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(-5f>
lerii ill ;t o t o -ii lr il 19~ ii itit1
Si t l I iii c~ - ic in- t itfl ali the i I nill'it ofi
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illIi i ii itc t1 ik hu te it u ic
cc it tii iiin 'it lii
FALLa 1986 Vonle 33e No 3.
Ei(ltoiald C o mmiiittee: 1) 'i ii In 11 it
it! 1),i iii) li I I P ii/( m N of l i fsow i litl iAl
'i t tli i~ la ui iii l iii. Iii Kil i t 1(. 1I
PrK I sn o/ I I ' ii i tilt i i/ .'oiii l if ( l ll/ Ji
\icit! I FI n;iI'~i StNut 'i -lN \I( i ti/ut.1a
Siit'iI is n r c Aii N I . vl3 ssi it.:ls it / itil if ('si
tuul n1unt! I Put u ralS 1'tl ti. and it 3c3i N -
ulntiN (uN~l 1 S IL sv\ S~u
'l o oii lo l-iiin u loo,1 i''i i
Proper Timing Is Necessary 
for
Full Benefit of Irrigation 
by Soybeans
C.M. PETERSON, M.G. HUCK, and G. HOOGENBOOM
SOYBEAN PLANTS are sensitive to
drought stress, especially between
flowering and pod fill. Although Ala-
bama usually gets enough total summer rain
for adequate plant growth, uneven 
distribu-
tion of rains causes problems. This 
poor dis-
tribution causes available soil water in the
rooting zone to be depleted at times 
during
the growing season, causing stress 
on the
crop.
Such tillage practices as subsoiling and
chisel plowing may improve soybean perfor-
mance on some soils by increasing 
rooting
depth, thereby providing access to stored
water reserves. Irrigation also can reduce
drought stress because water can be applied
to the crop as needed. However, results of an
Auburn study indicate that timing of irriga-
tion is critical in achieving maximum yields.
The 4-year Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station-USDA-ARS study measured
the effects of drought stress and irrigation on
growth of Braxton soybean plants. Plants
were grown in the Auburn rhizotron (an un-
derground root observation laboratory) in soil
compartments containing loamy sandy topsoil
EFFECT OF IRRIGATION ON ROOT LENGTH AND SEED YIELD OF SOYBEANS
IN RHIZOTRON BINS, 1980-83
Irrigation Root length/sq. ft. of glass wall Seed production/bin
treatment 1980 1981 
1982 1983 1980 1981 
1982 1983
Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
Irrigated .................... - 15.4 9.2 14.5 
1.27 1.48 1.46 1.15
Nonirrigated ................ . - 34.2 10.5 16.9 .63 
.95 .95 1.16
packed to a uniform density. Each 2 x 3 x 6 ft.
compartment had glass viewing windows on
one side that permitted observation of root
growth.
Some of the soil compartments were irri-
gated daily, while others were not irrigated
and received only rainfall. As indicated by
the graph, rainfall was insufficient for opti-
mum plant growth during most growing sea-
sons and resulted in periods of drought stress
for nonirrigated plants. The driest of the 4
years was 1980, while 1982 and 1983 were
both wet. The periods of prolonged drought
stress during flowering, pod set, and pod fill
in 1980 and 1981 accounted for a marked re-
duction in seed yield without irrigation.
Timing of drought-stress periods over four growing seasons is illustrated. Bars indicate time
from planting until harvest each year, with shaded 
portions indicating periods of drought
stress for nonirrigated treatment. Supplemental water 
was added to the irrigated treatment
during these periods.
Drought stress throughout pod fill in 1982
contributed to the differences in yields of the
two treatments reported in the table. Two
drought periods occurred in 1983, but a wet
period in early August and rains throughout
September prevented significant drought
stress during most of flowering and also dur-
ing mid- to late pod fill. Thus, seed yields in
1983 for both irrigated and nonirrigated
treatments were similar.
Measurements of root growth during the
last 3 years of the study, given in the table, 
in-
dicated sizeable differences in root systems of
plants from the two treatments. Irrigated
plants generally had fewer, more evenly dis-
tributed roots than nonirrigated plants,
mostly in the top 3 ft. of soil. Total root length
of nonirrigated plants was much greater in
1981 when soil water was depleted relatively
early in the growing season. In 1982, heavy
rains during July maintained a high soil water
content throughout the vegetative growth 
pe-
riod, and root growth of both treatments was
similar. In 1983, ample moisture was present
until midway through vegetative growth.
However, a drought during the last 2 weeks of
July contributed to increased root growth in
the nonirrigated treatment.
This study demonstrates the importance of
drought stress on soybean growth and sug-
gests that timing of irrigation may be a criti-
cal factor in maximizing soybean yield. Re-
sults also emphasize the importance of
continuing irrigation once it is begun, partic-
ularly during dry growing seasons. Other-
wise, plants which are irrigated during veg-
etative growth may not form sufficient roots
to support moisture requirements during
later dry cycles. Reduced pod set and seed
fill would then result. Conversely, plants ex-
posed to drought stress during early vegeta-
tive growth develop larger and usually
deeper root systems. These root systems
could enhance total water uptake and, there-
fore, potentially contribute to improved
yields, especially if irrigation is initiated later
in the growing season.
Peterson is Professor of Botany, Plant Pathology,
and Microbiology, Huck is former Adjunct Associ-
ate Professor and Hoogenboom is former Graduate
Research Assistant of Agronomy and Soils.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
R.A. TUFTS
U SE O F lit' IB E R 'lI ii E) grapple
skitddtis is bletominig tilt imost c'omi-
mon imithodt of tiraiisportiiig wxood
fro11 slump to iroatdsid' in tiiiibt' eo xrtiog
roug deliiilbiig bs backinlg till liiad~ thiiouigli
at tltlimiing gate.
As wxithl anyp ilt'x prioced'uriie, it is iimpo~rtanlt
to) kniiw the' pr odtitits if grappic skiddcrs
aid Il itto i ertandt the vaiab1 ll's tha~t afflect
this pi uitix its Suiit frmliliatioin wxas die
Sta~t ion re'seartci. T'e vairiable'sloadt si/z' aindt
skitddinig tistaic itr' foun tot h) w i ax 'fiie imr-
tiint 'fects oin priitii cti s its if grapplt' skit-
(pre'stente'd ini bo be Iilioi) provix to be 1)'a goodit
e'stimaltiir of tiiiet per c e\ o'if opt'iation.
of n~ii eits aid tight tiiffeiren t o petris.
Tile mi ne~tii lts ran 1gedl in sizt frioii 96 to) 185s
illois'pioswei. Intdept'ndtent 5aialels co n sidl-
e rt'd aire lis ted in thll table, ailng xxi th thlt
ian ge' Landt averiage' iof xalues toide I red(.
IIi)I iIvN1)1 N \ Slu l 0I's 55 III AX.i4 5,vs 550
RAM. Vs Conis) IDEVIT IN lIi AN-i 151
Skitd dt, u , ft. . ..
ILoall w ighit, I1. . .
\tatloi'c xx ight
11atio 1 Ia hi fi
retighl lp. . . .
No.i unches/cycl x te..
Ni. oft ec/ cl .uu' ''5 l'
Avx lini. Maix
6536 IS4
3,21 51h
31 96l
2, V)
S,251)
1,55
2;3.11S 18.68 29.00(
015 0. 119
1 1
1 22
(0.4 6.9
Skidding distance was found to affect time
per cycle (travel enuptx to woods, pick up
load, and rctnrn load to roadside) more lh;m
am other variable, figure I. No interaction
was found between distance and load. 13011
have a linear cf1ect on time pcr cycle (output
directly proportional to input). For every 100
ft. of skid distance, cycle time increases
0.277 minute, and for every additional 10011).
EQU \TION
ime/cyxl -k 72:37 - 0. 009061 *IDist + 0.001497 * Load R' -. 81I
:30,7905 * Ratio + 0.05357 * D~ist * Ratio
-0.006:355 * Loadt * Ratio + 0.001624 * D ist * N both
0.000133 * Lioad * Nlt'lI
where. D~ist =skidding (distancee in feet
Load =load wxeighit in poiind~s
Ratio -machine wxeight (1,000's of pounds) dixided b\ horsepowser
N 1)0(1= number ) of buinchilts pt'r c'5cle
Pr oductivits of skidder -tin e/t urn1 dlivxidetd into0 60 minuiiltes per hour Xi load 
size
ute.
an5 iotihei 5 riahit' stiidii'ti figiiie O. At ails
skid diista,i' prouciit ion of the machine lan)
bit incre tasedt us iiicireasinig thit load size.
Ti rtfor , tile stadarLId practice o f us iing
(deck locatiiins to rnoniiniz' skidinig diistaiie
1'I( as tiage loiad silte for the lar gest mia-
eiiin' xx as only 2, 7411 ii). whertieas for the
smlletst iiaciiie, av eiage load sizt' xxas
3,431 11).
Aiother' indicatioin of, inefficenit uist' of
arigt' sk idders showe td uip iln the ratioi iif ia-
cine wi5e i gilt di5ided( bx horsetpi xt'r This
ii 015 re Wxas i egatis l corriielated 'Ii5tii ti me
per cxcie. Thlis iil'iiis that tilt larger imai
ciiets w5r nit on) ily tirainsporing toilpai a
lix cix smialler loatis bit wxere also tras eling
.I ixx ei.
T1It' is Atssistan~t Prot,'ssoi oft Ilusi
FIG. 1. Skidding distance affected time per
cycle more than any other variable.
Time/cycle, min.
500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Skid distance, ft.
