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4 
Z
Alt
Forestry at Auburn Universit
F ORESTRY is Auburn's newest school, has-
ing been established by the Board of Trustees
on October 1, 1984. Prior 
to that date,
forestrv had been a department in the School of1
Agriculture and Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station. By establishing a separate school, the Board
recogntzed the importance of forestry and the forest
products industry to Alabama's economy and way
oflife. Tsso-thirds of the State is forested and forest
products represent Alabama's largest manufactur-
ing industry. The Sehool of Forestry's programs are EMMETT F. THOMPSON
central to a healthy forest resource and strong forest-
based industry. School status brings more visibility and responsibility but does not
change the basic mission to provide education, research, and service to the citizens
of Alabama.
Forestry research is conducted in cooperation with the Agricultural Experiment
Station and covers most areas of establishing, growing, harvesting, and process-
ing timber, as sell as the effects of forestry operations on the environment and the
effects of the environment on forest production. The School's gradtate teaching
program is important to this research effort, sith all theses or dissertations based
on faculty research which is part of the Experiment Station's efforts.
Over the years, the School's research emphasis has evolved from essentially ap-
plied research to a mixture of applied and basic thrusts. For example, sood pro-
ducts research has esolsed from an emphasis on testing building products made
frorn various ras material mixtures to a program vhich emphasizes mathematical
modeling to estimate long-term reliability of new wood products as well as basie
chemtcal mechanical interactions to assess the end-use effects of various preser-
vative or retardant treatments.
Forest biology research has developed from applied studies of various land
management and forest stand treatments to an emphasis on the role of basic
physiology in tree and forest development. This emphasis has allowed the faculty
to increasingly attract extramural support. For example, major grants have been
obtained to study the effect of atmospheric deposition on tree development and
growth. This research has also had a spin-off of additional emphasis on basic tree
nutrition and the effects of various soil chemical properties on forest production.
While the School sill continue to graduate well-qualified individuals, proside
nes technology through basic and applied research, and transfer this technology
to various users, change will be the underlying force influencing our actisities. The
concepts and technologies studied and taught in the near future will be much dif-
ferent from those occupying our classrooms and laboratories today.
Emmett F. Thompson, Dean
School of Forestry
MAY WE INTRODUCE
Ir. Ray Dickens,
pIutessorof agron
outs and soils. A
titais cof northsesi
Arkinsas, L)ickents
cainted a B.S. de
ice in agionomy
from the Unisersity
of \rkansas. He
taite to Aubuni
It niersits as a National Defense Education Act
' filarandearned MS. and Ph.D. degrees in
act unomn here. Dickens became the fitrst State
Fxtension Weed Control Specialist in 1965, and
joined the Agronomy and Soils Department
statf in 1968 as Assistant Ptrofessor. He wsas pro-
muted to Professor in 1981.
Dickens was instrumental in establishitie the
turfgrass Research Unit on the Auburn cam-
pus, shere most of the turf rass research in the
State is now conducted. Though much of
Dickens' sork at the Tlurfgrass Unit insolses
solving specialized sweed prublems associated
ssith groing turf, he sas instrumiental in select
ing and deseloping AU Centennial, a ness, im-
prosed centipedegrass sariets. Ile was also in-
strumental in deseloping the data needed to
secure a label for Princep' ,s hich has become
the nost commonly used herbicide for ss eed
control i bermudagrass turf.
Dickens ieseaich on some old and ness herbi-
cides used to control common bemudaciass is
repotrted on page 4of this issue otHiglliglttsof
Agricultural Resea rch.
ON THE COVER: Yields from Alabama peanut
fields, such as this one in Houston County, may
get a boost from improved disease and
nematode control. See related stories on pages
12 and 13.
'NAINTER 1987 V1L.34, Nu.4
\ quarterly report of research published
by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station, Auburn University.
I O\WELL T. I ROISH........ Director
DAV ID H. TEEM ..... Assistant Director
R.E. STEVENSON .......... Editor
ROY ROBERSON ..... Associate Editor
TERESA RODRIGUEZ.... Ar Designer
Fditorial (ommitle: I owell . Irobish; P. A.
Dufy, Assistant Professo of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology; 
R.T. Iovell,
Prufessor of Fisheries and Allied
Aquacultures; T.P. Mack, Associate Pro-
lessor of Entomnology; G.J. Keever, A xociate
Professor of Horticulture; 
R.E. Kcith,
Associate Professor of Nutrition and Ioods;
A.J. Iathan, Associate Professor of Plant
Pathologv; .1. A. Renden, A ssociate Prof essor
of POdltrr Science;, ).B. South, A ssistant Pro
lessorofForestrv; D.A. Stringfcllos Assis-
tan Professor of Microhiologv; and R.E.
Stevenson.
EDITOR'S NOTE. Mention of trade names
does not indicate endorsement by thc Ala-
bama Agricultur at Experiment Station of
one brand over another. Anm use of pesticide
rates in excess of labeled amounts in re-
search reported does not constitute recom-
mendation of such rate. Such use is simply
part of the scienti fic insestigation necessary
to esaluate various inaterials. No chemical
should be used at rates above those permit-
ted by the label. Information contained
herein is asailable to all without regard to
race, color, sex, or national origin.
INCE THE EARLY
1980's, many farmers
have faced serious finan-
cial adjustments with some be-
ing forced out of farming. Inre-
cent months, however, some
changes have brought a degree 
Commer
of optimism. There 
is evidence 
Farmers
that the decline in farm income Avera
may be turning around 
as Proporti
evidenced by higher prices for ratio:
poultry, cattle, and hogs. 25%c
Government subsidies in the 261
form of deficiency payments, 
Over'
Payment-in-Kind Program, Delinque
and Conservation Reserve Pro- Average
gram have benefited 
farmers. 
with d
Farm input costs, such as fer- (farm
tilizer, fuel, feed, and interest Average
rates, have declined to help paid i
hold down the cost of 
produc- Farm(
tion. There 
is some 
indication 
Farmers
that the 
decline 
in farm 
land 
precec
values has 
slowed and 
may be 
Ratic
leveling off.
To determine the prevailing
financial position of Alabama
farmers, a survey was taken of
2,915 farms, which represented the largest
25,000 farms in the State. Researchers
received back about 20% of the mailed
surveys for evaluation. A similar survey of
the same representative sample of the
State's largest 25,000 farms had been
taken in 1986 and these data were used for
comparison.
Analysis of the data by the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station indi-
cates that the average debt-to-asset ratio
(D/A) for farmers in the State with debt
declined from 1986to 1987, see table. Only
5.3 oof the farmers with debt had a D/A
of over 70% in January 1987, comparedto
7.3% in 1986. A D/A of 70% or over
generally indicates that a farmer is highly
leveraged and likely has problems in
meeting principal and interest payments.
The proportion of farmers with D/A
ratios of 40% or less showed an increase
from 1986 to 1987.
Only 4.8% of the farmers with debt
were delinquent in debt payment the first
part of 1987, compared to 8.3% approx-
imately a year earlier. Not only was the
delinquency rate lower, but also the
J.H. Yeager, W.E. Hardy, and J.L. Johnson
average amount of debt declined during
the past year.
With the overall decline in farm real
estate and other asset values, the total
value of farm assets declined about 11%0
during the past year, according to the
values reported by farmers. The average
amount of interest paid on farm loans was
reported as $10,153 for 1986 and $13,561
for 1985. The proportion of farmers
reporting no debt outstanding was consis-
tent for both years.
At the start of 1987, the proportion of
farmers with debt outstanding did not
vary greatly by geographic area of the
State. However, farmers in southwest
Alabama, including the Gulf Coast
region, had the highest average debt load.
Their average D/A ratio of 31.9% was
also the highest of any region.
For farmers with debt, average govern-
ment payments exceeded average net farm
profit in two geographic areas, (1) the
Northern Valley (primarily Tennessee
Valley), and (2) Coastal Plains and Gulf
Coast. These are areas in which cash crops
are relatively important.
COMPARISON OF SELECTED FINANCIAL MEASURES,
ALABAMA FARMERS, 1986 AND 1987
Item Unit 1986 1987
cial farmers surveyed ..... No. 810 580
with no debt ............. . Pct. 45.1 46.4
with debt:
ige D/A ratio' ........... Pct. 34.8 27.0
on of farmers with D/A
r less................... Pct. 22.3 30.0
o 40% ................... Pct. 6.3 7.8
o 701o.................. Pct. 19.0 10.5
70% .................... Pct. 7.3 5.3
nt on debt payment ....... .Pct. 8.3 4.8
amount owed (farmers
ebt).................... .Dol. 138,000 94,900
value of assets
ers with debt) ............ 
