HIGHLIGH,,--TS" ii 4 ~ TIE; \ N> u'~I k\JJ 44 r %' *44 241 ,I4 #4 4 ~ -~ * 44$ -i 4 4 ~ TAt~~~ ~r 4 4 t C 4 * ., ~ NI S %*4ittt& ~ *4 44* 4 4 A #* 14 4 At <4 4 *44 ~44( 44 ~ v 4 A 4 - A 424 44 4 Ar 4 #4.4 W~#t '>~ 4 44 4 ~ Wa 4 4 ,tt 4, At;- r C r 4 4* i, ',c 4 t 4 1 4 4 a 4: +14 4 4 A 4----A- ,~ ~-1 4 4 -A I -~ 4- Q L 44 r 1~-,, -- 4 ~ 4S A a 4: 4' 4 4-4 4 ~ 4 ~4 4 N0 '-'4 44 W, a 7 'I ~ 4 4 4 ~ 444 44 4- DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS LABAMA FARMERS face a multitude of tough problems in 1982. Such things as consistently low market prices, high interest rates, and escalating costs of production inputs appear to present almost insurmountable obstacles to farming. These factors are severe enough to make the perennial problems of drought, storms, freezes, weeds, insects, and diseases appear insignificant in comparison. Despite serious problems facing agriculture in Alabama and most of the nation, there are some reasons for optimism. I am encouraged by efforts of all agriculturally related organizations to help farmers cope with their present situation. We at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station are pleased to be a part of this overall team. Agricultural lending agencies and institutions are making every effort to sort out farmers' debts and to make loans to those who can effecti elv use the funds. The Soil Consertation Service is making an extra effort to combine its "m we ertwoduce .. Dr. R. Harold Walker, Associate Professor in the Department of Agronomy and Soils, who is senior author of the story on page 3 and junior author of the stories on pages II and 16. A nati\e of Mississippi A and graduate of Mississippi State University (B.S., M.S., and Ph.D.), Walker joined the Agricultural Experiment Station faculty at Auburn in 1978. He had previously served as a specialist with 1% the Alabama Cooperative Extension Service during 1974-78, and as a plant science representative for Eli L.illy during 1973-74. Walker's research responsibilities involve weed control with row crops, with major attention to soybean weeds. He also teaches weed science courses and coaches Auburn Unisersity's award-winning weed judging team. Walker helped organize the Alabama Society for Weed Science and has served in various leadership positions. including being its president. j~.61~C A. BUCHANAN programs of soil and water conservation with more efficient farm production systems. The ASCS is working diligently to implement federallh funded agricultural programs on a fair and equitable basis. The Alabama Cooperative Extension Service has intensified its efforts to provide information concerning farm management, commodity marketing, and credit options. In addition to the traditional publicly supported agricultural organizations, commodity, trade, and farmer-oriented groups are keenly concerned about the current agricultural crisis. A highly cooperative spirit seems to exist among such organizations in Alabama, with the overall goal being to benefit farmers. The Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station's role continues to be important, although special approaches are needed along with our traditional research to pro ide know-how for improved efficiency of farm production. We are intensifying our research on irrigation of agronomic and horticultural crops both production and engineering aspects to minimize the effect of drought on crop yields and quality. Major efforts are underway to des elop more cost-effective systems of controlling such crop pests as insects, weeds, and diseases. These studies go beyond the traditional search for control methods, with emphasis being given to "when" control will be profitable and to identify maximum-return treatments. Multi-cropping is also getting close attention in our research as a means to help farmers best utilize such fixed cost resources as land, irrigation systems, and farm equipment. Reduced tillage systems and use of legumes as a source of nitrogen are practical approaches being taken to reduce production costs. In the animal area. we are identifying breed combinations and individual animal characteristics that are associated with high meat-production efficiency. Such efficient animals, along with least-cost feeding practices, can go a long way toward sol\ ing the major problems facing the lisestock industry. Our poultry research continues to desclop disease prevention and other production management systems, including energy-saving plans. to keep meat and egg production as efficient as possible. Ihese are the most difficult times agriculture has faced in the last 40 years. However, I remain firmly optimistic that, in due course, we will see a turn-around of the situation and a more favorable climate for agriculture in this State. Until this turn-around occurs. continued effort by all agricultural support organizations can be extremely helpful. IIIGIIIIGlTS of Agfricultural Icscarch SPRING 1982 VOL. 29, NO. 1 A quarterly report of research published by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University. GAtLE A. BUCHANAN ......... Director T.E. CORI.Y ....... Assistant Director E.L. McGRAW\ .................. Editor R.E. STEVENSON .... Associate Editor SIEVE GRENADE ..... Assistant Editor Editorial A4dvisort Conmmittee: GAI.E A. B(CHAAN: C.A. FIooD). Assistant Pro/i, ssor of Agricultural Engineering: CYDEF EVANS. Associate Pro .ssor of Agronlor' alnd Soils: D.H. G.JIERS AD), As.si.vlant Prof 'ssor of Forestri. D.N. MARPLE, A lumni Associate Professor of Animal Science; W. E. HARI)Y, Associate Pro/i.ssor of A gricutiural Econiomics and Rural Sociologt: VIRGINIA C. KEIIEY, Associate Professor of Microhiologr; ANNA SVACIIA, Assistant Professor of Nutrition: and E. L. McGRAW Information contained herein is available to all without regard to race. color, sex. or national origin. ON THE COVER: Economics of various weed control systems for peanuts was studied during 1978-80, see story page 11. Hazards of MSMA and DSMA for Peanut Weed Control R. HAROLD WALKER, A. E. HILTBOLD, and GEORGE GRANADE, Department of Agronomy and Soils Crop injury, pct. 100 Pct. 90- 80C D Beggarweed control Florida 66% ..... 70 60 5048% 40 30 20 10 0% 0 8%.... .. ..... 10 2.0 0.5 MSMA or DSMA lb. active per acre 0.1 0.25 FIG. 1. Effect of MSMA and DSMA on peanut injury and Florida beggarweed control, 1979. ASK ANY ALABAMA PEANUT PRODUCER to name the most troublesome weed in that crop, and Florida beggarweed will likely be the answer. This weed is so tough that growers sometimes resort to risky tactics to control it. One such practice is the use of MSMA and DSMA. These arsenic-containing herbicides have been rumored to control Florida beggarweed at relatively low rates, presumably providing an economical treatment. However, this practice is a loser from several aspects: 1. These herbicides are nut registered for use in peanuts. 2. Peanut kernels and hulls from treated plants may contain illegal arsenic residues, so such peanuts can be declared nonmarketable by authorities. 3. Peanut yields can be reduced by these herbicides. To gain insight into this risky practice, experiments were conducted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station at the Wiregrass Substation, Headland. Two tests were conducted in 1979 and one in 1980. MSMA and DSMA were applied August 10 for both 1979 tests and August 6 (mid-season) and September 4 (late) in 1980. Peanut plants at time of treatment were approximately 15 in. tall and Florida beggarweed averaged 24 in. tall. Weed control, crop injury ratings, and peanut yields were collected each year. Peanut samples from the 1979 experiments were analyzed for arsenic residue in kernels and hulls. Results are illustrated in the graphs. Florida beggarweed control was generally acceptable with MSMA or DSMA applied at 0.5 lb. per acre, considering that weeds averaged 24 in. tall and some were 4 ft. Peanut injury, judged visually, was acceptable with rates of 0.5 lb. per acre or lower in all experiments, figures 1 and 3. However, peanut yields were reduced in two of the three experiments by the 0.5-lb. rate. Even greater reductions occurred at higher rates, figures 2 and 3. MSMA caused more injury to the crop and resulted in a higher arsenic residue level in the peanut kernel than DSMA. Residues in the peanut hulls were about the same for both. Time of application showed little effect in the 1980 results, a year when yields were severely cut by drought, but MSMA caused more crop injury and yield reduction than DSMA, as shown here: Herbicide and time of application Crop injury, pct. 0 5.0 0.1 0.25 0.5 ~I 1.0 2.0 MSMA or DSMA, lb. active per acre FIG. 2. Effect of MSMA and DSMA on peanut yield and arsenic level of peanut kernels, 1979. j Peanut yield per acre, lb. Crop injury, pct. 50 r L SM Lb. Peanut yield o DM . '7 10 rn% ,1b oo.5 enu 9rZ ildadinuy atvepe ar 400 lb.0 Mid-season DSMA..................... MSMA ................... Late DSMA ................... MSMA ................... No herbicide ............... 9 19 5 20 1,439 1,009 1,379 1,225 1,490 1980.FI. 10fec 1100bo 0. 0 andD 0bM oo 02 2.0. 0 0 o M M 15001.I4 o o 'Data are averages of all herbicide rates. The data were summarized to show the effect that can be expected from each 0. 1 lb. active ingredient per acre of DSMA or MSMA applied: 1. A yield decrease ranging from 67 lb. (1980) to 125 lb. (1979) of peanuts per acre. 2. An arsenic increase of 0.33 p.p.m. in kernels. 3. An arsenic increase of 0.08 p.p.m. in hulls. Fortunately, Florida beggarweed can be controlled without resorting to MSMA or DSMA. Weeds that escape "at-cracking" treatments of Lasso®, Dual® or Amiben® plus either Premerge 3@ or Dyanap® can be controlled with postemergence applications of Premerge 3. These early applications are more effective since they generally control beggarweed before it competes with peanuts. 3 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station TOMATOES DO BEST WITH COMPLETE TILLAGE ,"'I URNEH I)artrnt of Hortic lture EVANS Department of Agronomy and Soils D DOSS, USDA SEA (Retired) N O- 1111 PROD CION may work lor some crops, but not for tomatoes. I and preparation ahead of planting was necessary for top production in recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station tests. Land preparation methods "ere compared in field trials at the E. V. Smith Research Center, Shorter. during 1977. 1978, and 1979. Iropic was the test xariet,. Rye was groxxn on all plots as a coxer crop and was mowed 2 weeks before land preparation and left on all plots. with one exception. One treatment had the straw removed to determine the effect of rye on tomato production. In preparation for planting, all plots ere chiseled in the roxx to a depth of 15-18 in. xwith a tractor-dran subsoiler. Ihen four soil preparation treatments were established: 1. Complete tillage entire plots were rototilled, rxe straw remoxed. 2. Complete tillage entire plots were rototilled, rye straN\ incorporated. 