4' I A wit DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS " ae crldace . . lDepaitmeu't of' IPttltix Sc'ience't. A niatixve of' \lillpttrt., Alabiama, Lamiar (Xtunty, \lcDaniel jintedi the Antibri factiltN ill jamtiarx, 196i8. Di. \leDaiiiel receixved athB.S, inl agicutltuiral Cefticatimtl front Atilbirnit) inl 1954, aitt D 0\oIrjiNS )t URNS JN lix es. Llt(leetl, at protdlucedl effeets heiit g altered. This has also moitney aillile ECOA NI'i hax\ e ittleetetf jlitst ispt'tts td our sluggish c'coltittt tltld etottiltued iitflationi hax e of sluch Illiagilitutfe that otur ;tallitrcls ttfli ili, are affected growxxth tf fttr Alahaia etnea 1953. anl \I.S. inl genletics sits, tlte tost fot etltcatitti Iis Jeleadrl ex itlt'it xxe n 11) IIisiclcis the Illli c creasinlg co(st of' agiil tctral reseitle-11 Sex eral reaxtl is itjctolt ftti the( pense5t If agriecttl research. Firt i. fittetisixc t' att Almotlst ec -ix apeet4 to de- firolt Auburiii the PhI.D1. inl genteticsphx sit d gx from Kainsas -Sta te unlixersitx ilt 1960t. Slit' work1ed wxith the xs it geneticist ftor 6I\ t'itV Mid~ wxith Kansas State ats tf' reseaieh reIilifrecs attetioni atteitimtt ttt detail are throutigh iitci x ina1 .,personiail attentitti tor sttplisti catt'd ttf'seitific mitolrintg (costs ititle\ 1',ithei Ctomptetitio l(ttoi seix ice's cltjipmltent. GALE A. BUCHANAN f personnlel is kcet. Ttt obtaiit lahtor, cleical, aitd techii cit] suipptoIt per soil, wxe imust comnpete xwith the 1)i ix ate seettorat il othrlil iiiersitics. \I tich ireseartch is eiiergx fittetsix c. Fuel ftor field (1 perilltel tts, eiiergx for tliitg ciops, otlliitg amid lig~inig greetthttises and gittxxllt hlaitlltei-salici traxc tre IliHtr aieas xx heeetst tf ceegx ci impatst otl the cotst lot agicieilttlial researcht. 3 x ears. Ile alsto servxed inl the t.'. S. Arm\ fttr 1 year. D~r. \leI)aitieil dottes bo~th tein'tliig andt rextartli ill pih\ sittltg\ He has piublishedt Itiilttroits stif tita etltific airticles aitd is aitebr Ali efteetix e agtricuiltunral research prttgraml muttst hax e tieltd aid pelisix e. At litinol acid lmil>L(i, iiec('ssarilx fit tixxrdil Ittting alItiiil a ittititl t esearchi, cotls tbo it 8 100,000~t. A cottttiipicker, juIIst ah its lit'(c1o'ssr fttr field leceiti, ctsts allltit S75,00t~. itt'x (ftx '1litt'Itts iII teciitlologx . Ittlixidital stitip littit cotitpiitt'ts i(' tapitlx IIecttllilg aiwne'ssar\ still)oli-t of ceirtiti itx lit's tiff rt'earcli xx ic-1 siIIll'\ callilott Ile ac'c'tlltplisitci xwithotut ctttplters. HIGHI1CHT% cof Agricultural ltcewarcl, SUMMER 1981 VOL. 28, NO. 2 b\ the I'\.ithalt ( ill 1 x(,tll siltpix' lilail thatt neteds liax doule (lIi t heIl setcoitd x\ear altl tiipled thte thtird \ t'a. Also, co~sts itc-rt',se lpttlpoltiollall\x E'I\ c'Heffot is itaic to it'alize ill iitcotlit practicaltI ~Irtlt salt's otf' Prtotducts six] aged ftroml exper imetnits. \lo~st lahdtttttti research Pro(mitts IIo salatlei prodcltts. Ix cit ill greeilhtxe aitt fied1(1reseairii \x litre thetre' is at ptlttal foi salt (Iflesiltilig ) lix t'stttck ttr produlce' tile itili ofIt rcarch t'ltx ctires ott]\ motdeltst productix itx . l':xainples cttttoii plots that n'et'ix Irwil AN......t _rilt 1. LP (A). L(1A..............tt Ditt('Clot Ti. 1". (h M 1El. .. ........... 1( DlCt/ol Isi/01 lE. it.SI~ . ..N..N. . . .tt .t. . ..t'.I (li/Itt R. 1" STE\ENON xi.......\,ssoi/ttC I~dtor E'It/oti to d/ isory (ttt tt// (;xI A. BUCHAN AN; C . A. Fi.noi ,As 511(10/i Profcss or of A-rict'/uuio/ Enugincctriotg; (h o DlI t l1A\S, Associ/tc Ioll'sstt- of Al-1tmoiott tol soils: I). 11. ( it1SI N). 1 thtat i-cct'ix opt/illilll fetilizeri \NARPI-A.. \ntttt I c'\perillit'ts xlitlre cetrtaiil ltIoil-lab(ltd 1)t'stitides ate itsed, re'sultintg crotps 1lttist he dt'strtx cd. Ilil) mx f these sittiatiltis, resttlting slidllc prottducts \\ ill, ilicletd. he mode~ltst. There it' still fliitlite losses titioitli ('\pei lit cx ,ltiatioit. \leat, eggs, andt croIps trc' lltstir'IL ailitl zie d utltsed ll ndifft'eent \\-ax fott flill'asiiL ef t ects tiftile re'se'archi xxhichl leax s thle ptrodtuct utittit tto iliirk('t. Ilt s11ill"\i tlt I c) oftxt t rt'sctrch iIs ileie-asecl kitttxxledgt', ilt gelt'iatitol ttfiictlite I'il tilte salt' tf'] \prtodutte" of' rt'searli. ' WXhile' thit cotst ,tgriituiil resealieh is high, itilictiilis of art' that filttite cotsts \\ ill eoitiitue tot c'scalittt'.Itl xit'x\ of, that, aid tile Xssoio/e Pittfexsor otf Rual Soctiolotgil AN N A SN AC11A, ' IIINIA C. KiKLL~i~n Assis /ot Proj/Cssttr of \Ntri/iton antd Ei. L. _\hCGtW\ re'seartct ploditctix itx, at ilIiiIIIIII cost. ( aretil ,tttliitot lto at the The title of the article onl page 12 of the Spring 1981 issue of Highlights of Agricuiltural Research NVo1. 28, No. 1) dloes riot accuratel\ express the conclusions (drawn bNI) thle auithors. A more aeeu-rate title xx ildl he "Respoinses of Holstein Coxws Fed High Lexvels of C ottonseed and Soy bean Nleal s inl Blended Rations." \\'t\5 ot lltailltatitiling research ptodiictix itx nl ittthing c'tsts dttxi i ON THE COVER: Suspended floors are being tried for rearing broilers (see page 4). Rough hair and poor condition of steer from fungus-infested fescue pasture (right) contrasts sharply with those from fescue pastures not infested with fungus (left). fxmngus-infested pastures were used in a ITT Fungus Limits Fescue Pasture Gains S. P. SCHMIDT, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences C. S. HOVELAND and C. C. KING, Department of Agronomy and Soils E. M. CLARK and N. D. DAVIS. Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology D. M. BALL, Cooperative Extension Service L. A. SMITH. H. W. GRIMES, and J. L. HOLLIMAN, Black Belt Substation feeding trail. Crossbred steers weighing 5~30 lb. were assigned to four diets containing either 60% fungus-free seed, 60% infested seed, 85% chopped fungus-free haN, or 85% chopped infested hay. The test rations were fell during late summer when temperatures reached 94-99'F. Average dlail> gains of steers fed the fescue rations were typical of those mnade by steers grazing fungus-free and fuingus-infested fescue, but body temnwere elevated only half as much bv the fungus, table 2. Feed intake ,,vas lower for steers eating diets containperatures ing infested hay anti seed. Forage intake of grazed1 steers was not measured, bult higher stocking rates onl infested pastures were indicative of reduced forage conlsumption. Steers fed the fungusinfeCsted seed showed signs of' severe heat stress and rapidi breathing. All steers eating rations containing infested feedI were highly excitable. TABLE 2. STEER PERFOR MAN CE AsAFFECTED BY FUNGUS- IN FESTEI) TALL FESCUE SEED OR HAY ci lii 1 t in i ii (it idtt 1 ll Vlthat ell I t t f ull is il ihe \-lik ife ste d p)adtIlIock s wvere sto~cked xx \ arl in g steers illi the atumwn ith of' 1978 andi( 1979. N itrtigen 55 a appIi e d vs at 100 lb). per acr e in Septemiber and again in Ft 1 ri arN onl all six paddo(11ck s in fiiilungs an i dthInree each \ car. r1 , 111 ,r ,t C o 1le (']It it) fill] Iii i' Iln si it *,t t' A lto.dii. ft (d ' ,tii ootl 1 11 hc iii1 (.Ill ll(. liito 'i si i Io t WXhen grazinig xvats inadequiate, tiring lDcccnbel thriough idFclii'urta' , steers %\ removxed frin the paddtocks nid fed ere t Diet Fuiigus-free seed ... Daily gain Daily Body feed Lb. 14.1 9.1 101.5 temlp. ti i il 1 _1, f II i 55 s-I( fltl li \ It'' ' it t). isii I ' 1 n, ha\ plis a 1)1otein-mineral itainin suppleinent. Thel( grazing seasoli lasted until atpptIxillatekx mii-Jul> each ,car. Fuingus-free fescue pastiures supthporte axragt dtai l\ steer gailiItf' 1.48 lb). let\ ai it pci adc bccf' gain of' 395 lb., nearl\ double that iif' fui igus-in festcd pastures, tale~ 1. Sleers gr azing fuingiis-iiifcsted f'scue had rough hair coats, and thex did iiot shed their wxinter coats. They also showed botly tempierattures _) F higher Inifestedl seed.... Ftlhgus-free hay .. Infested ha\ ......... Lb. 2.11 '44 1.45 .63 -F 102.3 103.2 10)2.2 103.3 9.2 ('tiiiii it iliIt TIhI' AStI i( I liii llt ill Ii It 'si. I iS c li5 1 ,1 lt.III \\ S tt.~l liii t w ,id ii l c h. Il (iith Xi illlil lil iii It ' ill h51111I ilt .l S t l\\1p to car(.,i II 11111 mtll Il( ', litlia i . ,iltll..liiithl nt ( I hIl li ft t I II \\i I I \1 )1t 111 ( I11 f '.1' li i t'iI I CIi" ,It l i \. IioII i II h -111 ,11 ncrx ousness . Hot xxeathel imaginified thiese adve rse 55 ilptolins. (ThIlectix clx, It' I I( ,11 l these s\ loptoilis hlax cbecoimi kinoxwn as ) (it rI ItI "fescuc toxicitNor "summiier svnitil nic." No ev itdence of' fescuet foott has bccii senl inl these grazing expeimnts Cii a \II(5r o, IiII" \ 'I at the Black Belt Substation. I1i anolther cexperimlent, fescue haN and fes cue sectd fromn fullgu~s-flee a511( TABLE 1. Si I E PERFORMlANtE OtN'TALL FE SCUE PASiI Ri'S As AFFE 11iti1) RI FumNC!s, Hi.\t k Bt 11i ScL'B 'IIIN., Both of the projects reporte impllicate the fuingus ill f'escue to~xicity . Although the aictulal toxic agent is hnot known, preIlliilar\ results indticate that interaction of the funigus xxith pilant tissue is liecessar\ to produce the s'udrone in cattle. Scxveral research approaches are being taken to solv e the problemn of this fungus. SN stemic fungicides are being testedl to See if' the fungus can be controlled onl established fescue pastures. Since the funigus appears to he transmnitted through the seed, methods of'seed handlinug also are being studied. Surface seed treatlull t is hot satisfactorx ats at means of'coli- 1978-8t0 Beef Pasture it Av ldals B~~x Hair co)at iting ra trol biecause the f'unigus occurs withinl the seed't. W~hat can a cattleini do about fescue toxic-ity litiss? Clover wxill offset most of the bad] effects of fungus-infested fescue, so ox erscedlilg xxvith latlino or red cloxer wxill greatly imIlproxve animial perforniante,. 