heighlights of agr~' ItL ' 4' I. I, C I ~1< 4 L~ ~. J ;4~' t' 1' X~ 444 I -* 4;; K 4 >4 4' 4' 1 4. it4 4' K 4%~ ii 4 t4.4 ~tfl. -A & r, p;. 2 it 4. '44 *.,' , '~'A ~ A; '4-. I - 1 TA A 4; '4 S ;. - - IL .4 - 7r Y e~. Art I4.- ~v & c *4 -~ DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS "4 w'e 6tuu-. A B( FS IS LRBMS E\ S PSIIIBILIJ S [he .Alabama .Agricultural Experiment Station (A ES) is the onIN pulill -suppolirted insxtituitioni ill Alabamla charged xxithl tile missio~n (If poi-iing anl inforiiatioii base for the prooIiietil Ii, priocessxing, and1( miarketing of food and fiber; the manageiient (If our reiiess aile rexources inclu1d1in g xviltdlife and fis xh and other factorx that hlave impacolt onl all areas of rural life. Thexe probleiis become increlasinly coimpilex as the \x Irid's popilation ineasxex, antd the ineed for resxearch o)11 agricultura p~rodu1 ctio(n and nl iimana geim ent of our noatuiral rexonurces bicomeslc gireater each dos Thie ahilits of the AES ix decreasing rapiilx becauxe itx fuindx arc not xiifficienit either to keep) 1(l) \\ ith inflation or fo)1 studt\ in 4 nexx p~robllemsl. A miajor reasxon0 for this ix that peoplde either do R. DENNIS ROUSE 110t u nderxtantd thle impo11 rtanlce of tile \\ oik ofI the AFS anit its funilding ior thes .ixxliilie it xx\ill alxx ax x be here to xx (rk oil theni proIblemix. lect mnc explain firstl thi \ES flooinig anth thenll int out llo\lxfill jpllitailt it ix tol xyou ill tile a.ricliltliral Sectorl asx xx(IlIl as to 1 xxu 101ac iIlISIHIiRxS (If .igricultniriI prolducts to al nil someii rcxpllsibilit\ folr xlipljort (If this proI i.lli. D r. P~aul Anthony 13ackmai n, assoc iate oIf BotanN Plant IPatliolog\ , andl \iciohiolop . Born in Slire\\ sbulrN , Einglandl, andl rearedl inCalhpr ofessor, l)epartment 97 1 Irml CII(lemsonl Sou11th Caolinia. Ie( 1tid(I )l 1ila College, \llnxxxille, CaliflliI ilelci 13 .S. anit P1 .). 1 degrees inl planit pathologs fromi thle Ini\erxitx of Calif ornia, I)ax ix. xxitli minolrs inl virol- fellow at NoIrth Caro lina State Unix erxitx , Raleighi. Ill addition hie wxorked as a research plant pathohlogist for I. SI). at lemisoin. Dr. Backiiioi teaches couirses il planlt )Iathiolmg\ .iiitl illie rtxt(lrtii oin peolilit anid sosbeall iixisixi \\ itli extcoixi c f ield \\ oik at tihe \\ iri 41.15 Suilstatiin I Iciillaiiil Dr. Blickill is a ijiciohici Ill Sigiiia Xi, \l)iiil jen \xociatioli foi es (,\ tihe A\il an1ccl of Thle A ES has twx majiiori sourees of funding. Approximately txxoIthi irdhs coin e fromn Alahan11111 Splecial E duca tio11ni xrutFund( (SET F) an ii ne-1Wthird froimi Fedcral fu ntlsx Alahai iia firxst p r itliet d xdin 188:.3 for the AES. The Fecderal Congress acceptetd a xiilar responsiliilitx in I557 b\x pri i iL fundst~ for Stalte 1' pci iililet Stajtionjs. Thes axpp ilrop~riat ioIns ire a rela tiv'ely siialljpalrt IIf 1)1tl the Federail and State budlgets a11nd lire becolming iiiore so)(,eh xyear. F'or example, 4M54 1941) Federal research funiiding rela tetd to 11)11d and agricul tu re. of 1Today' these areas receixve less than 2% iof the research anth dcx elopint oeiit of Scieiic. York .\cadilox 'ScieitI ca l4 licli lihowd Out.oiationl of bropocu!