3. Strip tillage a 24-in. strip centered o\er the row was rototilled, rxe strai incorporated. 4. No tillage no additional tillage altI subsoiling. duced the no-tillage treatments. with one exception. In 1979. the no-tillage treatment made slightly more than the strip-tillage treatment. Ihe 1977 groxw ing season was dr\ through June. resulting in the loNN yields given in the table. In 1978, there was good rainfall distribution early in the growing season, and plant deelopment and fruit set were good for all treatments. Earl\ plant growth "as good in 1979, but the latter half of the growEt-tci Ihis Near, as in 1978. ing season was dri. highest marketable yields were produced on the complete tillage. no-rye treatment. Fruit size also was affected by tillage treatment. Complete tillage without rxe produced the highest yield of large size tomatoes, see graph. The 3-year averages indicate that complete tillage without rye incorporation produced the highest total yield, the highest percentage of marketable fruit, and the highest percentage of large tomatoes. Complete tillage with rye straw incorporated produced approximately I lb. less fruit per plant than the complete tillage without straw. Strip tillage and no-tillage produced the lowest yields. Results of the Auburn tests emphasize the importance of soil preparation for tomatoes, whether for commercial production or in a home garden. Apparently. tomato plants can more effecticly utilize soil minerals and water in well prepared, loose soil. s OF TIilAGE TRETI MENTS ON 1OMxATO YI II)S Marketable yicldplant Ireatment 1977 Lh.. No comer crop (Complctc tillage (80 in.) ..... Rle coer crop Compilete tillage (80 in.) . Strip tillage (24 in.) . No tillae ... . ........ ... 3.15 1978 b. 5.93 1979 L h. 7.37 3-year ax. Lbh. 5.48 AN. plant height In. 39 PRODUCTION Small PER PLANT .71 lb. Six-xcck-old plants produced in the (13%) greenhouse at Auburn were set by hand and spaced 15 in, in the row. One pint of a starter Medium solution (containing I lb. of 20-20-20 fertil1.04 lb. izer in 50 gal. of , ater) was applied to each (19 %) plant at planting. The tomatoes Nwere staked 10-15 daxs aft er planting. Plants were tied with twine xhen they were 8-10 in. tall and subsequentl\ aftc each 8-10 in. of additional growth. Plants sxere neither pruned nor irrigated. Recommended pesticides were applied Nxeeklx to control insects and diseases. Large Fruit was harvested weekly at pink and 3.73 lb. red ripe maturity beginning in late June and (68 %) ending in late Jul\. Marketable yields cic r graded into three size groups: large, 314 in. diameter and larger: medium, 21 to 2;% in. diameter: and small, 21/ to 2'X in. Earl\ season plant grow th was greater on no-rye plots than on rye-incorporated plots. Ihis is reflected in the plant height differences given in the table. Complete tillage, Complete tillage without rye straw residlue no rye produced the highest yield every year of the test. All of the tillage treatments outpro- Small .71 lb. (14%) ) Medium Small .78 lb. (17%) Medium I. lb. I0 (24 %) Small .751b. (17%) Medium 1.02 lb. 1.02 lb. (20 %) (23%) Large 3.37 lb. (66%) Large 2.72 lb. (59%) Large 2.67 lb. (60%) Complete tilloge, Strip tillage, rye rye No tillage, rye Ala/hooto 1ur; cidiura! LEXperzic .Stationt 5 ;~x ~" i THE FELLER BUNCHER (a machine that shears trees near the ground line, picks them up, and deposits them in a bunch for skidding) has greatly increased the productivity of timber harvesting operations. However, the adserse environmental conditions in which these machines work create a need for better equipment maintenance management. This management of equipment "dos\ntime" requires information concerning the frequency and cause of equipment breakdo%%ns. Unlike agricultural equipment which operates in a relatively uniform environment, timber harvesting equipment encounters a wide range of environmental conditions. Because of this, breakdowns are more frequent. A studs of the frequency and cause of failures of rubber-tired feller bunchers was conducted over a 2-year period by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Data on 10 machines covered 13,236 operating hours and included 531 failures (machines taken out of service for repair) and 640 separate repairs (sometimes more than one item was repaired once the machine was taken out of service.) The frequency of failures for the rubbertired feller bunchers studied is showan bv the graph. Ihe time between failures is the time, in hours " orked, between successis e failures of the same machine. The average time between failures for the 10 machines was 24.9 hours. In other words, once a machine is repaired and put back into service. on the aserage, it will work 24.9 hours before it must be taken out of service because of the next failure. Even though the average is 24.9 hours, the probability that a feller buncher will fail within 25 hours or less of the previous failure is 65.5', as shown in the graph. Once the frequency of failure is known, it is necessars to determine the reasons for the failures so repair facilities and parts needs can be determined. Ihe major categories of the 640 repairs are presented in the table. The hydraulic system was responsible for over one-third of all repairs. However, most of these were minor in\olving onls hydraulic hoses and fittings. Repacking cylinders also 25 20 15 '' \ '' 5.N ~I;~" W. r t* ~*' i~il~~ -":" , occurred frequently. These results indicate that a mechanic should have an adequate knoswledge of hydraulics and a suitable insentory of hoses. fittings, and materials to repack cylinders. In addition, since more than one out of 10 repairs required some form of welding, a portable welder should be available. Two other categories are significant. Shear repairs. which include reshimming the head. sharpening the blades, and changing pins and bushing, are important because of their frequenc. And, drive train repairs, which usually require sending the machine to the shop, are significant because of their sc\erits. As mechaniiation increases in\ estment in production and support equipment, the timber harvester must manage his operations more effectisels. lo do this, he needs as much information as possible. Data of this type will enable him to plan for downtime and minimi/e adverse effects because he will know when to expect a failure, what parts he will probably need, and the training his mechanic should have to be effective. LIs I oF PARIS RiI'sRiKI) \I)O FREQEI FNt F AllI RE B, M .JOR C ii 1 TIEGORIES FOR R BI OF Rt HFIR- IIRIIi) Ne(H RS Parts repaired ltvdraulic system No. Pet. 37.5 Hoses, fittings and leaks ......... H\draulic pipes........ C( linders ............. Valse bank............ Pum p ................ Shear (other than 184 6 29 18 3 80 78 So 10 20 30 40 50 60 Time between failures (hr) 70 75-100100-150 >150 hydraulic)......... W elding ................ 12.5 12.2 i 10 D)rive train ........ l.caks and lines ........ 1ransm ission .......... Planetars ............. Pokter transfer dump sal e ....... Brakes .................. Wheels and tires ......... Cables and linkage ......... ('enter section ........... xhaust s stem .......... Ilcctrical s\stemrn.......... 6.9 19 10 9 6 35 26 24 14 13 4 5.5 4.1 3.7 2.2 2.0 0.6 5 0-- Miscellaneous ........... lotal ............. 82 640 12.8 Percent of failures by time between failure classes. Alabmia Agi.ric ultural I s'Ariotem SIaioni Elevated Levels of Vitamin C Increase Disease Resistance in Channel Catfish LINt S PAULING. the Nobel Prize winncr in chemistrv. made vitamin C controcrsial by claiming that mecgalevels would increase resistance of humans to the common cold. Although researchers do not agree on the effectiveness of pharmacological doses of vitamin C. the feeding of elevated levels of vitamins A and E has proven effective in increasing resistance of animals to infection. Higher than normal levels of xitamin A reduced mortality in chickens infected with coccidiosis. Ten times the normal requirement of vitamin E increased resistance of chickens to pathogenic x'cherichia c/i. However, previous research at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station has shown that channel catfish, unlike other farm animals, require vitamin C in the diet for normal growth, bone development, wound healing, and resistance to bacterial infections. A dietary level of 30 mg kg would prexent this vitamin Cdeficienc\ s\ndrome. Because of their high sensitixitx to vitamin C deficiency. and since this vitamin has been identified with stress and immune responses in various animals, it was hypothesiized that channel catfish might benefit from higher than normal doses of v itamin C during infection. A study was conducted to evaluate effects of vitamin C level on resistance of channel catfish to pathogenic bacterial infection. Fingerlings were fed diets containing vitamin C at levels of 0. 30. 60, and 150 mg kg under controlled laboratory conditions. After 14 weeks, \when fish fed the vitamin Cfree diet had become scorbutic (deformed spinal columns), one-half of the fish in each diet treatment were injected with a virulent MORIAI IT RAIFS 01 CHANNEL CATFISH FEI) s DIETARY LE\ ELS OF VITAMIN C TARoD RES TOM LOVELL 1)partrnent of Fisheries and Alkiod Aquacultures strain of the pathogenic bacterium Edwardsiella tarda: the other half were injected with a saline solution and served as a control. One-half of the infected fish and one-half of the controls were placed in water at 72' F and the remaining fish were placed in water at 89' F. Mortalities were measured over a 96-hour period at the two temperatures. Scoliosis and lordosis (lateral and \ertical curvature of the backbone) were found in no increased benefit in feeding abo\c the requirement for normal groswth and dexelopment. Mortality rates were significantlr higher ininfected fish held at the lower water temperature than at the higher temperature. Ihese results indicate that increasing the dosage of sitamin C up to five times the normal requirement will increase resistance of channel catfish to infection at 72 F. where the natural resistance of the fish is S 5. Diets devoid of vitamin C caused deformed spinal columns in channel catfish (bottom) and diets containing 30 mg/kg of vitamin C allowed normal growth (top); however, diets containing 150 mg/kg of vitamin C gave maximum resistance against bacterial (I-dwardsie//a tarda) infection. VARiot ANlD NFEC(IED WIIH E. AT15WO1 IEMPIE RAI Dietary vitamin C (mg kg) 0 ................ 30................. No. deaths per no. fish infected 72cF 89 120 20 17 20 10 20) 4 20 60................ 150 ................. 