Dol. 396,600 
351,700
amount of interest
n previous year:
ers with debt ............. . Dol. 13,561 10,153
reporting net profit
ding year ................ . Pct. 74 70
o of total debt to total assets expressed as a percentage.
had an average D/A ratio of 42% and an
average of almost $160,000 in total debt
outstanding. Government payments
averaged almost $17,000 per farm for crop
farmers, more than twice the average for
all types of farms.
Size of farm in terms of acres operated
is a variable that frequently is related to
financial factors. The 1987 data indicated
that the percentage of farmers with debt
outstanding increased as size of farm in-
creased. However, D/Aratios did not in-
crease consistently with size, probably an
indication of good farm and financial
management. In general, net farm profit
increased and average off-farm income
declined as farm size increased.
There is some evidence that the finan-
cial picture for farmers is somewhat im-
proved compared to 1985-86. Never-
theless, it is important for farmers to
analyze their financial position and to
practice sound financial management.
Yeager is Head and Hardy is Professor of
Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, and
Johnson is Extension Economist-Crops and Farm
Management.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Off-farm income was also
important to Alabama farmers
in meeting financial demands.
Average off-farm income
varied by regions from $11,014
to $16,869 per farmer. In three
of the six regions in the State,
average off-farm income ex-
ceeded average net farm profit
per farm in 1986.
Livestock producers repre-
sented the lowest percentage of
farmers with debt, the lowest
average debt outstanding, and
the lowest D/A ratio. Almost
three-fourths of the poultry
farmers reported debt out-
standing the first part of 1987.
The average debt for poultry
farmers was $111,115, the
second highest of all farm
types. They also had the highest
D/A ratio. Crop farmers had
a slightly higher average
amount of debt outstanding
than poultry farmers. Soybean
farmers included in the sample
3 UT TTCT?iTiT[r
3
Available Herbicides Offer
Only Temporary Control
of Common Bermudagrass in
Sod Production Fields
Li
Effects of midsummer herbicide ap-
plications and subsequent disking
on control of common bermudagrass
in mid-October.
L Sodium TCA Roundup
50 lb./acre 5 lb./acre
L Sodium TCA LDowpon
100 lb./acre 5 lh./acre
COM\ION BERNIUDAGRASS is
an excellent grass tor many turf
areas, including roadsides, air-
ports, and athletic fields. However, this
same species is the most serious wseed
problem in southern sod fields. Coin
mon bermudagrass is more vigorous and
competitive than such turfgrasses as
zoysia and centipedegrass under condi-
tions of high light intensity, adequate
UU
80
60
40
20
0
Effects of midsummer herbicide ap-
plications and subsequent disking
on the amount of common bermuda-
grass cover the follosing summer.
LI Verdict
1/2 lb./acre
U Untreated
fl Disked
L Undisked
R. Dickens, D.L. Turner, and J. Baird
moisture, and high lev els of nitrogen
fertility. These are the exact conditions
present in a xwell managed sod field.
Sodium TCA? and Dowspon were
the recommended herbicides tor control
of common bermudagrass from the
1950's until the introduction of Round-
up' in 1973. Although these herbicides
produced 80 to 980/ reductions in ber-
mudagrass stands, control xx as short lix-
ed in sod fields. Sod production requires
complete eradication and not simply
temporary control.
Experiments were conducted by the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion at a local sod farm and at the Pied-
mont Substation to evaluate Verdict" ,
Roundup, sodium TCA, and Doxpon
applied alone and in various combina-
tions. Verdict, a new herbicide, has
show n excellent control of bermuda-
grass in certain row crop situations. The
foliar absorbed herbicides (Verdict,
Roundup, and Dowpon) were applied
on June 26, 1984, and August 13, 1985,
with the second application of split ap-
plication treatments applied 10-14 days
after the initial treatment. The soil ac-
tive sodium TCA was applied July 
13.
1984, and September 4, 1985. One-half
of each plot was disked thoroughly 10-14
days atter application of the sodium
TCA. The plots were evaluated for per-
cent green bermudagrass cover in the
fall after treatment and again the
following summer.
Sodium TCA and Roundup produced
good to excellent initial control of the
above-ground portion of bermudagrass,
see graph, in both years. Dowpon and
Verdict were more variable in their ac-
tion, producing poor initial control the
first year and poor to excellent control
in the second. No combination of her-
bicides produced results superior to the
best entry applied alone. Therefore, only
performance data for the individual
herbicides are reported here. The more
important measure of herbicide efficacy
ais obtained when bermudagrass stands
ere evaluated the following summer,
approximately 1 year after application.
Only Roundup had reduced the ber-
mudagrass stands on June 1, one year
after application, see graph. It is impor-
tant to note that although stands were
reduced by Roundup, 9-16Wo cover xxas
present 1 year after treatment, which is
not acceptable in sod fields.
The application of soil active sodium
TCA did not enhance final control from
any of the foliar absorbed herbicides.
Nor was there any apparent advantage
of disking after herbicide applications.
Results of these studies indicate that
more effective herbicides are needed to
solve the problem of common bermuda-
grass encroachment in sod fields.
Dickens is Professor, Turner is Research
Associatc, and Baird is Gradnuae Siudent of
5 'ronom and Soils
-Alabama A gricultural Experiment .S'tation
LH
LLUM EO
der d
BRADFORD, an orna-
mental pear tree varie-
ty, has become a popu-
lar tree for urban landscapers
in the Southeast. 
However,
since its release in the early
1960's, 12-15 new and poten-
tially superior ornamental
pear varieties have been
marketed for landscape use.
In 1980, an Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station
study was begun at the Pied-
mont Substation in Camp Hill
to evaluate these new varie-
ties. As still newer varieties
have become available, they
have been added to the test.
All trees in the Auburn test
are flowering selections of
Callery pear. Among these
varieties, Bradford has
become the most popular
because of its reputed D.C. F
resistance to leaf blight, fire-
blight, diseases and insects, and its vigor
and uniformity of growth. It is one of
the earliest flowering pear varieties.
Trees are covered with spur-borne white
flower clusters that develop in late
March or early April. Summer leaves
change to reds, yellows, and burgundies
from mid-October to 
mid-November,
with duration depending on fall weather
conditions. It has been reported that
Bradford pears don't have the same
brilliant fall colors in Northern States as
seen in the South.
During the first 7 years, Bradford
trees in the Auburn test are averaging
25-27 in. of height growth annually and
trees have developed a broad oval shape
with an upright canopy. Severe splitting
reported on older trees has not occur-
red in the Auburn test. This splitting
problem is often reported as storm
damage, but is likely caused by unnotic-
ed splitting prior to storms due to the
acute crotch angles of the branches. As
a result of this problem with Bradford
trees, newer varieties with different
branching habits, canopy shape, flower-
ing, and fall coloring have been
introduced.
In contrast to Bradford, Aristocrat is
a less dense growing tree with a broad
ts.
VNs.g
-I~l
are, C.H. Gilliam, H.G. Ponder, and W.A. Griffey
pyramidal form. Crotch angles are less pear c
acute, allowing the tree to have a more limited
open and potentially stronger growth Blaze
habit. It appears that this selection will Red,
make a much larger tree than Bradford. floweri
The annual average growth rate is about uprigh
36 in., compared to 25-27 in. for young previo
Bradford trees. Leaves are more tapered is not
at the apex but still have the same glossy used ir
green surface as Bradford. Generally, to the
good fall leaf color is absent with leaves growth
turning from dark green to brown, ly. Fall
though Aristocrat is reported to have tions is
excellent fall color farther north. Autum
Fruiting (nonedible) of Aristocrat fall lea
pear is heavier than all other cultivars lows, n
in the test, but not extremely showy. In has an
late autumn, the small pears (3/8 in.) at- should
tract birds and are usually eaten before age. Rc
the fruit falls. Flower color and size are ing upt
similar to Bradford and other selections. New
One major difference is time of flower- similar
ing, with Aristocrat peaking 10 to 14 but oft
days after Bradford. Fireblight was perhap
observed during 1987 on most of the tics.
Aristocrat trees; however, the incidence
of fireblight was limited to the terminal
12-15 in. of scattered branches.
Autumn Blaze, a newer pear 
selec- Fare i
tion, is similar 
to Bradford 
in flowering 
Prfess
characteristics and time of flowering. Substati
Autumn Blaze trees are
averaging 25-27 in. a year in
height growth. Leaves are not
as ovate as Bradford and not
as tapered as Aristocrat, but
still have the glossy green
foliage of most ornamental
pears. Fall color is brilliant
red occurring about early Oct-
ober, 3 to 4 weeks earlier than
Bradford pear. Subsequently,
leaf drop from Autumn Blaze
$ is earlier in the fall. This selec-
tion develops a dense 
pyra-
midal canopy similar to Brad-
ford, but with less acute
branching habits.
