b _ _ _ _ U5f ~ f J 4 'S a- r' a, - h w 4 tr . "- f p S ~ * ~- !. 'P & * r ,~ PS -a VP'-.., pp. -p., V 4- y 'A -S. Pr ~ 5 4 4 . k 44 * t- perl S tation c 4 P~* -'4 Au~burn ; w i , * S 4 I p S 4L2 P. a y p;. a ti n a r 4+ R 1 F It.L ,a, d Director's Comments MIAY WE INTRODUCE T HE ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL xperi r ment Station is likely to be in the nes in the wseeks ahead because of an "Auburn first''I ini genet ic engeineerinig. This first, a transeic cat IIfih des eloped in cooperatis e research ssith scientists fr om Uinis ersity of Alabama-Birmingham and Johns-f-op- kins LUniversity, represents a major accomplishment from Auburn's emerging genetic engineering program . . that is seeking news and better methods of prodneing food and fiber. What makes this cattish unique-and wshich wsill like- Iy create nationwside interest-is that it has a human LOWELL T. FROBISH gene (a growsth hormone gene) in its genetic makeup. 'This successf ul incorporation of a specific gene is the first step in a genetic engineering project that could offer significant improv ement in groswthI rate and efficiencv of commercial cattish. The nexti step requires grossing ihe fish in an experimental pond ensvironment wshere reproduction can occur to serif N that o1ffspring retain the introduced grossth gene and to measure growsth rate and efficienev. Anot her first inv olved is the approv at process f or introducition of genetic- ally engineered animals into an experimental outdoor env ironment. An Agictultural Biotechnology Research Advisors C ommittee (AI3RA(') has been established by USDA to help assure the safety of agricultural r esearclh ins ols ing genieticalls engineered plants and aninmals. Auburn's transgenic cafi sih is the first snch animal to be considered by ABRAC in this detiberatis e process. At this wsriling, Auburn U ni etrsits is aswailing A BRAC appr osat for~ pond I est lt i Special pond facilities will be used to protect these valuable r esearclh animals and to presvent any possibility of their escaping. In addition to secuitus fences, double screens wsill be used on pond drains arid netting wsill cos er the ponds to ptresenit bird predation. Esemy precaution swill be taken in handling. If sw e err it wsill be on the side of caut ion. AlthIough it is much too ear ly to claim great economic s alue fot the trarns- genie f isht, success of the scientitfic approach arid its potential pr actical svattic are exciting. Being able to produce a marketable calf ish in a shorticr lime and ssithi less feed input swould help the commercial calf ish industi istake fullt ad- anitage oft its opportunities. O1tier potential benefits from genet ie entgtneeiring in catfIisfh could come front incorporating genes for disease r esistance arid tolerance to such factors as losw dissolsved 0\5 cen. Arts release ot a geneticalls engineered fish for commercial use is likels to be sear s aa, and ssill depend on deliberate, painstaking research in the s cars ahead. Many opportunities exist for adsvaricerment through genietic engineer- ing, but cant ion dictates a sloss and deliberate pace to such swoirk. 1"1 11 ER 19881 O 0. 35, No. 2 A qoatel rc steport ot reseat ch poblished be th tiAlabama Net colt oral I'\pcttertnt Statiuon, \xiboi itUntix cisits. I Ok)\\ I I 1. 1 RII ISI ..... itectot IDA\ It) H. Tb L1 . .Assistauii Ditrector R.I .'S 1.\ [NS N .... .... . Editot R( I RIOBLRSON .. ssiociale Editor K \NI I SMiIIH ..... ssisiatnt F dir 11 RI-SA RODlRIGUL ../ Nit lDesi'tie I (ilorinil Cmmnittee: I Ltxsell 1. I t thislt; P.AN. Duft I, I 55150rnr I!0.n(('ssii1 c/l cuilturail 1 LL)/u)/?ILic i{ Ix'iiii Rw S ocio/o"Yi i/ll i ll lnes; I P. NMack,.- 4xso- LI/Il' Irio/tssor iilIiiuiiiculogyi, G.J Kcexcr et IS.SochilL 11 Io/L's.iol o/ 11o1)111 culiur'; R.FI. Keit hi, 1 'socjil Priofl',so o/ \'itiouu 11( 1 uds; A.J. Lathiamt .I.. Rctdcrt, I 550LlalL'/Ii/' Prlsin oi Iou/lu I Sclit',"; D.BH. South I. I sluiu P1oIi/i'sxoi oi l rll 1/sI ).,\. 'so ii''tclaxx R.1 . 'Stcxinsont. D)1. John 1Pl111th, i't atssor of I ishct- ics and Allied Aqua ultores. A natis ofci asneshoro. %'ir- 'oiPlumb catte to Auhurn front the I .S. I-ish and Wild- lie setsic tv hie he l~ sets d tot ses eral sears as a f ish hatchety mtantager anid bioloiti. He came to .\bt it in 1969 as ati iitsit o it tisheries atid wa s piontilcid to tull protiessoir itt t986. l'tiittb earned a B.S. decree It om BHidge- wxalet (College, arn M.S. degree tirom Southlerni I Ilintois Unix er sits, arid the Ph.D. fronit Aubfurn. WXelI knownx to cL atfish prodUCir it Itic State, Pluitb wxas presented a Distin- guishted Set x ice \xx aid bx C atfish Fat met of ,nttet tca in 1982 attd sets ed tor sex eral seats as Associate Fditoi ot 1Tte Procressix e F ish Cuoltutrist maua'rtte. lumiib's resea cli at Auburn deals wxitt siral and bacterial diseases iot fish, ittitint Ltloe5 and saccinatiotn, atnd eniionmetntal in- lt act iLons xwith f ishi diseases. His xxor k on suit xix al tate of bass Caught and then released durtn tietsting trodeos is epor ted ott page 4 of I his isvii, itf Iil'/i1011 ON THE COVER. Wheat following soybeans should be planted as soon as possible after soybean harvest, according to research results reported in the story on page 8. I!D11IlOk'S NOl I Mencition oii iiidc namiiis dILes no1 inidicate Cliduil i~ient ht he \Iahanma \egiciultui al I ypCinmcnt Sta- 1t it of te bi and ovxei iiuithci \rix us~e ot pestiidec rates in Csccs at labeled aiiiitiinti ini I eeai ch T eported does not consut'iie recoimimeindaitin Lt suChI late. Suieh use is simtply pat ofi the sciettiic in- x estieciliot ntecessat 5 to C\ ,diate \ at is mate! is. No chciil sh~ould be used at rales iax ec those pet milled b\ thle lahel. infatomation cont ainied lhetei n is ax ailahie Li .ill \5 i lout I egartd ILo i a.c , cl)IL , sc\, Increased Vertical Control Helps Egg Industry and Consumers H.W. KINNUCAN and A.H. BRAND VERTICAL CONTROL, the linking of successive marketing or production stages by direct ownership or contracts, is becoming an increasingly important structural char- acteristic of agricultural markets. Be- tween 1960 and 1980, the portion of U.S. farm output produced under con- tracts or vertical integration increased from 19% to 30% on a dollar volume basis. Vertical control in some in- dustries, such as sugarcane, seed crops, fluid milk, vegetables for processing, potatoes, citrus fruits, sugar beets, eggs, broilers, and turkeys, is dominant, ac- counting for over 90% of sales volume. What are the economic implications of this trend toward increased vertical control in agricultural markets? Do some segments of society benefit at the expense of others, or does increased ver- tical control have a beneficial impact on all affected parties? Recent research by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, focusing on vertical control in the U.S. egg industry, has begun to answer these questions. The egg industry was chosen for analysis because of its importance to the Alabama agricultural economy (third largest revenue gener- ator in 1986) and the rapid increase in vertical control since 1960, table 1. Theoretically, economic impacts of vertical