\oi )i xc11itooitx. and Amerlicanl P~eanuht I ilocation nil Soc(ict\ I Ic hax i1cro1lix junali alt clix, and( buditget. the allocations to the statex for their Agricultuiral Experiment Stations and1(agricultural research hxv the Federal Gox erillient. The share oft Fetderal agricultura research funds going Il tol the State Agricultural Experimient Stationis hals dlecreaisedl imich mollre than the funds going tol support research (If I. S IA agencies. The P res idet's reeiomme1nda1(11tionIls foir b~alaning tihe 1981 b d get called foIr 80%of the cuts f or aigricuI lturail reseairch to (Iicme from lo II caition s to the State Agricultural Experiiient Stations aintd 2M)5 fromi ('SI) A research jirlloiii funds. WXe recolgnize the need for ai bailanced hudget hut strol\ oppolise the tlixjarit\ o~f the cuts. State appropriations folr the AES conic fromn tihe SF1 F as a part (If all higher education's toltal buldget. The AES at one timie fared aboullt the samne lis other segmlents (If higher education. but in recent xyears its shailre oIt tile to tlal etduicaltill II td get has diroppI Iedi sha rpl\ from aout)1 0. 9T iii 1952 tol 0.5T this s ear. The AES share ill the /iighcr education buditget dropped fromil 5.2 ill 1952 tio its cuirrenlt lev el (If 2.9W. The AFS clientele Iip pareltlxIi has Illot becen as actixve ill its sullpo rt oIf AEFS fund-1( ilig ax Ilax c llackcl 5f IIotheri j.rollps supporlltiid h\ thle SF1 F Siince AIS depends o111State and Federal floods, 11nd( its responisi- Ibis 254 suppo)irts bh IIIGHLIEAITS ofi Agricultural Rtesearchi SUMMER 1980 VOL. 27, NO. 2 A (jlihrterl\ report (If research puiblishedl h)\ thei Agricuiltuiral Experiment Station of Auiburnl U iversity , Auburn, Alabluna. 11. I1 \t N [ IIt ............ N o *~ I)irccetor S I S\ It S ). WXI X( N .Assolejatl 1)iI cctilr T1 E. (m111F i...........sistant Director F. . NI(:Git 5....................Editor H. E. S I v\ I-o i.I .. N Ass ociate Editor S IS v;t 1," N'Sil........Assrxstaiit Editor PEditorial AdvIisory/ (omiitcc Si I ISF \\ ii sI IN C. A. FtII )mj 1 _Assistant Professor1 (If Agric udtuial Eigihiccrnig;CI.)I Iw F\ \S, Associate Professor of Agroniomy and( oitIsx NI II IB. \I wi I I Ii , Axxociloll P. hiilits is tol bo1th coniixiiiiic an p~rodulcers, it is in the interest lit bo1th groupihs to see thalt aidequaite fundl~s are pro\I ided. Thubs. yo 1s1 holdt he aictivxe ill indticatinlg yo1(ur suollrt to Iyour Flederail co ngressmn en as xx elI lix tol miemibers oIf the State Legislature, hlot]i iniiti liiialS 1an1( lix iiei heis o f xvario us con11111itit conllsuiner, an1d( (ix it' Iorgaizai/itiolns. Althioughl the 980-t SI State Etducatioin BuIdtgt lias been1 passxed, it 15 Ii Inorlation11 clintainetd ihtrein is lilalile tol all \N ithillit regaird tol racet clor, sex, ON THEX COVER: Fieltd xcica hS new1 (If AUT Lotan Auburn releasetd xariety, at till P~lant Breeding Unit, Tallassee. New Auburn Sericea Variety I AU LOTA 1 Low Tannin, Nutritious Forage E.D. DONNELLY, Department of Agronomy and Soils W B. ANTHONY, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences (Retired) .A.