0illrent research indicates great pott'lltlal fo(r doubllinig bec(f ginis on tall fescuei. ifit solution to the prtoblenm iffescue toii(ltitx canl Ile fouint. tre Lb. Free of fungus Funlgus presenit 'Batling: I1 .. gau It '.. Lb. F 395 .21t0 slick; 5 1.48 102.7 .65 104.8 rough 1.3 3.2 AXlabama .1.gi'iltn,'l P,,)'Iticiet Station Plastic-Coated Suspended Floors for Rearing Broilers GAYNER R. McDANIEL Department of Poultry Science G ROWING BROILERS on wire floors or in batteries was a conmmon practice in the forties when the poultr industry wa, just getting started. However, when the broiler boom became a reality in the early fifties the problems associated with keeping birds on wire appeared insurmountable. The practice was abandoned by commercial operators in favor of rearing thousands of birds on the floor as housing, litter, am1 i energy sources were cheap. Today, the situation has reversed. Interest in rearing broilers on suspended floors has been gainining nlomentun in re cent months as cost of energy, sources of litter, equipment, and housing construction have become nmajor considerations. Increased density, under current practices, could help alleviate sonme of the cost problems; however, obtaining good quality litter is a limiting factor, and in some areas obtaining litter of any quality is becoming increasingly difficult. Scientists in the Department of Poultry Science, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, have been working in cooperation with the B. L. Downey Company oil revitalizing the suspended floor concept using modern technology to overcome the problems commonly associated with raising broilers on wire. A plastic-coated metal floor, not unlike the principle that has been used successfully in swine prod.action, is being adapted for broiler production. The openings in the floor are designed so chicks from day old through market age can be grown successfully without experiencing foot and leg problenms. The floor is rigid enough to allow caretakers to walk on the floor to mlaintain waterers, brooders, and feeders, and remove dead birds. Testing is still underway, but preliminary results indicate that the advantages for this type system are: (1) More birds per square foot of floor space, (2) increased growth rate, (3) elimination of the need for litter, and (4) elimination of coccidiostats. Bird density in tests conducted at Auburn was 0.4 sq. ft. per bird; however, a more realistic figure for commercial type operations in large pens would probably be 0.6 sq. ft. per bird. This 0.6 sq. ft. space would allow approximnately 25% more birds to be grown in each house than is now being grown on commercial floor operations. One of the primary reasons higher bird density is not feasible in conventional-ty pe houses at present is wet litter problems. The plastic-coated metal floor eliminates this problem. There is a definite growth advantage to using the suspended floor system. In trials using all males, test birds exhibited a growth rate advantage at 2 and 7 weeks of age, see table. There were no differences in feed conversion, mortality, or incidence of leg problems. Another advantage of this system over the conventional type systeni is the aniount of "downtinme" between broods. The test floors have remained relatively free of manure and have required minimal cleaning after the birds have been removed. Since there is no litter involved, no clean-out time is required, and the only significant labor required would be t"~~68 r i _-d~: ~8~8~f~i the adjustment of feeders and waterers. Built-up manure uncder the floor should cause no probllem, and once-a-year cleanout could be initiated if floor height is sufficient. The elimination ofthe use ofcoccidiostats would result ill a saving of approximately 2v per bird. All systems have their draxwbacks, but with industrN" ingenuity, problems associated with catching birds and cleanout can be overcome. Work with the suspended floors is continuing on densities, brooding systems, floor tN pes, and management practices in general. WEIGHT (OF IALE BROILERS GROWN (IN A SUSPENI)EDI) PI ASTIC-(C(ATEDI) M\tETAL Fi.LOO Vs CONVENTIONAL LIiTEiR 44 da ss 44 daN Lb. Lb. Lb. 4.55* 4.19* 0.66* Suspernded ............. 3,90 .61 4.37 Litter .................. *Body weights are sigificantly different at 14 and 50 (las in Trial 1 and at 44 days in Triall 2. Floor type Trial 1 a 50 days 14 davs Trial 2 Sage AIlbaa Agricultural PAI)flri(lieu t Station tii l ) W e lIttilg to e t tII W r-asSIIh"a il('.iet.'' fioiil iiriglltiiiii XXer l(iih lairgei thaou ill the prie PEANUT IRRIGATION IN A r~u~v N11T A EUGENE W. ROCHESTER, Dept. of Agricultural Engineering LARRY M. CURTIS, Cooperative Extension Service PAUL BACKMAN, Dept. ot Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology tir ltil o l il i e18 d :30( (Iiait. Fatt loiitX petIta Ji ittt'i( i growlill 1ei filtr dXa~tdu 139 6, wlt ti er rt( anting ait commende Timesll\lalip olD "a\k ere use ' i, i 1 Almostlt 14 ill. iltirrigatiti XXattr Xwetrt atiteti toi tilt 18 i. of' rainfali, prtovidinig a tittal oit :32 iii. rteteiveti b\ tilt irrigatteti Xoa tle tlliN l loistine (ltelXX o i tn 6-i 18:3mid :3 ill. Iri the f2irst tiizgig aX ildte eiiigateti pitr wat ht 'Sil. had stili Xas itss thii~ :32 ill. T'e iiciirrigateti pet'iits reeived 19 in. uif'uaiuifaii du1ifig 14 tiat s be'Iteln tiist adi Xttcondt diugginigs. Iiiigatioi per acret' thtilt' \ " 7 piaintiiig iitreatset \ ie~lIX\ 2,3601i). XvaX til argt'st licrease otiililli't ditr- tahie 2. Tis \t'ar,. AXveratge \ itti Iicrease frioml wXas 1,:3211)il. pe'r acne. irrigatiiin tIX the tit5 \cears Late Plantings TALE 1. \\ Nitt ',\l Fl int APPLIt FIONi AN i0 GROX IN,(. TiME FOil 198) PEANL- I E\PEIMEII V1 \WIRI(.XSX St BSI AIO\ Treatmienit anud Mla 7 11riutattu............. N tnuh Igatetf June :3 Iiaiiif~Irug. 11 li T oht XXitti appliedi GroX 1lo perliodi h. Ill ... DaiP :9 fitgrow~ilig ]ptrioti for tile twXo iate If)iltiligs XXaX XiigiltX forl the firs~t, tailie 1, aid there XvaX le'ss raollfai 1. The Xt't' nit phai tilg hati the lowXXest rait tail totai, 12 ill., aX ctilIlirtt XXitih 19 ill. for tihe f'irst f)Ianitilg. Tii~this reduce raitali ] tSliitt'ti ill illt'Vtasedf irrigation finr the seeilt pianitinig, ibut 'I It'', tilali 18.2 19.0 138 20 lt fll tilt tihirtd laiitlig. 0)u1iN 1:3 iii. etf'a. tof illigaltitlll XXater XXaX 0 19.0) 15:3 iple tohehrdphitiig,lo Noitiirrigated Juneit .... 12.1 15.6 16. 1 0 12.8 28.2 12.1 28.4 13 5 135138 2 18 Irigatedt ..... t luaI i t didi irri gated treat] IIelits. I rri gated > le I(IS ixtiiget i- ItIi a hiigh of' 4,450)11). per acrt tfroml tilt first pianitinig to a lowX of' 1, 160 i1) f'romi tiht thirti pi)Iatiiig. For niiiiuigated peallts, hu 1 1 tio \oiurrigatetl .... 15.6 0 15.6 147 lAII trt'ttt'iits halIX t'teuI at two dai~tes, wtith betst X\ luilig dte~t it iiit p ci tdIo til 1iX 930t 1i). pe r atre toir tile th irtd pliat iniiig. repoirted.i 2 Beculse it' a (igugiiig error, Xilti fromil theset tXXi glulXX ill Quality Varied Among Plantings I I Itle tw plat l 1g, qity fiIt , llltas ilreti as a tiollar Xalie biasedi oil tileU~SDA) Peanut Loan Sehetduie, shoviXX not iflerellt'e 111 ibtetause tlf irrigatitln. Thus, thie tijilerenee in grioXs vaiuet, 8527 WiItiECIASS SUB 1I5 Al I0\ 1(( per e )laitlI at reValue per aere 2 1per atcre, is attributedi to ildt fincrease ton]\ daltt'' M\II 7 ..... Juneit' 3... itulit 18 .... I rrgated L'b 4,4501 4,190 i rri gatted N\onl Differ- eli itt Nil- Dittir110i gatted illigated eore Lb. 2,09t0 Lb. 4i-2,:360 +-Il II(I ict ''Va11lut'' ire iuai',tolil +520 2,050 +u2,1401t ,000tt 440 ± 561) 4, 161) 930) +3,230) 1,10( 2ltt +800tt sl i 0it' i rrI i gattetd cit i pareti -to -iii i rru gatedl Xi el tI. i tit( U.SIDA Peanllut Loantl Stielt '.1andl t Dot. 95tt Do?. 4.l3t Dot. Aitholugh tile first piautliog XhoX eti 1n1 (iiereneX fil tiuaieen treatnellts, significant diffee 'itI C XXWere illtat sillet ili tile- Xeetildi andt thirti ptiltiigs. Highlest (Iil~itX liits XXerte obitainetd f'rom tiht thirdi pialiting. it\ Xbtw X ieiti anti quality , tablle 2. tile highest ilitaillell f'rolm the third irrigatedi iflaltillg, althoiugh there XXvas littie tdifference iletX ellii I Il igX. I.ikeXise, there XXas littie diifterenee betweCCI first andit secondit litllirligated 1lanltigs, hut tilt thirtd plalltilig had ina~rk-tdiN lowXXer X altie. Xali Considering botth pealitltit Xwere othe r kernuels . tieducltjions ftor tfai agt't kerntels havIe no liCelli it illade.t Alabamia .Agricuiltural Expc'iinieiit Stationi MEAT FROM SOWS GOOD FOR RESTRUCTURED CHOPS DALE L. HUFFMAN, JOSEPH C. CORDRAY, and NOEL OTTAVIANO Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences EVEN SOW MEAT can be made into a high quality product. An Auburn developed process for producing a restructured pork chop has successfully produced uniform chops with desired weight, size, and chemical and sensory properties from sow meat. Previous Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research had established guides for producing a desirable restructured chop using raw materials (hams and boston butts) from market weight hogs. These cuts from market weight hogs are valuable products, either fresh or processed, so the process has now been adapted to using lower cost sow meat to produce the restructured chops. Sow carcasses are commonly processed into whole hog sausage, making use of the entire carcass. If hams and boston butts from sows could be utilized in a more valuable product, such as restructured pork chops, the value of these animals could be increased. In addition, having a more plentiful supply of raw materials for restructured pork chops could result in improved acceptance of pork in the fast-food industry. Sow Meat Utilized Adding salt increased the juiciness of the chops, but juiciness did not increase in direct proportion to the amount of added salt. This would indicate that salt concentration between 0.5% and 1.0% is Steps involved in the manufacture of sufficient to assure juiciness. Results for cooking loss were highly restructured pork chops were as follows: correlated with juiciness and, again, the (1) place 25 lb. each of the wafer sliced response to added salt was not linear. boston butts and the fresh ham chunks in Cooking loss of all treatments was higher a horizontal mixer, adjust fat content to than shown in previous studies when 15% by adding the ground backfat, add raw materials from market hogs were the amount of salt called for by the treatused. Since juiciness levels are acceptment, and then mix for 15 minutes; (2) able (more than 5 on an 8-point scale), it form the meat mixture into cylindrical can be concluded that a salt level belogs; (3) freeze, then temper the logs to 26°F; (4) press the logs into a pork chop tween 0.5% and 1.0% will significantly reduce cooking loss and assure desired shape, using a hydraulic meat press; (5) slice the log into 5/8-in. thick chops; and juiciness. Four treatments of varying salt level-none, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%were evaluated o quality attributes of restructured chops by sensory panel and laboratory analysis. (6) package and place chops in freezer. Evaluation of the experimental products included such measures as appearance and taste appeal, tenderness, rancidity, and cooking loss. Color was evaluated on four chops from each salt treatment by a six-member trained sensory panel. Chops were prepared for sensory and Instron evaluation by broiling in an electric roto-broiler to medium well done. Tenderness Measured As an evaluation of tenderness, the Instron machine provided two measures: (1) the amount of force required to pull a 1.3-cm-square piece of meat in two (tension value), and (2) the force required to push metal plates through a 5-cm-square piece of meat (compression value). Cooking loss was determined by weighing chops before and after cooking. A test for rancidity (2-thiobarbituric acid determination) was done to determine the effect of salt addition on oxidative rancidity. Rancidity, or flavor deterioration, has been shown to be more of a problem when salt is added to the formulation since salt is a pro-oxidant. As shown by data in the table, the sensory panel rating of textural properties showed a significant linear increase as the salt level was increased. This finding is in agreement with the Instron tension values, which also showed a linear increase in the force required to pull a piece of meat in two. Previous studies using raw materials from market weight hogs showed that as salt level increases, the binding strength of meat pieces also increases. Differences among the treatments for Instron compression tests were not significant, indicating that although the meat mass held together better, the total impression of tenderness or toughness was not altered by salt treatment. Salt Improved Flavor Flavor of chops was significantly improved with increasing levels of salt, according to sensory evaluation. The rancidity test indicated that increasing salt levels were accompanied by an increase in off-flavor (rancidity). Therefore, a compromise level of salt, between 0.5% and 1.0%, is recommended to improve flavor intensity without greatly affecting rancidity development. Raw color scores were better for chops containing no salt or 0.5% salt than for chops containing more salt. Thus, it would be highly desirable to use less than 1.0% salt since raw color is an important indicator of product quality. These results prove that a satisfactory restructured pork chop can be manufactured from hams and boston butts from sows. Consumer satisfaction will be highest if a salt level between 0.5% and 1.0% is used in the manufacturing process. RATINGS OF RESTRUCTURED PORK CHOPS Sows for this study were slaughtered at the Auburn University Meats Laboratory. Hams and boston butts were removed and the remainder of the carcass used for fresh pork sausage. The boston butts were deboned, deep chilled, and thin sliced on an automatic slicer. Fresh hams were deboned, defatted, tenderized four times through a reciprocating blade tenderizer, and then cut into 1to 2-sq.