control can be linked to the motivations of the firms involved. Two basic motivations can be identified: pro- duction efficiency and market power en- hancement. A firm (e.g., egg packing plant) that integrates backward in an at- tempt to stabilize the supply or quality of raw materials or to obtain better in- formation about its price is motivated by efficiency concerns. This type of ver- tical control, assuming that the cost of internal organization to the firm does not rise appreciably, will result in net cost savings. On the other hand, a firm may integrate forward or backward in an effort to block new entrants into the industry by increasing financing costs, introducing supply risks, and by reduc- ing the size of potential markets for would-be rivals. In this case, the result may be higher costs, especially if there are correlated increases in industry concentration. Because neither motive for vertical control in the U.S. egg industry can be rejected on theoretical grounds, econo- metric models were developed to test these two hypotheses. The coordination hypothesis (Model A, table 2) assumes increased vertical control results in reduced marketing costs because of economies achieved through improved coordination of economic activity be- tween vertical exchange points. The con- centration hypothesis (Model B) as- sumes that increased vertical control results in higher marketing costs because of excess plant capacity, higher selling costs, higher profit margins, and other factors associated with enhanced market power. The econometric models, based on quarterly data for 1972-84, indicated re- jection of the concentration hypothesis. In other words, the increased industry concentration associated with vertical control had no discernible effect on egg marketing margins during the period covered by the analysis. The same models indicated support for the coordination hypothesis. In par- ticular, a significant negative net rela- tionship was observed between vertical control and egg marketing costs (defined as the difference between retail and farm prices for eggs). Specifically, each per- centage point increase in the volume of eggs produced under vertical control was estimated to reduce the farm-retail egg margin between 0.171 and 0.20 per dozen in real terms. Applied to the ac- tual change in vertical control between 1973 and 1983, these estimates indicated a decline in egg marketing costs of be- tween 4.60 and 5.30 per dozen, table 2. Because real egg marketing margins de- clined 8.20 per dozen over this period, these results suggest that between 56 0 and 65 0 of the decline is attributable to vertical control. Because marketing margins are de- fined as the difference between retail and farm price, a decline in the market- ing margin implies a reduction in retail price, an increase in farm price, or both. The extent to which retail and farm prices adjust to changes in the marketing margin depends on the nature of the de- mand curve for the retail product and the supply curve for the farm based in- put. Based on results of past research to indicate the nature of these curves, ver- tical control reduced retail egg prices an estimated 3.80 to 4.30 per dozen and in- creased farm prices 0.77? to 1.00? per dozen over the 1973-83 period, table 2. The results of this research suggest that increased vertical control of the egg industry had a favorable impact: mid- dlemen became more efficient and, as a result, consumers paid less for eggs and producers received more. Kinnucan is Assistant Professor and Brand is a former Graduate Research Assistant of Agri- cultural Economics and Rural Sociology. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station .,: reve "IJ ARGEMOUTH BASS fishing tournaments have become pop- ular in the Southeast during the past 15 years. Bass that are caught are held in boat live wells until the end of the tournament day, weighed, then re- leased back into the lake. Many of these fish may die within a few days and are not available to other fishermen, caus- ing concern by the public and by state conservation agencies. To help answer the question of post- tournament survival, a series of "mini- tournaments" was set up on a 14-acre pond on the Fisheries Research Unit of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Tournaments were held in Aug- ust, November, February, May, and July to determine the seasonal effects on survival of released bass. Largemouth bass were caught by artificial lures, then either (1) immediately released into a pond environment, (2) held in aerated live wells with a therapeutic additive (water conditioner) for 3 to 9 hours before release, or (3) held in aerated live wells containing only pond water for 3 to 9 hours before release. All fish were marked by fin clipping to identify their treatment and were stocked into ponds for 6 weeks, at which time the fish were harvested and counted to determine sur- vival by treatment. Total numbers of largemouth bass caught and released in each of the three treatments were: (1) immediate release- 90; (2) held in live wells with water conditioner-85; (3) held in live wells without water conditioner-87. Overall, 99010 of largemouth bass that were released immediately survived, see table. This compared to 960o survival for fish held in conditioned water and 9101o survival for fish held in noncondi- tioned water. These data indicate a small but significant increase in survival of fish when a water conditioner was added to live wells. When comparing the seasonal survi- val of bass in tournaments, the highest survival of released bass occurred after the February tournament, when 100010 of released fish from all treatments were recovered, see table. The next highest survival was after the August tourna- ment, when the only death was one fish in the nonconditioned water treatment. Survival after this tournament may have been influenced by adding cool water to the live wells which reduced the temper- ature in the wells from 88 0 F to 80 0 F. Also, rainy, cool weather followed the release of the '\ueust fish into the J.A. PLUMB, J.M. GRIZZLE, and W.A. ROGERS holding ponds, causing pond tempera- tures to drop to as low as 72 F 4 days after release, thus having a beneficial ef- fect on the released bass. The lowest sur- vival of released bass occurred after the July tournament, see table. Water tem- peratures in the live wells were higher during the July tournament than during the other tournaments. The percentage of fish that died on the day they were caught ranged from 3.60o for August and November to 15.807o for July. There were no mortal- ity differences on the day of the tourn- ament between fish held in the noncon- ditioned water and those held in water that contained a conditioner. Lowest post-tournament survival oc- curred after the May and July tourna- ments, respectively. The fact that bet- ter survival occurred in the November and February tournaments, and espec- ially following the August tournament (when live-well water was artifically cooled), demonstrated the beneficial ef- fects of cool water on survival of fish held in boat live wells for extended periods. Using cool water in live wells, especially during warm weather, would improve the chances of bass surviving while in the wells and after release. However, the differences between live well and lake water temperatures should be less than 8 F to avoid temperature shock. If ice is used to cool live well water, keeping the ice in a plastic con- tainer is necessary to prevent chlorinated water (tapwater) from the ice from harming the fish. Plumb is Professor, Grizzle is Associate Pro- fessor, and Rogers is Professor of Fisheries and 2llied Aouaiculturec. 