12 20 4 20 4 20 2 20 fish fed the diet des oid of vitamin C after 14 weeks, see table. The lowest level of vitamin C fed (30 mg kg) was sufficient for normal growth and development. At the lower water temperature, the highest level of vitamin C (150 mg kg) provided significantly more resistance against infection than the lower levels, see table. At the higher water temperature, all levels of vitamin C reduced mortalities, but there was very lov, but not at 89' F. where the natural resistance of the fish is near maximum. Practically, this research indicates that supplementing commercial catfish feeds with higher than the normal requirements of vitamin C may be beneficial during early spring when water temperature is near 68' F and catfish are most vulnerable to bacterial infections. Also, the body stores of vitamin C in overwintered fish are low at this time. 1lIaUbama Agriciihiira/Evperi1171ii .Strari EXPENDITURES for food have first claim on consumer disposable income. These expenditures go primarily to two groups: farmers who produce raw commodities and marketing agencies that add processing and a multiple array of services. Expansion in demand for raw commodities results mainly from population growth. Over the past several years the increase in the supply of agricultural products has been greater than the population increases. On the other hand, changes in life styles and living habits have resulted in increased consumer needs for further processed products and desires for additional services. Although disposable personal income increased 2.4 times during the past 10 years, the proportion consumers spent for food has varied less than 1% and was only 0.2% greater in 1980 than in 1971. Additional increases in consumer incomes cannot be depended upon to furnish much additional income to producers of raw products. American consumers have been exposed to an unlimited array of advertising and promotional techniques. Any act or practice that had a potential for attracting consumer dollars was tried. Sometimes in an intensively competitive situation temporary price wars developed, which benefited buyers but did little to help competitive sellers. With development of fewer but larger-volume firms, including manufacturers, processors, and retailers of food products, the use of price as a form of competition diminished and other forms of competition intensified. These ranged from actual product quality to frills that prove attractive to consumers. Among food commodity groups, firms in the poultry industry have been among the first to respond to changes as they develop in the food market. Contributing factors include a continuous study of markets that reveals developing changes, product quality control throughout production, processing and distribution, and keen competition among firms in the industry, and with firms that provide competing and potential substitute foods. Data reveal that, for whatever reason, per capita consumption of poultry is increasing, see table. Total per capita consumption of red meats and poultry was 3.4% greater in 1981 than in 1972, while per capita con- EVELOPMENTS IN MARKETING BROILERS MORRIS WHITE and JOEL SMITH Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Information obtained in 1980 from operators of broiler processing firms in Alabama revealed important changes in the total volume of processed broiler products, in the physical forms into which these were processed, and in product packaging methods. The significant development with respect to the physical form of broiler products was that operators of initial processing plants have added cutup operations to activities they perform. In 1965, 98% of broiler products were shipped as whole broilers, but in 1980 about half, 49.7%, were shipped in this form. Other important forms in 1980 were cutup fryers, 23%, and fryer parts, 19%. Packing broiler products in ice continues to be the most prevalent method of preparing broiler products for shipment. In 1980, approximately 81% was ice packed, 9% was frozen, 3% was chill packed, and 7% was shipped in various other packs. Producers and processors of food products are concerned about consumer opinions and acceptance of products offered for purchase. A survey of 226 randomly selected heads of households in the Birmingham Metropolitan Area made by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station provided information about their purchases of broiler products. Consumers purchase broiler products from one or two stores. Only 7% reported purchasing at more than three stores. The primary reason for purchasing broiler products from stores where purchases were made was "convenience," and 90% of the time consumers purchased broiler products at the store where they shopped most often. "Freshness" and "price" ranked next as reasons reported for purchasing broiler products. Approximately two-thirds of the consumers purchased broiler products either on a weekly or every other week basis. Only 2% reported purchasing broiler products only when they were offered as a special. Efforts of processors to supply products consumers desire appeared to be correct. Although 35% expressed a preference for whole broilers, those preferring fryer parts and cutup fryers were almost as numerous at 34% and 30%, respectively. Another relatively recent practice in marketing broilers is to market them under a brand name. Forty-three percent of the Birmingham consumers reported that they bought only name branded broiler products; and 72% said that more than half of purchased broiler products were name branded. Only 12% of interviewed consumers reported buying no branded broiler products. A consumer's decision to buy name branded products was a belief that branded products were, in some way, better or fresher than nonbranded, and was not due to having purchased a non-branded product that was "bad." When asked for an opinion about relative prices of name branded and non-branded products, 50% reported that the price of branded products was higher than that for non-branded products. Twenty-eight percent said prices were about the same, and 18% reported that they did not know if there was any difference in prices. Two out of three consumers were willing to pay more for name branded broiler products. About 13% indicated that they would be willing to pay as much as 5o per pound more, and 11% stated they would pay 10c per pound more, if necessary, for name branded broiler products. PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF RED MEAT AND POULTRY, UNITED STATES, 10-YEAR PERIOD sumption of poultry was 23.5% greater in 1981 than it was 10 years earlier. Approximately three-fourths of the 63 lb. of poultry eaten per capita in 1981 was in some form of young broilers. Output from broiler processing firms in Alabama was 42% greater in 1980 than in 1971. However, Alabama continues to rank third among major broiler producing states, a rank it has had for many years. YearPer capita consumption Prop. poultry Red meat Poultry Total was of total Pct. Lb. Lb. Lb. 1972 ... 154 51 205 25 1973 ... 143 49 192 26 1974 ... 152 50 202 25 1975 ... 146 49 195 25 1976 ... 155 52 207 25 1977 ... 151 53 204 26 1978 ... 147 56 203 28 1979 ... 145 60 205 29 1980 ... 148 61 209 29 1981 ... 145 63 208 29 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station a 1 % ,A f% f~ RAY DiCKN Depar'rrrl ofAgrnom aa 0ol FIG. 1. Left area of highway prior to initiating herbicide program, note the taller growing species and uneven appearance. Right area, which has been sprayed for 3 years, has an excellent stand of common bermudlagrass. Spraying Reduces Maintenance Costs On Alabama Highways N 1977, Alabhama spent appi axiinateix S3.3 million mass ing and spi axing toil' On taeand fedet-al highxx axs. In the 1980-81 eve about S4.7 muil f iscal .\ear, these costs xx lion. Whx, in timnes af high I' ad prices and rampant inflation, hiaxe the increases in egetation maintenance coists been so moderate? I-lhe primarx ireason has been a redutction in moxx ng wxith a corresponding increase in the rise of selectixc h erbicides. ax In 1977, research xx begun bx the Alabamna Agrieultuoral Ex\periment Station to dexel op a highxx ax xegetation management progrin that wo uld prox ide acceptable aesthetic aind saf eix standarids at minimum111 Cost ax to hi spax ers. I his xxork xx landed b%the Alabama Highxx as Department in cooperation wxith the I-ederal HtghxxaN Adminixstration. One of the first st udies initiated xxas a other cam pariison of' the f'an cage spi axer to0 C ontents of this report ref'lect the xviexs of the author and not necessai I the official xviewxs or policies of the Alabamra Highxxa% [Department Or the Federal Highxxax Ad mi nistration. I Coxti'siti,o\ 0i \ i I\10CO\ Ie Osi ,1ixri FROiM MSMA xxmi (ia N iioss\ii Ari'i Itii) Hs I ui i Arlii it \[ios Sxsi Fxis egetation control Applicatio (;ls hosate ApplicationM 8 MA 1977 1978 1977 1978 Pia. A~ t P(1. Pa.r I l-an-cige.......... 67a 25b Directed streamn.. Comn ai nal cantl different (P < 0.) Range Test. 63 5ff 70a 38c 62a 39b 45ah 51 60b boomn............31b IMeans tolloxxed bNsame letter are not signiti- bx [Duncan's Multiple applieat ion xxstemx ax aila ble. Results tof 2 cearx' testing showxsed that xegetatton eanti ofl f'rom lain-cage sprax ei s xxax as goitd or better than that obtained from conx entitnal boom spraxers, see table. Because of the loxwer price of the faa cacspi axer anti since units eould be mounted on tractors formerlx axed f'or moxxing, it xxas decided to emplox this aippliciior in the program. Sexetal dtuien herbicidex sxere exalated altone aind in combinations for xegetation control. MISMA. a commnonlx used fteihicide iii cttton, effectixclx cant tiilsjohnsongrass and mnans broadleaf and grass weeds xwith little or nio injtiry ti the desirable camman bei mada Crass turf. MS MA is not highls toxic to mait or animialx and is laibeled liihomie oxxncrLusein Anothter poi it in iteedccl. cintiotlling laxxn I ax cr of this herbicide has been its relatixvely loxx per-acre east. Roadxides in mans areas of the State that we re piimarily' johnsotngrass and broadleaf xxecdx at the onset of the programn haxve notx been eons erted to loxx gioxxiitg dense stainds of com man bermadagi ass, figure I. The MSMA is proxviding Alabama mototrists wxith safer, mare atiractix e rotadsides at lowser costs ttt the taxpaser. Massing east approximatelx Sf8 per acre in 1981 compared to herbicide application at SI15 per acre. .lohnsongrass is cotntrolled no more than 2 to 3 wxeeks by massving. Ahereas. it is completelv eliminated b\ the MSMA treatments. Other xvegetation is controlled about twxice as long by spraying ax by maosing. Although MSMA controls most species adequately, certain bruoadleaf wxeeds require the addition of 2,4-1) for effective control. Like MISMA, 2,4-D has been proven ex- xaf e to man and animals at not mal use rates. Howsever, cxvcn small amounts (if 2.4-1) are injurious to sexveral crap species. expeciall\ cotton, tomat oex, a nd grapes. I heref ore. studies xwere conducted to exvaltiate other herbicides to replace 2,4-Li and ax oid inlurx to desirable plants Caused bx drift of the xprax f'rom the target area. Sexveral herbic ides shoxxed promise in simall plot tests and wxere further cx aluated during 1980 in large scale applications made on h ighxx ax rights-of-xxav