FIG. 2. Load size affected production more
than any other variable studied.
Production,
cd /PMH
E] 1,000-lb. load
20- [ 4,000-lb. 
load
Ej 7,000-lb. load
15
lO
5-
500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Skid distance, ft.
Alabama A--iictltil fI [/iwi-iniut Statonl
p S U R 8' F ORlL. 1 1 SO W \S could svery
sweli make a conmc-hack as hog fai mers
11)0k for wssaA to tclt plroducetion costs.
Pastuties sticcessftlls replaced up to twxo-
thirds of the feed requilred for sows i n an Ala-
haima Agricultur al Experiment Station test at
the Sand Miountain Subistation, Crosss ille.
On at dollar basis, the savinogs hy grazinlg
5ss5 am~ounted to as iiiich as $40 per sowS per
year oser dirylot feeding. Since plasture cost
ssas oitly $18 per 5sw per~ year, the bottom-
line sas log is worHth consideriiig.
Using pastur es for sssine b~reedling her ds is
nothiiig ness, ill couirse, buit there is a need for
research info~rmaItion blased on geneticalls so-
pcirior ssxinc and inteinsive p asture manage-
mentit sy stemlls in use toda. Therefore, the
Sand Mlountain Substation studti sxas hegun
to aclilatels determine the ahility of sosss to
utilize for1ages and to determine suppilmen-
tall elrgs and proin n ieeded bysow55s graz-
ing intensis cly mnaged pastures.
The :3-sycar studyx evaltiatedi use of a rota-
titonal grazing sy steml folr gestating sows. The
64 test gilts (Laindrace X Yorkshire X Duroc
crosses) ssere dis ided into four groups. The
controll grotip swas housed in dry lot anti fed 4
11) per diay of a corn-soybleatn meal gestattion
diet tihat supplied 100%/ of the dlaily nultri-
tional Irequliremlents its oultlined hy the Na-
tionlal Research Council. The other 
grtotps,
all of swhiich receisved etqal amiouniits of s ita-
m0i ns anti ineralis as the conutrls, swere al-
lo)wed tol grate in the rtatitonal paistuire sys
temn anti fed one (If the follossing amounts oIf
feed:(l
1. 67cr of tilt energy anti tprtotein fedi to the
dlrylot (control) sos
2. 33%/ of the energy aind p1rotein fed to
colntrl sowsV
3. lnt supp~flemelntal feed
Savings possible of
$40 per sow per year
by grazing.
The rotational forage sy stein ctonsisted of a
plerennial pasttiie of orchardgrass and trim-
ston closer and summer and wxinter annuals.
The sumlmer iannuial pasture swas Tifleaf mil
let anti the winter annaltd ssas ixe 
e scgrass,
anti tilosve. The sowss s were sttocked at the rate
of 12 per acire and rotated b~etwe en the pe-
relnnial and atnnual p~asttires depending on
seasoni anld the alnount ilf grazing asalablei.
On day 110 (If gestation, sowss from all
treatments we rc movedc to an ensvironmn-
tails ctontrlled farroswing house sshe're they
swere fll- Ifed a 15% prtein lactation diiet for
the 30 tiay lactation. After wseaning, sos
wer crieturnetd tto their respectiv e treatments
atnd bredi for the next litter. Sowxs remlaincei on
Xoola XgIt A,, /fullu / I.xpet 1110 lt Station
TJ. PRINCE, A.L. STEPHENSON, and J.T EASON
(Osll'A(AuI P lhOBl(: sa G (ESlITIC SORSx IN 1)lnLOl
Al[) ON 0,0 AlTIONSI. GRZI iNG, S'ND NlOt 'sAIN St ~15 ]O's
Rtesult, bls fedti g sy steim
I temn 1)is lot 
Pastulre + feed
100%~ fe 67% of' 33% of No
dryslot dry lot feed
Litter size at blirth . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 10.2 
10.2 10.1 1t).6
Litter birthl wt. lb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.7 
33.7 31.0 31.0
Litter size ait 21 dlas .. . . . .. . . . ... 8.1 8.0 
7.9 7.6
Litter wxt. at 21 (las lb6 . ... . . . .. . . . .. 86.5 86.5 
84.5 73.5
Gestaitioni gain, lb .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7.2 
81.4 72.8 35.4
Lictatioin gain, lb ............................- 29.3 -25.1 
-13.6 4.4
Lactation feed, lb./a (las . . . .. . .. . . 16.9 16.7 
18.5 18.7
lass to estriis.......................... .... 6.3 
3.9 6.6 6.6
the' studyi ftor 5 pa1rities5 ulests tilt' we rc' re-
movsed for failure tto ctnceive otr for souiinnss
problems.
Ats shown by11 dat a in tihe tablie, litter sitte at
birth itdiltiitttei biirtht xx(igllt 55rc nott affected
by5 the grinlg sy stemi or the ites l of Stipple-
melntl energy andt tprotein fetl. Ilowsscvser,
ntiinei of p)igs aliset at 21 tdays (If itgc and lit-
ter wxeight iat 21 daylxs tendle'd to dirop swith
lowserleitsetls of stupplemnltattionk tespecially in
tilt zer) suppl)emeltntal feecdt groutp.
Asan asveriage, the grazedt sos showed15''t
gestationi gins siila~r to dirylilt isws. 
Agii,
sos gc'tting o1111 patsturc' (110 suplemtent'-
mal~jority oIf this decrc'ase wa itsn tilt first pai-
its sxhc'n the no-snllffomc'it pa~stire' groupi~
gaine'd only :31 lb., its comparedit w'l~ith 81, 78,
sulemeItlicntaltion grioips, re'spec'tivecl. This
indticate's that an adetquoat' pfiitod is neccs-
sax for first-littei gil ts til be ale t' tieff iicintly
titiize tt folrage's 5(1 su ppliI ii tal l iutition~ can
lbt rec't dct. Ill par itit's 2 tol 5, Asws iln tpas-
tti ( groups gaine'd as mucch olr imore' than
thoise' houised( in dirsylilt atnci fe'c 100% (If theOir
ntient rt'(fcire'menits.
Lactatioll 55eighlt loss xas ile ss fitr sowsX thait
we(1re gratc'd tha~n thotse' thait we rc' fed iin diry-
lilt. This wasl tru li' espAfite' tilt fact thlat all
wecre' fairrlswcd inl tilt sautile hou(st' andl~ wer1e
wstighlt lo1ss deccreatsed its the' it'el o'il supple-
thiough tis diecrea~sedc xxecight loss mlay lbe
pairtiatlls e'xpitlai by loss cr ge'statioln 5weighlt
'T'e re'sults (If this studyi shows thait ge'stt-
in~g sos rotattiolly graze'd tol hlighl qutality
plasture's cani lbt It'd as littlt' as tone-thirtd ill
lTh' cost of t'stab lishing andlt mailintining pas-
turt's 5wais $18 pci sows per' sear. At tile :33%
fe'o'iing it'sel' a saitIngs (If2 ll. oIf co~rn anti
0.35111. (If Asybeant halt't per day for 275 grill-
ing day s pe'r yecar re'prest'nte'd a sax ings of
840.42 per' sows ill fe'ed costs. 'The'refore r'o1(
taltiolt girating 55yste'ms reptre'se'nt all e'co-
nomiallyl fe'asible' aternitivec for swsinle pro-
duicc'rs.
Prinle' is As soia te' Profe s sor oIf Aim(ial andt
/ ,
~' -4~V
I. c
COMPLAINTS ABOUT farmers and
agribusinesses having access to bet-
ter credit terms and lower interest
rates than other sectors of the economy are
heard regularly. But just how much truth is
there in such charges? Not much, according
to findings from an Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station study.
The opinions about farm credit stem from
the existence of such organizations as the
Farm Credit System and Farmer's Home
Administration, which were established to
handle specific credit needs of farmers, agri-
businesses, and rural residents. While the
organizations offer obvious benefits to agri-
culture, general economic factors tend to di-
minish any advantage that farmers might
have.
The agricultural industry, particularly at
the farm level, is characterized by highly var-
iable product prices. These prices typically
follow seasonal and cyclical patterns with
their level generally set by supply. When
prices are relatively high, production of that
commodity is expanded. This increased sup-
ply causes the price to decline, which leads to
reduced quantities produced. This reduced
supply then causes a trend back to higher
prices.
During inflationary periods, interest rates
and product prices, except for agricultural
products, generally rise. Prices received by
farmers are influenced little by inflationary
pressures, while prices paid for production
inputs are subject to inflationary movements.
For example, from 1961 to 1985 the index of
prices paid by farmers increased 269%, while
the index of prices received rose only 143%.
The consumer price index, which gives an in-
dication of the movement of overall prices
paid by consumers, grew 258%.
Actual (nominal) interest rates paid by ag-
riculture and all other segments of the econ-
omy rise with the level of inflation. This di-
rect relationship occurs because, with
inflation, a dollar will purchase more today
than it will at some time in the future. Inter-
est compensates the lender for this decrease
in purchasing power. If actual interest rates
paid are adjusted to remove the inflationary
effects, real interest rates are obtained.
In the research done to determine if farm-
ers have an interest advantage, nominal or ac-
tual interest rates paid for agricultural loans
were adjusted by various price indexes to re-
move any inflationary effects and give the ap-
propriate real rates. Two sets of adjusted ag-
ricultural interest rates were derived, one
based on the agricultural prices paid index
(PPI) and the other calculated with the agri-
cultural prices received index (PRI). Real in-
terest rates paid by those in other sectors of
the economy were obtained by deflating ac-
tual interest rates with the consumer price
index (CPI).