-in. chunks. Mechanical tenderization was done to assure maximum cell disruption and to break down connective tissue, which is essential in formulating the restructured chops. Backfat was finely ground to be used in adjusting the mixture to the desired 15% fat content. Quality measure Sensory panel 1 Textural prop Juiciness ....... Results, by salt treatment 0 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 5.3 5.2 5.6 6.0 6.6 6.2 6.1 6.2 ... 4.4 4.3 Flavor..........4.6 Color...........5.2 Instron values Tension 2 . . .3 . . . . 196 Compression ... 559 Rancidity test4 0.18 :Cooking loss, pct.'.40.8 1 5.5 254 5.0 315 3.5 345 479 548 1.03 0.49 0.70 420 33.4 32.6 30.4 tremely undesirable and 8 able. 2 Rated on a scale of 1 to 8, where 1 = ex= extremely desir- Grams of force required to pull a 1.3-cmsquare cooked sample of meat in two. 3 plates through a 5-cm-square cooked meat sample. Grams of force required to push metal 4Higher number indicates more rancidity. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station PERSONAL INTERVIEWS with managers of terminal elevators were conducted to determine factors used in price determination procedures and which marketing alternatives were prominently used by soybean producers in Alabama. Knowledge gained from these interviews was used in conjunction with secondary data to describe the characteristics of major soybean marketing alternatives. Managers of country elevators were also interviewed in order to examine and evaluate marketing alternatives employed by soybean producers in Alabama. This was accomplished by examining signed contracts and check receipts to ascertain time of marketing, volume marketed, marketing method, and prices received at country elevators by producers. The study was made by the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. Marketing Alternatives With increasing capital requirements and decreasing profit margins, producers cannot afford the effects of fluctuating prices or demand. Therefore, to obtain adequate profits, it is important for producers to develop marketing skills that will enable them to take full advantage of available marketing alternatives. Even before planting, producers should begin to plan for and develop marketing strategies. After deciding how many acres to plant, an acceptable price should be determined by estimating the expected yield and calculating the probable cost of production. By adding a return for management and profit, a reasonable price per bushel can be determined. The next step for developing marketing strategies is to examine and choose one or a combination of available marketing alternatives. Principal marketing alternatives available to Alabama soybean producers are selling through the cash market and forward pricing for future delivery or some variation of these two alternatives. Markets Used Data collected in this study permitted an examination of the use of different marketing alternatives for an observed quantity of soybeans: Typeof mrket Percent of soybeans marketed by year 1976 1977 Average 34 23 28.5 todete~~iconducted ice >1 lnnallagers rith Alternate Soybean Marketing Strategies for the Alabama Farmer SIDNEY C. BELL and JOHN A. HART Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology For both 1976 and 1977, forward contracting was the most popular method of marketing soybeans by Alabama producers with an average of 41% sold by this method. Price data were also collected by each type of market used. Prices received by soybean producers by each type of market are shown below: T o r Type of market Average prices received per bushel by year commercial storage charges with 4¢ per month being opportunity costs based on $6.00 soybeans with the capability of investing income at an interest rate of 8%. Total cost figures were calculated for storing soybeans in farm storage facilities of selected capacities. Storage facilities with capacities of 3,735, 7,470, 13,650, and 20,649 bu., respectively, were examined. Total costs, fixed plus variable, per bushel for these storage facilities were 390, 320, 280, and 34¢, respectively. These cost figures were calculated for a storage period of 6 months, but it was estimated that a change in cost due to a change in the length of storage period would be minimal. Again, opportunity costs would be 40 per bu. per month of storage, and this would have to be added to the storage costs for facilities for a realistic total cost figure. No specific marketing decisions can be made by analyzing data for only 2 years. However, from the data collected, it is evident that an awareness of market situations can greatly enhance a producer's ability to market soybeans more profitably. 1976 1977 Average Spot market.........$6.41 $5.76 $6.08 Deferred pricing .... 6.89 5.98 6.43 Forward contracting . 6.52 5.80 6.16 Marketing soybeans after harvest was accomplished by selling from either commercial storage or from farm storage facilities. Both methods were quite costly from the producer's standpoint and made the feasibility of using either one a matter of judgement. The costs of selling soybeans after harvest from commercial storage by deferred pricing were calculated to be 70 per bu. per month of storage. Of this total 30 per bu. per month of storage was for Spot market ......... Deferred pricing .... Forward contracting.. 24 42 37 40 30.5 41.0 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Application of Fungicides to Peanuts through the Irrigation System P. A. BACKMAN and M. A. CRAWFORD, Department of Botany, Plant Pathology. and Microbiology E. W. ROCHESTER, Department of Agnicuitural Engineering - R ECENT I)FSUGH is hasve coniinictd miany farmiers to purchase irrigation equipmrent for their peanut fields. Planniing for this expentliture should encoinpass not onls available water suppis. pumlpiiig calpacits , andt prob~able x iciti increases, hut should also include peripheral adlvaiitages that canl be gaiiied b,, hav ing an irrigatiou sx stein. One of the less ohbvions advantages of' and Brasvo 500"1 applied through the li (TTL), both at 2 1/8 pt. per acre. The 1979 and 1980 tests were conducted isimig at pisvot irrigatioii s\ stein; the 1978 test utiIizied at s tationai \ gun s\ stemi. For coiimparisoii, plots receiviiig fungicides app~liedl by ground sprasyer wvere alwvays located in anl area -uder the samne irri4atioli s\ Stein). Results indicate that Icafspot ss as ustialls\ slightls iiore sesvere iii plots recising Bravo through the irrigation sx. steini; bossesver, syields for 'l"1L Birasvo plots ssvere imicreased. Published imformnatiomi iindicates that less thain 10% of the Bras oi appliedi TTL is retainied oi fte foliage, the rest is wvashed to the soil. 1-i 1, applicatioii Of caispont funigicides dloe t'a ettei 11)1 of treating the lowver leaf'surfatce because of' the huge volumne ofxvater applied, resulting iii a total wsetting of the leaf' T Ihis Inas partiallx coipeiisatc for-the low aiiiouit of' fIiiiigicitle retained b\ the leaf. Increa'sed x ield S front 1-1L-applied Brasvo moay result fromn less equipmnent tlaiiiage (eighit fesser tractor trips), oi fromi Brasvo aflecting p)0( and~ root (diseases. Tsmn F 1. C'OMPARISON A siilai s s'tei ss as uised to ~iilp irrigation equipmuent is the ab~ility to utilize the irrigationi s,. stemn to deliver pesticidles along with the irrigation water. Best suited for apply ing pesticides are sN stenis with uniformo application, such as pivots, side-roll, lateral mlos e, and~ somec solid-set sy steins.Tirav eler sN steiins are not ats suited for apply ing pesticidles because of inregularities inl their ssatering patterns. fungicides foi contiol of ss bit' iliolC, except that oiil]\ tsso applications sserc made. The first application (212 gal. Terraclom 2E(C oi 212 pt. \'itas aLx :3F-") wsss niacc illn mit-] nl, andl the Stecond ssas mlade at the samle rate :3 sweeks latem. All plots sserc al so treatedf ssith Biraso to cointrol Icaispot, inl the 1978 and 1979 tests, Braso ss as applied'll . Esvaluatioii of' treatedl plots iiillicatt'tl gtood coiitrol of' ss bite 11101(1 ill all s\cairs, ssithi s ild illcreases iii 2 of 3 scars, table 2. TheIse daita inidicate' that app]x iiig fuiigicidlt'' tllrolumj the Iiirigatioii 'A Steii is effectis C' iii coiitmolling peanut diseaist's. Fmi ther, this method is mnore c'coiiciial since it does not require tiactors, spi-as rigs, )i- thieir operators. State' lbl lalbailia 2 4 (c) ) hiase l)c'Cii granitedl for the' For applyiiig fungicides and( other pesticidles, the irrigation system ( should he equiipped ssvith aI pesticide pumip capable of accurately delivering the product amid a foot valve to preveiit back-flow of these niaterials in to the wsater source. Since 1976, experimients bave beemn applicationi of' Brasvo TT'L for peanut leaf , pot coiitrol and fii'Verraclo]i 'lI foi, ss ite 11)01( conltirol. l)elis eis\ of, soliii( herbicides anld Ses in b\ this mcttbod is also cffectis t. This re search ssas sponso)re'd in pairt 1)\ tlit Alabamiia Pcao ot Prodmmcoi s Associ~tion. i ii hiom(;s ho'\ S)S I :\ 'i-l) )\ conluctetl at the Alabamna Agricultural Experimient Station's \Viregrass Substatioii to Cleterilmine if fungicides could be injected into irrigatioin lines to coiitrol peanut leafspot and/or white iold (stein rit). Data fromn the last 3 \eams are preseinted inl this report. The fungi causinig peanut leafspot are difficult to control amid oms at less funlgicides are recomimended. T1he mnost (lii ficult to control is late leafspot, primnarmlx because it produces spores inl large nunihers onl the lowver leaf' surface, It is difca ficult to appl,, fiugicides to this am eveii with it well set-up grouiid spras er. TL Biavo aplica i ,tions A\) OF, EFFE( I S OF Ft. tmt I)LS Aii ipi) Ti moot-c ill (toot. Ni) Sp~ii iiiHoN Pi- N\( i Lt .,ssPoo ~ Yield (lb. per acmec) 78 7T 80 . ... :3,194 231)2 2,805 Pct. iiif'Ctt't Iea\ t's 78 79 8tt 57 62 68 leasvts lost None ..... . . . . Brasvo TTL.................4,0141 Brasvo grotind...............3,823 'IHFi 4,0175 3,85:3 4,268 3,188 40 21 41 15 38 61 I 79 .37 24 9 8(1 40t 3t0 36 2. Evii (i5 ISFFt\(,ii(1)1S APPLIED 0 IHBOC I.