Autumn Blaze occasional-
ly has thorns on branches,
resulting from the parent
species (Callery) which has an
abundance of thorns. Other
than the few thorns found on
Autumn Blaze, this tree has
proven to be one of the best
:ultivars tested. Fireblight was
to 1 or 2 twigs on one Autumn
tree.
spire is similar to Bradford in
ng characteristics, but has a more
t, columnar canopy than the
usly mentioned pears. Because it
as broad, this selection can be
n smaller urban areas compared
other pear cultivars. Height
averages about 30-32 in. annual-
Scolor in more northernly loca-
reportedly similar to the reds of
In Blaze, but in the Auburn 
test,
f color has more orange and yel-
iuch like Bradford. This selection
excellent branching habit and
not have splitting problems with
edspire appears to be an outstand-
right selection.
er pear cultivars appear to be
to Bradford in many 
respects,
fer different canopy forms with
s stronger branching characteris-
s Research Associate, Gilliam is Associate
r, and Ponder is Professor of Horticulture
Ffey is Superintendent of the Piedmont
on.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
II s*" 5~ N
Economies of
Size Identified
for Swine Waste
Management
Systems
J.R ( tsx \ .W.E. P'as ne, I.G. Hi\,
T I IF \V\TFI< QUALITY Branch
of lntxsscC V allecx Authority, the
Soil ( orlserat ion Serx ice, and
\lahaita Agricultura~l Ex~perimnent Sta-
tioin tecetti conidurcted a cooper at ixe
resea clh stundx to cx aluate thie effects of
altetriatix e xxaste manacement schemes
ott xatrtons xsxinc pi oduct ion sy sterms.
W\ithi all disposal xs stems xtudied, cost
economics r exulted ftrom incireasing si/c
of operation.
Thlete Cari thlii e distinct proucIitioni
xx stemll pies alenlt x it bin the xxx inc iti
Cluxti . IFceder pie xx stemns imolse the
fatrrowstig and ci Oxx ii of pies up to an
appr oximate wxeicht of 50 lb. Feeder pig
finishing' irisolvs the pur chasinig Cof
feeder pigs and t akintg t hem rip to
slauichter wxeicht. Farro%\-to-tinish
sy stems include tiltc enttire pr oductiont
ptrocess, t akingc pies from tartroxxirng to
slaughte ixxeight.
\cceptablcx \aste mtantacemrent
sy sterns arid practicex xxcre idlentitiedi
that mtect pollut ion abatemnt st an-
dards. A iticr ocottputer mtodel
'\ \ASTLC ON I: SW\INE) xxas dcxci-
o~ped to assist in te dcsigen and CCo
Ni.
unic ex\
inagaer
clusixe0
intt, sti
tion~ ph~
ftromn arn
The n
oped ti
The "mn
xxetc tii
runitng
create a
thrte ccIn
in elude
tiort dix
itar> . A
inent arl
comllftoin
be run
prograir
Ste it
to attalx
antd si/c
tioni, ar
econioitt
pai isols
fii. I his
count b
FIG. 1. Net cost of waste management for
varying sizes of specified swine produc-
tion systems.
F1 E rcder ig;costs as xwell as r ecognizing accrued
o Finhm nut rient 
benefits Six di fferent size
feeder pig, farrowx-to-finish, and feeder
pig finishing operations wxere analy zed
to examine the influence of economiex
of size for a specitied collection,
tr ansfer, treatment/stor age, and appli-
cation/distribution sy stem (flushing to
a [xwo-cell anaerobic lagoon wxith recycl-
ing of wxaste xwater and tractor pulled li-
quid spreader). All production phaxes
I Idisplay 
ed xubstantial 
cost economics 
asxea
6,- 1,00 6.000 006 s)) ize (Or x olume of wxastewxater) inuct e-
nnua ptotk poution c% ed, figure 1.
Wxaste mnanagernent costs (on an an-
alat ion of altecinatix exxaxte final p0ork ptroduct ion basis5) xx ci
nent x\ystenms. I he model is in- gener ally highest for I ceder pigs, fol-
of the collection, transfer, treat- loxwed by farroxw-to-f inish and finixhing-
orage, and distribution applica- out feeder pigs for the output lexel lx-
tses of handling sxxinc xxastes aminied. Results indicate, hoxxexver, that
y tyxpe production sysxtem. for production sxyxtems less than 50,000
lizine LOTUS-123 -softxxate. haxve loxx c per unit xx axte management
arcro" feat ures of this softxxare costs than the ot her txxo productiton
nied extenxix els to facilitate the phases.
of the program and also to B~ecause the x atue of tIe primatn out-
uscr-ftricndlx enxvironmnent . The put (potk is( not conxt ant amtonic all pro-
ajor conmponentx ot the model duct ion phases, xxaste maniacement costs
he sx sterm dexign, applica- xxe etcxalutated ax the> relate to a piecun
tibtton, and economic sum- t age of output x nlne. Potk ptroduction
comprehensixe w xaste manage- ICs betvk~ xxe 0 (,00t) and I170,t000 lb.
alx xis xxould involxve all three recx aled that t cee pig
t 
opet attoltxx wetc
cuts, but each component can beloxx tat toxx to-t mush atd finiislti )L-out
Lx an rindependent , xt and-alone fcedet 1piex, in inter[imis of t xxaxt manage-
sfor pat ial analxyxes . met coxts as a pei centae of the
iter ocotiput ci model xxax uxed xxeighted ax ciace output x alue.
ze sat ious pr oductiorn phiaxes Bes ond thix out put r ange, f cedet Pig
x, ftrcatmtet/stor ace, disi ibu- finixhing oper ations achiex ed the lo5k eq
id application sys terms. The petrcentage folloxxed bx feeder pig and
c measur e used fot x5 stem coin- tart oxx to ttnixh xxxtermx.
xxas annualized net cost. bene- Si mi lar anals es xxetc tunder taken
common meaxut c took ito ac- to see it' economiex of xize could be
oth opet at inc and oxxnetrxh ip tound among dillferent treat merit
storace sr stemsx for a particular ptro-
duction phaxe. Grass f ilter, storace
pond, anaerobic and aerobic lagoons.
T ,.. echarce pit, and xtor ace pit 
xx xtems
xweie exaluatedi for tixe tairoxx to-fin-
ixsl operation xizes. C oxt economics
1 held for all xx xtemx ax size xxax in-
I , creased, xxith the aerobic lagootn (the
higchest cost sytst em thiroughout)
j xhoxx inc the ci catest cost scrlsitix its.
Ci t-netinc i ki tilil (onttt tti yen 
1  
Cis
Hi i, I ili c Nimpte Spectli t o ticnit
til i ip it ti .rit ii Pmtl .o 01t \il -
-Alahamia -1-riculimral 1 .perimrent .Staionw
U
Pffoi
J.L. Turner, J.T. Eason,
M.E. Ruf, D.Porch, and
M.E. Marvel
V EGETABLE GROWERS in Ala-
bama are in need of alternative
crops to replace less lucrative
ones and to fill voids in harvesting
schedules. While backyard gardeners in
the State have grown asparagus for
home use for many years, several new
male sterile hybrids may make it feasi-
ble for commercial vegetable growers to
produce it for early spring markets.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station researchers are currently testing
five new male sterile hybrids selected
based on tests in Oklahoma - the near-
est Southern State with production data.
Of the five hybrids tested at the Sand
Mountain Substation in Crossville,
Green-wich and UC 157 produced the
highest yields of 6- to 8-in. spears in
limited first season harvesting, see table.
The five hybrids were started from
seed in a greenhouse at Auburn in the
winter of 1985 and transplanted at the
Sand Mountain Substation after the last
killing frost date. Asparagus was not
harvested the first year after planting to
allow new fern growth to provide
nourishment for the crown, which in-
creased spear production for the second
year harvest. Harvesting the second year
was limited to four cuttings. Asparagus
takes 3-5 years of growth to produce
maximum (25-30) cuttings during a pro-
ductive year. A well managed planting
can remain productive for 15
years or longer.
Seedlings were grown in 2 x
2-in. seedling trays similar to
other greenhouse produced veg-
etable transplants. Asparagus
ferns, or tops, cannot survive
below 32 degrees F, therefore
young plants must be protected
from freezing temperatures. 1
Transplants were placed in
4-in.-deep furrows and roots E
covered with 2 in. of soil. J
Transplants were 6-8 in. tall and
well branched at planting time,
and as the tops grew, additional
soil was added to the furrow until it w
filled.