55l \tR I INPRI 1(1F AN) tP R( I NI S1 RVAsL.s o LAxRGE 501. TH BASS (siJ.tao w1 I i AM li t I LiRI S ND ) I I LAsFD III) III Ob I t U 3 1 9 Hal t y ; ~s' Ik 4' A, ; tci ?: " r? S "~t.i, : . - m a time tion. Generally soybeans in Alabama are o a peak harvested from October through Nov- Most of ember, causing planting dates to vary ble crop- from September for wheat that is not though double cropped to mid-December for at since wheat planted after soybean harvest. nt com- The Alabama Agricultural Experiment produc- Station conducted a study to determine the effect of planting date on wheat Syield and if planting date would dictate FG. 1 which variety should be planted. These studies were performed at the Sand Mountain Substation in Crossville; Monroeville Experiment Field in Mon- roeville; and Gulf Coast Substation in Fairhope. Planting dates were late Octo- ber, mid-November, and early Decem- ber. Two seeding rates (60 and 90 lb. per acre) were also compared at one loca- tion. Three to nine varieties were used at each location, though only three or four are shown in the figures to illustrate how yield was affected by planting dates. Caldwell, Coker 916, and Hunter were grown at all locations each year and Florida 301 was included at Mon- roeville and Fairhope each year. The effect of planting date on yield of wheat in northern Alabama (Cross- ville) varied among the varieties, figure 1. Grain yields of Caldwell and Coker 916 were similar when planted in either October or mid-November, but de- Ic; . creased when planted later. However, the yield of Hunter dropped dramati- cally with each delay in planting. Yield o with the 90-lb.-per-acre seeding rate was higher than with the 60-lb. rate for all varieties and planting dates (34.6 vs. 28.9 bu. per acre). . At Monroeville, in southern Ala- bama, variety and planting date dis- 0 Dec. 10i Average wheat yield by variety and planting date: FIG. 1-1985-86, Crossville; FIG. 2--1984- 86, Monroeville; FIG. 3-1984-86, Fairhope. played strong influences on yield. Re- sults indicate that Coker 916 can be planted in late October or mid-Novem- ber with equal success, figure 2. How- ever, grain yield of Caldwell decreased when planted after late October. Hunter and Florida 301 showed highest yields when planted in mid-November. Florida 301 had its lowest yield when planted in late October. At Fairhope, near the Gulf Coast, Caldwell and Hunter responded simil- arly to planting dates, figure 3. For both varieties, yields were decreased only when planting was delayed to mid-De- cember. Coker 916 had the highest yield with the mid-October planting and yield decreased with each delay in planting. Florida 301 performed similarly at Fair- hope as it had at Monroeville, display- ing the highest yield with the mid-Nov- ember planting and the lowest yield with the early planting date. In summary, it appears that when wheat is planted mid-October or later, the seeding rate should be 90 lb. per acre. The optimum planting date of wheat for grain depends on variety, but generally in northern Alabama is late October and in southern Alabama mid- November. In southern Alabama, varie- ties such as Caldwell need to be planted earlier than mid-November and others such as Florida 301 should not be planted until mid-November or later. Except for Florida 301 in southern Ala- bama, results of these tests indicate that wheat should be planted as soon as con- ditions permit after soybean harvest. Thurlow is Associate Professor and Johnson is Professor of Agronomy and Soils, Eason is Super- intendent of the Sand Mountain Substation, Ak- ridge is Superintendent of Monroeville Experiment Field, and Carden is Superintendent of Gulf Coast Substation. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Nov. 1 Nov. 10Nov. 20 Nov. ,3 Average Planting Date T ODAY'S WOMAN is confronted with the challenge of combining the role of homemaker with a career or occupation outside of the home. For farm women, the challenge is even greater. They are not only confronted with the demand of combining the roles of homemaker and career woman (her career being the farm), but the majority must face the additional de- mand of employment off the farm. Since stress from off-the-farm employ- ment would be expected to affect family rela- tionships, this is one area being investigated in a Southwide study on quality of life of farm families. The Alabama Agricultural Ex- periment Station portion of the study is seek- ing an understanding of stressors and the fac- tors which influence how farm families are able to cope with the rapidly changing econ- omic and social conditions. One part of this project focused on the marital relationship and how various factors influence the degree of adjustment or satis- faction that couples have in their marriages. Information about this topic came from questionnaires completed by 111 Alabama farm families. In addition to answering demographic questions, the couples completed a rating known as the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS). This scale provides an overall measure of marital adjustment and measures of consensus, cohesion, satisfaction, and af- fective expression. In general, scores below 90 indicate severe marital conflict, scores of 90-110 indicate dissatisfaction, and scores above 110 indicate satisfaction. How this rating is affected by the wife's off-farm employment is indicated by scores in the table for different type farm families. In general, farm couples who had been married longer and had "launched" their children out of the nest were more satisfied with their relationships. This is not surpris- ing since in most marriages the critical period of adjustment is the first 3-7 years of mar- riage. After that time, most people have ad- justed to the relationship or have divorced. However, there were some specific factors which influenced the degree of satisfaction felt by farm couples. The most consistent effect found for farm couples of all ages was whether the wife was employed off the farm. The mean DAS scores for couples in which the wife was employed off the farm versus not employed off the farm were 108.6 and 117.0, respec- tively. In this sample, couples reported much greater satisfaction in their marriages, in all respects and for all ages, when the wife was not working. The triple-threat situation of off-farm employment, farm work, and homemaking impacts on overall life satisfaction as well as the marital relationship. In these situations the persons involved feel they are not fulfill- Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 64 Wife's Off-Farm Employment Affects Marital Relationships C.W. SMITH MARITALI ADI)IuSt t'ENT AND SAI [SIA( I()ON Oi l A AAMA IFARM COUPLES AS RilA I)D TO WIFE'S OFFt HE- ARM EMPwilI11 Ni AND OTHER CHARACIERISIICS Characteristics DAS of wife score' Employed off farm ................ 