[Ii, thi(, WXHITi' MOLD AMSN) YSILD S I 1i0\ Ss it O)N 1\(t11)E\(+ oFm White mold fuligiclde 'l i('lds (11f. pe'r acre) \\'hit(, b1ol 78 79 80 InI table 1, results illustrate Icafspot cumintrol tests, with coiiiparisoiis betss cii Bravo 5 0 Wx applied b\ grouiind spra,,er, None ..................... 4,219 4,0175 4,268 TIerrachor ,r I L......... I....4,50:3 4,897 4,290 Vitis as 'tT I.....................4,679 4.189 1-1-11. throtugh the line applicationi teochni(]jot' 78 1t.5 5.0 -1.7 hits pei 100( ft. ross, 7-9 811 14.0 9.9 2.7 8.2 5.6 Alabamai Agviit itnl Fxpsrbcio'i Staitioni T I E BESTS IN GL F M EASUH F of'Ll I I i I Id I ist I-\ ' c( wt oinic coiitri b utioo to L I-cgio I I is I Illlc added", Mlic-11 is tll(, \ alile Lill illadds, thloligh it', o \ 11 operitiolls, to t1w \ altic of its purchascd i-Ll\\ loatcrials. It is also an illdlisti\ 's colitrihiltioll to the gross iiatiooal product. Though lolig (loll lillatu( I Im stecl, tex- tilcs, and agrictilture, Alabama is \\itIlussilliz tlic ('111cl-gello-v of' it I)(-\\ ccolioloic lcadcl-forcstr\ and the fole"t illdustrics. 111 1977, the collihilled \Lillic 1) thc forest indushics \\as SI.38 \ billion, cX(-(,( (liIIg both lwa\\ IlIctals ('S1.04 h i IIlot I ) Lin (I text i les SO. 67 b i I]loll) of, the State's traditiolial leadur's. Thc fii. Illc shows the \allw Ltddcd k thc forcst illdlistries t\\ ith p'll-icl. 'Jlo\ it scpalLltek ) collipared to llca\ \ IlIctals Lilld tc\tiles. 'I'lic forest iodil"trics lla\ c becli ()It(, ()I Alahailla's glo\ th lcadcrs sill(v 1960, and \\ ith I-co-vilt Lilld philliled cxpallsiolrs ill the I)IIII) and paper Industr\ , 1()I*(",tl-\ Lilld forest I)roducts is siliv to Illailltaill its ecolloillic leadel'ship Ili thc cars Ldwild. 11\ (,It w1wo coolIxtred \\ ith Loll of Logriculturc, for(-,ti-\ aj)jwal s to bc the lcildcl . Sill(v -\ Lillie add( (I- (d Wl i(.Illturc iL, Ilot routilick c tjlllatcd h\ dic U. S. L"o\crilowlit, it call ()Ill\ bc Llpproxilllatcd frool e\istillg data plibli'dwd b.\ thc U. S. 1)('paltillcot of Aglicultiliv. If' Forestry's Economic Contribution to Alabama WARREN A. FLICK Department of Forestry iliqlIcs mid givatcr ccolloillic illo.-cliti\ ('s, Alabama's Lti)d allot tindwi basc is capable of'supp] ilig c\ (-It illorc tilldwr thall it docs toda\ . tiXX tI \\ oi , thcittt it i t is it ftilit)ic isI 2fci3l-c ~ XX stciiiiit't ~istttiiti.c 11W Pot(lotial ()I, our fi)I-estlailds k illlportmit hccall'w 111c S()tltll \\ ill "lirck hc- ttM 111 itiX, I 111111 ALIL to IcI I iii Xhl ii tizi ti t tit coioc the -\ ood hasket" of f1w natioit ill the \ alwad. Virtllall\ Loll plihh( Ltod Xtllati i teo lt'c pri\ atc fol-ccask of, thc folest cuollolli\ it istr ti al"i (-( tll(- potclit ials to]- c\palldi llidollicsti( alld illtelliatiolial lowst plod- t1w cost of ra\\ IllaterialsjCcd, li\cstock, sccd, ft'l-tilizcl. Lilld how, Lilld loiscclhillcolls) ill(. Ilhtlactcd fiolll L"loss ]-(Lccipts li-om I iroi iiiarkctiili. ,, till, wslilt, Mlich is all Lipl)i-oxilli'ttioll of alllc Ltdd( d k I)IilllLtl-\ agricultill-al productioii, is SO.72 hillion. Addio", tll(, \L[hic addud h\ t1w food plocvs Iilli. iljdtl tr\ (SO.55 billioii) i4i\cs Lttotal cstioiatcd %allicoI,!-.d.28 billion ol J)ollt SIOO till]liol) Icss thall foI-(",tl-\ . Ill additioll to its siz(" the fol-c"t illdilstlic ('Lilt daill) sollic of flic lartlc t ccoIloillic 111111tipliers of' all\ ()I Alakillia's illdlistrics. 'I'licsc results Ill'(, from a re(vok (olllplctcd Input-output Illodcl of' AlaballILIMlich ill Lt ot'Lill of'Alahaioa's maioifactilvilli4 industries. This \\()I-k sho\\s that ALihama \\ill lia\c iiwiv t c ill busioc", acti\ it\ , holl,,rhold i1wolocs, tilld cillplo\ tll(.Ilt fl-()I)l ('\J)Lkllsioll ill dic fol-c"t illdllstli( s thall li-mll compalable c \p ,ill io lls ill o lliel IllitililLu till ill,-, ill(111"tl ic . Thc prillcipal ].("(Sol] fill thi, lal'-,c 111111tiplicl. cflo-,ct is that tll(. low t iodustli(", I)III( hase Lllolich lalgcl "hille of, t1wil. ra\\ iliatcriLds ill Alabama thali ili-stittc Illo"t otlicl iodwtric". pul-cli tscs stillltllateauti\it \ ill lll scutol of Alaballla' ccollolll\ . Al(d)(11110 ticts markets arc Lrcat. Alahmim's iiidwstl-.\ alld Lilido\\ Iwl s ale \\ (d] sitllaWd to participatc ill dwsu (1('\ clopllwllt . Agricul/111-al 1-1.11wrillictit Statioll An Alternate Marketing System for Feeder Cattle in Alabama G. M. SULLIVAN, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology D. A. LINTON, Cooperative Extension Service ALABAMA with approximately 900,000 brood cows has become a major supplier of stocker and feeder cattle because of year-round availability of quality forage. The traditional marketing channel for these cattle has been through local auction markets. Even though these markets provide a needed service to producers, they can be costly and inefficient. Sales volume and prices can be low, and proTABLE 1. PRICES AND COSTS FOR FEEDER CATTLE AT MARKET BOARD SALES VERSUS MONTGOMERY AUCTION MARKET, 1979-1980 Revenues error MarkeStd. Market-Auctionof Diff. difference ing At board market in price ........... Dol.cw t. .......... 66.11 3.14** .9008 Price differences between board sales and Montgomery auction markets are il.57 .57 lustrated in table 1. The price at board sales exceeded the auction market by .28 .28 tation $3.14 per cwt. for the period 1979 to 6.02 4.48 1.54 Total Net price 1980, a significant difference. ComputConclusions .8640 received67.71 60.09 7.62** ing all marketing costs, auction market1Five percent was used to calculate auction ing costs were above four times the costs Marketing board associations in Alamarket shrink. This is considered a conserva- to producers selling through board sales. bama are proving a viable alternative tive estimate with shrink believed to range as a marketing channel for feeder cattle. from 6-8%. Sellers in the associations take a The net price received by producers sellProducers selling through market board ing through board sales was $7.62 per 2% pencil shrink. 2 Transportation charge from farm to auction cwt. greater than auction market sales, associations, based on the data available, market estimated at $2.00 per head. received higher prices and paid lower which was significantly different. **Significance at the 1% level. costs in marketing their cattle. Cattle Variations in prices paid by breed and buyers were satisfied with the marketing sex of cattle were found between lots for arrangement receiving "farm fresh" catducers can incur high costs when selling. the two markets, table 2. Price comparitle with minimum stress and ready for Cattle can also be resold several times sons between the two types of markets the feedlot. before final shipment to a feedlot which indicated higher prices for steers than reduces the performance of these animals. TABLE 2. PRICES PER HUNDREDWEIGHT RECEIVED BY BREED TYPE AND SEX OF CATTLE BETWEEN An alternative market channel to aucMARKET BOARD SALES AND THE MONTGOMERY AUCTION MARKET, 1979 AND 1980. has been developed in Alation markets Montgomery auction market Difference between markets bama. Groups of producers have formed Marketing board sales Heifers Steers Breed marketing board associations with assisDun- Heifers DunHeifers Steers 2 type' can 2 Steers can tance from the Alabama Cooperative Extest test Lots Price Lots Price Lots Price Lots Price tension Service. The first marketing No. Dol. No. Dol. No. 69.30 No. Dol. Dol. Dol. Dol. board in Alabama was established in B 0 4.85 5 0 5 74.15 1... 1973 and presently there are six associa- 2 .... 13 69.70 B B -1.50 4.42 1 59.50 65.28 58.00 13 1 tions which sold 17,000 head of cattle. A A 6.40 5.10 11 58.48 67.48 66 12 64.88 Sales for all associations occur during 3 .... 66 72.58 B B 1.09 2.56 58.26 65.13 19 59 20 59.35 67.69 4 .... 63 April and May at a central location. Cattle B 1.48 B -1.42 57.17 3 17 63.72 3 55.75 65.20 5 .... 21 Averare sold by lots based on descriptions 1.15 3.68 34 58.35 66.18 59.50 160 36 69.86 age 168 provided by the producer. Cattle buyers Hereford; 3, e.g., Hereford, and Angus types are: breeds; have the opportunity to visit a farm to 2, 'Breed plus other 1,Angus;5,2,other crosses,Angus,Brahman, Charolais. x Hereford; 4, types 1, and 3 2 inspect cattle before a sale. Immediately Duncan Multiple Range Test determines significance among means for classes (A, B) of a following a sale, contracts are signed, the variable indicated by different letters. Price received69.25 Costs Marketing charge .15 Shrink' 1.39 Insurance Transpor2 form of payment is agreed on, and time of pickup of cattle is determined. To evaluate if producers selling through marketing board sales benefit compared to selling through an auction market, information was collected by the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, for the years 1979 and 1980 for nine board sales. Data on breed, sex, grade, and price received were collected on 224 lots of cattle. Prices received for lots of cattle were compared to the weekly average Montgomery price to determine benefits to producers in board sales compared to auction markets. In addition to this information, 27 lots of cattle were graded on the farm in 1980 to determine if buyers recognized characteristics in cattle not provided in the producers' advertisements. Results heifers by breed types. The average steer price differential of $3.68 per cwt. was more than three times the heifer price differential of $1.15 per cwt. Using Duncan's statistical test, the price differential for steers of breed type 3 (British breed crosses mixed with their straight British breeds) was significantly different from other breed types with a $5.10 per cwt. differential between the two market channels. The price differential between the two markets for breed type 3 for heifers was also significantly different with a differential of $6.40 per cwt. British crosses were the preferred breed type by feedlots. Results from grading 27 lots of cattle on the farm indicated that commission buyers at the board sales were more interested in weight of cattle and their finish condition than either frame size or muscling of the cattle. Buyers discounted wasty and moderately fat cattle, $6.37 and $3.12 per cwt., respectively, compared to slightly thin cattle. For this sample of cattle, buyers paid a premium of $3.07 per cwt. for British crosses of Angus and Hereford breeds compared to mixed lots of exotic breeds. 