bv H ighwsax' Department personnel. IDiuron ( Karmne') and hexauitnone Oxelpai I) appeared the most promising as substitutes foi 2,4-1) of the materials cx alulated. figure 2. Research Continues in an effoit to find ire ec'oiniiil and efftectixe materials anid machines to furthber red uce xegetai ion maintenance costs. ti en'elx / FIG. 2: Excellent control of broadleaf weeds obtained from combinations of MSMA and diuron in southern Alabama. Ala/iana Algricultural Ex'j'eritil(1t Stoilh a GOOD FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT is a necessary ingredient for successful and profitable farm management. To be a successful manager a farmer must be able to thoroughly analyze all financial aspects of the farm business. He must make a basic financial analysis using the balance sheet, the profit and loss statement, the cash flow statement, and the statement of change in financial position - and interpret all information within these instruments. A relatively simplistic and straightforward method for analyzing such complex data is through the use of ratio analysis. Ratio analyses can assist in the interpretation of data presented in financial statements in several ways. First, they can help in determining the profitability of the farm operations during a given period of time. Ratios can also assist in developing performance trends and in comparing changes in the operation over time. Ratio comparisons over time make it easy to see significant changes in financial relationships. An important use of ratios is comparison of the data from an individual farm to that derived from other similar operations. A major problem in making such comparisons BENCHMARK FINANCIAL RATIOS FOR AGRICULTURE W. E. HARDY, JR. and STEPHEN F. FOSHEE Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology is that standards or benchmark data are not readily available. Organizations such as Robert Morris Associates and Dunn & Bradstreet publish annual reports which give ratio data for most major industries. The agricultural industry, however, is not included in those analyses. The major reason for agriculture not being included is that sufficient primary financial record data are not available. A research project was initiated by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station to help fill this void in agricultural financial information. Data were obtained from the Federal Land Bank of New Orleans on more than 1,900 borrowers from Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Personnel at the Bank carefully screened the data so that complete confidentiality with regard to identification of individual borrowers was preserved. SELECTED FINANCIAL RATIOS BY FARM SIZE FOR ALL FARMS, FEDERAL LAND BANK OF NEW ORLEANS DATA Type of ratio Current ratio ..................... Sales of working capital ........... Fixed assets to net worth .......... Total liabilities to net worth ........ Total assets to total liabilities ....... Intermediate ratio ................. Sales to net worth ................. Sales to net income ............... Return on total investment ......... Return of equity ............... Sales to fixed assets ............... Sales to total assets ............... Fixed assets to long-term liabilities .. I()Lal IlaOlllLIC;S LU IIE;L WUIL11........ cc 0 NO. Small *4 Ratio Size of farm Medium X" " pe farms 363 1,369 1,368 1,368 1,368 850 1,367 395 1,365 1,364 1,370 1,368 1,371 1.3VO INa f. rms 55 144 144 144 144 87 144 144 144 144 144 144 144 Ratio 19.83 6.53 2.04 .14 .05 .00 1.96 1.40 1.03 1.58 .93 .48 3.08 2.08 1.63 6.10 3.26 1.89 .06 .02 .00 3.00 2.00 1.09 .03 .01 .00 .03 .01 .00 .04 .02 .00 .03 .01 .00 2.35 1.60 1.30 1.30 10.24 3.39 1.60 .85 .50 .27 1.61 1.18 .92 1.16 .68 .33 3.98 2.46 1.86 6.17 3.78 2.64 .48 .22 .07 2.58 1.88 1.58 .10 .06 .03 .22 .10 .04 .29 .20 .06 .21 .14 .04 3.21 2.00 1.40 Thirteen financial ratios were developed for analysis. These ratios were grouped into three basic areas. The first group of ratios shows liquidity, or the ability of the farm business to meet its obligations in the current operating period. Ratios included in this category were: Current Ratio = Current Assets - Current Liabilities Sales to Working Capital Ratio = Gross Sales - Working Capital The second category of ratios indicates the solvency of the farm business or its ability to cover all financial obligations with its total holdings. Ratios included here are: Fixed Assets to Worth Ratio = Fixed Assets- Net Worth Large Leverage Ratio = Total Liabilities + Net IN . o Ratio Worth fa trms Net Capital Ratio = Total Assets + Total 234 5.28 Liabilities 2.13 1.28 Intermediate Ratio = Intermediate Assets 437 .88 - Intermediate Liabilities .61 Long-term Ratio = Fixed Assets + Fixed .43 437 1.35 Liabilities 1.04 The third category includes several ratios .79 which indicate the level of performance and 437 1.28 profitability of the farm business. These are: .75 .44 Sales to Worth Ratio - Gross Sales - Net 437 3.25 Worth 2.32 Sales to Net Income = Gross Sales + Net 1.78 Income 317 7.88 3.85 Sales to Assets Ratio = Gross Sales + 2.31 Total Assets 437 .74 Sales to Fixed Assets Ratio = Gross Sales .44 +Fixed Assets .25 437 3.84 Return on Investment Ratio =Net Income 2.82 +Total Assets 2.22 437 437 437 437 437 .12 .08 .05 .25 .15 .08 .71 .40 .23 .35 .23 .16 2.50 1.70 1.33 Return on Equity Ratio = Net Income + Net Worth The data given in the table are the upper quartile, median, and lower quartile values for each ratio, categorized by farm size. Small farms were those with gross sales of $20,000 or less, while those with sales between $20,000 and $40,000 were classified as medium size farms. Those with gross sales over $40,000 were designated as large farms. The number of farms is different for some categories because data were not available to calculate all ratios for all farms. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station the parcels. Crop, pasture, and other agricultural uses accounted for the remainder of the parcels in the State. Multiple uses were present on 11% of the parcels. Important changes in use are not expected since 90% of the respondents noted no planned changes. Foreign Land Ownership in Alabama Organizations Most Common Type Owners Howe eztens44'e 4s it? JOHN ADRIAN and STEVE RABY Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology - FOREIGN LAND OWNERSHIP is an issue which received much attention in the middle and late 1970's. Concern was expressed by many individuals and groups at various levels relative to this issue. However, little information was available on which to evaluate the nature and extent of foreign land ownership. Congress attempted to remedy this situation with passage of the Agricultural Foreign Investment Disclosure Act (AFIDA) of 1978. Disclosure reports made by Alabama landowners in compliance with this legislation were provided to the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station for detailed analysis. Analyses of data from 249 reports submitted prior to August 1981 indicate that foreign individuals and entities owned or partially controlled approximately 566,000 acres of agricultural land in the State, see figure. This represented 1.9% of the privately owned land and 1.7% of the total land area of the State. Ownership Distributed in Most Counties Parcels held by foreign interests were distributed through 51 of the 67 counties in Alabama. The largest concentration of ownership was in the southwestern portion of the State. Wilcox County had the most foreign ownership reported, 90,267 acres or 16% of the State's total foreign ownership. This represented 16% of the total land area in this county. Foreign ownership was also prominent in Perry, Monroe, Choctaw, Dallas, and Marengo counties at 8.7%, 7.3%, 7.1%, 6.2%, and 5.9% of the total foreign ownership for the State, respectively. These six counties accounted for 51% of the total reported foreign-owned acreage and 45% of the reported parcels in the State. Organizations were the most common type of owners of foreign held land. Of the 249 parcels reported, 241 were owned by organizations. Average size of these units was 2,350 acres, with a range of 5 to 66,300 acres. Organizations were almost totally corporations, 99%. Seventy-two percent of the organizations reporting ownership indicated that their organization was created under Alabama law. Another 19% gave the United States as the government or country under whose law the organization was created. Seven respondents each, 3%, recognized the United Kingdom and Netherlands Antilles in this manner. The largest portion, 79%, of the organizations owning land in the State listed Alabama as their principal place of business. Another 1.7% of the firms identified other states as being their principal place of business. Only 4% identified their principal business location as being outside the United States. Seventy percent of the foreigners owning land in Alabama held a whole fee interest in the property, while 2% possessed a partial fee interest. The remaining 28% reported other types of interest held, primarily long term leases or long term timber cutting and management contracts. Average size of the eight parcels held by individuals was 67 acres, with a range from 38 to 163 acres. The United Kingdom (3), Canada (2), Egypt (1), Iran (1), and Syria (1) were identified as countries where the individual owners held citizenship. Method of Acquisition In most cases, agricultural land purchased by foreigners was acquired on a cash basis. Fifty percent of these acquisitions were paid in cash, 15% involved credit, and 6% gained ownership by direct trade of assets. Inheritance or gift accounted for 1% and the remainder was classified as other. Summary mTNone reported 0 I 1999 acres 1000 -4,999 acres 51000- 25,000 acres More than 25,000 acres Forestry is Dominant Use Forestry was the dominant use to which foreign held land was allocated. Ninety-five percent of-the respondents reported that at least part of the parcel was allocated to forest use. Size of these units averaged 2,300 acres, and ranged from 4 to 66,290 acres. Use differed substantially from the national average, with forestry accounting for 41 % of Foreign ownership of agricultural land in Alabama. The current foreign ownership situation in the State does not merit great concern in terms of traditional agriculture. The largest portion of foreign owned land is devoted to the production of timber. Few of these owners identified their principal place of business as being outside the United States. This situation should not result in complacency, however. Ownership should continue to be monitored, especially at county levels and in areas where foreign ownership is extensive. 