\. SEIC' vFi~sariety just released by isent Station-nanied At'. Lotan-inay fill Alahamia's need for a high quality perennial sutimer forage leguine. That need is especially great no\\ b)ecause of the high cotst of itrogen fertilizer-a necessits for non-leguine forage erolis-hrought on b the energx crisis and] inflation. Serieea has been aroundc for a long time, hut Alahama cattlemen has e used it olyx sparingly for p)astuire aind ha\ because of its relatis ely lo h psal atahil ity and n ntri tix e v alute. B~ecau se of this, Auiburtn's seniea hreeding pi ograin has einphasiz'ed forage qtialits Research has zeroedl in on the role of tannin in the acceptability of serieea hy grainig aiinials and the cligestihilit\ of serieea forage. It \\ as determnined in a iniiher of expseribments that ss heni the tannin content wsas losweredi by breeding, bo0th jsalataliilits and dligestibsility of dry iiiatter and] cru dle protein \\ ere greatly increased. Variety Development In order to breed loss tannin serieea, a soturce of this gerniplastin had to lbe found. In 1955, seed of B~eltsv ille 2:3-864 ss as sent to Atuihurn by IPatid I i. I lenso n, Re search Leader, Special Purpose Legumes Ins estigations, L'SI)A. I]his line ss\as genetieallx loss in tannin, butt uincdesirable otherss ise, being loss in v igor, steinin\ , and an offgreen color. T[le finst cross. B~elts\ ille 2:3 864 x Ala. 219:3, ss\as iiace in 1939, and F, seed ss as lplanited in 1960. In stuhsequienit y ears, crtisses ss\ere iiade to Serala, Ala. 1373, Ala. ILI 1 Ala. 1,14, anid .Ala. 1,15. Tlhe latter three are riiot kniit neimatiode (Mc~loidogn, e lpl) resi stanist lines desvelioipedt cit operatis elx \s ith Nornitan A. \Miitoni, USD1)A Neinattilogist. TIifton, Geoirgia. During the breeding program, miost iol the Atiluurti I 'ntim ii Agft rtitltit rl loss-tannin plants ssere sev erely damnaged b\ a foliar dlisease caused b hx1izoctonia slp 'Thuis, hreeding for resistance to this disease has receiv ed the greatest emphasis since 1969. In additioni, selection has been itatle fom Iss\ tannin, high fiiragc' and se'd y ields, and for persistence. Thc' linc' sarie.\,At' Loitan, ssas desveloped fritin 73-6,3-2, a plant selected in 1975. Forage Quality T1he ness sariets ssas evsaluiatecd in an c'xperiienit ins ol ing 88 selected losstannin lines, an elite moriiial or high-tannin control line, and a dlisease-stisce'ltihle, It isstanisin conitrol line. The taniiiin co ntent of AtI' Lotais ss as hisser at each oif three has cuttings ill asverage oif 50)7 losser tlsan tlse Iiigs- tain conutriol, tahle t . 'Taninin content also is reflected in thc' dry iisatt('r dligestibility, ss ith A l' I otan asveraginig M7 higher itt digestible drs isatter for thse thriee has cu ttinsgs. T 51 'I sto 2. RiA I ION OFi SIMi Foii i iRIfii/OC It3SEA5SE, Aum ittiO 1976 1.0 3.3 It0 JNIA \'ariets or line At' Lotain............. LAtiM -tanuiiis. diseisi' sutscet'ible cintrtil.... lIi ghltaut un, disease re'sistaint cointrotl..... Disease raltinsg' 1977 1.7 4.0 1.0 ft. to 5.0 scale' wshere' 1.ft nit diseaise ss ip-~ touts, 5.0f severe cdefoliatioins as crage of three repilicationus. . IhT 01 sins ori At' Loi\ SNm~),SN iml.i~ 19782 lN Ei iir, Ici Variety or line 1st 2ind :3rd cut, cut, cut, As. Ma\l June Aug. 'The crude proteins c'tntent ssas higher for .AL otais thsan ftor the highi-tanisin c'tn.' trol in (cch of the thsree hay cuttings aind axveragecd about 7.OT highcer. Esven timehightanniin line had adequtate crude proiteins for grazinig animiials. It\ eisvxer, prtoteins digestihility wsts isser tin Isiglstannin sericea, as learniedl in as earlier exp~erimient shossing thsat feces fromu ca~ttle tin hiss-tannin sericea conutained 22 less crude piroteins than frtsn cattle tin high-tannis forage. This shoild lead to ii ore alsiial gain per unit iof ftoralge i-stanisint thans high- tam mmii coinsuimiitd ou Io\ sericca. Disease Reaction Its a coimparaltiv e test. At_' Lotais's lt'sel foliar disease tif resistanlce to !I/iotstiiu wais abtiut t'qual to the' high-tannin cointrol ansc stuperitir tii thc' loss-taisiin control. table 2. The planst friimi ss hich At'. Litams 5wais derived remiained relatis clx free of disease sx umptonis for .3 sears in a nutrsery and for :3 sears its a line is broiacast fiel(d pltits. 