1.86 3.31 1.71 1.92 10 0Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Hampshire-Landrace Sows Better in Maternal Traits Than Duroc-Landrace and Spot-Landrace DARYL L. KUHLERS and STEVE B. JUNGST, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences JOE A. LITTLE and MIKE R. DUFFLE, Lower Coastal Plain Sub. C ROSSBRED SOW S that are one-balf Latidrace are suiperior to crossb~red xoxx x of other b~reeds for litter sizes and litter vveightx at 21 lax s. Caniadian researchers haxve reported that Y orksxhi re Lan drae anid Haiiipshire-Laiilrace ci ox xred sol,XN~w xere the biest of 28 crosses stnulied perI-fo ri Iane , xx b ile f'or mnaternial x Diiroe-Laiidrace xoxxs xere initermediate. At the Alabaiiia Agrietiltural Lxperiiiient Station, hoxx exer, DioeLaidrace crossblred xowxs xx ere xlightlx b~etter than Yorkshire-Landrace soxs for prewveaning performnce traits. Little is knowni albout the perfnrmiane of'Spot-Laiidraee crossbred xoxxx. ITherefo(re, one ohijectix e of this stnlxI x ax to comipare the prexx eaninig performlanlce of, p~igs and litter sizes of' Dtiroc-Landiaee, Spot-Lanidrace, and Hainphire-Landrace xovvx \x lenii iated iii all possi ble coiiiiatioiix to puirehred DI )roc, Spot, anidc Hamnpxhire b~oars. Thexe iiiatinigx 1)rodtcecl either three-hreed-cmxxs littersx or hackcroxx (croxssing soxxv b ack to one of the breedx miakinig upl the crosxxbredl xoxx) litterx. These niatinigx alsxo xxere uxsed fori anolther (Illiectix eotf' the xtudx to determinei if' the threehieed-crosx litters xxmidl oiitperfoiin the baekcroxx litters. Lii' i IES~, B reed A total of 274 litters wxax farrowxedl b\ 1016 xoxx x. The traits stud~iedl xx ee nnmilbei horn, litnilei lborl alixve, inchi x i(lIIal11 pig b)i rth xxe ighI t, i tte r bii ItlII xxeighit, numiber alixve at 21 dax x, indixvidnal pig 21 dax xxeighit, and litter xxeight at 21 (laxs Thle thi ee xire, breedx did( not xigiiificatitlx affect litter xizex, litter xxeighitx, anld pig xxeights, xee table. Iloxx cx r, Diiioc-xii ec litteirx tended to be the largext and heaxviext at 21 dax x, xxhile the Haiipxhiiie xired litters tenided to be xinallext and lightext. Littei xizes aid xciglitx at 1birthi did not dliffer xigilIifieai dl amloi ig the three xoxx breeds. By 21 (lax x, hoxx ex er, these (lii fereiex xhoxx cl up: (1) 1litterx Ii oil) Spot-Landrace xnxxs xxxere sigiiificai tlx and llmxieLaarc oxx x, and (2) pigs ouit of' the Hiixim aiidc xoxs xxere 11lb. heaxviei thani the pigs ot x of' Dom oc-Laincrace xnxxs miad 0.8 lb). heaxviei thai i pigs lout of' Spot-Laicliact' xOxxS. Although nt xigmificant, l)tirocLancli ace and Hipli ail c xnxx x had the heaxviext litterx at birth amici Spot-Landiace solxx had the lighitext. At 2 1 clax s, litters out of' Hlo mpxhircBi iR H ANi1) 21 I .aiidrace solx xxxer the Ileax iext, xxhilt litters out (If' Spot-Lai i dcc so\\,x wexrti the lightest. Litteix fiom lDimicLaildiace xnxxo x ci inteirmediaite to fte other txxo So\ b~xlreedsx. Litteirs b\ Diiioc boars mitdtcc to H~imipxii e Lnclacc o\\x"x citr the largest aiial the hieaiext at 2 1 (lax amigiili thoste stuidiecl. 'I lix xxas the nilix bireed cnmliiiatioml that had 21 cdix littei xxeiglits ill excessx of' I0 (tol. Ilhc' Ileax icxt pigs at 21 (Lix " xxeie lbx Spot bioars xmated to flmpo\elam\ac nx . Ii coniparixoil xxitli lxitkcroxx litte'rs, thr-e 1)1 ed-croxx litters xxtic lairger at birth, hadl 1ilnie p~igs lniii aliv e, anld mnoic xxtic aliv e atl 21 clax x, its xhnxx II beloxx Pt(( 11( ujruil lil Iif ot tIr i k(riI/ bm 0.83 .6t c Niulwi born .... \uilbci b~oll alixe Nillilbelr alix at t 21 (lax .. . . . . Pig lbiitll Pig 21 (lax wecighit, .. . . 11 Litter blirthi eight, lb .... "x Littei 21 (lax xxeight Ill. .6.3 .24 2.20) 8.20) GM PIG WEIG.HTiS, AN, Li i "FB \X m'in i I DAx xSeved No xignif icant differies' xxere ohetxelIthe xxlight ofildix idoial s frilu three lbieed croxxces dud 'I'lie litbackcrxxcx at Iljlrl anld 2 1 cax xs. tix~ ifiecxitlx i fetc e iedftlclcc oe v ill littei xxeiglitx atl inl the clifflerc c blrth ,acd at 21 clax x, 2.2 did 8.2 lb., re(, pe'ctix clx\ mlom efor the liteelo eel, croxx litteix. B(exliltx frnmii thisx t'xtai cli xlixx that c-11 lildifim 'ncc'x exted aiiliig pef thel thnee' kii lix of I an lract' cr1 ixxrtcl xsxws. 'Iitb orc tht kiicl oIf' cr ox'sbired for- mllxiniimg prcxoxx is iillirtdiit it' 'Ilit' xxc'aliilg Pc''iili1-0)t't'c of' xx\lit'. xiiltx xlilxx'd that llackel lsixxig xilxx ailxso back to lilt' nf the brieedx iiiakii iup the' cirosxxbre'd so\xx did rc'c(Ilicc' pem'i rm1am ct' of' Borni No. Sire b~reecd Duroc......................... Hamipshire ..................... Dnrnc-Laniface................. xx eiht Lttnixxipght Ltrwigt Pig eilt Bo)rn Alix e alx t 21 At At 21 At At 21 al"" dN s birth (lax x birth (lax Ll). Lb 1. No. I). N~l. NO. b. b. L. Lb 1(0.7 8.9 10t.3 8.2 Itt.8 7.8 1t0.7 10.3 10t.8 11.2 11.5 11.4 Splt...............................111.8 3.24 3.24 3.28 Itt.1 36.2 9(A 4 1(0.3 34.4 84.2 10.4 37.:3 81.4 84.7 77.6 93.7 86.4 72.5 112.4 89.1 74.1 89.3 78.7 86.2 79. 1 Spilt-Lancirace.....................1(0.8 Hampxhire-Lamllrace............. 11.2 Sirt' breetd x' cdil brt'ted Itiunnc x IuoltLailrace..........101.7 Dloe x Spot-Landclit''..........1 11 Dnrnc x Hamipxhire-Lanclrart' .. 11.9 Spot x~ hinroc-Lanicraice.......... 11.8 8.5 7.7 8.7 8.7 7.5 1t0.6 :36.6 9.9 3.22 3.22 10t.1 34.6 3.3.3 10t.9 36.8 3.24 3.1.5 3.35 3.24 3.26 3.24 3.21 3.24 3.42 9.9 9.8 111.6 9.4 10.0 It 11.5 110.3 1(1.4 34.6 34.4 39.7 38.1 31.5 3:3.5 .36.6 37.9 Spt t Spot- Lain dracce..............9 Spiit x Haiiipxhint' Lanlraict' .. 111.6 Hampxhire x 1)unnc-Lanclrace .. 11.7 Hampxhire x Spot- Lai I race . ... 11.6 Hainpxhire x H~ampshxfireLaudncrace ..................... 11.2 110.1 10t.4 11.5 11.4 9.6 9.9 101.6 11 .0 9.2 7.5 7.8 7.7 8.2 1(1.9 7.6 111.4 37.5 the' littersx etllixx tha~t of, tihl thre breeidt'Icrosx litters. Breedling flr thi t't' llrecc f ee ieahge cosltessol i cc' 1)t' iiiinm Alabama .Agr'oltoralLExperimitt S tationi cijiitjliin i ax a .D diii cr eiat'i ojii %\ itli I all\x l':ltilil iit III Ii ill tilillcrl (Ci x il c- I 1c'i 'pudtill ix lioitsli liillilllitl tox Cost and Return for a Small Christmas Tree Operation LOWV\ELL W\ILS 4ON, RONNIE DA\NIEL, and NEIL R. MARTIN Department of Agrni Itural EL onomIt x andi Rural Sotiology tie.8 iit1 ia 1hownil tlelii 1alt'c tllit'r all itci a tlahit' c :. Lin h pcli i iixtx themor coth i it\%ai alt'It ijirttifi broadp il" h iirtiillcr\(( (cmilp , t' Si t oiiilxiii f' 1(14 piallitd ill u.'aill ixtilai'.ive stma111ll productx ii of' imnrkets gix es iuitaiix piridiucedi tr llllixt'tjll4 adutix ltagc. Hexx\ (Ix-t ti o b11ex lionx -jilllt Sta- uixl i f'x\\ Ailabama goxx oxb ii a .ill 'ix lit' (a1 Chisti lf pr( the ht'ii of' matchin hthu t o xbe 1, ci ti ox lix ,ti t op lasescall groxx bt' ill 11 ti t asxli, tittx tcli'i'it, 1111 Illir, sholdl aiiakh 11'i clci I xii 1 .1' Ui iiiiNI xAl) \l1 L N~I I iw) FOlB A SxixlIi ll it 1981 erlx ill thir disi llx toi growx trt'', 3 1)lvctillllN xNOc Spacin. all "a xii ('1cit i~llied \\1111( pllix ti ll larger tlull PH\JlaI l i tiPil 1131 peillx i (INI Al beot ldcii\ OI bilit IJe Fl)ce i loser 01' i a If' hsa ,nil costs calib i No. I. 218 12 1 90 t initeretst ill glii ilg ('ilitillax tliii xiii' xllahii piantaltieonx, a hiuigct xa lit' jll tre Le'g guairds' ... . . . . . . . 2 26x t'llieii'lioxx tears. At thflit' ilig costx of 1)iitii) titix e'ach xcar i 1 I toi of' \ir14ioia piic. Bac'kpack s praxc ........ TrI i lii 14 Ill)i ese ..... x... ('1( fftlit' fifth xcaii Spi lx r '25 gal (trator ti ) .. it irPlacl a ait)......to.... 12.5.c)..........2 1b\........1 th78 c I i i'l 90.....-.4.9t icI lillilis 5'p 994 471i-mnu ct\il 844r as ~cli 712tlcllrdc Adxdiio2. a uipment'l ((x.(F...... 500 tN 7841 Ii Ii0f ti.' cosiit T' aii' xpilctt ait 7 ft. i tree per aclrei't. It ix ixxii that 800t tooxs peri acii caIIb h-vet hi flux et'xt'. ii' o xl aix 01- 9tt lx\ix', TiFi PiOllit I IOilN PFRI0oO, Aixixxi x 0\ i tl A Fix i-YF F Unit Olaliti 1)1r1c I'),) flile Heriide t'...................hiliili tic'idui....................ijne4l Coeiait............. gaiiiii Trco l atll iiiillad'lillt'N...........v text'. 9.t0 5.t0 18.)) 1I0 4.001 9.0t0 70 tt :36.ttt 45.0 tt:30i.65 1t2.00 Ott 28.57 it9,3 77.tt0 .1t25 1,489.86 4.00t 77.001 54.82 1.:31 244.28 1 t)60.78 814.76 2 119.82 otw sfo (i) I ,0ta lt'iig caitl............iolilar \eiaiht icoxt ...... Fixedt cist............................. Laihii .i . . . . . . . . . .l(t... 172.00 .0I ITitl 30) It0 ie icc I 489 86 3.50).50) 2t1.50 ciost ti' I,20t4.0 Itt s11ciwdi~tal .. . . . . .. . . . .3,044.'36 e ba111 ti eoIf.iltr.S s \ xiii s i MallI)iml Agi'iul 1 1' x/winictl1 il/8a/foil Pecan Root Growth Reflects Irrigation Treatment H. J. AMILING, Oepartment of Horticulture C. D. BUSCH, Department of Agricultural Engineering E. L. CARDEN, N. R. McDANIEL, F. B. SELMAN, Gulf Coast Substation impr~o\ved] toot riexelopitettjust as cr easted proeutiotn. it ill- chrdtit at the Golf' Coast Sutlitationl ill SepIteotjhetl 1979. the eighth xeo of' the tepcii 11 t. Bittia stois~l ot' the root S\ s1 tttos" of, tier,(s 5J \ ager some \ alole tr-oit Six nrip irrigation treatmetnts proxvit1- fog at ratige of' wxater applicatiotns hart ibeeti estalished Ix the Alabatma Agicultrtal Exp1erimentt Statioo in 1971 to cotmpate wxith spritikier irrigation an oui rrtgatimot. Yiteld olft ape Feat iees after .5 ears o)1 treatmettts iotgerl frott 428 lh). the reseaorlt orchard. Tretiehitng at-oitir tltr, test ttees- allowsed iolspeetiool of' the roots, wxhich sllo5 ed that dipi tlirgatnot 0 emitter 9 * b 0* £** 00 0 emitter 9 0 *** 0 9 * . 0 Root systems resulting from different Irrigation treatments: top-no Irrigation; middle-drip irrigation at 15-centibar control; bottom--drip irrigation at 30-centibar control, on more droughty soil than other two shown. pet actre xwithout irrigation) to 1,361 11). pej acre fromt ntip itrrigation conitrolletl bx a teo siooieter set at 30 cetiilars. The treatmetnts , listen in orrier of' highest to loxxext x ieiris, wxeve: Drip-teusiotneter @ 30 eotilhars Di ip-4 gal./tree riaN I~rip-tensimetet 4 .50 cettilhars D)rip-Il gal./tree riax Dt ip-tetsiotneter 4 15 centihars Drip--8 gal./tree tiaN Sprinkler-ten siottetcr @ 30 ceotibat s -No irrigation The greatest root rlensity was foutnd unrier trees that hat] been irrigateri b\ sprinikler, ann( the least xwhere there xxas noirrigation. Ev en xxhen ut)1 ) 1 gal. rof xx dr was applier] pet riax Or irrigatiotn \x\as at 5t) cetiilars, root dexvelopment xas itmproxved lx irrigation. Extetisix e rtiot dexveloptient xxas obhsenrd utorer the emitter xwhen pecans xwere rdrip irrigatedl. Atnd this wvas reflected itt prorlutctixity of the trees. With a sitngle ettittet per tree releasing 8 gal. 1)1 ater pe'r rday, wxhich coxveven less than xx I10% of' the sutrfae area utttder the tree eatmpx , tinit size atn] fill of'Shoshoni anrd Chex rttine ttees wxetc equal to that wxith sptrinkler itrigatiot. Root rdexvelopmntt wxas itntetnsifiedl deep itnto the B soil horizon under the emittrr. Roots groxxitng toxwarrl the surfare origittater f'rom the larger horizontal roots. Dexvelopment of these upwvarrd growxittg rooits appeatred tot le enhancerl whe liuntdrer ati emitter. \lost tdrip irrigaterd trees harl the greatest oxveral1 root rlevelopment oit the sirde of the tree receixving water from an etoittet . T he itncreaserd size antI density ofi root dexvelopmettt extenrded hexyondl the area immerdiately b~elowv the einitter, as shoxxt by the rlrawxings. Thesr fidrings inrdicate that overall root rdexvelopmentt itncreaserd as amount of wxater delivered through the drvip irvigatutu s,, stemn xxas tnrreased. With the larget volume rdrip trreatments, x jeltl was higher andr nut size wvas erqual to that from trees unrder sprinkler irrigation. Furthermore, drip irrigation resulterd in stitallet trees, wvhich are better adapter] to high tlensitN plantings (30 x 3.5 ft. spacing ill this test). Alaubama zkgufeu/tuol