Chicken manure at 20 tons per ac
was applied as a topdress in the fall
1986 and 1987, and will be appli
throughout the life of the planting
provide better water holding capaci
and texture to the soil and provide sor
of the nutrients needed by the aspar
gus. Soil tests are taken yearly and lit
is applied when needed to maintain
soil pH of 6.0-6.5.
Asparagus at the Sand Mountain Su
station was planted on a well drain
soil, which is a must for the crc
Recommended fertilizer, irrigation, a
pesticide schedules were closely mo
tored. Subsequent tests are planned
MARKETABLE YIELDS FOR ASPARAGUS VARIETIES,
CROSSVILLE, 1987'
Variety Acre Acre yield by harvest dates
yield 3-25 3-31 4-14 4-21
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
JC 157 ....... 1,162 47 209 256 650
3reen-wich .... 1,104 35 99 473 497
J-27.......... 842 13 93 261 475
3rocks ........ 837 24 59 335 419
ersey-Giant ... 831 31 125 166 507
'Soil test: P 100 (M); K= 110 (M); pH 6.1.
as establish production, marketing, and
variety selections, which are necessary
:re before large commercial plantings are
of feasible.
Turner is Research Associate of Horticulture,
Eason is Superintendent, Ruf is Associate
Superintendent, and Porch is Research Associate
of the Sand Mountain Substation, and Marvel is
Director of International Programs.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 7
Obscure scale poses serious problem to
landscape plantings of pin 
oak in Alabama
K 
.Tt.
.. . _ ~ 
Jyy
-4. .............................
IN OAK is one of the most widely
used red oaks in commercial
landscape, 
golf course, 
lawn,
park, and street border plantings
because of its fine bronze and red fall
color, distinctive 
pyramidal shape,
relative freedom from pests and dis-
eases, and low mortality in transplant-
ing. Alabama is well below the natural
range of pin oak, and its introduction
into the State's unfavorable growing
conditions has resulted in increased
susceptibility to diseases and phyto-
phagous insects, especially obscure
scale, Melanaspis obscura, figure 1.
Obscure scale is the primary insect pest
of pin oak, causing rapid decline in
plantings of this oak in the South. A
survey of the Auburn University cam-
pus, where pin oak is one of the most
common shade trees, has shown that
more than 90% of 305 pin oaks are in-
fested with obscure scale.
As its name implies, obscure scale is
difficult to detect, particularly when it
occurs on hosts with dark-colored bark.
The cover is typically dark gray but is
often the same color as the bark. In-
festations are more apparent on bran-
ches encrusted with old scale covers and
resemble a "roughened deposit" on the
bark. Heavy infestations often become
more noticeable on branches because of
small white spots which occur when
older scale covers fall off.
Obscure scale crawlers begin feeding
and forming their protective covering
within an hour after settling. Females
will continue feeding throughout their
life; however, males stop feeding after
the second stage of development.
Obscure scale will infest all parts of the
tree, except leaves and leaf stems; like
H.J. tHendrlicks and M.L. \\Wliam
all armored scale insects, it feeds on the
sap of the host tree. The continual drain
of sap from the scale's feeding and the
disruption of the photosynthetic and
respiratory functions of the bark due to
encrustation weaken the infested tree.
Obscure scale infestations seldom kill
the tree, but can cause extensive dieback
of branches and make the tree more
susceptible to secondary infestation by
other insects and diseases, figure 2.
Research at the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station found that in
Alabama, obscure scale produces one
generation a year and overwinters as
second-stage males and females.
Obscure scale females go through three
developmental stages and males five.
Adult females become active in early
February and are present to early Octo-
ber. Beginning in mid-March, second-
stage males enter the prepupal stage.
Pupation begins within a week after the
prepupal stage. Emerging adult males
are present from early April to late
April. Adult males live less than 24
hours, their sole purpose being to seek
out the female and mate. Eggs are
deposited from early June through early
September. By mid to 
late June,
crawlers begin to emerge and continue
through late October. Second-stage
males and females begin to appear in
late June to early August.
Contact sprays timed to kill the
obscure scale have generally proven un-
successful. Several factors contribute to
the difficulty of controlling this insect
with pesticides: (1) the scale's waxy
cover provides protection against
pesticide exposure, (2) crawlers tend to
settle under the protection of older scale
covers, producing a layering or encrust-
From left to right - FIGS. 1-4: Female
obscure scale with protective scale covering
removed, obscure scale infested pin oak tree
showing complete defoliation 
in midsummer,
immature of a predacious plant bug feeding
on obscure scale, and fruiting bodies of the
fungus, Nectria diploa, feeding on obscure
scale.
ing effect, and (3) crawler activity ex-
tends over a long period of time, which
makes timing of spray applications dif-
ficult. A concern to the economic en-
tomologist is that pesticide applications
timed at crawler and adult male activ-
ity overlap parasite emergence and
predator activity. Thus, spray aimed at
the pest may have a detrimental effect
on its natural enemies as well.
Biologically, there are several preda-
tors and parasites that have an impor-
tant impact on scale populations, figure
3. Auburn researchers have observed the
parasitic wasps, Coccophagoides
fuscipennis and Encarsia berlesii, and
the predacious plant bugs, Corticoris si-
qnatus, Eurychilopterella luridula, Lid-
opus heidemanni and Myiomnma cix-
iiforme, feeding on developing obscure
scale. The fungus, Nectria diploa, figure
4, has been observed attacking large
numbers of obscure scale; however, it
is not known whether this species is
saprophytic or parasitic.
Once the scale population becomes
well established, control is difficult by
conventional means. Research indicates
that early detection of infested pin oak
is necessary for best control of obscure
scale and that infested branches should
be pruned from the tree and destroyed
before scale populations reach injurious
levels.
Hendricks is a Graduate Student and Williams
is Associate Professor of Entomology.
41abama Agricultural Experiment Station
PRODUCTION of woody orna-
mentals in containers accounts
for the majority of nursery crops
grown in south Alabama. 
Historically,
if minimal precautions are taken, over-
wintering of nursery crops has not been
a limiting production factor, as it often
is with container-grown plants in north-
ern climates. However, the occurrence
of severe freezes in the South in recent
years has forced growers to reevaluate
their winter protection strategies.
In Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station research, continuous irrigation
during freezing conditions was found to
effectively buffer canopy and growth
medium temperatures and 
protect roots,
stems, and foliage of several woody or-
namentals when ambient air tempera-
tures dropped as low as 3 oF.
In late March, 112 uniform liners each
of Japanese holly, dwarf Burford 
holly,
azalea, pittosporum, and euonymus
were potted in 3-qt. black, polyethylene
containers using milled pine bark
growth medium amended with dolomitic
limestone, gypsum, and slow-release fer-
tilizers. Plants were placed outdoors on
a white clam shell mulch in full sun
under overhead sprinkler irrigation and
maintained according to conventional
nursery practices.
In early December, the following
winter protection treatments began and
continued until the end of January: (1)
plants temporarily covered with 6-mil
(0.1006-in.) white plastic film during
freezing temperatures; (2) plants ir-
rigated for 10 min. on and 50 min. off
until irrigation heads froze, beginning
when canopy temperature dropped to
33 ?F; (3) plants irrigated continuously
during freezing temperatures and subse-
quent thaw; and (4) plants unprotected.
Treatment 2 resulted in the formation of
a 1- to 2-in. layer of ice over plants and
containers.
To monitor medium and canopy
temperatures during the study, therm-
ocouples were placed at 
a 4-in. depth,
1 in. from the south wall of the pots and
in the center of the plant canopy, 4 in.
above the medium.
On January 30, following the coldest
temperatures of winter, plants were
moved into a 60 F heated glass
greenhouse. On February 19, foliage
and stems were rated for desiccation and
cold injury. Bark splitting occurred on-
ly on stems of azaleas and was rated at
this time.
During the winter, mini-
mum ambient air tempera-
ture was recorded on Jan
uary 20 and January 21
low temperature was 3 ?F
During this period, canopy
temperatures within the
unprotected and thinly ic-
ed treatments closely fol-
lowed air temperatures.
Minimum growth medium
temperatures were 23 oF in
unprotected containers and
25 OF in pots of plants thin-
ly iced (Treatment 2).
Canopy temperatures un-
der white plastic fluctuated
widely (from 14 F to 55 ?F
on January 21), particu-
larly on cloudless days.
