
ixi iii P (I pipe cx lind(ers 1I5 ini. long
1';11, 1 ()1 ( I N H 1t 'i1 a (;1\t ) S 51,
S(I uirISIIN S NS) (V1:: INr!~
Ct~iVIA:111% A\(; lIol .1(
(;1 .. ..I. II 19
CM +N -t week SS 76 68
(A \I I ssc'1k SS" 99 99
(;1 +I 6-weIIk SS 1001 lot)
2-wee'Ik SS .... 75 76
1- S S ....... 96 96
No ( NI noS . 0 0
andl 6 ini. in diamieter ) ini field plots dur-i
iig id ~-Ju ne. C:lear plastic was then
placed ov cr the dIrip) irrigated cyli nder
p)lots. Rubiber lxands held the clear plastic
onito the csyliinders, wshich exteindedl 2 in.
abos e the soil line. lImmiediately follow-
iing solarizatioin periodls (If 2, 4f and~ 6
wseeks, the plastic film swas renmedl and
weedI sp~ecies were (coilntc'd aind re-
cord(edl. Reul5its are give ('in tile tab~le.
The solariz'ed chicken mannure-soil
niii pro' illel 
99
c coitriol (of both w~eedl
species after a 4-wseek solarizatioin pe-
riod. These results were comlparable to
those wshere sw eds sserie groswn in the
absence of' chlicken ioaioiic buht uiinder
the same so(laizat ioni tre( atmi(ent s. Unso-
laizc/d chicken imainiire-soil mix' pro-
v ided 41% and 19%c 'ointrol of' mlorinig-
glory and sicklepod, respectively. Plots
wit hIout chlickei mniur ie an d sol aizationH
re(sullted iln no) weed (control (iratedl as
III j111 11111' I(II 1111 at OI III sm i1
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
de'pthis ini solaiz ed aind ul51 ii (d p~lots
with chicken iiainuic aveiraged 2.51F and
I01" h ighe, re(spective(l, thlan iii plolts
swill iio chicken iiainure or' solaization
ex\posurle. HIighi teiipeiratuies aire piro1)
aly responisihble f'oir weedl contirol ini the
stuidl. sshich c'orrespond~s wsithl tihe fiid-
a(ttibutedl the contol0 (of weedh popula-
tions1 to( eevatedol i tei iij)'iat 0 ies.
D~espite the high cost of p)lastic, thlis
w~eed c'oiitiol method nmax he ('doni-~
calls feasible fi' hoime gaidens and small
acireages (1-5 acies') of' field ori horticl-
timral crops. The ability oIf this cuiltural
pr'actice to con(ltrl( wseeds l 51lei's ain aIte(ri
inative( to thle use1 of' expenisiv'e and i -
strlic'ted pestiides '. Ill sn ic I aireas o f Al a
baina, sser hdi'(ispiosal (of chIickein litter is
a prlolemii it lilax pro(id itll awsor'thwshile
lisd' folr this pouilti'y indostix bypr
1
)oduict.
Bioc is Asisan Pileso of,, I loric II Ic
PatI o isA ssa t rfso o \,~oll n(
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. 9
AUBURN, ALA.
: . . -. ,..o
'1,