10 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station -Herbicide, Cultivation, or HoeWhich Combination is Best for Peanut Weed Control? DAVID BRIDGES, R. HAROLD WALKER, and MIKE PATTERSON, Department of Agronomy and Soils JOHN McGUIRE, Department of Research Data Analysis Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 11 Differences in BODY COMPOSITION, MUSCLE GROWTH of Two Types of Chicks D. N. MARPLE and E. J. HENTGES, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences D. A. ROLAND, Department of Poultry Science J. F. PRITCHETT, Department of Zoology-Entomology Since the rate of protein synthesis in muscles and concentrations of DNA and RNA were similar for broilers and Leghorns at each age, it appears that faster growth of broilers may be due to their increased ability to increase the number of nuclei in their muscle cells. This produced more total RNA, which synthesized more muscle protein. Broilers may be able to increase the number of nuclei because they have a greater number of muscle cells. These data can be related to similar differences between cattle selected for either meat production or milk production. The results suggest that beef cattle may produce muscle growth faster than dairy cattle due to a greater number of both muscle fibers and muscle cell nuclei. ANI M AL GROWTH is the result of increases in body muscle, fat, bone, and organ weights. Although researchers have established many of the factors that influence rate and efficiency of growth of livestock, little is known about how genetically superior animals grow faster or have better carcasses than other animals in the same herd. A study designed to identify some of the physical and physiological differences between fast growing and slow growing animals was conducted at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Because swine and cattle require long periods and large costs to reach mature size, the study used broiler and Leghorn roosters to compare rates of muscle growth, production of muscle protein, and changes in body composition of birds selected for meat production with those selected for egg production. Male Corbic-Corbic broiler and Hy-Line Leghorn chicks were obtained from McElrath Farms, Albertville, on the day of hatching. All birds were debeaked, vaccinated for Marek's disease, and provided a standard medicated growing ration formulated to produce maximal growth. Birds were sacrificed twice weekly for the first 8 weeks and biweekly to week 14. Two wing muscles were removed from the sacrificed birds to determine muscle size and to estimate the rate of protein synthesis in the muscle. The muscles also were analyzed to determine concentrations of DNA and RNA, which are indicators of the number of muscle nuclei and the degree to which the body is attempting to synthesize muscle proteins, respectively. The edible and inedible portions of the carcasses were analyzed to determine the amounts of protein, fat, and moisture present at each age. Although birds from both strains averaged 1.4 oz. live weight at hatching, broilers weighed twice as much as the Leghorns by week 3 and three times as much by week 8, figure 1. Carcass weight as a percentage of 12 Weight,g live weight was similar between strains and 4,400 increased from 37% at week 1 to 56% at week 4,000 FIG. I Live wt. 8. After week 2, the broilers consistently had broiler 3,600 a higher percentage of carcass fat than did " Carcass wt. 3,200 the Leghorns. Similarly, the weight, volume, broiler 2,800 and length of wing muscles were consistently S Live wt. 2,400 greater in the broilers at each age after week S Leghorn 2,000 2. The observation that muscle length was Carcass wt. 1,600 still increasing at the end of the 14-week Leghorn 1,200 period indicates that skeletal growth was not 800 yet complete. 400 The concentration of DNA in muscles was similar between strains at each age and c" 2 4 6 8 10 12 decreased as the birds grew. Total DNA in Age,weeks wing muscles was similar for broilers and Leghorns initially, but the broilers showed a Nuclei per muscle, millions much faster increase in total muscle DNA. 100 The increase in total DNA was the result of arcas o~wer e ateach ~rs larrythe wigBroilerm geLeghorne 90 ~aFIG. 2d muscls con1114.t an increase in the number of nuclei in the 80 muscle cells, and the broilers displayed a 70 greater ability to increase the number of 60 nuclei. 50 The concentration of RNA in muscles was 40 also similar between broilers and Leghorns 30 at each age. As observed for DNA, the total 20 amount of muscle RNA was greater for the c 10 broilers due to their larger size. As a resultrTI ~l of II ~Y~I~ I the greater total amount of muscle RNA and 4 6 8 2 ) 10 12 DNA, the broilers were capable of synthesizAge, weeks ing more muscle protein per day, which resulted in faster growth. Body prot Sein Laboratory experiments revealed that the production/v week,g rate of protein synthesis per gram of muscle was similar for broilers and Leghorns100 FIG. 3 Broiler greatest at week 1 and declined thereafter. 901This was found to be related to the concen801tration of RNA and DNA. 701Total protein in the body increased with 60age, but protein production reached a peak 50 Leghorn on week 12 for both broilers and Leghorns. 40 This indicated that the birds had reached a 30 point of their growth curves such that the 20 major portion of future weight gain would 10be in the form of body fat, figure 2. The 8 0 12 2 4 6 0 decrease in protein production coincided Age, weeks with a slight decline or stabilization of the total muscle RNA values. Wm11~r1~19 1~~~I ~K ITT~Tl~~n IY 14 14 14 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station \\IMt_ M VIAI A lION OF R FSO I RCFS continues to be a ker ingredlient tin the xueCexxf ul use of irrigation in Ala baia. With that in mnind. a Stuidx "xas initiated 2 % ears ago ait the \Viregrass Substation. Headland, to ev aluate date of pliantingz and roxx spacings ot irrigated peanuts. Planting dates ranged fr om earix M ax until late June and extended wxell hex ond the traditional planting dates. Anox erx iex ot the wxater applied and rainfall i eceix ed on the xarioux planting dates during 2 \ears of dixtinetlx ditfeient wxeather patteins is presented tin table 1. Ma jot differences in total rainlall betwxeen the 2 x\ears ate not appaireni although there wxas I to 5 in. more rainfall in 1981 than duiring the 1980) growxing season. I-otal irrigation a pplieation in 1981 xxax much less than in 1980) and reflects the better dixtribtition of rain tn 1981 stne irriga tion po licies remained the sa me. axappMuch less (total) irigation xxatei xx lied tothe 1981 crop. Irrigation xai iedNxxith planting date depending on rainfall timing, but no elear tiend is apparent. fin 1981, ir rigation requirements increased with late planting; hoxiexer, in 1980 the tmiddlle planting reqjuired the most xxater. (Growxing time to maturlix "xas alxo affectedi bx planting date and showxed a decrease xxith late planting in 1981, but showxed mixed results in 1980. Yieldx o1 peanuts planted in eonxentional rowx xpacings ranged from 3.770 to 4.450 lb. per acre wxith the 1980 Near showing a tenidencx for a small decrease in xicld wxith later plantings, table 2. Hoxxex er. the 2-x ear ax crage Nieldx for ech planting date showx a signifieant trend foi decreased \iclds wxith the later plainting dates. The decreasex from the f-i xt to the last plactit ings 2'S nd 205 lb pr acre toyi the '-in. 17i and the 36-111 Npair igs. i experti1\e1.x M 4 A .4 .- t. ~, -~ FRcp ,ullural Engineering LARRY M CURTIS Cooperativ'e Erter ion S ery ice EUGEN1 Alternate planting patterns indicate potential for increased yields. One Such pattern utilii g txxin roxx and a 10 f(i increase in seeding rate. xce figure. xxax included in thix study xxith yieldx reported in table 2. A compaision of the txxo planting patternx rexeals an axerage increase in yield in both years for the twin 7-in. pattern. The 2-i rar average increase of 5'8 lb. per acre "xas highlx, significant. lxBii r tIxii .' VI I ioR 1980 In xummary, the results from the 2-year studx, indicate late planting of peanuts under irrigated conditions can be accomplished xxithout large losses of x icld and xxithout necessarilx increaxing wxater requirementx. Howexer, longer term studies aic needed to xNcix\ these prelimiinar\ findings. Likewxise, the twxin 7-in. rowx pattern continues to showx promise in increasing yields under these ir rigated conditions. 72'- i Aieri I( xNo xx\o 1981 xxONAN1 (iROxxlIV, I-oto \xEK Prxx I Ixiii i, 2. RRuiAI xiD Pi xxi t Y11 LOS. VxiilR6xxx Si isi xiiox, Hi xii x 19810 xxo1981 L18'-, 36" Planting date /9801 5 7.........18.2 6 3.........12.1 Rain fal I II rig /i n. t ot il NNae (,roxing aterh pro /ni [ais RoNN spacing Plant-2 iiig dates. hI 7" xer 3' 2xer(ni \,a . 1)iff. t i 3 ear a .ax 36) 11 +530 1. l. 5 '7 80 .. 4,980 lh. 4,450 Lh. 4,185 6 18 ........ /981 5 8.........19.6 15.6 5 8 81 24.6 23.4 212 145 129 126 . .4,710 4.845 3.920 4,190 4,585 6 5 81 . 6 18 80 6 18 81 .4,0)80 .. +790 +900 6 3 80).. 5(M90 6 5........1069 16.0 6 18 ....... 4.1(00 41) + 70 4,690 4,570 4,450 4,190) 3,981) 3,770 '500 +680 .. MODIFIED ROW SPACING Left: Conventional 36-in. row spacing above with modified 7-in. spacings shown below. 2 yr. ax. diff. +578 'Alltireatments harxested at two datex with \ields repor ted from firxt dig. Alabamaid Agit/f 1ii iur L!IXeriJliCet Station TABLE 1. PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS FOR PACKING PLANTS IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 1979 Southeastern plants slaughtering Item Hogs Annual production .... Production per hour .... Use of capacity......... Cattle Annual production ...... Production per hour .... Use of capacity........ Cattle only Number Average of plants production ----- Hogs only Number Average of plants production 53 50 41 --- Cattle and hogs Number Average of plants production 156 146 118 156 147 120 17,288 hd. 26 hd. 58% 3,138 hd. 7 hd. 49% -25 24 19 -17,192 hd. 15 hd. 74% 72,270 hd. 55 hd. 81% --- Structure of the .. .. Slaughter Industry in the Southeast G. M. SULLIVAN and J. R. SIMPSON Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology inspected plants in the region except Virginia. Approximately 22% of plants surveyed responded to the questionnaire. The largest percentage, 45%, of plants reported slaughtering both hogs and cattle, followed by plants killing only hogs, 15%, and only cattle, 7%. Approximately 33% of the plants were custom plants slaughtering only a small number of cattle and hogs. An estimated 10% of the plants had either gone out of business or stopped slaughtering livestock. The dual purpose plants had the lowest throughput, killing rate, and used capacity in 1979 compared to the single specie plants, table 1. The economic justification for these plants is their ability to spread costs over more animals and flexibility in obtaining available supplies. Plants killing only hogs had the highest annual throughput. Generally, these plants are the largest type in the Southeast Region. The cattle only plants are relatively small compared to some of the large meat packers in the Midwest which can kill 4,000 animals per day. plants. The percentage of fat cattle killed by plants was relatively low for all plants. In general, further processing of the carcass is an accepted activity in plants in the region. This activity allows plants to further capture value-added of the intermediate product. Plants which killed only cattle reported the lowest processing rate, 66%, while plants killing only hogs had the highest, 95%. Processing was done by an average of 80-85% of dual purpose plants. The majority of cattle from single purpose plants sold either carcasses or processed products but less in the form of primals and subprimals. Hog killing plants sold few carcasses and more primals and sub-primals than cattle only plants. All hog killing plants reported selling processed products. Dual purpose plants sold more processed beef than cattle only plants, and 33-38% of all plants handling cattle purchased box beef for either processing or reselling. Summary The survey of the slaughter industry in the Location of Animal Supplies THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES is a beef and pork deficit region. During the last 20 years the number of slaughter plants has declined in the region because of demographic shifts of consumers, development of a large scale cattle-feeding industry, changes in government legislation, growth of new and large scale packing plants, and fluctuations in livestock inventories. This decline has deterred the growth of a feedlot industry because competition for slaughter cattle is reduced. In recent years the demographic and economic situation of the region has changed which could influence the future structure of the slaughter industry. Slaughter Industry Structure To determine the structure of the slaughter industry in the Southeast, a survey was conducted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station in 1979 of 1,600 packing plant managers in 12 states. A mail questionnaire was sent to all state and federally Plants in the Southeast reported they obtain 90% of their supplies of live animals within 300 miles. In general, cattle are not imported in large numbers into the region for slaughtering. Reflective of the large cow/calf inventory in the Southeast, cows were the predominant type of cattle killed, table 2. Plantskilling only cattle slaughtered a larger percentage of cows than dual purpose plants. The number of heavy heifers slaughtered was greater than in dual purpose TABLE Southeast revealed unused capacity in both hog and cattle packing plants in 1979. Slaughter capacity is not seen as a constraint if more cattle feeding occurs in the region. With further increases in transportation costs and grain prices, the opportunity for finishing cattle on forage and limited grain could increase. With adjustments in demand for beef to leaner meat and hamburger, the large number of cows in the regional inventory could make the industry more attractive in the future for investment. The current level of processing by plants is indicative of this trend in the regional market. 2. TYPES AND AVERAGE NUMBERS OF CATTLE SLAUGHTERED BY PACKING PLANTS RESPONDING TO THE SURVEY, SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 1979 Plants slaughtering Type Number of plants o Cattle only Average annual slaughter Percent of total Cattle and hogs Average annual of plants slaughter Number Percent of total Cows ................... 25 10,639 65 156 1,335 51 Heavy steers............. 25 1,666 10 156 334 13 Heavy heifers ............ 25 1,599 10 156 538 20 Lightweight cattle........ 25 2,413 15 156 408 16 Total ............... 25 16,317 100 156 2M615 100 Includes all commercial packing plants in the survey. Total average annual slaughter does not equal total production because not all plants slaughtered a particular category of animals. 14 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station MANY FRUITS and vegetables are not well adapted to mechanical peeling because of irregular shapes and cavities. Their sensitivity to heat treatment also creates problems in conventional caustic peeling. Successful thermal peeling requires rapid transfer of heat to the tissues to be peeled for a minimum duration-followed by cessation of heat and rapid cooling. Red Delicious apples are especially troublesome to peel, either mechanically or chemically, because of their rather truncated shape, thick skin, and waxy coating. Commercial peeling of apples is commonly done mechanically, which results in relatively high peeling losses. These high losses can be reduced through caustic peeling. However, the use of caustic solutions is often complicated, results in reduced product yields, and necessitates costly waste disposal operations. Efficient Peeling Sought Improving Peeling Efficiency of Red Delicious Apples DURWARD A. SMITH and W.A. DOZIER, JR., Department of Horticulture W. A. GRIFFEY, Piedmont Substation Pre-wash System Developed The objectives of a study by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station were to improve peeling efficiency by (1) development of technology for superheated steam peeling, and (2) refinements in conventional caustic and steam peeling methods. Steam peeling tests were conducted using unwaxed Red Delicious apples. The fruits were graded to ensure a mean diameter of 2.5 in. and a mean weight of 5 oz. A tumbling batch-type laboratory pilot model steam peeler of /4 bu. capacity was adapted to accept either saturated steam at 100 p.s.i.g. or superheated steam at 100 p.s.i.g. and a mean inlet temperature of 7320 F. Another design feature provided for direct injection of cold water at 68' F into the peeling chamber through the steam diffuser system. This distributes water among the fruit, accelerating the reduction of pressure within the chamber and rapidly cooling the product. EFFECT OF PEELING TREATMENT ON PEELED YIELD, HEAT PENETRATION, AND TOTAL All caustic peeling tests were conducted in a laboratory-size, ferris wheel peeler varying only the time required to attain optimal peel for the pretreatment being tested. To improve effectiveness of caustic peeling, a simple and inexpensive method that could be used commercially was designed to vigor- ously prewash the apples and disrupt the waxy coating. In this apparatus, individual fruits were fed between rotating corn silking brushes in a tank charged with highly agitated warm water and detergent. Similar tests were run with the same apparatus charged with warm water, detergent, and size 80 grinding silica. Purpose of the silica was to disrupt the cutin layer through minute scratches which would allow the caustic solution to come into contact with the skin of the fruit. Optimal peeling periods in the caustic bath were 4 minutes with no prewash, 3 minutes and 40 seconds with a detergent prewash, and 3 minutes with an Sabrasive prewash. A mechanically peeled control was run with peeling knives set to a peel thickness of 1.9 mm. High Peeling Recovery The agitated prewash brushing treatment resulted in significant improvements in the yield of lye peeled fruit, see table. Yields were 85.8% for lye peeling, 87.4% for lye peeling following detergent prewash, and 91.7% for fruit treated with a detergent and abrasive prewash before lye peeling. The use of these prewashes before steam peeling had no effect on steam peeling efficiency. Mean heat penetration into the flesh of the apple is directly related to the duration of the heating portion of the peeling process. Greater penetration occurred in lye peeling than in steam peeling, see table. Superheated steam peeling with cold water injection into the peeling chamber resulted in a significantly lower heat penetration than other peeling processes. Steam Peeled Apples Attractive Color and appearance of the apples peeled by all steam peeling methods were rated excellent. Color of the lye peeled fruit was visibly less brilliant. Mechanically peeled apples darkened faster than either the lye peeled or steam peeled fruits and lacked the smooth surface attained by lye peeling or steam peeling. SOLIDS OF RED DELICIOUS APPLES Mean PeelingMean tretmnt peeled heat treament yield penetratlon Pct. mm Superheated steam + water .............. 97.5 2.5 Saturated steam + water .............. 96.5 3.1 Superheated steam ....... 95.9 3.4 3.4 Saturated steam ........ 95.3 Detergent abrasive lye .......... 91.7 5.7 Detergent lye ........... 87.4 5.9 85.8 6.4 Lye.................. Mechanical ........ 82.7 Total solids Pet. 18.1 18.0 18.2 18.2 Superheated steam used in conjunction with direct injection of cold water into the steam atmosphere of the steam peeling chamber resulted in a higher recovery of peeled apples than with any of the other peeling treatments, see table. Peeled yields in excess of 95% were attained in peeling treatments using superheated steam or saturated steam-with and 17.8 17.7 17.7 18.9 without cold water injection. All of these peeling treatments yielded a smooth, well blanched surface without disrupting the integrity of the apples. Water uptake during peeling and washing, measured by total solids, was slightly higher in lye peeled apples than in those peeled by steam. Conclusions from this study are that steam peeling with superheated steam and flash cooling by cold water (1) increases yields, (2) saves labor, (3) eliminates the need for expensive caustic solutions and caustic solution disposal, and (4) results in higher quality apples for further processing. While caustic peeling of apples is a major improvement over mechanical peeling, it requires the additional step of mechanically or chemically penetrating the cutin layer to achieve satisfactory yields. Steam peeling appears to be more efficient for firm ripe apples. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 15 M \( tlNE H \1 \R\I I1O 1) ) C OlIoN YII 1 )S AND P1 R( IENi I liI) Otlt m I ON oFl, t ARrIN,(; \ )rS IIiis (It COMMON COC(KI Ii IR k4".\i h1 - Weed density No. No. 50 ft. acre Seed cotton acre 1978 It. ),026 1,808 1.556 1,380 1.226 925 1979 L . 