Growth medium tempera-
tures ranged from 30 ?F to
45 "F during this 2-day
period. When plants were
continuously irrigated dur-
ing freezing temperatures
and thaw, neither canopy
nor growth medium tem-
peratures dropped below
32?F.
No limb breakage resulted from either
icing treatment or from coverage with
plastic film. Root injury was least to
plants of all species continuously irri-
gated and to plants covered with white
plastic film, the two winter protection
treatments in which the highest
minimum temperatures were recorded in
the growth medium. A thin ice cover
provided some protection to the roots
of azalea, Japanese holly, and dwarf
Burford holly, while root injury to pit-
tosporum and euonymus was similar to
injury observed with unprotected plants.
Foliar and stem injury, as indicated by
foliar ratings, was most severe to un-
protected plants. A thin ice cover re-
duced the foliar and stem injury to
azalea, euonymus, and pittosporum,
while a covering of white plastic film or
continuous irrigation protected leaves
from desiccation and bark from split-
ting. Foliage of Japanese and dwarf
Burford hollies was not injured.
Bark splitting occurred only on
azaleas and was most severe to plants
covered with a thin layer of ice.
Moderate bark splitting of the main
trunk and secondary branches resulted
from covering plants with white plastic
film, while only slight splitting of the
ntinuous Irrigation
Protects
Container-grown
Landscape Plants
Against
Gary S. Cobb and Gary J. Keever
main stem occurred to unprotected
plants. Continuous irrigation protected
bark of most plants 
from splitting,
although there was splitting of second-
ary branches on isolated plants.
Continuous irrigation during sub-
freezing conditions effectively buffered
canopy and growth medium tempera-
tures and protected roots, stems, and
foliage of several woody ornamental
species when ambient air temperature
dropped to 3 OF. Protection was derived
from the heat of water raising ambient
air, foliage, and medium temperature,
combined with the heat of fusion re-
leased during the formation of ice. A
white plastic covering protected plant
parts of all species except bark of azalea.
A thin covering of ice provided little or
no protection to euonymus and pit-
tosporum, whereas bark splitting of
azalea was more severe than to un-
protected plants.
Cobb is former Superintendent of the Orna-
mental Horticulture Substation and Keever is
Associate Professor of Horticulture.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
4 /k1!
FARMERS PROBABLY HAVE a
more pervasive effect on the en-
vironment than any other occupa-
tional group. Subsequently most en-
vironmental issues have significant
agricultural implications and many
agricultural policies are shaped, at 
least
in part, by environmental concerns.
Farmers may be perceived as in-
dividuals in tune with nature who have
a beneficial effect on the environment.
On the other hand, concerns about soil
erosion and nonpoint source pollution
may cast farmers in the role of an en-
vironmental spoiler.
While some consumers may be sen-
sitive to the problems of soil erosion,
rigorous protection of the environment
cannot be achieved without cost. Con-
cerns about the inevitable effect of en-
vironmental regulation on food prices
may moderate public concern 
about
agricultural production practices and
what, if anything, should be done.
To determine public perceptions of
Item
farmers' environmental behavior, a na-
tionwide sample of American house-
holds was contacted in a spring 1986
mail survey by the Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station. Question-
naires were available for 3,239
respondents, a 46% completion rate ac-
counting for refusals, deceased, and bad
addresses. In the analysis, statistical
weighting was employed to improve the
representativeness of the sample.
In the table, patterns of response to
six soil resource-related survey items in
the national survey are presented. More
than 90% of the respondents felt that
landowners are obliged to protect soil
resources for future generations.
Almost two-thirds of the sample felt
that most farmers take good care of the
soil. Nevertheless, about 57% thought
that laws regulating excess soil erosion
are badly needed. About 40% thought
the government should pay farmers to
practice soil conservation. A similar pro-
portion supported applying financial
Agree Undecided Disagree No Answer
Pct. Pct. Pct. No.
1. Land owners have responsibilities
to protect soil resources for
future generations .......................
2. Most farmers take good care
of the soil ............ ..................
3. Laws regulating excess soil erosion
are badly needed ........................
4. The government should pay farmers
to practice soil conservation ..............
5. Farmers who fail to adopt needed
soil conservation practices should
be financially penalized ..................
6. Given the economic realities, soil
conservation programs are often
carried too far.
94.0
64.4
4.2 1.9 35
24.5 11.2 48
56.9 35.5
40.4
7.6 88
29.0 30.6
37.7 33.5 28.8
24.5 34.2 41.2
58
53
56
Public
Supports Farmers
on Soil Erosion 
Issues
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
penalties to farm operators who fail to
adopt needed soil conservation prac-
tices. Neither penalties nor conservation
payments received majority support.
Only about 25% thought soil conser-
vation programs were carried too 
far.
The public seems ready to consider
stronger steps to 
stem soil erosion, 
given
the economic 
realities of farming.
Soil conservation 
is a widely held
value in American society, and the
Auburn study indicates 
most people
have confidence that producers act
responsibly with respect to our soil
heritage. Thus, there seems to be clear
consensus about the importance of a
long-term perspective on resource use.
According to survey 
responses, dif-
ferences widen over the role of govern-
ment and the kind of measures that
should be taken to conserve the soil we
have. Many were undecided whether
erosion laws were badly needed, or that
such laws might involve financial
penalties. Thus, the public may be
thought to regard soil abuse as a misde-
meanor, not a felony. 
Furthermore,
such perceptions 
are accompanied by 
a
great deal of uncertainty over the level
of sanction to be applied. In fact, almost
25% of the respondents felt that present
programs involving voluntary and non-
coercive payment systems were exces-
sive. The general public is 
not fully
aware of the array of program incentives
for conservation. Conservation com-
pliance is only beginning to emerge as
a policy tool, as under current law the
filing of a conservation plan does not
become a requirement for 
commodity
program participation until 1990,
although so-called sodbuster and
swampbuster provisions are in effect
now.
The loss of soil does not present a
tangible threat to life and limb, but it
does represent a logical concern for all
Americans. Thus, farmers may face an
increasingly restive public as the en-
vironmental consequences 
of many
present-day farm practices are
measured and recognized. 
Although it
may be simplistic and unfair, some
citizens may perceive 
soil-abusing
farmers as being similar to the occa-
sional truck driver who breaks the
speed limit to increase profits.
Molnar is Professor and Duffy is Assistant
Professor of Agricultural Economics and Rural
Sociology.
J.J. Molnar and P.A. Duffy
PERCEPTIONS OF How FARMERS TREAT THE SOIL: NATIONAL 
SAMPLE, 1986 (N= 3,239)
Response
aiil~ilLilcu ~IVUUC;LIVII Vli;tC;L1C;t~lS allU Lilt: ~SUV~PII
10
S.P. Barron, H.W. Lane, and T.E. Hannan
BREASTFEEDING, which is pro-
moted by the American Dietetic
Association, American Academy
of Pediatrics, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, and the Department of
Health and Human Resources, has been
established as the most effective mode
of infant feeding for the first 6 months
of life. Though breastfeeding is increas-
ing overall, studies indicate that low in-
come mothers tend to terminate breast
feeding earlier than middle class women.
Studies by the Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station indicate occurrence
and duration of breastfeeding by low in-
come mothers was increased by the
presence of supportive individuals in the
home and by encouragement from
breastfeeding friends. Breastfeeding
duration was longer for those women
who participated in educational food
supplementation programs.
The Auburn study consisted of a
survey and follow-up contacts with 40
low income (less than $16,000 annual
family income) mothers between 16 and
40 years of age, without college degrees.
Each of these women had delivered full
term healthy babies and was breastfeed-
ing at hospital discharge. Each mother
was interviewed shortly after delivery to
determine if she was eligible to continue
or join a food supplementation program
called the USDA Women, Infants, and
Children (WIC) program. Each subject
was then contacted by phone every 2
weeks to determine if breastfeeding was
continuing.
Once the infant reached 3 months of
age or was totally weaned, a second in-
terview with the mother was conducted.
Researchers sought to determine whe-
ther a support person, called a doula,
was present, whether friends or family
members were available for guidance
and help immediately following delivery,
how comfortable the mother was breast-
feeding in front of various people, and
the reasons for terminating breast-
feeding.
Average breastfeeding duration was
20.5 weeks. Forty percent of the women
interviewed terminated before 2 months
and 40% were still breastfeeding after
3 months.
Participation in the WIC program,
whether due to a heightened interest in
breastfeeding or to qualify for the food
subsidy, had a positive affect on dura-
tion of breastfeeding. The WIC pro-
gram included at least one basic nutri-
tion education contact that encouraged
breastfeeding. Sixty-seven percent of the
women participated in WIC, 55% dur-
ing breastfeeding and 47.5% during
pregnancy. More long-term breast-
feeders participated in WIC than did
short-term breastfeeders.