Comparisons were made for short-term
non-real estate borrowing and for long-term
W.E. HARDY, JR.,
and S. OLOWOLAYEMO
real estate loans. Rates for Production Credit
Association loans represented short-term ag-
ricultural loans, while commercial bank rates
on short-term loans were utilized to repre-
sent other sectors of the economy. Federal
Land Bank rates represented the charge for
long-term agricultural loans. These rates
were compared with home mortgage rates,
which represent interest paid by others.
When nominal rates were compared for
1961 to 1985, the average rate paid by farmers
on short-term PCA loans was higher than the
rate paid by those in other sectors even with-
out correcting for inflationary effects. This
has fluctuated in more recent years. From
1978 to 1982, for example, average annual in-
terest on PCA loans was less than at com-
mercial banks. For 1983 to 1985, however, the
average PCA rates were higher than bank
rates.
Agricultural borrowers appear to be in a
relatively better position with nominal long-
term rates. Average annual rates were lower
for FLB than home mortgage loans in all but
6 years, with nearly a half-percent advantage
in the average rate for the 25-year period.
When nominal rates were adjusted to ac-
count for inflation, the resultant real interest
rates more clearly reflected the actual inter-
est burden. For example, PCA rates adjusted
for PPI and PRI were higher than average real
bank rates for the 1961-85 study period. From
1973 to 1982, however, the average real rates
paid on PCA loans were generally lower.
Long-term agricultural rates were found to
be somewhat lower when CPI adjusted mort-
gage rates were compared to real FLB rates
obtained by using the PPI and PRI. Real FLB
rates adjusted by the PRI were higher than
real mortgage rates during 1982-85, reflect-
ing the increased pressure that farmers are
feeling.
Results of this analysis can be summarized
by the general statement that, for the past 25
years, farmers have paid (1) somewhat higher
rates in the short-term market, and (2) lower
rates in the long-term market than those in
other sectors of the economy. In recent years,
however, long-term rates for agriculture have
also tended to be higher when adjusted by
the index of prices received.
Hardy is Professor and Olowolayemo is a former
Graduate Student Aid in Agricultural Economics
and Rural Sociology
AVERAGE ANNUAL INTEREST RATES FOR LOANS FROM PRODUCTION CREDIT ASSOCIATIONS AND FEDERAL
LAND BANK, SHORT-TERM COMMERCIAL BANK LOANS, AND MORTGAGE LOANS, UNITED STATES,
SELECTED YEARS, 1961-85
Nominal interest rates 
CPI' adjusted PP
2 
adjusted PR
3 
adjusted
Year real interest rates real interest rates real interest rates
PCA Bank FLB Mortgage Bank Mortgage PCA FLB 
PCA FLB
Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct.
1961 ..... 6.61 4.97 5.64 5.98 5.52 6.64 7.51 6.41 6.89 5.98
1964 ... . 6.47 4.99 5.60 5.78 5.37 6.22 7.03 6.09 6.81 5.89
1967 ..... 7.29 6.00 6.02 6.33 6.00 6.33 7.29 6.02 7.29 6.02
1970 ..... 8.98 8.48 8.68 8.27 7.31 7.13 8.02 7.75 8.16 
7.89
1973 ..... 8.09 8.30 7.48 7.78 6.24 5.85 5.62 5.19 4.52 4.18
1976 ..... 8.24 7.52 8.66 8.76 4.40 5.12 4.29 4.51 4.43 4.66
1979 ..... 10.71 13.18 9.20 10.48 6.07 4.83 4.28 3.68 4.46 3.83
1982 ..... 14.34 14.69 12.27 14.47 5.08 5.01 4.50 3.85 5.93 5.07
1985 ..... 12.30 9.74 12.25 12.12 3.02 3.76 3.78 3.77 5.28 5.26
Average .. 9.03 8.84 8.28 8.73 5.53 5.62 5.68 5.21 5.83 5.35
'Consumer price index.
2
Agricultural prices paid index.
3Agricultural prices received index.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station6
Dietary Protein Level Affects Semen Production
and Carcass Quality of Broiler Breeder Males
J.L. WILSON, G.R. McDANIEL, C.D. SUTTON, and J.A. RENDEN
T HE MALE was the forgotten element
in managing broiler breeders for many
years, especially in ration develop-
ment. Most nutrition research centered on
correct feeding of females. Males simply ate
the same diet. But that is changing now, with
use of new management systems in which
males and females are grown separately and
then fed separately in cages after maturity.
Already there is research evidence that males
need different feed than females.
Previous Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station research indicated that feeding
males 12-14% dietary protein on a restricted
basis was just as good as feeding 16-18% pro-
tein diets. There was no difference in age at
sexual maturity or in semen production be-
cause of lower protein feeding. In fact,
greater numbers of males produced semen
throughout the life of the flock with 12% pro-
tein than with 14%, 16%, or 18% protein
feed.
The newest Experiment Station study was
done to not only document how low protein
diets maximize reproduction in male broiler
breeders, but also to identify how these re-
sults came about. Specific objectives were to
(1) monitor the number of males producing
semen, (2) measure the quantity of semen
produced, (3) measure percent carcass fat
and protein in males producing semen and
those not producing semen, and (4) deter-
mine testes weight.
At 6 weeks of age, 246 broiler breeder
males were randomly assigned to either a 9%,
12%, or 15% protein diet. The 15% protein
diet was similar to commercial breeder diets
and was designated as the control. The diets
were formulated with the limiting amino
acids as a similar percentage of the total pro-
tein for all treatment groups. Each group re-
ceived the same amount of feed per day.
Semen was collected and evaluated during
four periods (25 through 30, 36 through 37,
42 through 43, and 48 through 49 weeks of
age). Ten birds (five males producing semen,
five males not producing semen) from each
treatment group were randomly selected for
carcass composition analyses at 22 and 28
weeks of age. Remaining males were ana-
lyzed at 50 weeks of age.
Feeding 9 or 12% protein reduced body
weight slightly (greatest difference was 0.79
lb.), but had no effect on testes weight. Males
not producing semen had smaller testes than
males producing semen. Semen volume, con-
centration, and number of spermatozoa per
ejaculate were not affected by dietary treat-
ment.
Sexual maturity was not delayed by feed-
ing 9 or 12% dietary protein. A larger per-
centage of males fed the 9% diet produced
semen from 29 to 50 weeks of age than either
the 12 or 15% groups, figure 1. As a group,
the males fed the 9% protein diet produced
dramatically greater numbers of spermatozoa
per day than males in the other treatment
groups at each test period.
Carcass comparison of males at 22, 28, and
50 weeks showed that carcass protein content
was not affected by dietary protein level or
reproductive state. Level of dietary protein
did affect percent carcass fat. As noted in fig-
ure 2, the higher the protein content of feed
the lower was carcass fat content. Males not
producing semen had a tendency to have less
carcass fat than males producing semen. The
findings of increased carcass fat and greater
number of males reproductively active in the
9% dietary protein group support the theory
described in mammals that a minimum per-
centage of body fat is critical in the initiation
of puberty and the continuance of reproduc-
tive function.
Results from the study clearly demonstrate
the suitability of a 9% protein feed for broiler
breeder males after 6 weeks of age. The low
protein feed had no adverse effects on age at
sexual maturity, quantity of semen produced,
or longevity of semen production. A greater
percentage of males fed the 9% protein diet
produced semen from 29 to 50 weeks of age,
which resulted in a larger number of sper-
matozoa produced per day than by males fed
12% and 15% protein diets. Since protein is
an expensive ingredient in poultry rations,
these findings point to the opportunity for
feed cost savings without any loss of produc-
tivity in broiler breeder flocks.
Wilson is a Graduate Research Assistant and
McDaniel is Professor of Poultry Science, Sutton is
a former Poultry Extension Specialist, and Renden
is Associate Professor of Poultry Science.
FIG. 1. Sexual maturity was not delayed by low protein diets. FIG. 2. Level of dietary protein did not affect percent carcass fat.
Pct. carcass fat
20
Dietary protein
18-
16 -
14 
-12%
12 
15%
10
8
6
4
2
22 28 50
Weeks of age
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Pct. of males in
semen production
60-
Dieta
50 -
40
30
20
10
Out cm
]ry protein
9%
12%
15%
29- 5023-28
Weeks of age
D.M. BISARO, W.E. GARDINER, G. SUNTER, and I.D. CHANG
S CCESSFUL TRANSFER of irus
genes to plants in research at the Ala-
bainia Agricultural Expeiment Station
is an indication of the v ast potential use of ge-
netic engineering to produce plants which
calrrs traits b~eneficial to agrictultuire. Tob~acco)
plants, for examplle, hav e already b~een genet-
ically engineered wsith resistance to herbi-
citdes, certain insects, and s iruses. \lost re-
searchers arc optimistic that, wsithi tihe aid of
plant b~reeders, more crop p~lants can he de-
veloped wsith resistance to most pests and tol-
crant of 'a wside range of grossing conditions.
Iioato golden mosaics irums, wshich belongs
to the geminiv irus group, wsas used iin the
Aublurn tests. Mlembers of this grotip infe'ct a
wide range of plants and catise diseases such
as tomato goldieni mosaic, bean golden mosaic,
cassav a latent, b~eet cuirly top, maize streak,
and wsheat (Ewarf.
Genetic information is carried by genes,
ss hich are stor ed in coded forni in DNA mol-
ecules. The genetic information of tomlato)
golden mosaic v irtis is disvidetd betwseen tsso
nearly idlentical sized DNA miolecules (called
compLonent A and compLonent B). Both I)NA
compfonents (similar to small chromo~somes)
are required for infection, since each con-
tains genes wshich are necessarys for different
p~arts of the sviruses' life csytle. In stisceptible
plant cells, the sviral genes are exp)ressed us-
ing the machinery of the host cell itself. The
viral genes instruct the host cell to make cop-
ies of the svirus.