Experimenit Stationt ((C AUBURN AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS J. E. DUNKELBERGER, S. D. HAYNES, and J. J. MOLNAR Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology influences and goal influences. Parents, especially fathers, were considered as having helped influence the choice. No other persons were seen to influence any large number. Persons such as the years. The story is told graphically in the fig- cooperative extension agent, agricultural ure using undergraduate enrollment to- teacher or veterinarian influenced fewer tals for the winter quarter of each year. than 20%. College friends and professors Ten years ago there were 12,082 under- were mentioned by one-fourth. graduates at the University with 668 in Goal type motivations for majoring in agriculture. Since then the University agriculture were strongly associated has experienced a steady growth to the with preparation for a career. Virtually all 1981 level of almost 16,000 under- students gave this reason, but 76% also graduates. Until 1978, enrollments in ag- indicated their choice was motivated by riculture grew at an equal or faster pace. a preference for country life and 49% beThe highest winter quarter enrollment cause of successful prior experiences in occurred in 1977, at 1,387 studentsagriculture. More than half (55%) were more than twice as many as in 1971. Fall motivated by a perception of good inquarter 1977 produced a peak enroll- comes available in their major field of ment of 1,436 agricultural students. De- agriculture. Since few students (12%) clining enrollments have occurred for expected to become either a farmer or each winter quarter since then for a net rancher, the income potentials perceived loss of 257 students. Almost half (43%) of were not in production agriculture, but rather in the agricultural related occupathis loss occurred in 1981. At the height of agricultural enroll- tions that a majority (55%) expected to ments in 1977, a survey was conducted enter. among a 15% random sample of Auburn Expectations for different adult goals agricultural students. A response rate of tell something about these students' 76% was obtained using a mail question- interest in agriculture. Almost one-third naire. The table presents a profile of the would prefer to live on a farm or ranch if undergraduate agriculture student at given the opportunity. Moreover, more Auburn in 1977. than two-thirds expected to own a farm or Fewer than one-third of the fathers had ranch someday. A common way to attain been raised on a farm and fewer than ownership is through inheritance, and one-fourth was employed in agriculture. 44% expected to become an owner via The nonrural backgrounds of the stu- this route. dents were noted in their high school and Attitudes assessing the potentials of work experiences. Although one-fourth the agricultural industry to provide had attended small schools having fewer meaningful and satisfying occupational than 100 students in the graduating class, opportunities for students were positive. the majority attended schools with more Virtually none of the students believed than 200. Most striking was that few stu- that agriculture was a declining industry. dents (19%) had completed an agricul- An equally large proportion (86%) inditural course and few had participated in cated that they perceived agriculture as 4-H or FFA programs. Experiences of offering good career opportunities. these types were thought typical of agIn conclusion, this profile of agriculricultural students just a few years be- tural students at Auburn University at a fore. time of peak enrollment reveals that Many of these students also lacked di- these students were not the traditional rect work experience in production ag- rural "recruits." This was a varied group riculture. Fewer than half (42%) had ever of students, a group strongly supportive worked on a "family" farm, and even of the agricultural industry. As enrollfewer (37%) had done hired farm work. ments in agriculture decline in the early Considering both kinds of work experi- 1980's, new questions are raised. ences, only 55% had done any farm work. Are Auburn agricultural students beLacking farm experience in agricul- coming more homogeneous again, reture, what was the motivation for choos- verting to a more traditional farm and ing a major in agriculture? Two sources rural profile of an earlier era? Or, is this of motivation were considered-people decline of such a general nature that the 14 NROLLMENTS in the School of Agriculture, Forestry, and Biological Sciences at Auburn University have followed a striking pattern over the past 10 E variability among agricultural students will remain the same even as the enrollment decreases? A PROFILE OF THE AUBURN AGRICULTURAL STUDENT IN 1977 Student characteristics Percent Family background: Parents presently own, rent, or lease a farm .................... 32.8 Parents' primary income from farm .. 8.8 Fathers raised onfarm ............ 28.9 Fathers' occupation agricultural related ......................... 22.5 School and work experiences: Attended small schools (graduation class less than 100) .............. 26.7 Completed agriculture course ....... 19.0 Participated in 4-H ................ 20.3 Participatedfamily farm ............. 42.3 Worked on in FFA ................ 17.8 Employed as hired farm worker .... 32.1 Factors in choosing major: Influenced by father .............. 62.4 Influenced by college teacher (advisor) ...................... .26.9 Important to prepare for a career .... 94.7 Preference for country life .......... 75.6 Because this major ensures a good income ................... 55.3 Successful prior agricultural experiences..................48.9 goals: Expectations for adult Living on farm .................... 30.9 Owning a farm .................... 70.1 Inheriting a farm ................. 44.4 Becoming a farmer or rancher ..... 12.1 Entering an agricultural related occupation ...................... 54.7 Attitudes toward agriculture: Agriculture is a declining industry (disagree) ............ .......... 89.0 Good career opportunities exist in agriculture (agree) ............... 86.1 Sample of Auburn agricultural students (137) Agricu turol Students 1,400 -16,000 1,300 1,200-oo 1,I00" 1,000 900o800 S 700; Agriculture Auburn University - University Students 15,000 1/ 4,000 -13,000 1971 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 Undergraduate enrollment for all Auburn University and for agricultural students, winter quarter, 1971-1981. Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station in large impoundments, usually declines after reaching a peak during early years of impoundment (3-8 years). If, through management, this peak could be maintained or the decline in yield reduced, a fuller utilization of the resource would be realized. The causes of this "boom and bust" sequence is the subject of a 10-year study now being conducted by fishery scientists at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. The study site, West Point Reservoir (Alabama-Georgia), a 25,888acre impoundment of the Chattahoochee River, is located 3.2 miles north of West Point, Georgia. Impounded in the fall of 1974 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the lake provides flood control, hydroelectric power, and outstanding recreational opportunities for visitors. The proximity of this new mainstream reservoir to Auburn University afforded an excellent opportunity to document changes that occur early in the existence of an impoundment. There are basically two explanations for the "boom and bust" phenomenon. One deals with the dynamics of expanding fish populations and the other with variations in primary productivity of the FISH PRODUCTION, The Relationship of Primary Productivity to Sportfish Production in a New Southeastern Reservoir D. R. BAYNE, Department of Fisheries and Allied Acquacultures system. The flooding of a new reservoir provides a vast amount of unoccupied space. As resident river fishes spawn, abundant young prey species are available to support large numbers of young carnivorous sport species resulting in high yields of sport fishes in the early years. Gradually more of the fish biomass is composed of larger adult prey species that are not available to sport fishes as food; production and yield of sport fishes subsequently declines. The other explanation, referred to as the "new land effect," proposes that the leaching of nutrients from rich flood-plain soils and decomposition of inundated organic matter result in initially high primary productivity (formation of new organic matter by plankton algae). With time, these fertile Total Total P N (ug/1) (ugh) 1-5 1-250 5-30 250-1,100 30-5,000 500-15,000 conditions pass, primary productivity declines, and a decrease in sport fish yield results. Fishery and limnological studies of the West Point Reservoir during the first 4 years (1976-79) have yielded data on water quality, phytoplankton productivity, fish standing crop, and sport fish yield. Results indicate that the lake is mesotrophic (moderately productive) and, when compared to other Southeastern reservoirs, the waters of West Point Reservoir produce high standing crops of fish, tables 1 and 2. Among several similar reservoirs of the Southeast, West Point ranks only fifth in primary productivity, but first in fish standing crop, table 2. There seems to be an efficient transfer of organic materials through the food web resulting in relatively high fish biomass (349 lb. per acre). Estimated annual primary productivity has increased during the first 4 years. Fish standing crop during this time has also remained high, table 3. The variation in yield of sport fishes, table 3, that has been observed thus far is apparently because of factors inherent in the fish community structure and not because of variations in fertility or production of organic matter within the lake. These findings, though tentative, are encouraging as sport fish yield should respond to proper management of the fishery. Decline in harvest because of decreased productivity would be more difficult to reverse. Further research is needed to corroborate these findings. TABLE 3. ESTIMATED PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY, FISH STANDING CROP AND SPORT FISH YIELD TABLE 1. TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS OF THREE SOUTHEASTERN RESERVOIRS Trophic type' Mean net primary Chlorophyll Total Total organic productivity a carbon carbon (mg C/m2 /day) (ugh) (mg/1) (mg/l) Oligotrophic .... 50-300 0.3-3 1-3 Mesotrophic .... 250-1,000 2-15 1-5 Eutrophic ...... 1,000 10-500 5-30 RESERVOIR 709-9392 34-652 11-17 92 Walter F. George West Point ..... 684 10 8.5 5.8 270** 1,167* Beech ......... 1,619 12 800 'Wetzel, R. G. 1975. Limnology, W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. 743 pp. 2 EPA. 1975. Preliminary report on Walter F. George Reservoir. EPA National Eutrophication Survey. NERC, Las Vegas, Nevada. 3Taylor, M. P. 1972. Seasonal plankton changes and primary productivity in Beech Reservoir. J. Tenn. Acad. of Sci. 47(3):103-111. *Inorganic N. **Includes ortho P + particulate P. TABLE 2. RELATIONSHIP OF FISH BIOMASS TO PHYTOPLANKTON PRODUCTIVITY (BASED ON ROTENONE SAMPLES) IN SOME SOUTHEASTERN RESERVOIRS Reservoir Fish standing crop Rank Lb./acre Years sampled Phytoplankton productivity Rank mg C/m 2/day (HARVEST) DURING THE FIRST FOUR SAMPLING YEARS FOLLOWING West Point ................ 