When a doula was present, the
average duration of breastfeeding was
23.4 weeks, compared to 12.3 weeks
when one was not present. More
mothers of the breastfeeders were pre-
sent during the first 2 weeks after
delivery for the long-term breastfeeders
than for the short-term breastfeeders.
The presence of a supportive individual
was associated with continued lactation,
while the absence of a supportive in-
dividual was associated with early ter-
mination. The presence of a support
person, frequently the mother of the
new mother, to support the new mother
and help with household duties in-
creased the duration of breastfeeding by
allowing the new mother to relax, estab-
lish her milk supply, and become ad-
justed to her infant's needs, thereby
decreasing the incidence of the mother's
perception of insufficient milk. The in-
ability to relax due to the lack of sup-
port may affect the neurological control
over the let-down reflex, which is
necessary for mothers milk to be ready
for the infant.
The number of breastfeeding friends
was positively correlated with the dura-
tion of breastfeeding. Women who
breastfed longer than 2 months sought
help from friends and felt more com-
fortable breastfeeding in front of female
and male friends. Those women breast-
feeding 2 months or less generally did
not have breastfeeding friends, and did
not breastfeed in front of friends. Short-
term breastfeeders often sought help
from friends who were not breastfeed-
ers, reinforcing their decision to ter-
minate breastfeeding early.
Several reasons were given for ter-
mination of breastfeeding. More women
breastfeeding 2 months or less quit due
to perceived milk insufficiency than did
those breastfeeding longer than 2
months. Three women, all breastfeeding
for longer than 3 months, gave no
reason for termination. Seven women
remained breastfeeding at study comple-
tion. Other reasons for termination in-
cluded return to work and school, in-
verted nipples, the inconvenience of
breastfeeding, advice of a physician,
medications, pregnancy, infant biting
nipples, and decreased interest in
breastfeeding by the infant.
Barron is a former Graduate Student and Lane
is Professor of Nutrition and Foods and Hannan
is Assistant Professor of Family and Child
Development.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 11
IMPROVED MANAGEMENT prac-
tices by Alabama growers have in-
creased State peanut yield averages
by almost 1,500 lb. 
per acre since 1970,
to a current level of nearly 3,000 lb. per
acre. Despite this increase, yield losses
of 20-30% to soilborne diseases, such as
white mold, limb rot, pod rot, and root
rot, still occur statewide. Currently
available fungicides provide only
40-60% control of these diseases, but
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion tests indicate more promising
materials are on the way for peanut
growers.
Spotless' and Folicur?, unlabeled tri-
azole fungicides, have provided leaf spot
control comparable with Bravo' for
several years, when applied in a season-
long schedule. Because of their activity
on white mold, limb rot, pod rot, and
root rot-causing fungi, Spotless and
Folicur-treated peanuts routinely
outyielded Bravo-treated fields by
400-1,200 lb. per acre.
Since development of fungicide-tol-
erant strains of fungi has occurred
where other triazole fungicides have
been used, Auburn researchers also
evaluated alternative treatment
schedules that will allow growers to
benefit from soilborne disease control
from the triazole materials, but also
utilize Bravo during times of the season
when leafspot is the only problem. Ad-
ditional benefits are to delay resistance
development to the triazoles and to
reduce the overall cost of the fungicide
)ntro1 of Peanut Soilborne
)iseases May Afford
"jeld Breakt'roiiah
PA. Backman
program. Bravo is likely to be less ex-
pensive than the new triazole fungicides.
Research on midseason applications
of Spotless and Folicur indicate that
both fungicides do an excellent job of
controlling white mold, either when
banded as granules over the row or
directed-sprayed onto the crown of the
peanut plant, table 2. Since the product
is delivered in a narrow band where
white mold is most active, disease con-
trol is achieved at lower use rates than
when the same products are applied
broadcast with a leafspot sprayer.
Flutolonil (no trade name yet) is a
relatively new compound that is licensed
in Japan as Morestan. When used for
soilborne disease control, this product
can be mixed with Bravo and applied
with a leafspot sprayer, can be banded
sprayed as was done with 
the triazoles,
or can be applied as a granule. Unlike
T,tt i1. Ft i i s o fI I I -SI ., ON SPR v PRO(
Yield, lb./acre
Treatment* 
1984 1985 
1986 1987
Braso 1.1 lb. . 4,737 3,666 3,763 2,459
Spotless 0.12 lb... 5,944 4,167 4,054 3,497
F'olicur 0.22 lb... 5,917 4,589 4,380 3,545
the triazole fuIngicides, there is no effect
on peanut leafspot. in all cases, it has
been found to be highly effective in con-
trolling white mold and suppressing the
Rhizoctonia-induced diseases. Yields
have often been improved by more than
1,000 lb. per acre in fields with only
moderate disease severity, table 3.
All of the fungicides tested and
reported here have activities to several
of the soilborne diseases. It is not always
possible to quantify their impact on each
disease nor to tell if these represent all
of the fungi that are being controlled.
These fungicides are highly active on a
group of fungal diseases that are large-
ly ignored by peanut farmers in the
Southeast. These new fungicides should
dramatically increase the profitability of
peanut production, despite an estimated
$30-40 per acre cost.
Backman is Professor of Plant Pathology.
RASi ON PEANUT YIEtOS AN) WHITE MOLIo
White mold (hits/40 ft. row)
Av. 1984 1985 1986 1987 Av.
3,656 7.0 2.0 5.7 18.0 8.2
4,415 .7 1.0 2.8 3.7 2.1
4,608 .2 .3 4.0 6.3 2.7
Tstti r 2. FFFE(1 t t Ot At't iCStIoN oi FL NOt IrtI NT TsICE THE R StE UsED
f(OR COtiNtIL ttt P NIL; Lt t SPOtT
Soilborne diseases
Treatment* Yield, lb./acre 
1985 1986 1987
1985 1986 
1987 As. 
White Pod Whtte 
Pod White Pod
mold rot mold rot mold rot
No treatment..... 2,650 2.750 3t001 2,800 6.5 3.6 6.2 4.0 10.2 3.3
Terraclor 10 lb.... 3,129 3,513 3,448 3,363 6.0 3.5 3.0 2.9 4.2 2.9
Spotless 0.25 lb... 4,015 3,436 4,144 3,865 .8 3.0 4.0 2.9 2.4 2.7
Folicur 0.44 lb.... 3,583 3,583 1.5 2.4
Applied in a 12- to 16-in. band at pegging oser the ross, using etther a granule or directed (crowsn)
spray.
TiBtE 3. Y tft a RtsPoNsE OF PE.SNCTS Foi to05 NC TREST\1ENT tiITH FtIUTO INIt FC,(;I( IDE
Yield, lb./acre White mold (hits/40 ft. row)
Treatment * 1988 
1986 1987 A. 
1984 1985 1986 1987 
As.
No treatment .... 2,92) 2,520 3,)01 2,814 4.0 5.1 13.5 11.5 8.5
Terraclor 10 lb.... 3,294 3,513 3,448 3,418 2.7 1.9 6.2 3.9 3.7
Flutolonil 1.0 lb. . 3.219 3,775 4,586 3,860 1.1 1.9 5.7 3.0 2.9
Ilutolonil 2.0 lb. . 3,763 3,674 4,876 4,1)4 1.0 1.5 5.8 2.0 2.4
*All rates in pounds actite ingredient per acre
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
pLANT PARASITIC nema-
todes are a limiting factor in
food and fiber crop produc-
tion in Alabama and most sub-
tropical and tropical regions of the
world. Yield losses in some crops
are so severe that continued pro-
duction is not feasible. In the
Southeast, soybean, peanut, and
vegetable and ornamental crop
production is severely limited by
nematodes.
Soybean producers have traditionally
used resistant varieties that hase los
susceptibility to nematode attacks or are
tolerant of nematode damage. 
However,
total dependence on resistant varieties is
not practical because 
some nematodes,
like the cyst nematode, are able to adapt
so quickly to resistant sarieties that new
'resistance-breaking' races quickly ap-
pear in soybean fields. Also, nematode
resistant sarieties of soybeans aren't
necessarily the most productive, nor the
most resistant to or tolerant of other in-
sects and diseases.
Unlike soybean growers, Alabama
peanut grosers have traditionally used
chemical nematicides to combat nema-
todes. The best and most economical of
these materials, EDB (ethylene dibro-
mide) and DBCP (dibromochloropro-
pene), sere recently banned by the En-
vironmental Protection Aeency. Cur
rently there are about 12 nematicides
available to grosers, but the future
availability of many of these materials
is uncertain at best.