Research on the funcetion and expiressiomn of
geiivsirus genes (there are only six or so)
employ ed a recenitly desveloped technique
sshi ich aflows genetic imateri al to be intro-
(bleed into the chromosomes of plant cells
that can he iregenierated into swhole plants.
Plants altered in this sway are said to he trails-
formedi. U~sing a specially constirtctetd sector
(carrier) D)NA diesignedl by thme Moiisanto
Companys, the separately cloned DN A com-
ponents of tomato goltden mosaic s irus sserc
introduicedh inito petuinia tells. Tiraiisformed
p~lanits carrsying ei therc the A or B compnnt
of the v irus as a iiesw genetic trait weire iregen-
erated, and these plants weire nor mmal in ap-
pear~iance. H owve r, biocheical anals sis in-
diceatedi that sviral DNA ssas ireleased fi olo the
p)lanit chromosome aiid ireplicated in the cells
of 'A-contaiig plants, hut not iin B-plants.
This indicates that the A-component supplies
the informiation necessary to ireplicate itself
and~ the B-component, and that B prosvides
sunme function(s) irequired for symilptom de-
velopmnent.
Transformed planlts flossered normally and
wsere used ini various crosses. Seedlings from
crosses of A and B parentits dhisplas ed a re-
markable p)henotypte. One-fourth of the prog-
ens of such crosses showetd sy mptomis of silos
infection- the piroportion expected to ire-
ceis e all A-component from one parent andl a
B-comiipmonuenit firom the othlir pairenit . Bio -
chemical analsysis of symptomatic pr1ogeny
confirmed that both A anid B D)NAs wer e
Successful transfer of virus genes to this
plant indicates potential uses for genetic en-
gineering in plant improvement.
pr esent antI rep~licated ini these p~lanits. Other
possile coimbiiiations of crosses (A A, BXB)
failed to pr1odu0ce progeny plants shoss lug
sy mptoms of the svirus.
These resutlts cons incingls (demonstrate
that fu nction al tomato gol deii iosaic svirus
genes call he geneticalls delisvered into plants
using tran sf ormiation tech nologs, pros idiing a
ness methuod for the studs of plant sviirus funt-
tins. Using this techmniqute, natuiral or modi-d
fietd siral DN As can he placedh in esvery ce'll of
a plant, legalrtless of sshether thmey can pro-
tduce active tiru p115articlts cap~able ol sIpi ad-
ing to otheri cells bs thei normal infection pro-
cess. DN A molecules hase een constructedh
swhitch camrry mutations at specific sites swithin
viiral genes. Intiroduction of these into plants
shoultd alloss the function of each indisvidumal
genell tom he detrminedt.
Much has already beeni learntet abuit gem-
iiinus rep~licationi using gtene tranisfer tech-
nolog. As the ongoing stud~ies pros ite de-
tailetd tuntderstandimig of sviral genme fumnction, it
is hoped that the fintdings swill stiggest en
for comtrolling these imiportant pathogens.
Bisar o is Assistant Professor, Gardiner and Sun-i
ter are P'ost-doctoral Fllos, and Chang is a Rie-
seartch Associate oft Botani, Plant Pathology, and
MSticrobiologs.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
P 3()l)I (:" RA o(fNt containei-groi o55r-
nanioeitulx is it Ilor-inlteniive, cost]l
pr1oiedliii C Ixpicaiix, p)lants are Cprop-~
agaitcd in bedis, flats, o1 smiall conitaiilerX aiid
ti ,ip
1
antiel on1ce or twXice into lar ger coni-
tainer befor be ing mCil a irkte d. Th is triaiis-
plantinig increases labor aiiid equiipmnot costs
adi~ lslay slowXX p)lant groxxth.
Aniother op
1
tion, anid oine that mtax offer cost
saXings, is prop)~agatin~g init arlket-sizec con-
tinijr ihI Iich thet p~lant rieilainsx tiitil sold1.
lTiis meithoid~ elliminates tiranslanldting ex-
pense of ~c l liirsc, bu1t it rire iimii i ore groixX
ing alrea duiriing the early p)art of the piroduic-
c~ontaiiner lilaX ieuc i pILrodulictioni tiimi, but
this inras mliiCxi ateijal ad (1laboi r cosxts.
ods -) i xn Alaam Agitura Fxper )i imntj Sta-I
tion researchi shiows xboth ailX aintages and dlix-
I(aiiatages foii propagatiiig inl lii gil
coni taines Al x~thiogh cuit t in gx wer loweIr' to
rooi t ini large ciolltainelrs, griow.th wixas greatest
Crpe mlox tiaxhaio' xPiartx Pink x ari
CtN) aiid azaleas~ (George Taboan ad fii-
cl ilixoi) w} r usiedixC~ in thei comiparixoin of
xixe Cpr)1opagation)1 andI tiransplanitinig til-
(Cuttingx wx in taken ini sping 1984 and
treatedl withi ItA (a rootilig hl'foone). Ceill
ples~ (72-celuniitx)an in. pot were pXCClaiced
init ade grllahousl 4 CIhi11XI XleI 1-gal. coin-
tatiners we re p~lae ou( i1)1tdoor iii ndeiIr sh ade
clolth (17% light excluoni). lin boith cases, ir-
rigatiiii tiqunc wiiiI~ as adjusiitedl to madintainia
in1g.
ginnig shoI tll/i afte rootI iitiaion'. FertiXlize
apliedI xxax It00 I-p inm. N from 20-2(0-20).
Lineirx ini ceII pacs aiid 3-in pots were
trilan
1
)ltedl whenI'l rooits hail delop ClstC f x
tact uponii reimoxal fro011 the- ~ontainer. AkeIr
lbein g transpIIlte (in11to 1-gal. ciotatiners ainII
laedutdoiiirs uindelr 4711 shaIde, p~lants
weiie to~pIdreIsxcd moniitly xithi I teaspoioini of'
12-4-6 per c~iiidicr. Roiinig was CXvaliuated
xx IlcuCttingx xxr i-iII.I imi CI from interit-
tieint i rrigat iiii Jiani-Jut l 198-1). Top growith
aind r oot giroxxthl xcx miCeiiaxsured iln Mayi 198.
Ilooiting sucIcess xhoxw d noi d~ifferiences
ao iig the p)lant spcies.C H oxveri timei re-
quiieid for rooiting aiied amoiiig proipagaItiiin
iieiiia andl cointaine~r types. Cuttinigx of' all
species tiook 2-:31 xxeekx loilger to root in
1-gal. coilta illers thail iini e~ll paso 3-in.
conitainelrs. Ilhix wxas problably the resullt
oii Ill Xironmeni i tal d iffeces beli ItweenC thle
iedl soimewh Iat amonhilg speies bui ht xxax gi-
iiraIly greatest wheni txx iicu ttinigs wXCrC propill
agated~ in 1-gal. conltainers (treatmenlt 7).
Iast growxth rexultecd whe liIcuttinlgs Xwere
Alabanma Agricultural L'xperinwnt Station
Rooting cuttings in market-size
containers shows promise
for ornamental production
G.J. KEEVER and G.S. COBB
p)rop~agated~ iin ctll pads aiid xsubixlqilentlx
triansplanitied to .3-in. and thien I-gal. ciii-
tainers (treatmen~it 1).
Toip gi ixxtli of' c-e tri- lc x wax onilx
txo Icell picxs iilto a I-gal. Cilitaiui- (treat-
men~it 3) resuiltedI ill siililar total top growxxth ax
Xwhen onel ori two IIuttings weCrC irootied ini 3-ini.
Containers andc later tirainxplaintied into 1-gal.
tiingx weii Iprlopagatitd ilu ither .3-in. or 1-gal.
conlitainers, suxggesting that propl~agationi ofi
a'. ciep ili ylXrtlC. Thlix could( Ichange if shilrter
soin azalias tol tiransxplaitiing xsequiInce xxax
siimilai to that oif' crepeI IIyrtIe. I loswxer 
,
bolth c-iiltix aix produdiil moire top
1 
groxithl peri
coniltaineIr xwhen txi ci i-l pac xxiii transx
or txi icuttiings xxiri iootied in c.IcI .3-ill adil~
1-gal. conitaiiner (triatmeni-its 5 lild 7. Thlis
suiggxstsx thIat the priolducit iInt ch-clei xoliowe r
grini ig speies~ iii X h o II r tened lix placing
tainers .
Cuttings were propagated in cell pacs (left),
3-in, pots (center), and 1-gal. pots (right).
Bl-ltixi loot ill-sitx ill thll thlleC speiesi
corii ilatecd closi-lx xwith thle topj drx xweiglt
datI. Boiit deitx xxax alxxax s least wx lli
plan1 ts XwerI I transpi llanted~ twiici and greatest
XwIeni twoi cuittillgs xxtit diic ~-tlx piiipagatiid
iI-gal. conitaliilrl, Cxcept xxithi ( corg - la-
bo lii za.'lea.
iooted qic er lii sImaillecr conitainiers in the
gi iienhousX , i iiitiiig pericentages did not dlif-
greateri after 1 2 mon lith hx iiii plants xxiii
propi~agatid ireictlx ill marketable coiii
tainer. Thec stiriss expeiene byI~II I tirans-
lante hIItliiers patcual ihsli el ie
Prioipagatiing muliltipleC cuttin~gs pecioCni
xwithi sliix tio moderante grinig splies. l loxx
iing mlist lbe cdii full exvaliuated~ for optimlal
i-flicienocx.