108.6 Not employed off farm ............. 117.0 Childbearing and childrearing stage.. 107.3 Launched stage................. 114.3 College graduate ................... 108.5 High school graduate ............. 115.7 Less than high school education ..... 111.3 Data from 111 couples who completed questionnaire. 'Scoring scale: below 90 indicates severe marital conflict; 90-110 indicates dissatisfac- tion; and above 110 indicates satisfaction. ing any of their roles well. They report feel- ings of less intimacy in their marriages, less cohesion or togetherness and sense of "fam- ily," and a lessened ability to deal with prob- lems confronting them. The educational level of farm wives also influenced the marital relationship. Those marriages in which the wife had some col- lege education or a college degree were less adjusted than high school graduates or women with less than a high school educa- tion (DAS scores of 108.5, 115.7, and 111.3, respectively). This was particularly the case in young farm families, as noted by data in the table. The young farm wife, who is in the child- bearing and rearing stage of the family life cycle, is more likely than her older counter- part to have some college education, and she also has the responsibility of rearing young children. She has had less experience in deal- ing with the rigors of marriage, the tumult of child-rearing, and the unpredictability of farm economics. Thus, the young farm wife is most likely to have assumed the demands of a number of roles and she is the one who is least likely to have the experience to cope with all of them. In a situation such as this, it is the marital relationship that is likely to suffer. College-educated wives working off the farm also must deal with the fact that employment opportunities in rural areas are typically not those that a college-educated woman would find satisfying. This helps ex- plain the study results which indicate that these women are indeed less satisfied with their work and families. While some of these findings may appear discouraging, the picture is not bleak. In general, farm couples are no more dissatis- fied with their marriages than are couples in the general population. Furthermore, the average scores of the surveyed couples were not indicative of severe conflict. Finding solutions to the problem is not easy, but there are obvious areas to be con- sidered. Such approaches as sharing home- making duties between husband and wife and making a conscious effort to nurture the marital relationship offer opportunities for progress. Smith is Assistant Professor of Family and C(hild Development. Feedlot Fini After Weani Best for He Beef Calves S.P. SCHMIDT, T.B. PATTER H.W. GRIMES, J.L. HOLLIMA and L.A. SMITH Q UESTION: What is the finishing system for beef c that weigh more than 600 I weaning? ANSWER: Put directly into fe and feed to slaughter finish. That was the conclusion from re of a post-weaning performance con ison of crossbred calves done by Alabama Agricultural Experiment tion. Heavy calves made more econ cal gains when placed in a feedl weaning than when grown out on ture before finishing. Another major finding was the ference in performance by calve' cause of breed of sire or dam. T results support the general underst ing that cattle with exotic breeding longer than those of British breedii reach the same degree of finish. Th otics grow faster, but are larger at f and mature later. Two management systems for ta calves fron weaning to slaughter Pos twEi ANIN Pr RFORMN(E OF CRo XEANING OR PIl'I N P S fBreed of calves DIRECTLY TO FEEDLO AT WEANI Average by breed of dam Angus x Hereford ................ Simlnmental x Hereford ... ..... Average by breed of sire C harolais .............. ..... Polled H ereford ................. GRAZED THEN TO FEEDLOTL)I Average by breed of dam Angus x Hereford ................ Simmental x Hereford .. . . ..... Axeragc by breed of sire Charolais ....... . Polled H ereford ........ ....... same degree of finish than those that n" grazed before going to the feedlot. 1 ing Several breed differences also showed Sup in the comparisons, beginning with n g. weight at weaning. Calves out of Sim- mental-Hereford cows were 39 lb. heav- ier at weaning than those from Angus- avy Hereford cows (664 vs. 625 lb.). How- ever, breed of sire (Polled Hereford or Charolais) did not affect weaning x weight. Results with the pasture plus feedlot finishing system reported in the table can be summarized as follows: *While grazing, calves sired by Char- olais bulls gained faster than those by Polled Hereford bulls; however, the op- best evaluated in the study at the Black Belt posite was true in the feedlot. alves Substation, Marion Junction: *Calves with Charolais or Simmental b. at 1. Placed in a feedlot and full-fed a breeding took 15 to 17 days longer to high-corn diet until they reached backfat reach the desired backfat thickness than edlot thickness of 0.45-0.55 in. (average of those with predominantly Angus or 179 days). Hereford breeding. sults 2. Kept on pasture of fungus-free fes- *A higher percentage of Charolais- npar- cue until fescue began summer dor- sired calves graded Choice than Polled the mancy about June 1 (average of 267 Hereford-sired calves. Sta- days on pasture); then placed in feedlot Results were different among the omi- and fed to same backfat thickness (an calves that went directly to the feedlot ot at average of 127 days). During winter on at weaning, as indicated by the follow- pas- pasture, calves were fed hay and 12%o ing findings: protein concentrate for an average of 60 *Calves out of Angus-Hereford cows dif- days when pasture was inadequate. gained faster than offspring of Simmen- s be- Comparing performance between the tal-Hereford cows and finished in 6 These two systems, without regard to breed of fewer days. and- calf, reveals four major points: Calves *Charolais-sired calves gained faster take that went directly to the feedlot after but took 11 days longer to finish than ng to weaning (1) were 180 lb. lighter when calves sired by Polled Hereford bulls. e ex- they reached slaughter finish, (2) were *Unlike calves that grazed prior to inish 213 days younger at slaughter, (3) feedlot finishing, these animals showed gained almost 1 lb. per day more from no differences in carcass grades or per- Iking weaning to finish, and (4) had a higher cent grading Choice as a result of sire were percentage that graded (Choice at the breed (fed to same backfat thickness). Looking at the results from an econ- StRt0 CFl -P DIRIi [Ni) t:Di O Ai ' R omic standpoint, there was a savings in (T:RE :OI IiO\\I) HY 1I Ii 1 OT uINIiHlNG feed and pasture costs by putting tieight Finish (,ain Age at ii . d a n sla Percent weaned calves directly into the feedlot. eedlot "eight Crazin Feedlot eedlot tecr hoice This difference amounted to about $10 II. Lb. lh. Lh. Lb. Days Pct. per hundredweight gain. NG Other potential advantages from the direct feedlot finishing systems are (1) 68 ,1 029 - 2.54 443 4536 60 cacass prices are usually higher in winter when the direct-feedlot group 674 1,141 2.53 468 455 58 finishes, and (2) a greater proportion 656 1,082 2.48 428 444 56 of the direct-feedlot carcasses graded Choice. 