1 349* 1976, 77, 78,79 5 684 Walter F. George' ......... 2 341 1963, 64, 65, 66, 67 -3 252 S. E. Reservoirs (mean) ... Kentucky 2 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 250 1952, 63, 64 2 1,443 2 1963 3 1,416 Cherokee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 205 2 6 360 Norris 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 134 1941, 60, 61 7 208 7 128 1961, 64, 65 Nottely 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 112 1961, 65 4 943 Douglas Beech 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1,619 1Lawrence, J. M. 1974. Walter F. George Lake. The design memorandum. The master plan. Appendix D. Fish management plan. U.S. Army Engineer District, Mobile. Corps of Engineers, Mobile. 2 Taylor, M. P. 1971. Phytoplankton productivity response to nutrients correlated with certain environmental factors in six TVA reservoirs. Pages 209-217 in G. E. Hall, ed. Reservoir fisheries and limnology. Amer. Fish. Soc. *Excluding one 1977 cove sample in which approximately 800 lb.. of shad per acre were recovered. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station IMPOUNDMENT OF WEST POINT RESERVOIR Yield to fishermen Samp-Primary Fish ling produc- standing Bass Crap- Bream crop/ year tivity/ pie year acre mg C/m2 Lb. Tons Tons Tons 1976 .. 550 55 82 65 325 33 1977 .. 731 61 62 262* 70 234 16 254 1978 .. 692 175 42 11 1979 .. 763 533 *Excluding one 1977 cove sample in which more than 800 lb. of shad per acre were recovered. 15 Relationship of Body Weight Loss During a Forced Molt of Commercial Layers to Optimum Postmolt Performance MICHAEL BAKER and J. BRAKE Department of Poultry Science To tesxt IiJs li\ potIisit-xx (I a I ock of' 70-\ xxik-(1( I wits \\xit pino itlilix L (clbookl\ xx i(ilit lo ,e of24, 27 :32, io :35"V(~ RECENTii-il n~t. li iic xxo liol icl)-iati-i itt\ lii-ore ltx xxa of lih (7illpi ac-It feed ll-i U f lnl\ (\t I iilli il( lxc th i k upro -x i 1, htilithIlcil - i-s i id -(" i xx 11 \ tl iil 1111 o111 toi wh wii ii (7 x xxtli x x loont th- l i'4)l ' iliixl\ 14( oc lod2 tilt11ill 11 lll xth t I 1 wim > ti i 1 u ilx i a pc(1111 (lii tti iiiti ha xx -1211 x (lult in \\ itlii 1(0 toi 12 \\cc(Ix I lits\ix xx l i lost 27 to :32'.' of' tutul illitial liiit\ xxttji 4)loilitut sigoiiitlxk mHitre 2 (l i 1( i n ~t xx 0 -wc k ti al I-i niti. 'I ) l(, s xx-i po se lighit].\ 1 hi1(wiit\ ax -, iiai 11 x c-i7 (,'chts allit xl17lli iiitkl\ 1)1211 (1 1o-1 shll (Illitllk tx x x idlluc (1 ix . 1 m 4uifil grlxitx Thesxe datai llii I catill that lici xxi \\ loI st 217-:32" o(thn-it m itial hod intl cxii it oii i ri c-ti ll litix (l rde it - tal li- cu-li-ct inillil' l )ii- l(ll tli a i i-,itis (11,111ht tu, ao) flilxxilr his t~ itl xxix ill fIlli (lii illi a xxouc u dt i ax ll \\l . adcti (niItc athlc1ilossli- l xx the I(ilix niuttix u c iloii \ cInlcit inl 1(1)1 ai of, fit h inl tt- h-l ((it it-Nu xx I (lat(-i t ax' tii c t ac'tI )lwiitx is a (l) til-\ C (101Uterie ii printitll tcl ill lcr Ii xat- il,,l ii ix Iod licsii itiiiix x bt lcl i cl-i c i ii xxl itrc lhti lx i- i liii- n-i t i-s hix i xis lipd (mq Pr00 95hcgfored t. \o kilth tilllltsb el d rc td lh tl li h l i he ,Trc lila lii Uterfinei Ilti\\\cviipo lWle c hl lls(d \-orlio datr ilti 260 t ilatii xd w\x still iiixx( ,_ dw. 0iwlixoilt-l t-iixa hct uit()\\nie ta\ li(-lI(i ntapta o% ad 240iisllI tl tl(,rel-i-o l lic220( ax sixi-lii'siitlit the conidee rditol llo 'liiwsctic f~ttwith ll ~cac xxhax.ilsl-I~dt it wxitii l' ix ~iitill i ax it uti(l i- "Irexhnxx tl)ivitilil o illc ii tht t i-i it t th tit xx hIia ii i-t trc90 85 l fc-g"\ t w ascac( \ih tw Iidltil (,I\ ~o r s Ilos lotlbl sie l-lsse"~s.F 200il (llili\ el fo n180le tb thd It i~ di((liltlli l li iiiax l un .x lsuntiilxx ithi loixx 4i c i It itlo~ cin(71( it,, i tl dcriit ~ clilitl\s\ cr feedii iiiii1i-ii 31c;sIt 11 li i doe ]ii(lltx ciipaxto i (lii ci t txil i tti hex illl ]lt cs n-tititii oriili l ti-x (Il lu t e S1e od h e o tei t l il \ ,,,Itl ss\ 140 t aliixli Iloxl] i1ia Biiii XXI lco-1 Lnsx)iiipxt b\ FoiiCIiiid Reladtinhip of ody weighdt loss tons of2 liidfom the u\tes w(egg shel gntld ofein laighemuigg)oce thed ot iiIlls, zit C1 I nIit i ( Fila i-g xxcitii F,11illi igg speiic L71 it\ ax P2 I. 1 :32 :35 \ l l~ ill s . . . C>-.1diu tjt.9 2741 ... .... ....... 84.3"27"' 85.9" ,9.4' xxlit a tllli ii 28.3" 27.11' piixscx ilttin iiit 1.0t751 .0791 It08011 xiipi-t ci ptx 1.tT:P~ iffelr Alabama AgricalturalE'XIn'l-inwilt Station Leafspots on leaves of potted trees became dry, turned tan to light brown with a banded or zonate pattern, and stopped increasing in size when returned to low humidity conditions in the greenhouse. TYPICALLY, THE FUNGUS Glonmerella cingulata has been known for causing bitter rot of apple fruit in wann wet weather. Recently a strain of the same fiungus was found to cause a leafspot on Golden Delicious apples in the Southeastern United States. In response to this finding, investigations were conducted at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station to learn how temperature affects pathogenicity and symiptomn development of the leafspot strain. A pure culture of the leafspot strain of G. cingulata was established on potato dextrose agar. Conidia (spores) of the fungus were collected in sterile distilled water and sprayed onto potted Golden Delicious and Mollie's Delicious apple trees. The trees were placed in incubators progranlued for 16 hours ofdarkness and 8 hours of light, at telnperatures ranging from 60' to 90'F, at 70 intervals. Uninoculated plants were included to serve as controls. Beginning at 48 hours inicubation, numbers and sizes of lesions were detennrmined daily along with disease symptoms. Newly emerging inoculated leaves developed rust colored flecks that coalesced to cause a blighting of the entire shoot tip. Blighting of juvenile leaves of Golden Delicious trees occurred 3 days after inoculation and incubation at 82°; blighting of Mollie's Delicious leaves occurred a day later. Lesions developed both along and within the leaf margins of fully expanded leaves. WVithin the margins, lesions spread rapidly in a circular to oval configuration, becoming irregular as large leaf veins were affected. Lesions on Golden D)elicious and Mollie's Delicious leaves developed in 3 days at 75°, 82', and 90' and in 4 days at lower temperatures. Generally, the number of lesions and the average size of lesions increased with time at each temperature, see table. When the disease developed along the mid-vein, the leaf was rapidly killed. Petioles of some leaves also were attacked. The entire blade of many leaves became necrotic from the coalescing of spots. Pale-orange masses ofconidia occurred inll lesions on upper and lower surfaces of Golden Delicious leaves at 100% relative humidity 3 days after inoculation and within 5 days on Mollie's Delicious leaves. In later stages, lesions disintegrated, leaving ragged leaf margins. Development of spots stopped when the low humidity of the greenhouse. ready present became dr, turned tan banded or zonate pattern, and ceased trees were retunled to Lesions that were alto light brown with a to iincrease in size. High Temperature Speeds Development Of Apple Leafspot Caused by Glomerella cingulata J.M. SNELL and A. J. LATHAM Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology A Ibright chlorosis of the larger leaf eins developed on mature basal leaves. The chlorosis spread to the smaller leaf veins, giving the leaf a yellow mottled appearance. Some of the mottled leaves also developed a brown color; these and mottled leaves abscissed withiii a few das. Yellow mottle occurred on both apple cultivars at 68. to 90. within 5 day s and oin Golden Delicious at 60'. D)evelopiment of leafspots required longer incubation on Mollie's Delicious than on Golden Delicious lea ves, which suggests some level of resistance in Mollie's Delicious. This variety's resistance to the leafspot strain of G. cingulata also has been reported by other researchers. weather Reports of the disease from Georgia state: "When x conditions are suitable for development throughout the ave of\ ellow leaves drop, resummer months, wave after xw sulting in almost complete defoliation." Yelloxw mottle has been observed in Alabama apple orchards after fruit harvest when fiungicide applications have been discontinued. The disease was contributing to earlx defoliation. Improper selection of fungicides or failure to apply themic regularly ma> pcrinit disease increases in the foliage and fruit, with subsequent heaN x fruit losses when weather is xwann and hot. EFFECT OF TEMPERATUBFE ON LEAFSPOT DEVELOPMENT BY A STRAIN OF GLOMERELLA CINGcULATA AFIE R 6 DAYS INCUBATION Lesion area' Temperature, degree F Golden Delicious Sq. rnin Mollie's )elicious Sq. rloll 60 68 75 82 90 ............ .... .... .................... .. ... .. ........................ . ... . . . ................. ........................... Twelve-tree averages. 26.O 60.5 87.1 142.5 83.7 Uninoculated ................ 24.2 19.6 7:3.7 115.8 61.5 0 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Tif ton 44 B ermudagrass An improved hay and grazing crop C. S. HOVELAND and M. W, ALISON, JR. Department of Agronomy and Soils Excellent winter survival of Tifton 44 bermudlagrass (left) and winter-killing of Coastal bermudlagrass (right) at the Tennessee Valley Substation, Belle Mina. T IFI'(IN 44 BLRMtl.M;x(RASS looks like at 1)lete recovetr\ hI( wxax obtained~ b)\ earl Thlisx illl1)loxe ( forhage grass~ aiitx a h\lixi 1)1 001 a igii1-iqiaiit\ xt'iutioii ell sliowe r estal ishmillent of"Fiftomi 44 IBtrlill, C'ei ianx , w~as (loxt o(pc Im i) r. G. W. Biuiton. tTSDA-SE A, Iiftoi, (i'oi gia. Tifton 44 ix 111010 coIdplailt fioi hiiitN thanl C oastal b)01 1ild. TFifItoil 44 was.l comlparedl xxith otiher locationsx iii Ailbamlla flron 1976 to 1978. ':ach %car,1. oitiogeun Ie]tiiizei wasi reox11ttli inl xoiooxxhat lowe r fii xt xear priodu~ctionl 111.0 other X.11ictit,. H~owtx (1. ill si~ubsequent \ earsx it Wa, the iligilcxt \ ieldlilg \ ai it ill northern AIbi~aa. Fiirtiii soulth, 'IIiftoil 44 wxax geneiailx, qua to ( loastal or Alicia except at \ the \\iregrass Sllbstatioll and~ Piant Breedilng titit xiiggext that irlllgilt rouirlgiht stress wasl dxii lreatcst. Results f, oi)1 othui (Xperllienit lriftonl 44 1(11 age xxax coiisisteiitly niore di gestib~le thall Coastai or Alicia hernllliiagrass, tale 2. Th'le higher (ligextiIhili tx (If"ifton 44 should result iii higher aliillnal p)rf'lrancu as showxn by grazing trials inl Georgia. Conclusions 'riftoni 44 is ail iinprox et hybiritd her iiiiidlagraxx xwithl the hest xxinlter surv ival, higher f'Oragu (iigextibilitx than Coastal or Alicia, mid forage x nid genierafl i equa or1 ti)1.x 110i)r to other beflII 1(agraxss i Sai itiux. Triftoil 44 sprigs for planting are ax aiiahlu f'ron Icertifiued growxers. Consunlt \our1 Coiuit\ Extensxioni Chairmnan for nlamles of certified growvers. ni iiI)s Pi, A inF,OF if toni 44 Ina\ not ibe ax and tolerailt axsCoastai. Secojld agall Iafter ealch lil-rxext. Iiarx extiing w\as (hull at 4- to 8-\% (1k initei- aix. deieptldillgy ((II gio\ Ill. itli)dr Ill-\ (ixllattei (livestiibilit\ was.l detctil((11 I i forage i0(111 each1 iltiX (xt duing :i(ears io 3\ the test throiighiout the State, ranigedi f'roi toll" of (lix foirage pe1 a(1e. TAL 1.