Ki-eS cris AsxlstaInt Profitssiir of1 Iorii ic ultni i aiid
nu be ,xt time 2nd time Pr~r trot iili nll
II cll pacI 3-in. pot I-al pot 1 peat-perlite-
2 cell pac 1-gal. pot 1 ii nictilite
:3icll pacI I-gll pot -2 equ4 ial x llniii )
33in. pot I -gll pot - 1
53ii. pot 1-gal. pot2 ll h k
6 1-gal. pot noi transplanitiing 
i J m dpiebr
7 1gal. pot ro transplanting2
Risks in Vegetable Crop Production
M.E. ZWINGLI and J.L. ADRIAN
D EPRESSED PROFITABILITY of
traditional farm enterprises such as
corn, cotton, and soybeans has led
many growers to seek alternative crops. Veg-
etable crops, because of their profit poten-
tial, is an alternative considered by many
growers.
Vegetable crop production has been char-
acterized as having a high degree of risk as-
sociated with both price and yield related in-
come variability along with risks related to
institutional barriers. While an enterprise
may seem quite profitable one year, variabil-
ity in these factors can cause large losses
when evaluated over several years. Thus, it is
important to evaluate the impact of variabil-
ity in the components of receipts (price, and
yield) when considering vegetable crops as an
alternative. To illustrate these potential risks,
a recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station study analyzed data for six crops
(broccoli, cabbage, sweet corn, cucumbers,
bell peppers, and turnip greens). Data in the
table represent prices received between 1979
and 1983 in the Atlanta wholesale market
with consideration given to transportation
costs.
Because fresh vegetable production is an
intensive enterprise requiring a high degree
of management skill, many first time produc-
ers are faced with reduced yield levels. In or-
der to measure this production risk or the ef-
fect of yield decreases on income, average per
acre net income was calculated at both a
100% (average yield level for a good producer)
and 70% of the average yield. Using the per-
centage decrease in per acre net income re-
sulting from a 30% decrease in yield as a
measure of production risk, broccoli showed
the least risk, with sweet corn having the
greatest risk, see table. With a 107% de-
crease in net income, sweet corn, on average,
showed much potential for negative income at
the 70% yield level.
As yields decreased for each crop, the in-
come variability associated with production
risk rose sharply. This stresses the need for
producers to follow recommended produc-
tion practices, use appropriate varieties, and
irrigate. Weather related risks, such as frost
damage to early spring and late fall crops,
also must be considered.
To analyze price related income risk, the
six selected crops were evaluated with re-
spect to their overall price variability, within
season price variability, and overall variabil-
ity in per acre net income. As shown by cri-
terion 3 in the table, cabbage had the highest
degree of price variability, followed by cu-
cumbers. At 45.83%, cabbage producers
could expect to get a price within approxi-
mately 46% of the average price 68% of the
time. The remaining four crops (turnip
greens, broccoli, bell peppers, and sweet
corn) had roughly equal risk associated with
price related income variability.
Next, within season price variation (be-
tween weeks) was measured (criterion 4).
Turnip greens and broccoli had the least risk
while cucumbers showed the greatest risk. At
30.17%, producers of cucumbers could ex-
pect prices to vary by as much as 30% of the
average price from week to week during the
relevant harvest season 68% of the time.
FEASIBILITY RANKING OF SELECTED NORTH ALABAMA-PRODUCED FRESH VEGETABLE CROPS AT THE
ATLANTA WHOLESALE MARKET BY ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION CRITERIA, 1979-83
Evaluation criteria, 
Ranking
crop, and measure 1 2 3 4 5 6
Average per acre net income
Crop .............. broccoli
Measure, $/acre ..... 1,561
bell pepper turnip greens cabbage cucumbers sweet corn
851 790 693 502 194
Sensitivity of av./acre net income
to a 30% decrease in yield
Crop .............. broccoli turnip greens cabbage cucumbers bell pepper sweet corn
Measure, pct........ 38.25 41.80 53.13 58.18 59.66 107.47
Overall variability (between weeks
and years) in weekly average prices
Crop .............. turnip greens broccoli bell pepper sweet corn cucumbers cabbage
Measure, pct........ 19.64 20.73 20.77 21.66 27.49 45.83
Within season variability (between
weeks) in weekly average prices
Crop ............
turnip greens 
broccoli bell 
pepper cabbage 
sweet corn cucumbers
Measure, pct........ 7.46 9.54 15.68 17.45 19.20 30.17
Overall variability (between weeks and
years) in weekly av./acre net income
Crop .............. broccoli turnip greens bell pepper cucumbers cabbage sweet corn
Measure, pct........ 36.23 45.34 69.45 103.80 125.26 152.84
10
While both overall and within season price
variability are important measures of risk,
producers are ultimately concerned with the
effects of price variability on net income. To
measure this effect, weekly price quotations
were used to calculate per acre net income
with income risk measured by the degree of
variability in per acre net income as price
varied (criterion 5). Varying degrees of in-
come risks were shown by the six crops, with
broccoli showing the lowest risk and sweet
corn the greatest. Cucumbers, cabbage, and
sweet corn all had risk measures (critertion 5)
larger than 100, indicating the greater poten-
tial for losses during some years.
Overall, broccoli and turnip greens
showed the least amount of production and
price risks of the six crops evaluated, and
sweet corn had the greatest risk. While these
measures should be used to evaluate the rel-
ative potential of alternative vegetable crops,
other factors must also be considered. These
include availability of resources such as land,
harvest and packing labor, capital to purchase
specialized packing and harvest equipment,
water necessary for irrigation, and one's abil-
ity to successfully produce a given crop. Pro-
ducers must also recognize the difficulty of
market entrance.
Traditionally, Alabama producers have
generally been residual suppliers and, as
such, are contacted by wholesale brokers only
during times of supply shortages. Thus, pro-
ducers attempting to access national whole-
sale markets during times of adequate or sur-
plus conditions can expect few opportunities
and, even then, potentially highly depressed
prices. As producers in Alabama gain a rep-
utation for quality and sufficient quantity
neccessary to interest wholesale buyers,
these market barriers may be reduced. Until
that time, emerging producers should be
willing and able to accept the risk of negative
income during some years. Because vegeta-
ble crops are high cost enterprises, losses
during some years can be quite substantial.
The Auburn study indicates vegetable
crops are high risk enterprises requiring far
greater management skill and greater empha-
sis on marketing activities than traditional
crops. Because of these factors, potential pro-
ducers should not view vegetable production
as necessarily being the answer to their in-
come problems. Careful consideration must
be made concerning the aforementioned fac-
tors if one is to be successful with these en-
terprises.
Zwingli is a Research Associate and Adrian is
Professor of Agricultural Economics and Rural So-
ciology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Until Alabama gains a reputation for quality and
sufficient quantity to interest wholesale buyers,
producers will have to accept the risk of negative income.
Cash flow statement valuable tool for farm financial management
S.C. BELL and K. BECKHAM
H IGH INTEREST rates and other
capital costs make production effi-
ciency a major farm need. Efficient
use of capital is especially important because
of the large amounts of capital being bor-
rowed. Using financial management to mini-
mize interest expense could make a big
difference in profitability of many farm op-
erations.
Financial management includes decision
making concerning investment, tax liabili-
ties, and financing of current operations, all
of which involve forward planning. Perhaps
the most useful financial management tool
available is the cash flow statement-a peri-
odic summary of farm receipts and expenses.
An important use for a cash flow statement
is evaluating the potential for adding a new
enterprise. This use was the emphasis of an
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
study, which considered adding a 120-sow
operation (a one-man operation) to an existing
farm.
A detailed enterprise budget was prepared
to establish cost and receipt data to serve as
the basis for the cash flow statement pre-
sented below. Assumptions included (1) feed
would be purchased, (2) operating capital
would be borrowed, (3) 12% interest would
be paid, charged on the unpaid balance at the
end of each month, (4) expenses would in-
clude $1,200 per month for family and non-
farm business expenses and $3,000 per year
for Social Security, and (5) sows would be
bred so 20 would farrow every 6 weeks (eight
farrowings and eight marketings per year).
The first year, expenses built up to $39,102
in June, before there were any sales. With a
minimum of $1,000 maintained in the check-
ing account, capital has to be borrowed each
month that expenses exceed sales. At the end
of the first year there is $38,384 in accumu-
lated borrowings. This includes $12,750 of in-
terest on a $127,500 loan made for hog facili-
ties and breeding stock. There is no payment
made on principal the first year.
In the second year, the highest accumu-
lated borrowings are in January, $29,050.
The accumulated borrowings reach zero in
November but increase to $20,400 in De-
cember because of interest payment of
$12,750 and no sales that month.
The cash flow statement indicates no pay-
ment on principal until the third year, with
only $1,737 paid that year. Interest at 10% on
the capital facilities loan was added each year
to the outstanding debt. Beginning the
fourth year the operating expenses were paid
from hog sales and no additional operating
capital was to be borrowed. A payment of
$21,168 was to be made on the principal loan
in the fourth year.
Since the operating expenses were paid for
out of sales in the fourth year, this would hold
true for subsequent years. Therefore, all
funds above current expenses in succeeding
years were applied to the loan for facilities
and breeding hogs, with the following pay-
ment schedule: fifth year, principal $22,284
and interest $10,460; sixth year, principal
$24,513 and interest $8,231; seventh year,
principal $26,964 and interest $5,780; and
eighth year, principal $29,661 and interest
$3,083.