972 988 992 968 1,268 1.28 2.47 294 658 28 1,312 1.24 2.47 330 668 39 1.310 1.32 2.38 321 672 49 1,271 1.20 2.56 304 654 18 Schmidt is Associate Professor and PattIrson is Professor Fmerilus of Animaln and D)airc Sciencs; Grimes is Superintendent, Holliman is \ssociate Superintendent, and Smith is Superintenident (recired) of the Ila k Belt Substation. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station T HE COST OF purchasing or raising replacement gilts and the Ioxx er product ixity of gillt com- pared to sm0\, make loneex itx and lifetime product ion important economic tactors in commer cial swxine opei ations. Since both breed ofl animal and tvpe of uestat ion facilitx nsed can influence soxx pertformance, the Alabamna Aciricultrial Experiment Stat ion conducted a st udy to cx al nate lonexit x and lit e time pro- dluct ion ot three t xpes o1 crossbired sowxs in txxo txpes ot gestation tacilities. A\ total of 256 ,oxx s wxas used in the sr udx, wit h appiroximately equal num- hers of' Duroc-1Land race, H~ampshire- I andriace, and Yorkshire- Iand race cirosses being sitidied. Halt of each crossbireed group xx as maintained on bahria past nrc lots during gestation, xxhile the othei hall xwas housed in 2-ft. bx 7 ft. gestation stalls. The sowxs wxere ex alnated on (1) xxhat percentage of each st udx gi oup piroduced f oui litters ot pigs (tlie natitonal axci ace), and (2) thle total number arid ponids of pies produced at 21 davs after hax ing thle oppor tunity of tarroxxinc foui litters. Detailed results are civen in the table. ci reater pcircentage of Hampshire- Landirace sow, (87"/o ) completed tout littris than Dur oc-Landirace sowxs (71 t, xxith onlx 700' of the Yorkshire- Landirace soxws f arrowxing I our- litters. .\lorc Hampshiire-Lanriiace and [Diioc- L andr ace sowxs in thle pasture cgestat ion sx stem tar roxwed four litters than York- shii e-Larndrace soxws. Hampshire-L and- race sowxs also peirformed better than Duroc-L andrace or Y~orkshir e-Iaridrace soxws in the conlirnemient gestation sys- temn. Lx aluation ofI total pig nnmber s arid xx eight', rex ealed t hat Hampshire [ and- race sOxxs genicrallx ontperformtred the other txx o breed cirosses. \\ hen compar- irig the breed gr oups regardless of the ty pe of gestation facility used, Hamp- shire-L andrace soxw, produced 2 to 5 more pigs and 19 to 72 more pounds of pies after tarroxxinc four litters than Duroc-Larndrace or Yorkshire-Larndrace crosses. L ittle ditfference xxas seen in per- formanrce betxxccii the past ure and con- inierienit xx stems xx hen ax eraced across the three soxx crosses. Hoxxexer , corn pilaring the three crosses xxit hini the pasture gestation system, Droc arid- race arnd Ham psh ire-I andrace soxws raised a total ot 6 to 8 additironal pies to 21 daxs iii tour tarroxx ricg than A1labama A1gricultural I xperimnt Staltionl Sow, hreed an~d LLc'.iLL LOL .5stCH (lr o'.xhied sLo\s I tLLLpLstirc an ,idrace turo-La ndrace . YorikshIire-Iandrace . Gestat ion stalls (L ro.hrCJ so5) \ getC',ion~iL xx icrm I ampLLir-LanI idraice s pasture ..... tDirocL n rc ii. pa t r jIlTs _ _ ....... Yoirkxthire-Lt nr accr par HamL~rphire-t andracci gestationii xitills .. Duiroc-tanraccie L'cLaioiL stlii Youkshire-I t n ra sii~ gesCtion Iul, - Y'ork kxlire-I andiace soxxs. total pounds of pigs produced ini tour litters x ar ied lit- tle betxxeen the hr ced giroups ini confIinc- mierit gestation, but Hampsiie arid- race xs~x did pr oduce 6(0 to 70) more toital pounds of pigs at 21 dax s thart the ot her txxo giroups. Inrterestiniglx, Y or kshir e-Landirace soxxs produced urore totail pies arid pouinds ot pies xx len housed ini COnfIin- merit Ifacilit ies, xxhrile Dur(c-L andirace soxxs xxcrc miore prodictix e ott a pasture gest at ion xx stcrii. Ilis Itiax be attributed to thle traditional selection history of hr cdiric Dur ocs as past nrc animals and Yoikshiires as a cori inemcrit br ced. So.~ LomplaintL fou Il iiter, l oii '_1-dj\ Ii I ie ,I/C (tig!') V'o) nc I!produLctiLon \\'crinh 1/1. ii 333 3(1 141 Rcstults f omit this study intdicatc thlat at commrierciall sxxi ne producid shiouild match his soxx breeds xxiith thre ix pe at' I acilit x on thle tar m. I arnricis x xiii a pastur ii gestat ion sx stern should consider using Hamiphre-Lanidracc or Diirtc- Landirace soxxs, xxhlile tars w xit h coir I ineriiet xx xtcris Inax xx .it to use tic H aripshir e-1 andi ace ci oss. l lie Yo(rk- slur e-Landirace cross mix be thle least economical choice for err icr xx ster. trihci Ieo An~ima arnd DiLO' Sics I tl 14 irj suhciIICnia aiii~IInd Dufle i LIdva oI thle SI P ( aiaC l Plin S ati ionIli I. L il ir D.L. KUIHLERS. S.B. JUNCGST, J.A. LITTLE, and M.AR. DUJFFLE S. SHARPE, R.IK ad VVD.L.LT Harvest; : ction S. SHARPE, P. DICKENS, and D.L. TURNER ODGRASS PRODUCERS rely heavily on herbicides to control weeds that can slow develop- ment and reduce quality of turfgrasses. Unfortunately, the effects of many ot these herbicides on tensile strength and rooting ability of the grasses are not known. Tensile strength, which deter- mines resistance of sod to breaking apart, is important in sod harvesting and handling during installation, and rooting ability is an important qualit\ factor in success of establishitic hess plantings. A study by the Alabama Agricullt utal Experiment Station measured the eiffects of the 25 herbicide treatments listed in the table. The experiments were con- ducted during the 1986 and 1987 grow- ing seasons at a Lee County sod farm. The herbicides were applied in May to sods of bermudagrass, centipede grass, and zoysiagrass as spray applica- tions. Mature turfs were used in 1986 and immature turfs in 1987. Herbicides tested included several experimental materials showing promise for use on warm season grasses, along with most of the herbicides currently registered for use. Measurements of tensile strength and rooting were made at 2, 4, and 8 weeks after application. Results at 4 weeks in the bermudagrass plots are reported in the table as an example of the herbicide effects. Tensile strength of mature sods was not affected by any of the treatments. Immature centipedegrass treated with Arsenal? or Devrinol? had reduced tensile strength, but the other species were not affected. Both root density and root length were greatly influenced by herbicide treatments even in the absence of any ef- Zoysiagrass, no herbicidal treatment. Ei I ICI )P HiRBICIIDE TREATMENTS IT) BERai l)X(GR V" AI 4 \'Lr..S, 1986 AND 1987 Herbicides and lb. a.i./acre Aatres, 2.0 .................. Aatrex, 3.0 .................. Arsenal, 0.06 ................ Arsenal, 0.11 ................ Arsenal, 0.22 ............... Dacthal, 12.0 ................ Devrinol, 2.0................ Devrinol, 4.0................ Harmony, 0.03. . ........... Harmony, 0.06............... Image, 0.25 ................. Image, 0.37 .................. Image, 0.50................. Oust, 0.01 ................... Oust, 0.03 ................... Oust, 0.06 ................... Poast, 0.25 .................. Poast, 0.50 .................. Pre-M, 1.5 .................. Pre-M, 3.0 .................. Presan, 12.0 ............... Princep, 2.0 ................. Princep, 3.0 ................. Ronstar, 2.0 ............... Ronstar, 4.0 ................. Injury 1986 1987 Pc. Pct. 0 60 0 75 82 37 95 36 82 42 0 2 2 5 0 6 S 12 0 6 2 12 2 12 0 18 0 13 2 24 ) 31 23 81 58 82 0 1 5 2 0 18 0 5 0 11 0 63 5 87 fects on tensile strength. In general, the effects were more severe on the more im- mature sod used in 1987. Arsenal, the most injurious herbicide tested, caused significant injury at all rates to all of the grasses. Devrinol and Presan' also re- duced root growth of all grasses; in some cases the effects lasted for 8 weeks after treatment. High rates of Oust' caused signifi- cant reductions in both root length and root numbers to bermudagrass and zoy- siagrass, while the lower rate stimulated increases in root numbers of zoysiagrass 4 to 8 weeks after applications. Oust reduced root production in centipede- grass at the two higher rates, but had no effect on root numbers after 2 weeks. PoastO reduced rooting in zoysiagrass Zoysiagrass with 0.5 lb. a.i./acre Poast. Sod strength Roots/sq. ft. 1986 1987 1986 1987 Lb. /f. Lb. ft. No. Vo. 67 39 225 385 73 47 275 244 46 - 19 62 45 65 71 36 75 45 281 232 73 49 49 128 75 38 19 49 75 45 294 311 87 47 287 373 76 44 263 202 56 44 422 92 82 36 294 220 68 45 147 354 79 49 49 202 61 41 73 116 66 35 195 67 54 42 98 7 77 46 348 299 68 42 336 299 71 43 24 116 66 37 196 281 62 41 232 147 70 35 268 220 78 41 287 36 Root length 1986 1987 In. In. 4 4 3 4 - 4 4 2 1 1 4 4 4 3 3 4 2 3 3 3 4 1 3 9 2 3 2 2 1 4 3 4 4 1 3 3 4 2 3 4 3 4 2 and bermuda-grass, but had no effect on centipedegrass. Pre-M did not reduce rooting of mature sods, but caused some initial reduction in rooting of immature centipedegrass. Image' generally caused no rooting problems with any of the grasses. Ronstar' caused some ini- tial root injury to all the grasses, however, the effects dissipated by the end of 4 weeks. Results of this study indicate that if sod is not to be harvested sooner than 8 weeks after treatment, most any of the currently registered herbicides can be ap- plied without affecting either sod tensile strength or subsequent rooting. Sharpe is Research Assistant, Dickens ts Pro- fessor, and Turner is Research Associate of Agronomy and Soils. Zoysiagrass with 0.22 lb. a.i./acre Arsenal. 1 HE RED IMPORTED fire ant is one of the most important insect pests in the Southeastern United States. The ants have become increas- ingly abundant around homes and in maintained turf. Their bites and stings, as well as the mounds they build, have caused problems for farmers and homeowners alike. Not only are they a hazard in home lawns and recreational turf (particularly to children), but there have been numerous reports of these ants invading homes. There are two general types of treat- ments for controlling fire ants with in- secticides: area-wide broadcast and in- dividual mound treatment. Since most homeowners in Alabama encounter only a few mounds on their property, the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion in cooperation with the Alabama Cooperative Extension Service evaluated various insecticides for red imported fire ant mound treatment. Well defined mounds on maintained turf baseball diamonds in Wetumpka were selected for the tests. The insecti- cides tested for effectiveness were: corn cob grit based formulations GX-071 A and B, Affirms , Amdro ? , and LogicO and non-nutrient formulations of Dia- zinon? granules and Orthene ? wettable powder. The two GX-071 formulations are experimental and have not yet been labeled for fire ant use. All other com- pounds used are labeled for use on fire ants. Suggested label rates were applied. When two rates were recommended, the lower rate was used. Each treatment was applied to 20 mounds and untreated control mounds were used to compare the insecticides' effectiveness against natural mortality. The compounds were evaluated for effectiveness, speed of action, ease of use, and odor. All mounds were visited 1, 2, 3, and 6 weeks after treatment and evaluated for mortality and relocation. EFFECTIVENESS OF RED IMPORTED FIRE ANT MOUND TREATMENTS IN RECREATIONAL TURF Control, by week Treatment 1 2 3 6 Total' Diazinon.......5.0 5.0 5.0 4.8 4.95 Orthene........5.0 5.0 5.0 4.4 4.85 Amdro ....... 3.0 2.9 2.4 2.3 2.65 GX-071A 2.2 2.3 2.2 3.2 2.48 GX-071B 1.7 1.3 2.7 3.2 2.23 Affirm ........ 1.8 2.6 2.3 2.1 2.20 Logic.......... .9 .9 1.1 1.2 1.03 Untreated ...... .0 .0 .0 .2 .05 'Total averaged over all four visits; 0= no control, 5= total control. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station on Red Imported Fire Ant A.G. APPEL, P.P. COBB, and R.R. BEAUCHAMP Colonies were rated Ifrom 0 (no e IIect) to 5 (complete kill) and a 3-ft. radius around the treated mounds was exam- ined for signs of colony relocation. Both of the GX-071 formulations, as well as Affirm, Amdro, and Logic, were odorless and easy to apply. Diazinon had an unpleasant odor and was more difficult to apply than the corn cob base baits, probably because of the smaller size of the particles. Orthene's odor was strong and this insecticide was the most difficult to work with because it was easily blown by wind and adhered read- ily to clothing. Diazinon and Orthene killed the ants more effectively and rapidly than the other treatments, as reported in the table, but also induced more mound relocations. The GX-071 formulations, Affirm, and Amdro performed similar- ly. These corn cob base baits, however, took longer to kill mound populations than the non-nutrient formulations. There were fewer relocations with these baits than with Diazinon or Orthene and at 6 weeks there was no difference in control between the GX-071 formula- tions and the two non-nutrient formula- tions. Of the corn cob base compounds, Logic performed the poorest. There was essentially no mortality in the control mounds. In conclusion, Diazinon and Orthene mound treatments worked faster than the other products but were more likely to induce mound relocation. The corn cob base baits, except Logic, performed similarly at 1, 2, and 3 weeks, while the GX-071 formulas performed as well as Diazinon and Orthene at 6 weeks. These results suggest a dual approach to treat- ment using the slower-acting baits as early season broadcast treatments to prevent the establishment of new mounds and the fast-acting formula- tions to quickly kill populations in existing mounds. Appel is Assistant Professor of Entomology, Cobb is Extension Entomologist, and Beauchamp is Associate County Agent. Many Commodities Contribute to Alabama's Cash Farm Receipts J.H. YEAGER ALABAMA'S CASH FARM receipts have about tripled in the past 20 years. At the same time, there have been major shifts in in- come from specific commodities. Cer- tain livestock, livestock products, and crops appear to be on an upward trend, while some show little change. In other cases, data accumulated by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station