Crop rotation is another popular
method of nematode control, but it too
has problems. The most popular rota-
tion crops grown sith soybeans and
peanuts are grain sorghum and corn.
Except for a fesw cases in the Southeast,
it is not economically feasible to gros
corn and sorghum, because of crop
losses due to climate and pests and the
loss return these commodities bring to
farmers.
Thus, there is currently a need to
deselop alternative and nosel methods
for the management of nematodes.
Nematoloes research at the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station has
elimination of plant parasitic
nematodes. Chitin, for example, a
constituent material of shrimp and
'- . ~crab shell, when appropriately
~ formulated, can be added to soil
to reduce damage by root-knot
nematodes. Considering that
shrimp and crab shells are waste
R. Rodriguez-Kabana and G. Morgan-Jones
shown that it is possible to reduce
populations of plant parasitic nema-
todes in soil by using some traditional
or new crops in rotation, or by introduc-
ing organic amendments which enhance
the activity of nematode antagonists.
Recent research has shown that
several forage and row crop species can
be used in rotation with Florunner
peanuts to reduce populations of root-
knot nematode (M. arenaria), table 1.
Castor bean (Ricinus commnunis) and
sesame (Sesmun indicun) are row
crops that are as effective as cotton (a
non-host) in reducing nematode
numbers when planted in rotation with
Florunner peanuts. Data also show that
joint vetch (Aeschynomnene inlica) and
partridge peas (Cassia fasiculata), two 0
potential forage legumes, are equally ef-
fective in reducing nematode numbers.
Other experiments hase shown that
another legume, hairy indigo (In-
digo(era hirsura), and bahiagrass
(Paspalum notatum) are also promising
forage crops for the management of
nematodes.
Table 2 reports results of a 2-year
peanut/cotton rotation wshich resulted in
cood control of root-knot nematodes
and increased peanut yields. Current
research efforts are designed to deter-
mine precisely the long-term effects of
rotation crops on nematode populations
and their influence on other plant
pathogens, insects, and weeds, and on
physical and chemical soil properties.
The results thus far indicate that it may
be possible to maintain root-knot
nematodes at economicalls tolerable
le\els through the use of these plant
species in rotation schemes.
Addition of certain types of organic
matter to soil can result in reductions or
products from our fishing in-
dustry, potential for their
economic utilization as soil amendments
is obvious. Auburn research has shown
that these "waste materials," when add-
ed to soil, can provide a solution to the
nematode problems facing home gar-
deners. Auburn research has shown that
chitin stimulates the type of microor-
ganisms in soil that are antagonistic to
nematodes. This discovery represents
successful and consistent biological con-
trol of plant-parasitic nematodes.
TAti [ t. EtL( I (IF SEVERL A Ros CRO' AND
FOR(G1 P \NT SPECIFE (N JUVENII-E
POPanOt i oifiN0 ROiOiTNIii~ Ni %It 5FF
(Mloioe tsI ARLA ARIA) IN I LID
Lxl'ERisrI I Ai IHL WIRL(,R SS
SULBiS tiON
Crop Nematodes 
per
pint
No.
I lorunner peaiut..... 568
Castor bean.. .. .3
Joint vetch ........... .4
Partridge pea ..... 0. .0
Sesame .............. 8
Cotton .............. .0
Juvenile nematode numbers determined 6
weeks prior to harvest.
T'io i 2. Eii rr i CRti' ROTATION ON
ROOT-KNOT Nt st TODL (Wi 10/0061 5-
IlLVAIS i/i iiJISNil 1 POPi.i TiiNS ANiD
YI i- 0 i FI (ORLNNt R Pt SNLT IN A
Iit t ENPFRistLNI iAS IHE
WIRt (,RAS5 SU tSTiION
Crop and treatment Nematodes 
Yield
1985 1986 tb pints
No. Lh. acre
Peanuts peanuts 340 2,614
Cotton peanuts 194 3,t23
Rodriguez-Kabana and Mlorgan-Jones are Pro-
tessors of Plant Pathology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
oLE. Wilson an urdennLee
L.E. Wilson and Durden Lee
I I
FARM ASSEMBLY of milk con-
tinues to be a major marketing
cost for dairy farmers. In the Mid-
south, farm-to-market assembly costs
paid by farmers range from less than 5%o
to over 10% of the farm level value of
milk. Research at the Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station indicates that
under existing hauling rate structure, ef-
ficiently operated routes are profitable
for haulers and that rates paid by co-
operatives to contract haulers are in line
with costs of efficient operations.
Changes in conditions affecting milk
producers, haulers, and the market
create the need to periodically assess the
charges for milk assembly and trans-
port. Recently, a major dairy coopera-
tive requested assistance from the Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment Station
to study milk hauling costs. Purpose of
the study was to determine costs, reve-
nues, and efficiencies in the farm assem-
bly and transport of milk. Results from
the study provided haulers with infor-
mation useful to evaluate their opera-
tions to make adjustments to reduce
costs and/or increase revenues. Also,
the study provided the cooperative with
information to be used in evaluating the
need to adjust hauler and producer rates.
As a result of periodic studies over the
past 15 years conducted by southern
dairy cooperatives and the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station, a haul-
ing rate system for milk assembly has
been developed. Forms of the system
are being used by most cooperatives
and proprietary handlers operating in
the Midsouth. Rates established per
hundredweight are based on producer
volume (the larger the volume, the
lower the rate) and distance of the
farm from the market (rates increase
with distance). Purpose of the volume-
distance scale has been to provide a
rate structure that is fair to the in-
dividual producer and to the hauler.
Initially, the scale was used to establish
rates paid by individual producers and
is still used in this manner by some pro-
prietary handlers. Ordinarily, coopera-
tives use the scale as a guide to establish
an amount to pay their contract haulers
for deliveries to specific locations or to
allocate revenues to their hauling opera-
tions when using the cooperative's
equipment. Each route has several alter-
native rates for deliveries to a list of
markets. The hauler delivers to the
market specified by the cooperative.
Delivery locations may change several
times during a month. Because of the
way cooperatives move milk among
markets, as well as balance supplies, it
is impractical for the cooperatives to
charge individual producer members the
full costs of day-to-day assembly and
movement of their milk. Instead, in
cooperatives the producer members as
a group or subgroups, such as a divi-
sion, pay the total costs of milk assem-
bly and transport.
A questionnaire was administered to
seven contract haulers employed by the
cooperative. The individual haulers
operated 2-13 routes for a total of 42
routes to assemble milk from approxi-
mately 300 dairy farmers located in
Alabama, Tennessee, and Georgia.
Deliveries of raw milk were made to
fluid milk plants located in these states
and Florida and periodic deliveries of
milk were made to cheese plants. Study
periods were September-December
(three haulers) and May-August (four
haulers). Individual analyses were pre-
SELECTED MEASURES OF COSTS AND REVENUE FOR
SEVEN CONTRACT HAULERS, 1985-86
Av. cost or revenue per
Item Route Round-trip Hundred-
day mileage weight
Dol. Dol. Dol.
Cost
Labor ...... 222.73 0.268 0.486
Operating .. 300.60 .363 .656
Fixed ...... 198.57 .239 .434
Total ....... 721.90 .870 1.576
Revenue ...... 730.93 .881 1.596
pared for each operation, reviewed by
the hauler for accuracy of results, and
revisions made where needed.
Initial analyses of the survey data
show route characteristics and relate
overall costs of operation to hauling
revenues received by each hauler.
Average load was 45,797 lb., 88% of
tank capacity. Among the seven haulers,
loads ranged from 43,300 lb., or 83.9%
of capacity, to 48,200 lb. and 91.3 of
capacity. Average round-trip mileage in-
cluding farm pickup was 834 miles,
ranging from 603 to 889 miles for the
individual haulers.
Selected measures of average costs in-
clude: operating the routes $721.90 per
route day, $0.870 per round-trip mile,
and $1.576 per hundredweight. Approx-
imately 31% of costs were labor,
operating or variable costs were 42%,
and fixed costs were 27%. Costs to
assemble and transport 100 lb. of milk
100 miles averaged $0.189 for the seven
firms. Among the haulers, these costs
ranged from $0.167
(average routes of 889 miles) to $0.222
(690 miles per route). Some cost dif-
ferences can be related to length of
routes, while other significant cost
ranges were attributed to differences in
operational efficiencies among the
firms.
Although revenue received by
haulers exceeded all costs by 1.2%,
some haulers enjoyed substantial
returns on their operations. Others
were not covering all costs. Net income
to the seven haulers ranged from a
17% loss to a positive return exceeding
12%. Three haulers experienced losses.