1,3 29 1,074 908 760 416 321 1980 1t./ 1,004 N17 750 597 429 336 A\. reduction Pu/. - ,AA. ~ ~ * ~ 3 ~ l~ " 500 1,000 2.000 4.000 8,000 17 27 35 56 66 10,, 5-r'z lift Competition by Common Cocklebur Reduces Yields of Cotton C E SNIPES J STREET. and R HAROLD WALKER Department of Agronomy and Soils C OMMON COCK IEBUR (Xanthiumi Wallr.) is a highly competipenli/ivanicumll tive weed that is widespread in cotton. I his weed infested approximately 1.2 million acres of cotton in the United States in 1980. Nearly half of Alabama's cotton acreage, about 152,000 acres, was infested that year. A widespread, robust annual weed, coimmon cocklebur can reach heights of 7 to 8 ft. A single plant can produce as much as 30 lb. of green weight in a full growing season under favorable conditions. Common cocklebur is capable of producing an abundance of seed. xwhich are formed in burs that cling to clothing and machinery. Ihis characteristic aids in the dispersal and infestation of seed in almost any crop situation. Each bur contains two seed, each of which usually germinates at different times during the growing season or over two growing seasons. This enables the plant to perpetuate itself over a long period and supplies an added dimension to the competitiveness and control of common cocklebur. Research to document the degree of competitiveness of common cocklebur at different densities in cotton was begun in 1978 by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. The Prattville Experiment Field was the site for the project. Cotton was planted in plots that consisted of five rows spaced 42 in. apart and 50 ft. in length. Trifluralin (Treflan , ) was applied preplant incorporated at 0.75 lb. active ingredient per acre for control of annual grasses and small-seeded broadleaf weeds. Recommended insect control and cultural practices were followed. Immediatel, after planting, a number of common cocklebur seed were planted adjacent to the cotton drill in hills at equal intervals. After the cotton and common cocklebur had emerged, the cocklebur was thinned to one plant per hill yielding the final desired densities of 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 weeds per 50 ft. of row. These densities were selected to determine the degree and range of interspecific competition cocklebur exerts on cotton. The set densities were maintained throughout the growing season, with all other weeds removed by hand hoeing as needed. Cotton was harvested by hand from the center row of each plot. Rows on either side of the hand harvested row were machine harvested. Machine harvesting was done with mature cocklebur plants remaining in the row. The hand harvested row was harsested after cockleburs had been removed. The two machine har ested rows were combined to determine the seed cotton sields reported in the table. A comparison of machine harvested and hand harvested yield at the highest density, 32 cocklebur plants per 50 ft. of row, revealed no differences because of method of harvest. This suggests that machine harvesting is efficient at high densities of common cocklebur. Percent trash for hand or machine harvested seed cotton yields was not documented, but there was not an excess amount of trash obsersed in machine picked samples. I his could be an expected trend since earlier studies with pigweed and sicklepod showed that adensityof 16 weeds per 50 ft. of row reduced harvesting efficiency less than 21; and increased trash content ionly 4%. Seed cotton yield reductions averaged I 7 at a density of two cocklebur plants per 50 ft. of rosw (about 500 per acre) to 66( at a density of 32 plants per 50 ft. (about 8,000 per acre), see table. Seed cotton yields were reduced significantly in 2 of 3 years at a density of two cocklcburs per 50 ft. of row when compared to weed-free cotton. Significant vield reductions occurred at all other densities for all years when compared to the check. The graphic presentation of results shown indicates that seed cotton yields were reduced with increases in weed density up to 16 cockleburs per 50 ft. row. No further of yield reductions were apparent to densities greater than 16. I his type of response was obsersed regardless of the type of harvesting done. line equations developed from regression analysis enables prediction of yield losses for each common cocklebur plant per 50 ft. of row,. Axerages for the 3 years show that per acre losses of seed cotton \ield amounted to 89 lb. with hand harsesting and 68 lb. for machine harvesting. Data from the Auburn tests indicate the potential for tremendous yield losses from common cocklebur if left uncontrolled. Significant yield reductions were apparent even at weed densities as low as 500 plants per acre (2 per 50 ft. of row). Therefore, a high level of control is necessary to eliminate yield losses from this highly competitive weed. Seed cotton yield/ocre, Ib 2,000, 1,500 - 5 cocklebur o00n seed otton ields. 500 9 0 4 8 16 Cocklebur per 50 ft of row 32 Influence of varying densities of common cocklebur on seed cotton yields. Alabama Agricultural Evperimtent Station C IILE LF RODL) CERS are plagued with an economic problem of highly variable income. A contributing factor, the cattle cy cle, has been obsers ed throughout the past century. This cycle includes periods when herd numbers are los and prices are rising. followed by periods when herd numbers arL high and prices are falling. Changes in beef production resulting from this cycle have a x idespread effect oi farming in the United States because larg amounts of resources, particularly land, investment capital. and feed grain, are involved. The structure of the beef industr\ permits allocation of resources to be shifted among geographic regions and production stages at various phases of the cycle in the interest of efficienc\. For these reason, efficient allocation of resources is a concern among producers, consumers. and polic y makers. Objectives of a recent study by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station addressed these concerns through a computer model of the United States' beef industry. Objectises were to study effects of different phases of the c\cle upon optimum allocation of the brood herd. This area of the industrx was chosen because co,\-calf producers feel that the\ bear the greatest burden of economic adversity from the cycle. A linear programming model was developed to meet objecties of the study. Five beef producing regions (West. Great Plains. South%\est. North Central. and Southeast) and six consumption regions ( Pacific Coast, Mountains and Plains. South Central. Midwest. South Atlantic. and Northeast) are included in the model. UInique to this model. compared to pre ious indust irmodels. is the inclusion of consumer dema nd for table cuts and hamburger to derive the requirements and allocation of the live animal portion of the industr . Model solutions are neither duplicates of present nor predictions of future ind ust ry organizations, but instead serve as reflections of economic pressures on the beef industr. Optimal resource allocation is based upon production costs and product price levels for 1980. Programming strategy wxas to optimize the model under an assumed set of conditions and then, by modifing the size of the national co\ herd. to analyze changes in the model results. Results describe organizations of the beef industr\ w hich maximize returns aboxe all xariable and some fixed costs. Variable costs are assessed on all acti ities in the model. Acti\ities xNhich require expansion of facilities abose current resources used are also assessed fixed costs. Initial solutions of the beef industr\ model were used in an iteratise process of model alidation. Ihe requirement of the \alidation process xwas that the base model solution adequately simulates production, -Ak W.-. LOUIS K W. LUSKNEY n ELR MARTIN R. Deatmn Department~ ouic ofArcltrlEonmc ndRrlSoilg marketing and spatial characteristics of the beef industry. A principal characteristic used for direction in the xalidation process was the spatial distribution of the national FABI 1. REGIONx.i Bi i Cus Cy cle axerage OBSI RVLD DAIA AND I\\ \ NIORtSf ROl HBIl MODFtI Sol 1 ON I Region W est .......... Great Plains .... Model Dilference solution i r. -1.9 +17.6 1,000 head 3.955 3,878 6.993 8,223 beef cowu insentorx . Table I contains model results for location of beef cows at the end of the salidation process. Points to draw from these data are that the model ov erestimated beef cow numbers in the Southwest and Great Plains regions and underestimated cow numbers in the other regions. The Southeast result of about 96i of observed data xwas judged to be an adequate representation of the beef industry in this region. lo assess the impact of the cattle cycle on resource allocation, three model solutions were compared. In these solutions the size of the national co\ herd was fixed and the model determined the optimum geographic location of production to meet regional consumcr demand. The three herd sizes used were the low, average, and high in entory numbers for the cow herd during the most recent cattle cxcle. 1969 to 1978. The effect of the cattle cycle on the regional allocation of the brood herd is listed South est ...... North Central .. 3.350 10.720 3.623 9.947 +8.1 -7.2 Southeast ...... Total ........ 16.578 41,596 15,925 41.596 -3.9 0 Source: Agricultural Statistics, USDA. Washington. I).C. (selected issues). I at i 2. RE iox,, MoDti BROODCo\ Ai oca tioN OR sF \ Io EoS ANt) Sot IONs t LOW, BAS, 11( C1' HiRIo ) I N West .......... Great Plains ... Southsest ...... North Central .. Southeast ...... National beet cow industr ' Low Base High ,000 /ead amli (p1. o ha/e) 3,073 3.878 4.161 (79.2) (100.0) (107.3) 8,233 8.223 8,622 1(0.0) (100.0) (104.9) 3.557 3,623 3.896 (98.2) 9.765 (100.0) 9.947 (107.5) 10.325 (98.2) 12,072 (100.0) 15.926 (103.8) 18.707 Total ........ (75.8) 36,689 (88.2) (100.0) 41.596 1100.0) ( 1 7.5) 45.712 (109.9) 'Los. 36,688.885 head. is the low inventor% level observed of the past cattle cycle. 1970-79: base. 41.596.010. is the simple a\crage oxer the same period: and high. 45.711.970, is the highest obsercd invenitor level. in table 2. I)ata in the table indicate that cow-calf production is more variable in the Southeast and West, while production in the interior of the countrs remains rclati\elx more stable during a cattle cycle. The most \ariation is obser\cd in the Southeast \\here inmcntories drop nearli 24'; from the aserage herd when the national cow inventory decreases. I)uring the high part of the cycle. in\entories increase 17.5(c aboe the average herd. Model results indicate that cowcalf producers in the Southeast experience the idest xariation in income due to shifting resource allocation during a cattle cycle. AlU1111ni Ag1,91 i l 0! E.xpc /iC17 SMau/on Ii ' lw I iD f P ffBlv\"Imc IlI R " s Ili[R \ ' 1 Sss I1 Po I \I I Sweet potatoes peas Repellent bag Southern spacing Ft. 5 . . .. . . . . . . . . o0 ................ is................. 