show substantial declines in receipts. Broilers continue to be the single most important source of Alabama's cash farm receipts. As noted in the table, cash receipts from broilers more than doubled from 1966 to 1976 and doubled again from 1976 to 1986. Broilers ac- counted for more than 20C out of each dollar of total cash farm receipts (ex- cluding government payments) in 1966 and 1976, but jumped to 37? in 1986. The second single most important source of Alabama cash farm receipts is cattle and calves. Receipts more than doubled from 1966 to 1976, but fell far short of doubling from 1976 to 1986. Combining receipts from cattle and calves with those from broilers ac- counted for more than 5370 of the State's total cash farm receipts in 1986. A substantial increase in cash receipts from eggs occurred from 1966 to 1976, but growth was much less rapid from 1976 to 1986. Sale of dairy products in- creased only about 50 from 1976 to 1986, while receipts from hogs declined substantially. Among crops, the major producer of cash receipts in 1986 was peanuts, followed rather closely by greenhouse and nursery products. A major increase in greenhouse and nursery sales occur- red between 1976 and 1986, when cash receipts more than tripled. Forestry is a major contributor to cash receipts. Receipts from farm forestry products more than doubled from 1976 to 1986, while receipts from nonfarm commercial timber in 1986 were 2.4 times higher than in 1976. Cash receipts from corn, cotton, and soybeans showed major declines from 1976 to 1986. Corn had both a substan- tially lower acreage harvested and lower total production and price in 1986 than in 1976. At the same time, average yield per acre decreased from 62 bu. to 57 bu. The decline in cotton cash receipts re- sulted from both lower acreage and lower price received. An average yield of more than a bale of cotton per acre in 1986 helped offset some of the decline in cash receipts that would have other- wise occurred. The drop in soybean cash receipts resulted from a precipitous de- cline in both acreage and price, but there was little change in average yield per acre. Cash farm receipts from wheat showed substantial increases over the 20-year period. Potato cash receipts declined from 1976 to 1986, while sweet potatoes showed increased receipts for the 20 years. Receipts from sales of other vegetables also increased. Total cash farm receipts from live- stock and crops increased 149% from 1966 to 1976, but only 29% from 1976 to 1986. These changes reflect the fact that average prices received by Alabama farmers almost doubled from 1966 to 1976 but increased only 21% from 1976 to 1986. The proportion of cash receipts accounted for by livestock and crops did not change greatly during the 20 years (two-thirds for livestock and livestock products and one-third for crops). Growth in Alabama's livestock sec- tor, and in particular broilers, has had its effect on the input side. The amount spent by farmers for feed increased from slightly over $159 million in 1966 to $436 million in 1986. in farn potenti cash fa Greenhouse and nursery sales had large increases during 1976-86. Among all 50 states, Alabama ranked 26th in total cash farm receipts in 1986. The ranking for livestock and livestock products cash receipts was 21st, while that for crops was 30th. For individual products, Alabama ranked 3rd in broil- ers and peanuts and 8th in eggs and cotton. The leading state in cash receipts in 1986 was California with more than $14 billion. Alabama contin- nues to be a diversified state products produced and the al exists for further growth in rm receipts. Yeager is Professor and Head of Agricultural I conomics and Rural Sociology. CASH FARM RECEi'rs, ALABAMA Mil. dol., by year Source of income 1966 1976 1986 Livestock and products Cattle, calves ...... H ogs .............. Dairy products ..... Broilers ........... L gg s .............. Other poultry ..... Miscellaneous ..... T otal.. ...... ( rops WV heat .. ......... C o rn .............. Oats .............. H ay ............... Sorghum grain ..... Cotton lint ........ Cottonseed ........ Peanuts ........... Sovbeans . ....... Potatoes........... Sweet potatoes ..... Other vegetables.... Pecans ............ Peaches ........... Other fruit. Greenhouse, nursery Farm forest products ....... Other crops ........ T otal............ Total livestock, products, crops... (Government payments ........ Total cash farm receipts.......... Nonfarm commercial tim ber........... Total farm and forestry receipts .. 121.2 309.8 329.0 44.5 96.8 49.6 42.5 72.2 75.5 161.1 346.9 775.6 84.3 154.1 161.6 10.6 7.1 6.3 .8 6.4 33.3 465.0 993.2 1,430.8 2.2 7.5 15.5 13.5 51.2 19.5 .3 .6 .5 3.0 8.6 7.7 .1 .8 4.5 52.4 115.0 71.3 11.1 12.3 6.1 24.9 104.2 126.2 18.6 181.1 85.3 4.2 21.2 12.1 1.4 3.8 9.7 13.4 32.7 55.0 8.7 3.3 11.4 2.0 2.0 1.6 .6 .6 6.5 12.3 35.0 123.0 12.0 35.7 74.4 1.4 5.1 14.5 182.3 620.7 645.0 647.3 1,613.9 2,075.8 79.6 12.6 79.8 726.9 1,626.5 2,155.6 NA' 86.1 208.4 NA= 1,712.6 2,364.0 'Source: Alabama Agricultural Statistics, various issues. Totals may not add due to rounding. LNof available. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station i Can Gramoxone Replace Dinoseb? G.W. WEHTJE T HE CANCELLATION of Fed eral use labels of dinoseb-con- taining herbicides by the Envi- ronmental Protection Agency in the tall of 1986 has left both peanut farmers and weed science reseachers diligently searching for replacement products. The front runner in the dinoseb replacement race appears to be Gramoxone' Though the leader, Gramoxone has plenty of competition as reported in a prexious Highlights article ("Peanut Weed Control After Dinoseb," Spring 1988). Gramoxone was previously sold in the United States as paraquat, which is also the active ingredient. It was used exten- sivelx in Alabama, as well as in other peanut-producing states, in 1987, under a Section 18 emergency use label. Though none of the potential dinoseb replacements, iicluding Gramoxone, are identical to dinoseb, each has strengths and weaknesses. In contrast to dinoseb, Gramoxone is more active on Texas panicum and Flor- ida beggarweed, two troublesome weeds in peanut production. In respect to Flor ida beggarweed, even seedlings that are past the cotyledon stage ot growth can be controlled xith typical use rates. Gramoxone has proven to be effective in controlling sicklepod, if these weeds have no more than one true leaf. In con- trast to this, farmers have found that smallflower moringglory and bristly starbur are not readily controlled xith C;ramoxone. The performance of Gramoxone, and potentially with all postemergence-ap- plied herbicides, can be strongly influ- enced by environmental conditions at the time of application. During 1987, it was observed that hot-humid conditions with intense sunlight rendered Gramox- one much more active. Under these con- ditions, excessive and undesirable injury may result. This tendency to cause in- jury to peanut plants is probably the most unacceptable feature of Gramox- one. However, research has revealed that most injury is generally transitory and not reflected in yield. Researchers