There was only $1,178 remaining debt at
the end of the eighth year. This was paid in
the ninth year along with $117 interest.
Therefore, the original loan of $127,500 was
paid out by the beginning of the ninth year
and the hog enterprise is able to finance itself.
Two important uses of the cash flow state-
ment are evident in results of the study.
(1) It indicates to the lender who made the
$127,500 loan that even though the hog enter-
prise budget shows a net return of $35,615.92
annually, there can be no payment on princi-
pal until the third year.
(2) It leads to saving on interest. By using
an agreement whereby borrowed funds are
received as needed and interest on the un-
paid balance is paid on a monthly basis, total
interest paid on the operating loan is $4,654.
If all operating capital required for the year
were borrowed at the beginning of the year
and interest paid for the year, total interest
payment would be $16,122. Thus, use of the
cash flow statement creates a savings of
$11,468.
Bell is Professor and Beckham is a Graduate
Student of Agricultural Economics and Rural So-
ciology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 11
C.H. GILLIAM, J.L. TURNER, S.M. HARDY, 
K.S. RYMAL, and R.L. SHUMACK
E ABLY IN 1983 thic EPA issuied ai in-
tt'nt to ssithidrass the thaiiinozicic'
cionitaining groswthi re'gulants 
Ks farc,
Alar" anti B-Nint' from the imarke't Ibecatise
of sutspectedh residuc' problem s iii apples
(Alar) and pc'anuts (Kylar). The' EPA has sub-
seqiiently swithdiraswni the intent anti c'ac'h of
the grossthi ircgulants is still on the inairket
aiit sold svithlia full fe'decral 
label. iHowsever,
the' potc'itial loss o~f B-Niiit to countrol height
on se'lected vege'table and orniame'ntal tirans-
plants leci to a study by thit Alaamma Agricul-
tural Experimecnt Station tn evsaluate' alter-
inatisve cultural practie's to control svege'tativ e
grosvthi of tomnato transplanits during betiding
plaiit prodiuction.
In MIarch 1985, Momnte Cario VFN varicty
tomatoes were sceded and subsctque'ntly
transplanted into flats oii March 27. A pc'at/
pierlite' me'dium swas used in a 1:1 ratio by vol-
nine amcndied on a cubic syard basis ssith 21ib.
gy psumi, 6 lb. diolomitic limicstone, 112 lb.
Micro~lax, anti 2 lb. supe'rphiosphate (0-2(0-0.
Plants were grossni in a double' layer green-
house and fertilized sseekis svith 350 ppm.
N from a soluble fertilize'r. Tsvo sveeks latt'r
fisve tre'atmenits we tre initiated: (1) 
B-Nine.
one application (April 11); (2) B-Nine, thirt'e
applications (April 11, 16, 21); (3) control
treatme'nt wsatercci as needed (X); (4) pilants
svatered about 1/X; and (5) plants wvateredc
1X. The treatments ssith reduceci swater
ssecre inclucied to dtie'rmine if height
suppression could be achievdc by wvateiriing
practice's.
Oii April 26, caliper and cirs sseights svere
determineci at the end of the' bediiig plant
production phase of the test. At the same
time, four replicatioiis of fise plants from
each treatment svere field plaintedt in ro~ws 5
ft. apart wsith plants 15 in. apart ini the row.
Field fertilization consisted of 1,0(00 lb) pci
acre of .5-10-15 prepilant incorpor 
ateti (l'lI),
20(0 II. per acre triple suiperphoiisphate 
PPI,
and 500161. per acre of 13-13-1:3 sidediressed
after the first frunit w~as golf ball size.
The spray program in the field consisted of
Parathion? + Bras o appfliedi 
at planting,
Px diin -i+ Bras o sweekly until 
first fruit set,
and Pydrin ? Lanitate? + Brasvo we ekly
dur ing harsvest. Weedcc control consisted of
TABLE 1. L,~cis 15F CULI RiiAL FIO OON
(,iOs\ n OF MNTE r CARLO \I'N
TomiArO SLLOLIANS'
Treatment Height Caliper
In. In,.
B-Nine (Apiil 11) .... 6.0 1.7
B-Niiie (April 11, 16, 21) 4.8 1.7
Control (X)...............8.0( 1.7
W~ateredl 12X............... 7.5 1.5
W~ate'red 1/X ........... .0( 1.6
'Data collected 4 w~eeks afte'r triansplanting.
-tr
lAill 2. INFiVNC OF 5 L CULTURAL FA inis 1)i immN; BEllist, 
PiLANT PiROUCHION ON TOsiATO YIELi)
MIarketable Y ield/acre' Percent marketable sield, by
Treatment Tot al bars est no0
cwst 5x6 6x6 6x7 1 2 3 4~ 5
B-Nine (April 1l)............. 444 :3.3(0 87 
28 4 11 7 26 52
B-Nine (April 11-16-21). ..... 482 :380 70 
32 (1 4 8 18 7(0
Control (X)......... 441 :330 87 24 
11 13 12 23 41
WXatered /2X ................ 504 409 69 
26 7 16 5 13 59
Watered 
1
X................436 :337 57 42 11 
11 11 17 50
'Size s ields reported here are ini accordance wiith the si/c standards established 
by the U.SD)A for the
Los Angeles type lug arranigements. 5 x 6 arrangement. in 
imuim diameter 21a in. , mnaximu m diameter
3'/t. in.; 6 x 6 arrangemnet: mmiimum i diameter 2"h in., mnaximum 
diameter 2'4'/1(, in. 6 x 7 arrangement:
iniuni diameter 24/i in., maximu dniicianieter 21/1(, in.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
0.75 lb. per acre Tm t'lan" 
3
PPI), (0.5 lb) per
acre Paraquat" in ross middles, and hoeing as
neededc. Toimiatoe s we re hamvssted and
giradied on fisve dates. At the .5th barsvest date
subsamples wer1e tested to dletemrmimic if (dam
inozidle) iresidlues fromn B-Ninc' use xs cre tde-
tecitale in the fi t.
Results of this test showsedi that onls B-
Nine suppressed tomato height dluiiing bed-
cding pilant prodclction, table 1. Neither to-
iiiat() caliper (thickness of the tomiato stem
just abs e soil levsel) nor dii sseigfit ssas af-
fected by aim tireatmnents. Thesce data con-
lii tmeti that reinosval mof this mnaterial swould
eliiinate a gouo
1 
height suppriiession iiate-
il Also, these results showedcc that wsith-
holIding wsater had no effect on suppreiscsing
eglht during the bedding plant protduction
fhe it bur si iiii5tu dy shosscd that (culturiial
factmors (linmg b etddlin g plant pro iduction h adi
little e'ffect om tomiato y ield, table 2. Fruit sizc'
swas simiular among tirtatmn ts, hut 13-Nine
app)lied three times delayedc ripening. Aftcei
the fimrst three liarsvest dates, only 12% of the
to~tal marketable y ield had been hamxrsttd
from plants receivifog (hirec B-Nine applica-
tions, as coiiiparedi to 28-:36% fioiii (t'e coni-
trol pl ants antI those un deirgoing moisture c
stre'ss.
Recsitdtie samnple's colle'ctedi from the' 5th
hamsvest diate' did not hasve detectable dai-
nozidet It'svels in anv of the' sample's. Becaust'
plants treate'd thre'e times ssitli B-Nine had
dlelaye h'~ilarsvest, it ssas impossible' to te'st fir
r'sitdut' It'sels at an t'airlie'r hamrs tst.
In summnar, results shoswt'd that onls B3
Nine e'ffectivecly contirollt'd tomato height in
be'dinig plant prodiuction. B-Niine app1lied(
thire'e tiiiits de'layed earl iness of ripiening, an
iiipor~itant factor for grossetrs whlo produme' to-
iiatot's lfii thec c'arly inairket . Ne'ithuer B -Nine'
imir wvater stir(ss during bediting plamnt pro-
duictin affetetd toinato sic'
1
' in thit fieldi Fi-
niall, thitre were' iio dt'ctablc' damminozidc
It'sels in tiomiiatot's samupled( on the~t 5th barsvt'st
datc' indicatinug that usc' o)1 'BNint' iii tomiato
bedding plant prodlictioii shouilti post' no
ciangt'r tio humani he'alth.
Giliham is As sociate P'rofes sor, Tii ier is a Re-
st'arcth Associate, Haridy is an uindergr adiate' Stu-
cdeint ,ic and Bmal is Proessor mof I omrtiuiltiiie, aiid
Shmnaclk is aii Esteni on Honrticultui ist.
O NIS OF )''I F MA JOR problemts ini
groinislg s, ot htrn pines is ctotmpeti
titioi fit i hi iii ardwoo arid hlerb~aceousi'
veg'taiuttionfo iiiitiiie nuitrients, and light.
As' ill aictiurait~i ctrops, conipetinug x tge ta-
titn caii teuc t'tt'tit xi', l groiwsth, antd Sieldi of
deitriied pitnes'. Us'e iot chlemlical herb icides' to
titit ini titi hr for' tt thiree decade, lbut ilitor-
iintitin dcumenii('ting its, lonig-term i lect t iol
iiicitt xax at Aubuirn, rcxtults are severai
tcatrs t aa. Iio prov~ide itritm infortmat Iion on
pine it ld r (1( sponsi ii , to) Xege tationv contot , ai
p~rojecct wxas, iitiated( bx tile Alabaniia Agi-
cutural L\Ixpcriliicnt Station to locate andt
compii son ',ii i oiit'tiical x egetation controli tot
across' tilt Soutthet'a, of wxhich 22 itisoixt't
hatcyo ti con tt tl and 18 in,okxeci earix con-
trot lii hraceouits S ege tat ion.