~ 4 to 9 I IIll D-) F Ali STNS A\ 3-'I LxH AxVFRAGE. t)Bo FORAGEe' xI BERMUDAGRASSxx VAH1FI IiFSx tirdlit'. ofcu \ear~ l l Loctionl IDrx forage itil pcr acre Al ici a Call ie F Results (I xxti cr tl llet( (i Al xvaieties. Tiftoit 44 101r I111d a gr01111( coxc 110 uillr loxx i thai) otherl \1 aiutiux ill tile tesxts. ifton 44 x\ (oitas Although~i (91011 stand Ii ft( (I44 Coaxt ai 76 62 72 80 70 74 90 901 Ahc t0 :3 42 85 81 64 90t 91t ~i1i t0 0 0) 0I t0 3 75 2 T iftoin 44 Coasital _-To n 100Sll) Sarl Montalin Sill. Picd((ilt Sill).... P1,11( IBreedi111g U.nit Black Belt Silt). Loxxti Cioastal 96 * 00t W)9t 901 97 95 90t 98 5.1 6.1 3.8 5.9 5.2 6.6 6.5 6.tt :3.7 4.2 :3.8 6.8 5.6 6.8 8.t) 5.7 2.6 3.7 6.6 5.8 6.6 8.1 5.9 - h\pi ouit roliilld 01 inl ig of ,the to\ spi tirdi \ car, taidu I. Stainds of, thix x Iietx had little ol ilo iililrx at all\ test locatlin. I hu l (1x iilteix of, 1976 77 anid 1977-78 resuiltedI 1i il cr stai((i ilossesI ofs eral x Flatil sil. . . . . XWii ugi dxx Sill)... Cnif ( oax Sill). 5.2 8.7 3.2 UNIT, TABi~i 2. )io MNI HR l)i(Lxs I BiiLiIT lIF (OF BIixi 3 'IF ~l OMR~DA;IASx \ 'iI AxVERAGE drx '1IS~ Al PLAN]I BHEINi\( ai jtiux. tale~l first x\car ill n1oi tili 1. ( laili( xxintul kiliud the Aialhl 11 ai Id at ill iloiti'lil stainds xxer11 -Purcontagc iattcr dligextibility. of forage Tif,ton 44 1976 .......... I.. . . . . . . . . Alitia \\xt ax lo inoi-ilrdl Aiailmm~l. Coastal bind((~a 1977 ......... . . . . . . . . . . 1978 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A x . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 5D9 54 48 5451 Coasital .3 52 44 Alicia 54 52 43 50t Callie 61 56 Alabama1( A-ricnltn ial Exio'riint~ Stat ioni THE FUTURE PRODUCTIVITY and structure of the agricultural industry are highly dependent on the ability of farmers to secure adequate amounts of investment and operating capital. Several factors, such as consolidation of farms into fewer and larger units, high land prices brought about by inflation and increased demand for real estate, and continued increases in the utilization of expensive purchased inputs, have forced farmers to become more aware of the financing alternatives that are available for them. They are acutely concerned with the supply of capital that might be forthcoming. Lenders are also vitally interested in the agricultural financial markets. Many of the leaders of these financial institutions realize the importance of the agricultural industry and the significant part that they play in maintaining the viability of agriculture. A major problem faced by many lenders who are interested in agriculture is justifying farm loans in comparison with other investment alternatives. Such conflicts among lending alternatives are found primarily in commercial banks since these financial institutions are typically willing to lend to all sectors of the economy. For commercial bank management to be willing to include agricultural loans in their total loan portfolio, the loans must be perceived as contributing to the attainment of bank objectives. Banks, as other businesses, are concerned with maintaining adequate liquidity, being solvent, and maximizing profits. Therefore, funds committed to agriculture must meet management goals as well as they could in their alternative uses. Some lenders feel that their bank should not be involved in agricultural lending because of the risks and uncertainties associated with farm production. They indicate the resultant costs of making an agricultural loan are so high that other lending alternatives would likely be more profitable. In order to test the validity of this opinion, data were collected by the Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, AGRICULTURAL LOAN PROFITABILITY for commercial banks WILLIAM E. HARDY and MICHAEL W. MOORE Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology from five Alabama commercial banks. The banks were geographically dispersed over Alabama, representing the major agricultural areas-Wiregrass, Lower Coastal Plain, Black Belt, Tennessee Valley, and Piedmont. Cost data were obtained from the study banks and categories so that the relative expense of making specific types of loans could be determined. The cost information was grouped into two categoriesthe administrative and clerical expense associated with interviewing the applicant, preparing the necessary paperwork, examining the collateral, and making collections; and the loss realized from loans that become uncollectable. Loan categories included in the data were agricultural, mortgage, commercial, and installment. The data presented in the table indicate the results of the cost analysis. When the costs of administrative and clerical activities involved in lending were compared to the total loan volume in each category, productivity measures were obtained. Information on loan volume per employee indicated that lending officers and clerical workers were most productive in mortgage lending and least productive in installment loans. The salary cost per dollar loaned data are perhaps the most important. With this measure, mortgage loans are the least expensive, 0.2¢ per dollar loaned, and, as might be expected because of their typically small size, installment loans are the most costly at 1.01%. From a loan loss viewpoint, the greatest cost to the study banks was the installment category, with an average annual amount of more than $100,000. Agricultural loans had the least amount of average annual net loss, almost $6,000. The net loss per dollar loaned data are important in that they directly relate the actual amount of net loss to total loan volume. On a per dollar loan basis, again mortgage loans are the least expensive, 0.02% and installment loans were the highest, 0.55%. The final column of data in the table illustrates the total cost in terms of administration and loan loss per dollar loaned for each of the loan categories. Mortgage loans have the lowest cost, 0.220 per dollar. Next are agricultural, followed by commercial, and the most expensive, installment. These total cost values may seem to be small and insignificant; however, they take on great importance when one considers that the ratio of net operating profit to total loans for the study banks was only 2.2%. The results of this study justify two important conclusions. First, the data from the study banks indicate that agricultural loans are not costly when compared to other types of loans. In fact, from a loan loss and administrative cost viewpoint, they are cheaper than both commercial and installment loans. Secondly, variations by loan type might permit a bank to differentiate in the interest charged for each type of loan. For example, with the cost data found in this study, the same net return could be obtained from a 14% mortgage loan, a 14.33% agricultural loan, a 14.52% commercial loan, and a 15.34% installment loan. 19 EMPLOYEE PRODUCTIVITY, LOAN Loss MEASURES, AND TOTAL COST PER DOLLAR LOANED BY TYPE OF LOAN FOR STUDY BANKS Productivity measures Loan category Agricultural Commercial Installment Mortgage Loan volume/ employee Salary cost/ dollar loaned Loan loss measures Net loss/ dollar loaned Total cost/ dollar loaned Dol. 3,236,779 3,923,929 1,478,620 5,697,924 Pct. 0.45 .42 1.01 .20 Dol. 5,990 58,457 102,623 7,025 Pct. 0.10 .32 .55 .02 Pct. 0.55 .74 1.56 .22 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Depatmen W. A. Roge-rs of Depatmen ofFisheries and Alied Aquacultures Ser z~gcal methnod-s--of diagLnosijwg-some cqtnon bacterial diseases of channel catfish ITHODtS are plaN ilig anl F RI)IL)(,I(L MEF ilicrcaillg role ill di giitisis of' diseases. ii of, IiTo of, th lliost collillill ititat selologii detectioi re h\ the flloresei (FAT) and the (tit alltitodiX ttiiqi( tcii Hi.l iintilliioassa\ (LI A). These two at the tcclitlliueX FlaX e eeli eliloXed Sonthcastcrii Coopciratix e ish Ij1isease lbiiia Agi leliltural [.11)0 attolii o'thet I'~\t)tittilitIstatioti hol detectioli of XtX - S FAT1 is to ioakIe sitlear oif' reactionsl with other Ihtil-ipecifie baeteria. All indtica~tionls are that the FAT is ti smlc, lislial ii kidnie\ iirleritonieai fli d specific for bo0th E. farda anid ESC. slides 'rill infected fish, oil illlitl115tcij EIA proedul~res are siniflar to those for aillt tit( illel ithtlicat. lilt specific fix thiteti toita FAT. Infectedl tissties are placeti onl a s sin h11 be iti titereti d Ll slitde, fliodedi XXitil specifit rabbuit anti1 ilotiX, rnseXd, andl~ then~ floodi~ed wiith ci rabblit proatliilit lofalitiiiid\x a spec it goat-aliti-rabbit anltibodyti that has bteen ecilljllgated Niith ftll eIILX lite hlorseratdish atnd iiictnitt for 5 tiinltctei illittiiai pero)\idase. Afttr Irininig ii iti P1BS, the tItroedtire Ifur cral biactei ali ithlsei of' fish. \lost itttiitl\ tlicst two tess hiax diii lopcd~ f'Or detectlug Ed/blt (fiX iilit a ecitl\ ILvarlLsiI'IlI taIL/L (oX (I (L slidest ale flooded wiith at sublstrate that iie XtpttltX of LoEdivarL(s wlci of' catfish callig t'iiterie 'tpticeillial LIt recogniizits liljot prol deni inl commtiercial catfishl pi odulcitioii. The tests fhOr ES(' ar e csjpe Xiice this is a itlowe-ilalX ittt)Lltailt (ESQ). IS(.IX aseeni wiill give at color change whien the eli ( PBS), excess PBS8 is I~flelit till 1 the goat-anti-ralbhit houn byitl~ zyni list ti , auiti tiht slide is then flooed rllll . All advXantage of this test is that ii ith goat aliti rabblt atitihotix that it,,; antiiluui it is tIlniek, safe, inlexpenlsiXve, aeecurate, with fitioresceili coinjulgatedi ittel (If, andl call he ustd with a standarti mlicroliiothiocX aliate ( LITC). At ter .5 miiteX i te sideti is riI sed with PBis il itlhilil All latteiliilt is bieing iatie tol tIreIare, it iuid atidliel. A htlfitlre liintilig Li simpililied fiel kit soi bilogists caln uset txittillt i Li e f~lllt rel tll t nilo. the V IA waithoiu~t andt ili ilg sophlisticatetd biacteriLal tinedli. Faister growing biacteria that tia~ h e preeelt \ill oX (I gu ow anti Iliask cohollieX ofltie ESCI olgalhisill [Lou x\ c\i- the F AT anid EIA \il]ii detet hill itift'tedo fish wiItill itbit thle batia 201 iltt itsa olPIostill to 24 to 48 hor llsiiig thet standtardi Liaglo)Xtit iiiotheiitii Ifth til mcoI ip. tel i. this is t idhe hailuo 111 atposlitfiv Iiliclatlor 0( rescinig 1atiii illet X it tttllii(pIe . The( stillstrates anld antlibodties will he f'reezeequtIi pmlent solu~tioni glass slites, il1111 at standlardi hN the ',ci th il cal tests. prt~oducted illI ral) Specific alltilodis bits lX\ iliitttiiig the foritallil killed iba( AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849 PUBLICATION -Highlights of Agricultural Research 6/81 Penalty for Private use, $300 9 POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AU-I 101 BULK RATE gIX ii miii th th~ll Frun' altilec aOiljtul1111 it lwit liX h L X X illile int h rabbits. giel lt tli iaui t(llit\ 281 rabiti tic bliote ts 01/is fr p Ld\ or VIAtol aoseiccoliti li illI Xl illor tlift thh Xi1 ctll h s.The jliitl the to (hdir trEItX t T whAl reuiresXIat . i the iii I iie l~lgtol~ieLahholittor\ at Aitliilii eiii-