are currently seeking ways to tailor rates Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station for these situations, as was done with dinoseb when it was introduced into the peanut market in the late 1960s. Previous research at the Alabama Ag ricultural E xperiment Station indicated maximum weed control and minimum injury require fairly exact application timing of Gramoxone. Application de- layed beyond 28 days alter cracking increases the chances for excessixe iniuiy and yield loss. In this respect, Gramox- one does not appear to have the flexi bility and is not as for gixing as dino- seb. Since Gramoxone can be somewhat ineffective against some xeeds, therc is interest in tank mixing it xith other herbicides. Unfortunately, Gramoxone cannot be indiscriminately tank mixed. Research has indicated thai the activity of Gramoxone can be reduced if tank mixed with either Amiben " oi Ala nap' . These combinations are desired since Amiben and Alanap could contrib- ite soil residual activity to the tank mix. In contrast to this, there are early in- dications that some tank mix combina tions result in an oxerall improvement in performance. For example, tank mix ing Gramoxone with either Basagran' or 2,4-DB results in increased actixvity on hard-to-control species, such as morn ingglory and bristly starbui, and ihere is no indication that the Gramoxone ac- tivitv is diminished in these mixtures. The nor mal use rate for a single ap plication of Gramoxone is II oz. per acre, which gives a chemical cost of S2.70 per acre, making it a cost-effective treatment. During 1985-87, a series of Gramoxone-based treatments and a tra- ditional dinoseb-based treatment were compared in terms of weed control, yield, and net returns. The greatest peanut yield (3-year axerage of 4,010 lb. per acre) and net returns ($I75 per acre) xxere proxided by a systein that utilized txwo0 posiemergence applications of Giramoxone folloed by Fusilade," and later bx 2,4-DB. In contrast to this, a sxstem that utilized Balan' applied pre- plant incoiporated at 4 qt. per acre, folloed by Lasso (3 qt. per acre) plus Dy~anap (4 qt. per acre) had an aver- age yield of 3,450 lb. per acie and a net return of $92 per acre. The superior per- formance of the Gramoxone treatment can be paitially attributed to superior lo cost xeed control. The test area xas heaxily infested xith T exas panicum and Florida beggarweed, on xhich Gramox one is more effective than dinoseb. Gramoxone xas recently granted a lull Federal Registration by the En- vironmental Protection Agency for use on peanuts. 'cXhi j i, 5 ociaL PCO[l oi \gonomy a ,nd Soil. S" ~B P at I" r; I~ei~s~ .2r")*..~ s ~, "Ir" ' UBSTANCES in the seeds of tropical and subtropical plants in the genus Cuphea have been found to disrupt normal egg laying behavior by mosquitoes. This discovery by Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station researchers has led to studies to evaluate the effectiveness of Cuphea seeds as mosquito egg laying deterrents. If such use proves practical, this could provide an added market if Cuphea becomes a commercial crop. Nearly 300 species of Cuphea are found in Central and South America. They represent a highly diverse group of herbaceous and shrubby plants, includ- ing both annual and perennial species. Occasionally they have been used as or- namentals but otherwise have had no commercial value. Five species grow wild in the United States, where they are known as waxweeds or tarweeds. In 1957, the USDA began a screening program to identify plants as potential sources of oils and fatty acids for com- mercial and industrial purposes. These substances are widely used to make oil- based paints, soaps, detergents, surfac- tants, and lubricants. They are also be- ing used in the medical field. Cuphea seeds are rich in short-chain fatty acids which are in high demand because of their special chemical properties. Based on evidence that other short- chain organic compounds can interfere with egg laying (oviposition) by mos- quitoes, a study was designed to see if components of Cuphea seeds would adversely affect mosquito oviposition. Seeds of five Cuphea species were ob- tained from the USDA-ARS Plant In- troduction Station at Iowa State Univer- sity: C laminuligera, C. lanceolata, C. Cuphea plant in bloom. leptopoda, C. lutea, and C. painteri. They were crushed and ground with a mortar and pestle, and applied to the water surface of oviposition containers made of 1-pt. cardboard cups painted black inside and out and lined with a strip of brown paper towel. Each con- tained about 1' V2 oz. of tap water that had been allowed to stand overnight. These were placed in cages containing 200-300 female mosquitoes. The mosquitoes could lay their eggs in either the treated containers or un- treated controls containing only tap water. All tests were conducted with laboratory-reared mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) that had fed on rabbit blood 4 to 9 days prior to each oviposition ex- periment. Under these conditions, this mosquito characteristically lays its eggs on the moist paper towel just above the water line. The number of mosquito eggs depos- ited in containers treated with Cuphea seeds was significantly lower than that in untreated controls. The greatest re- duction in egg numbers occurred in con- tainers treated with seeds of C. painteri, with up to 92% fewer eggs being depos- ited in some tests. The percent reduc- tions in the number of eggs deposited in each treatment were: C. painteri (70%o), C. laminuligera (70%), C. leptopoda (64%), C. lutea (63%0), and C. lanceo- lata (38%0). ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403 Lowell 7T Frobish, Director POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested Containers treated with crushed Cu- phea seeds not only had fewer eggs but, as shown in the figure, the pattern in which they were deposited was also af- fected. Mosquitoes tended to scatter their eggs well above the water line when laying in Cuphea-treated containers. This contrasts sharply with normal ovi- position in which the eggs are concen- trated nearer to the water sur- face. No correlation was found between the fatty acid composition of Cuphea seeds and the reductions in egg numbers. The two most effective seeds, based on these preliminary studies, differ noticeably in the relative amount of caprylic, capric, and lauric acid in their seeds: C. painteri was highest in caprylic acid (65% of total oil), while C. laminuligera was highest in lauric acid (63%). The next most effective seeds, C. leptopoda, were highest in capric acid (87%). It is possi- ble that all three fatty acids effectively discourage mosquito oviposition. The deterrent effect, however, may be en- hanced by various combinations and relative amounts of these same com- pounds. Success in development of Cuphea as a commercial crop could provide a ready source of these natural fatty acids as potential mosquito control agents. Mullen is Associate Professor of nltomology. NON-PROFIT ORG. POSTAGE & FEES PAID PERMIT No. 9 AUBURN, ALA. ~-:i~_a Controlling Mosquitoes with Cuphea Seeds Could Offer Cropping Opportunity ,' G.R. MULLEN