ItnconisXittent t icatmcent etfects wer ci outn d
in~ oprat itonal comii paristns treated xxith the
hbiiite 2.,1, a-. Iln sonic cases ttntreaitedi
plts had muore. pine votlumile than treated
plts, tint tot poor initial pltt la otit atnd cr-
ratic 'tlectsoft 2.4,.5-T1. More consistent eft
ftets and itte(lt triend' we rc' notedi in resetar th
and ot ptratitonal comp i~aris'ons' trIeatedi withi
colrt itx reitertt d fc orcestrx hericiies.
stable ireltatiltnsips, acr'oss most comiparmion,
opleraittional ori retsearch.
ti'e, as, thet amt oft hatrdwXoocd intcreasectd
(ptorir ha.1 tiX oodc ctontrtol) pince y ild tdt-
cretasetdt dtiti'tical l figutrce 1. Th is samec t rtntd
wxa', cx uittit int almosi't aill comtipaismonis irtgardt-
itss' itt agt, type p ' icide,' tor ltocatioi iot
At thrie it' it e t oildcst stuccessfutl hlerba-~
ctut ii',x gc'tatill cotrti iistutdies in the' Stulth,
ilhbacetis xeg'tationt xxas cotntrtollecd li
hianit hintg atic hlii itcih', ligcui c' 2 anid 3.
Comii partable c'xege tatitin ctontrtil and groxwthi
rets' can itt ioitainedi by using curtntl
regis'~tertd therb1ic ide,. Voltme t fo'ttr thce plots
wxithi cgt't atit ii coiintto twxas mitptrtio iatti
tdottble thiat lfii ntlreatec plts at age 1t). Furt
ti len ii re thet x t gt tatio n contr ol plots til thet
loxx sitt ptroduied x tlutmnt at tile samle ratc as
thec nit contro (o tpterational) plots on the high
sitte. Litngerl ter c d iata are tneededl i to lls
ce aliuat therti1bacecotus x cgcetation cotoli ci-
fc'cts, but intdicatitonis arc that rotation agt'x
catn lbe tittieasedc bx at least 2-3 xycars, andc a
liii irt'O tili s i tatin d oi tre's can be otined.t tt
D ata frit tiht Auibturtn 'tucdy clearly ini-ic
tate th at incirteasecs' in ctimlpetititon frtom Ihairdi
xwootids anti herhaceiux xvege'tation dcrcieasi
pin yielc. i' ltogical a'sumtiton is that it is
G.R. CLOVLR and J.L. C kEWGH ION
caus of itis yxicild redutctio n. IeIri icidlt' canl
('tat ttol l b t befoire' thtese chemoiicals are ap-
Totdah volume soud berk ute, a o h
2,500 Herbeou vegetation conrladteaalbl
ity~~~ of s-tal Noefctv herbicieou vegeato
A Pior comlesrpino ehd
cu f./ cr
2,500 He,000ou veeato
2 10 ,000
00 40 80"
Hardwood basal area,%
1,000
500--- /
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Age from planting, years
atndt I )alt' F. IDicktns, ixImtpact tot (ometing
pubiltlihedti 1985 as' Gecotrgia Fotrest Retstearcth
P~aper Nit .59. Coipits ate ax ailabltit' rti
st'arth, 1). Bitx 81i, Nactoni (;t'tgia: 3i298-
1.599.
Bnrmal pcais fFrss
n ontrol
ncnrl 
High
Med.
FIG. 1. (Above) Loblolly
pine stand at age 10 on
high site index land which
received herbaceous veg-
etation control following
High planting.
,Low FIG. 2. Total 
pine cubic-
,"Med. foot volume 
per acre by
pine age for three herba-
ceous vegetation control
studies (age 10). Site index
(SI) at a base age of 25
* years for loblolly pines
'Lw equals 75-80 ft. on a high
0 Lo site, 60-65 ft. 
on a medium
- - site, and 45-50 ft. on a poor
' site.
FIG. 3. (Inset) Total pine
~ cubic-foot volume per acre
8 9 10 by percent hardwood
basal area for Fayette, Ala-
bama, site preparation
study (age 24).
Alabamna Agrictultuiral Experiment Station
UTILIZING ANIMAL WASTE
FOR ENERGY AND LIVESTOCK FEED
D.T. HILL, T.J. PRINCE, and J.R BOLTE
ALTHOUGH UTILIZATION of animal
waste as a resource in the United
States went virtually unnoticed until
the mid-1970's, the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station has had a strong agricul-
tural and animal waste management research
program since the late 1960's. This program
is directed at developing methods to utilize
animal wastes for refeeding and energy pro-
duction, and it recognizes the importance of
animal agriculture to the economy of Ala-
bama and the special problems encountered
in confined production of poultry and swine.
Research conducted since 1980 has cen-
tered primarily on development of a practical
utilization system for production facilities
commonly encountered in Alabama and the
Southeast. For swine facilities, this involves
using liquid transport flushing systems.
These waste streams are very dilute (over
98% water) and present special problems
when reuse is the goal. Energy production
and refeeding require much more concen-
trated material. Early on, the need for re-
concentrating the waste was recognized.
Work was conducted using a vibrating screen
to separate the dilute waste stream into its
solid and liquid components. The major con-
clusion from this work was that the solid por-
tion could be refed to the sow herd at a major
economic advantage compared to using a
fraction of it in on-site energy production.
In 1983, it was recognized that the solid
portion could not be used both as an energy
source and in refeeding. The economics sim-
ply demanded the use of the solids in refeed-
ing. This left only the extremely dilute liquid
fraction (typically less than 1% solids) as the
source for on-site energy development. Since
1984, research on a novel and promising
methane production system using the dilute
liquid fraction of the waste has been in prog-
ress.
During the last 3 years, three studies have
been conducted to determine the nutritional
value of screened swine waste solids for
swine. Gestating sows were chosen as the ex-
perimental animals because the waste solids
are high in fiber and not nutritionally suited
for growing pigs. Balance trials were con-
economy~ ~ ~ ~ ofl- fg,
ducted to determine the digestion and utili-
zation of the energy and protein in waste sol-
ids as compared to typical corn-soybean meal
diets. It was determined that the metaboliz-
able energy content of waste solids was about
60% of the level of energy in corn.
A second trial determined that the protein
present in waste solids was not digestible by
sows. Maximum consumption of waste solids
was 13 lb. per day (at 30% dry matter con-
tent). Thus, waste solids can be used in typ-
ical sow diets to replace about 60% of the
grain. However, protein, vitamins, and min-
erals must be added at normal levels.
In the third study, sows fed waste solids for
two gestations at levels up to 50% of the en-
ergy requirement achieved normal reproduc-
tive performance. Waste solids can be used to
substitute for the more expensive energy
sources in sow diets and result in consider-
able feed savings.
Anaerobic digestion, the conversion of or-
ganic waste materials to methane gas by an-
aerobic bacteria in a closed fermentation ves-
sel, has proven to be an effective method of
recovering high quality energy from swine
waste. Additionally, the digestion process re-
moves approximately 50% of the solid mate-
rial from the waste, greatly reducing further
treatment requirements before disposal. For
effective fermentation in conventional anaer-
obic digesters, a fairly concentrated waste (5-
15% total solids) is required. In refeeding
systems that employ a screening process,
coarse solids are removed from the waste,
leaving a very dilute liquid fraction. This liq-
uid portion is rich in dissolved nutrients and
fine solids and contains approximately 60% of
the "potential" methane originally present in
the whole waste.
In order to effectively utilize this waste for
methane production, research is being con-
ducted on an innovative fermenter design
termed the "suspended particle-attached
growth (SPAG)" reactor, see figure. In these
fermenters, the anaerobic bacteria are fixed
inside the fermentation vessel by attachment
to an inert support matrix. This provides
high bacterial populations inside the reactor
resulting in several benefits: (1) effective con-
version to methane of the very dilute wastes
found in flushing or refeeding systems, (2) op-
eration of fermenters at substantially higher
flow-through rates, resulting in smaller and
more economical conversion systems, and (3)
much more stable reactors, capable of rapidly
adapting to changes in feeding rate or sched-
uling and less susceptible to operational fail-
ure.
Using these SPAG fermenters, dilute waste
of approximately 1.5% solids content has
been used to produce methane at rates of
about 5.5 cu. ft. per pound solids added or
2.8 volumes of methane per volume of fer-
menter per day. Thus, SPAG fermenters are
well suited to integration with refeeding sys-
tems and allow the producer to utilize every
portion of the swine waste for recovery of an
economically useful resource. Further re-
search on this promising fermentation tech-
nology is being conducted to determine op-
timal support media material and operating
conditions.
The animal waste management and utili-
zation research program at the Alabama Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station is geared to
producing results which will keep animal ag-
riculture in the state competitive now and in
the future. The new SPAG reactors, though
still in the developmental stage, have the po-
tential to provide on-site energy production
while allowing simultaneous use of the solids
for refeeding. This research, combined with
results from refeeding and anaerobic digester
studies, has placed Auburn and the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station among the
top animal waste utilization facilities in the
country.
Hill is Alumni Professor of Agricultural Engi-
neering, Prince is Associate Professor of Animal
and Dairy Sciences, and Bolte is a Research Asso-
ciate of Agricultural Engineering.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
SPAG, a new technology in anaerobic fermenters.