The loss elements were identified to the
three haulers and adjustments were
made so that break-even operations or
small net incomes were achieved as a
result of the study.
Wilson is Professor of Agricultural Econo-
mics and Lee is Hauling and Transportation
Coordinator, Southeast Division of Southern
Milk Sales.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
aI
14
THE CONSERVATION Reserve
Program is increasing the amount
of tree plantings on some of
Alabama's more erodable land, but to
receive payment through the program,
tree seedling survivability must be ade-
quate. Research in the Alabama Agri-
cultural Experiment Station indicates
that planting pine seedlings deeper, or
where deeper planting is not done, plan-
ting shorter seedlings, can increase sur-
vivability on adverse planting sites.
Some sites to be planted have com-
pacted topsoil, while others have sandy
soil textures and do not hold water well.
During dry years, survival on the sites
may be reduced due to a lack of mois-
ture. Seedling survival also can be af-
fected by how well the seedlings are
planted and how much shoot is exposed
after planting. On well drained sites,
planting pine seedlings deeper than
normal will usually increase survival.
This can easily be done when planting
with machines that make a deeper plant-
ing hole. However, hand planters some-
times object to deep planting due to the
extra time required to make a deeper,
larger planting hole. Therefore, when
hand planting seedlings at normal
depths (root collar at ground level or
slightly below ground level), the height
of the seedling planted could affect sur-
vival on adverse sites.
To determine the effect of seedling
height on survivability, researchers col-
lected data from one site located in the
lower Piedmont and two in the Hilly
Coastal Plain of Alabama. The sites
were hand planted at a 6-ft. x 8-ft. spac-
ing with 1-0 planting stock using dibbles.
During planting operations, planters
were instructed to plant the seedlings to
normal, or root collar, depth.
The sites were defined as adverse,
since second-year survival was below
75% o and total 2-year height growth was
less than 30 in. Adverse conditions in-
cluded low soil water holding capacity
(resulting in droughty conditions), thin
topsoils (due to erosion), or severe com-
paction (from harvesting). Average sur-
vival, total seedling height, and total
growth (for 2 years) were calculated for
the various height classes.
Seedling heights immediately after
planting ranged from 2 to 14 in. Survival
was negatively related to initial seedling
height after two seasons, with taller
planted seedlings having lower survival
than shorter ones, see figure. Second-
Survival of Loblolly
Pine Seedlings on
Adverse Sites
Is Influenced
by Initial Height
C.L. Tuttle, M.S. Golden, D.B. South, and R.S. Meldahl
Pine seedling survival and growth.
year survival on adverse sites was 18
0
%
higher for 8-in. seedlings than for 14-in.
seedlings. Therefore, on the adverse sites
examined, there was no apparent advan-
tage in using taller bare-root seedlings.
On these sites, shorter seedlings likely
undergo less transplant shock, resulting
in better survival.
Total loblolly pine seedling height
growth after two growing seasons also
was correlated to planting height, see
figure. On these adverse sites, total
growth was negatively related to initial
seedling height. However, total seedling
height after two seasons (total 2-year
growth plus initial seedling height) was
not significantly related to initial seed-
ling height. The shorter seedlings grew
faster and were able to equal the heights
of the slower growing taller seedlings.
For many years, foresters have known
that seedlings of the same height with
large root collar diameters will perform
better than seedlings with smaller
diameters. Seedlings with large root col-
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
lars (greater than 3/16 in.) and with
good lateral roots are recommended for
greater survival or growth. However,
this study indicates that when referring
to seedling height, the use of taller seed-
lings does not necessarily mean better
growth and survival. When other mor-
phological characteristics, such as col-
lar diameter and root mass, are similar,
planting a taller seedling on an adverse
site may result in lower survival.
The Auburn research indicates plant-
ing crew supervisors should be aware of
the interactions between site and seedl-
ing heights and should attempt to iden-
tify adverse sites prior to planting opera-
tions. On adverse sites, seedling survival
can be increased by deep planting (plac-
ing the root collar below the soil sur-
face), but where deep planting is not
practiced, planting short (less than 10 in.
tall) seedlings with good root systems
should result in increased survival.
Tuttle is Research Associate, Golden is
Associate Professor, and South and Meldahl are
Assistant Professors of Forestry.
15
L.J. (Over and J. L Touchton
E ARLY-MATURING 
winter
legumes can be used as the sole
nitrogen (N) source for summer
crops that have a low N requirement or
that have a relatively late optimum plan-
ting date. These legumes, however, do
not provide sufficient N for corn, a crop
with a high N requirement that must be
planted early. In addition, comparing
current legume seed and seeding costs to
commercial N prices shows that the
legume must provide about 80 lb. N per
acre to cover production costs. If
reseeding legumes can be used, 
however,
production costs can be greatly reduced.
A good crop of soybeans can provide
one-fourth to one-third of the total N
needed by a subsequent corn crop. Since
soybeans do not have to be planted un-
til mid-May, it is possible to reseed
legumes in a soybean-winter legume-
corn rotation. Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station research conducted
at the Sand Mountain and Wiregrass
substations was aimed at the develop-
ment of legume reseeding systems that
can eliminate or greatly reduce N fer-
tilizer requirements of corn.
Legume cropping systems and rota-
tions tested were: (1) continuous corn
with no winter crops, (2) soybean-corn
rotation with no winter crops, (3) con-
tinuous corn with fall-planted crimson
clover, and (4) soybean-corn rotation
with seeded clover the fall prior to plant-
ing soybeans with reseeded clover the
second fall. Nitrogen fertilizer (am-
monium nitrate) was applied to corn at
rates of 0, 60, 120, and 180 lb. N per
acre. Soils at both locations rated high
in P, K, Ca, and Mg.
At the Sand Mountain Substation,
corn (RA 1502) was planted during
mid-April in 36-in. rows; irrigation
was not available. At the Wiregrass
Substation, corn (DeKalb T1230) was
planted in late March using twin 7-in.
rows on 36-in. centers with irrigation.
All tests were planted with an in-
row subsoiler.
Reseeded clover behind soy-
beans produced more dry matter
and total N than planted clover
following corn, table 1. Greater
weight and total N with the reseed-
ed clover is most likely due to
earlier establishment and more fall
growth than planted clover.
At the Sand Mountain Substa-
tion, corn grain yields peaked at
120 lb. N per acre regardless of crop-
ping system, table 2. However, crop-
ping systems changed yield poten-
tials. The highest yielding system was
the soybean-reseeded clover-corn
rotation with 156 bu. per acre, com-
pared to 110 bu. per acre with con-
tinuous corn.
At the Wiregrass Substation, corn
grain yields were not greatly affected
by cropping systems when N was at
optimum levels, table 2. It appears
that the soybean-reseeded clover
system, but not the clover-only or
soybean-only systems, reduced N fer-
tilizer requirements for corn.
Judging from data collected from
this study and other studies con-
ducted in recent years, it may be best
not to reduce the N fertilizer rate for
corn rotated with soybeans or follow-
ing a winter legume. Further evalua-
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell : Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
tion of the potential benefits of
reseeding systems, production cost
reductions, increase in 
yield potential,
and reduction in N fertilizer re-
quirements will be continued.
Oyer is a Graduate Student and Touchton is
Professor of Agronomy and Soils.
TAB I. 1. DRY WEIGHT AND N CONTENT OF
CLOVER AT CORN P1 ANTIN A A AFFECTED
BY LOCATION AN) PREVIOUS CROP
Clover wt. and N content
L.ocation and Dry wt./ 
N N/acre
previous crop acre 
content
Lb. Pct. Lb.
Sand Mountain
Substation
Corn .......
Soybeans....
Wiregrass Substation
Corn
Soybeans....
3,198 2.91 93
4,237 2.86 121
1,103 4.19
2,425 3.76
TABLE 2. CORN GRAIN YIELD, BY LOCATION, AS
AFFECTED BY CROPPING SYSTEM
AND N TREA.TMENT
Location and
cropping system
Grain yield/ per acre
O 60 120 180
N N N N
Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu.
Sand Mountain Substation
Continuous corn...... 12 67 110 110
Soybeans-corn rotation 39 102 123 135
Clover-corn .......... 53 104 132 131
Soybeans-reseeded
clover-corn .......... 81 135 156 155
Wiregrass Substation
Continuous corn...... 61 138 155 186
Soybeans-corn rotation 89 125 165 171
Clover-corn .......... 85 139 152 164
Soybeans-reseeded
clover-corn .......... 139 170 182 163
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. 9
AUBURN, ALA.