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No ne ............. SBrowsing index: 0 - no injuirI = 1-20 i plant , damage, 2 - 21-401; plant dinamage 3 - 41 60 A FTFER 3 FRUSIRATING YEARS of trying to establish a research plum orchard at the E. V. Smith Research Center, Shorter, experiments were initiated for studying ways to prevent deer injury to plum trees. Poor growth and performance of the trees during the first leaf of growth in 1977 were not initially attributed to deer damage since there was a drought during the spring and summer. After discovering deer damage during the second leaf, the trees were sprayed with a strong tabasco pepper sauce solution (a treatment reported to be effective in Pennsylvania). However, the deer continued to browse the plum trees. A report in the January 1979 issue of BioScience stated that workers at the New York Botanical Garden's Cary Arboretum discovered that bags of human hair would repel deer for a distance of about I yd. To determine the effectiveness of this method. preliminary experiments were initiated in March to evaluate the repellent effect of human hair when deer began browsing on the plum trees. Hair was obtained from local barber shops and beauty salons and packaged in cotton bags (3.5 oz. per bag). Bags were hung in trees and 3.5 oz. of loose hair was placed at the base of each tree. The hair was replenished every 3 weeks until the last application in early June. No deer browsing occurred on trees with human hair placed in or under them. Deer continued to browse on the unprotected trees. After the initial success of this method, dacron bags filled with 0.7 oz. of human hair were hung in each tree, see figure. Trees that were badly damaged previously remained free of any additional deer damage. Deer tracks, previously abundant in the orchard, were absent for 10 months. Research was expanded to the Haielrig Fruit Farm near Havden, where deer had been a continuing problem. Treatments consisted of bags of hair placed in each tree, in alternate trees, in perimeter trees, and no bags as a control. Results over a 2-year period indicated that a 0.7-oz. bag of human hair in each tree or in the perimeter trees gave protection from deer injury for 10 months, table I. Additional knowledge of deer control was gained in experiments with southern peas and sweet potatoes at the Horticulture Farm, E. V. Smith Research Center. When 0.7-oz. bags of human hair were suspended 2 ft. above the ground and spaced 5, 10, or 15 ft. apart along the perimeter of the area, deer did not enter the areas or browse on the crops, table 2. TABLE 1. DEER BROWSING INJt RNYIO PLtUM TREES Dr:RiN(, 2 GROWING SEASONS Severity of No. of damaged trees browsing per plot injury Av. .4v. Eter tree ......... 0.06' 0.06': Alternate trees..... 0.14' 0.14 Perimeter trees .... 0.00 0.00 None............. 10.25 3.50 Repellent bag location Browsing index: 0 = No injury, I = 1-20ci grow- ing tips injured. 2 = 21-40(- tips injured. 3 = 41-60% tips injured. 4= 61-80%: tips injured, and 5 81-100%' tips injured. One twig removed from one tree. One twig removed from each of these trees. Alabama Agricultural LEvperinment Station Distribution of Cholesterol, Lip oprotein Cholesterols, and Triglycerides in Plasma of Adolescent Females A. J. CLARK, Department of Home Economics Research used to describe severe elevation of blood cholesterol levels. In this group of girls almost all had elevated levels of LDL-C with only a small number having elevated HDLC levels. The girls in this group were divided equally between the two races. The black girls at each age had higher levels of TC, HDL-C, and LDL-C than the whites. At 16 years, blacks had a greater amount of VLDL-C and TG than whites. This report has attempted to describe some of the relationships of plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, and different lipoproteins with coronary heart disease. High HDL-C levels may have a protective role against the development of coronary heart disease, whereas high levels of plasma total cholesterol and LDL-C may have an adverse role. In this random sample of 103 adolescent girls, approximately 25% have TC and/ or lipoprotein-cholesterol levels which may constitute increased risk for heart disease. Next year the same girls will again be analyzed for their plasma cholesterol, triglyceride, and lipoprotein profiles. This will provide longitudinal evaluation on these parameters which will show if the risk factors change as the girls become adults. It will also be important to see if certain nutrients in the diet of this important population group can be modified to allow us to lower LDL-C levels but not HDL-C levels. This information indicates a clear need for data on the distribution of the lipoproteincholesterols in our population, their physical characteristics, and factors that determine their levels in plasma. Much information concerning lipoprotein-cholesterol is from adults, with only limited data collected on children. It will be important to ascertain when the various risk factors begin in childhood and if they persist through adulthood and, finally, relate to the development of coronary heart disease. The measurement of these parameters in early development is important in order to establish a means of identifying subjects at risk for coronary heart disease at a time when preventive measures may be employed. W HETHER OR NOT you will have coronary heart disease depends a lot on a number of cardiovascular risk factors. One of these is an elevated total cholesterol (TC) level in plasma. Another is the distribution of cholesterol among different plasma lipoproteins. A major portion of the total cholesterol in plasma exists as low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), a moderate amount as high density lipoproteincholesterol (HDL-C), and the lowest portion appears as very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-C). Low levels of HDL-C and elevated LDL-C levels comprise the major risks. Individuals with normal plasma cholesterol levels and low levels of HDL-C may be susceptible to development of severe coronary atherosclerosis. Recently, a cross-sectional study was conducted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station on the lipoprotein-cholesterol levels in 103 girls ages 12, 14, and 16 years. They were selected from east central Alabama, and approximately one-half were black and one-half white. About 40% of the girls were 12 years of age, 40% were 14 years old, and 20% were 16 years old. Fasting blood samples were obtained for plasma TC, lipoprotein-cholesterols, and triglyceride (TG) analyses. All analytical methods were those as outlined by the Lipids Research Clinics laboratory methods. Cholesterol analysis in different fractions was done by the direct cholesterol reagent and lipoprotein-cholesterols were isolated by preparative ultracentrifugation. Plasma TC, HDL-C, and LDL-C levels declined with increasing age of the girls. No consistent differences were noted for VLDLC levels with age. During childhood, cholesterol levels tend to increase to about 12 years of age; then decline through adolescence and then increase with age throughout adulthood. TG levels tended to increase with increasing age and showed a high level at 16 years. About 25% of the total subjects had HDLC levels below 38 mg/dl (milligrams per deciliter). Any value below 38 mg/dl may indicate a high risk of coronary heart disease. Similarly, about 28% of the total subjects had LDL-C levels above 135 mg/dl. Any value above 135 mg/dl may indicate a high risk of coronary heart disease. About 12% of the girls had TC levels greater than 205 mg/dl; this value is the 90th percentile level and it has been arbitrarily MEAN PLASMA TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, VLDL-C, AND TG LEVELS BY AGE AND RACE IN ADOLESCENT FEMALES Age 12 ............. 14 ............. Race B W B W 16 ............. B W B = blacks; W = whites. TC mg/dl 185 187 182 178 179 178 170 176 163 HDL-C mg/dl 45 46 44 44 46 42 43 44 42 LDL-C mgl/dl 122 124 120 117 119 116 108 114 104 VLDL-C mg/ dl 19 19 20 18 16 19 19 24 16 TG mg/ dl 58 57 59 59 57 60 69 72 65 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 19 Boron application failed to affect soybean yields, even on sandy soils where boron deficiencies are more likely to occur. RESPONSI OF- SO'BE N\\ 1() HORO\ (H) ioNs AI I HRI Lo( Ic i' r4 ~ir-; - r~:l -aTS./"~ ~:L; ~": -I * ;" 4. '-C -. i * v.. . I reatment, boron acre -v S 1977 Bu. Soyrbean ,ield per acre 1978 1979 1980 Bu. Bu. Bu. A I ION 36 36 36 13 13 14 i.. .. 5~; -4. 4 1 '-. SAND MOUN I AIN SUBS fi4 '4-.- 'V Not limed - No B ....... 1 lb. B ...... 2 lb B ...... 43 44 42 34 31 32 33 35 35 I.imed N o I ....... 45 I lb. B. ..... 45 21b. HB ...... 45 B FERTILIZATION OF SOYBEANS W PLA\N BREL I)ING UNI I Not limed No Ib....... I lb.B ...... 2 lb. B ...... timed No B ....... I lb.B ...... 2 lb. B.. WI\ RE(IRASS Not limed No B ....... I lb. ...... HB 2 b. B ...... limed No ...... I b. B ...... I2 B ...... lb. 36 35 35 36 35 36 ODOM r- D L THURLOW De;)ttment ,j Arornorm J T EASON, Sand Mountain Substation L L WALKER, Plant Breeding Unit J G STARLING. Wiregrass Substal ,r imi Soiis BS [AIION M ANY LEGUMINOUS CROPS, such as vetch and the various clovers, require boron (B) fertilizer for maximum seed \ields on Alabama soils. But this is not the case with soybeans, which also is a legume. Soybeans have not responded to boron fertilizer in research bx the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station at any test location. Current Auburn research on boron for soybeans was started by the late J. 1. Wear because of scattered reports from other Southern States that applying boron increased yields. Because lime applications are known to reduce the availability of soil boron to plants. these experiments at three Alabama locations included both limed and unlimed plots. The experiments were confined to lighter textured soils where boron deficiencies are more prevalent on other crops in Alabama. In the recent study, boron fertilizer (Solubor ) was applied to soybeans in field experiments at the Sand Mountain Substation, Crossville, and Plant Breeding Unit. Iallassee, from 1977 through 1980 and at the Wiregrass Substation. Headland, from 1978 through 1980. Test soils at these locations were Hartsells fine sandy loam, Wickham loam fine sand, and I)othan sand loam. respectivel . Soil pH and hot kwater extractable boron content were. respecti\el\. 5.7 and 0.155 p.p.m. at the Sand Mountain substation, 6.1 and 0.086 p.p.m. at the Plant Breeding Unit, and 6.1 and 0.107 p.p.m. at the W\iregrass Substation. Ihe soybean sarietv Essex was grown for the first 2 years at the Sand Mountain Substation, with Forrest. which is known to be sensitive to boron deficiency. used for the next 2 years. Bragg varietv was grown at the other locations throughout the test. Boron treatments of I and 2 lb. per acre were applied broadcast to selected limed and unlimed plots and incorporated by disking betore the so\ beans were planted. I ime xwas applied to the limed plots as needed during the experiment to keep the pH near 6.5. There were no yield increases at any of the three locations from applied boron, see table. This w\as true exen under unfaxorable conditions of high pH and the sensitive Forrest variety at the Sand Mountain Substation. As in earlier field experiments in Alabama, boron fertilizer was not needed for maximum soybean yield. Applying sufficient lime to bring the pH of these soils to 6.5 (lid not induce boron deficiency. Since there has been no identification of Alabama soils deficient in boron for sosbeans, boron is neither tested for nor recominmended for soybeans bv the Auburn University Soil Iesting I.aboratorx. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849 Gale A. Buchanan, Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 3/82 Penalty for Private use, $300 POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1 ACGJ 101 BULK RATE