MANY MEAT PRODUCTS, such as
summer sausage, have a distinctive
flavor that is associated with prod-
uct pH. The traditional method of producing
such products is to rely on naturally occur-
ring microorganisms, or the use of starter
cultures to initiate the bacterial fermentation
and lower the pH. These procedures take
from 8 to 20 hours (depending on the prod-
uct), during which time the microorganisms
consume carbohydrates and form lactic 
acid
which in turn lowers meat pH. Once the
meat has reached the desired pH, it is heat-
treated to inactivate the lactic acid-producing
bacteria and stop the pH decline.
In response to interest in using encapsu-
lated food acids to produce low pH products,
a recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station study investigated the effect of encap-
sulated glucono-delta lactone and encapsu-
lated lactic acid on cured, restructured pork.
Use of encapsulated food acids would provide
an opportunity for development of unique 
fla-
vors in existing and new processed meat
products.
Sows of the type used in the manufacture
of whole hog sausage were slaughtered, and
carcasses were boned leaving the lean/fat
mass from each side intact. The lean/fat mass
was tenderized twice on a blade tenderizer
then separated into a lean component (con-
sisting of chunks of very lean tissue) and a
trimming component (containing fat, connec-
tive tissue, and some lean meat). The two
components were placed in a blender in a
50:50 ratio along with 0.25% curing salt
(6.25% sodium nitrite), 3% salt, 2% sucrose,
1.5% liquid smoke, 1.5% water, and 0.05%
sodium erythorbate and blended for 12 min-
utes. The master batch was divided into four
equal batches, and additional ingredients
were added to create the four treatments: (1)
control (C), 3% water; (2) sodium acid pyro-
phosphate (SAP), 3% water, and 0.5% SAP;
(3) lactic acid (LA), 3% water, 0.5% SAP and
1% encapsulated LA; and (4) glucono-delta-
lactone (GDL), 3% water, 0.5% SAP, and 1%
encapsulated GDL.
Following addition of the extra ingredients
to each batch, each treatment was blended
for an additional 2 minutes, stuffed, heat pro-
cessed to 152-156?F (about 5 hours), show-
ered to 90?F, and held at 37
0
F until evalu-
ated.
EFFECT OF ENCAPSULATED FOOD ACIDS
ON CURED, HOT-PROCESSED,
Treatments
C 
SAP 
LA 
GDL
pH after mixing .... 5.99 5.53 5.53 5.59
pH after cooking . 6.17 5.85 5.33 5.21
pH after chilling . 6.30 5.94 5.46 5.41
Pigment conversion 58.6 70.1 71.7 75.7
Flavor .......... 5.1 5.6 5.4 5.7
There were no differences of practical im-
portance among treatments for percent fat or
protein and only the SAP treatment was lower
than the control treatment for moisture con-
tent. This moisture difference was likely re-
lated to pH alteration. Panelists detected no
differences in cohesiveness, juiciness, or con-
nective tissue among the treatments. The
SAP and GDL treatments had significantly
more intense flavor than the control treat-
ment. These flavor differences appear to be
directly related to differences in pH. Objec-
tive analysis detected no differences in shear
value or tensile strength among the treat-
ments, indicating that textural properties and
binding strength were not affected by the ad-
dition of food acids.
In the curing reaction, the more total meat
pigment that can be converted to cured meat
pigment, the more intense and desirable the
color will be of the final product. Speed of the
curing reaction is very important in products
such as those produced in this study because
little time, usually about 60 to 90 minutes, is
allowed in the manufacturing process for the
reaction to take place. The trend observed in
this study was for the SAP, LA, and GDL
treatments to have more cured meat pigment
in the final product than the control. No dif-
ference in percent pigment conversion was
observed among the SAP, LA, and GDL
treatments.
The pH data for each treatment after mix-
ing, after cooking, and after chilling are
shown in the table. After mixing, the pH of
the control treatment was different than the
SAP, LA, and GDL treatments.This differ-
ence was due to the addition of sodium acid
pyrophosphate during the mixing cycle. Lit-
tle, if any, of this pH drop at this time was
due to the encapsulated food acids because
the temperature of the meat was not high
enough to melt the capsule. The only food
acid released prior to cooking was the result
of damage to the capsule by mixing, but this
was minimal.
After cooking, the control treatment had a
higher pH than the SAP treatment, which
had a higher pH than the LA and GDL treat-
ments. Differences in pH observed at this
time among the SAP, LA, and GDL treat-
ments were due to the release of the encap-
sulated acids during the cooking cycle.
During chilling, pH values increased
slightly due to the natural buffering capabil-
ities of the meat. The final pH, taken after the
product had chilled, ranked in the same or-
der as those taken after cooking.
Yield data indicate that products lost an av-
erage of 1.9% during chilling. In terms of
both cooked and chilled yield, the control
treatment had a slightly higher yield than the
other three treatments. There was a trend for
the lower pH products to have slightly less
water holding capacity than the control treat-
ment.
Use
of
Encapsulated
Food
Acids
in Cured,
Restructured,
Hot-Processed
Pork
D.L. HUFFMAN, J.C. CORDRAY,
and WR. JONES
The results of this study indicate that en-
used with hot processed meat to produce low
pH products. Using these acids may make it
possible to develop unique flavors in pro-
cessed pork products while significantly im-
proving the value of hot-processed sow meat.
Huffman is Professor of Animal and Dairy Sci-
ences; Cordray is Director of Research and Devel-
tension Specialist and Associate Professor of
Animal and Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural 
Experiment Station
11 = Extremely bland, 8 = extremely intense.
15
-~ ~ ~-
LIn21K
R. GOODSON-WILLIAMS and D.A. ROLAND
B. NE FRAGILITY in old hens is a ma
jor p~roblem for the p~oultry industrN.
Dutring proce ss ing of these hens,
honie shattering is a pimairy economlic con-
cern. Weak hones may, alsou he reflected in re-
duced shell qfuality anti lowxeretd protduction
hexvels near the end of the lav ing cyclie.
In the past, researchers hasve tried such
things as increasing itesels of calcium, so-
ditm, and phosphorous anti adding fluoride
to the diets of these chickens. Each treat-
ment has shoswn some success, but most hasve
unwxanteti sitde effects like reduceti feeti con-
stirption and shell qutalit. Nosw a prgject at
the Alabama Agricultural Experime nt Sta-
tion is experimenting with the use of v itain
D3 (cholecalciferol) to improsve b~one
strength.
itamin D is v itally important to egg pro-
titction, egg shell formation, anti hone ni-
Influence of supplemental vitamin D3 on bone
breaking strength of laying hens.
40,000
neraliiation. It is essential fori regulation of
calcimi absorp~tion from the intestine anti
tdeposition and~ remov al tof calcium from me-
tdullary hone. The National Research Council
recoiniendhs 227 ICU per' pound of svitamin
D) for Iaying hens.
Thiree expe'rimienits wxeire donie at Aubhurn to
cevaliuate the effect on hone strenigth of in-
creasing the levetl of v itamin D in laser tdiets.
Twxo experiments (1 anti 2) xweire conducted on
old hens (over 65 wxeeks of age) anti the thirtd
experiment on x oung birtis (26 wxeeks of age).
Experimtents I anti 2 xwere' conduted't for 10
weeks, xwhile the voting hens in experiment 3
remained on treatmetnts for 9 mon~iths. Lev5eis
of v itaimin D rangetd from 0 to 40 G0t) ICUL
per p~oinmt(] in e'xpeimenots I anti :3 and( homn 0
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT
STATION, AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY ALABAMA 36849
David H. Teem, Acting Director
PUBLICATION-Highlights of
Agricultural Research 9/86
Penalty for private use. $300
BULK RATE
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
USDA
PERMIT No. G269
63 1,000
Vitamin D3 ( ICU/Ib.)
"Now
t80,000 ini experiment(1 2. Eath cx-
prime nt includted the recoin -
Mendetd 227 ICU per pound. Egg
production, egg specific grasvits (a
mteasure of shell qjuality), egg
weight, and feed consnumption we re
m easuried weeckl. At thec end of the
*st, tibia samples we re remnoved
fr onti 20) irdts per tr eatment. Ini ex-
periment 2, after 53 ,veeks on treat-
Inecnt another samling of tiibia from
. 20 b~irds was taken. Bone svariabiles
Mleasturedl includetd wxeight, ash,
.. " alciui, 
and hireakiiig strength.
In each experiment hone wxeight.
b one ash~, hone calcium I, and b)one
bre aking point fncireased as the
levelc of, vitamin D) in time dijet fn-
c - reasedi. The' figure showss thfs in-
) rlainship for b one s trength i
eac ixperiment. The slope of the
iwww lie fo ol hens wxas the sanmc in
boheprimnents.
Simprovemuernt wxith increasedi 5ita-
mii D. Evecn at the highest lev els of'
vitamin D fed, there wxas no pla-
teau, indicating that maximumn
bone dleposxition hatd not b~een
reached. Therefore, imp~rov ement in tuone
strength can he achics cd by increasing the
supplemental leveli of s itainin D. Howseser,
caution is necessary wxith higher Ilsvels he-
canse egg production antd egg specific grasvits
wxere adsversely affeetedi in twxo of the tests at
lesvels over it0,000 ICU~ per pound.
Tlhe addition of v itaimin D brought abauit
imprioxveti hone strength in syoulng and old
hens. At the latter part of the lax ing cxtie, a
v itanin D) lesvel of uip to 10),000 IC U per
p)ound fed for onix 10 xxeeks resulted in in-
creased hone strength wxithmout significantly
reducing egg production andi shell qunalit.
Godsn-W iliamus is a Gradumate Researclh As-
sistant and1 Bolni Prfso of Pou'nltr Scienice.
5