'T'hus, .At1' 1.ttan appears to hasve adeuatec disease resistance. .' 1.ttais has sielded athout85T as iuch hay as Seraila. Seed tif the ftirmser x ariets .mr' beinsg iincreasecd, aund shstotld he itsailihlc' c'tiii(rciatllx aifter the 1981 seed isarvest. Pct. Pct. Pot. Pct. Digestible dry matter" I ligli tanuinii cointriol . ... 44 At' Iitam...............5:3 29 44 37 45 :37 47 Tannin 6.8 Iligh tannin control ... 516.3 33 3.1 At' Ioa itm...............2.7 C rude protein 15.5 11.6 14.3 I ligli tatmiui cointrol . . .. 16.6 12.8 15.5 AlI'Lotin ............. 'Cut \s 2\,ai 'EachI adjuste'd 6.1 :3.f 1:3.9 15ff hen entries x\ ere 12-14 in. tall. :i c e x stralges ifthflree' rep licatio ns. irs iiittc'r digestibilits \x s int ut io to at iriferenice fiiraige, Coastail her it ida~grass. Ispirintit Sttattitn Regional Resource Allocation Mlodel of the United States Beef Industry NEIL R. MARTIN, JR., SCOTT QUERIN, and KENNETH E. NELSON Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology '" Kex xvariables for the beef indurstry during the I1980)'s incliude changes in beef constunption, the size of the national cowk hierdl, and feed pirices. Three levels of beef production, brood ccxx loxventory, and corn prices used in the inodel are presented in the table. Avecrage cost per hundredlxxeiight of beef produced in 1976 dollars for the optimial niodel organization xxas set at 1(M and used to index ax erage costs of organizations consistent xxitli the aboxve lexvels of key xvariables. Results for 1 and u ini, the assuiptii m of a sri Ia1 large beef coxx herd airc presented in parts 1, 11, and 111, restpectix clv, in the figure. Solid lines reflect base corn prices antI broken linies reflect high and loxx' corn prices. Variations in beef production are read on thie hiz on talI scale antI axverage cost indices are read on the xvertical scale. IIi I ( \Y1 E SAI xli 5 reoccurrence of beef prices large cattle irixentorres and loxxN folloxx ed by fexx ,er cattle and higher prices is xxell kiioxsii as the cattle cxyc Beef co\x inumbers hiaxve peaked in \ears ending in the inimniber fixve. Since 1975, a liquidation of the coxx herd has occurred, and bx 1980 the bunildup pihase xxas apparentlx in progress. The persistence of the cattle cx ce has a riin g produ iicers, con caused con em sinners, arid ptolicy iiakers. One concern is xxith resources allocation xxithin the beef nid iistrx . E f ficierit re s(ource alloctat ion r ax tal .shift ani rig geographic regioins and production stages at different phases of the cattle cxyc. Therefore, allocation of resucsused in beef production needs to be analx zed at xvarious phases of the cy c. ()bjectix es of a recent stundy at the Auburn Uivxersity Agricultiiral Expeririient Station in coop eratio n xxi th the E.co noinics, l Statistics, and Cooperatixve Serxvice, .S. lDepartinent of Agriculture. xxcrc, to de\elop ai nidel of the ('.S. beef industry and to obtain opt iriia I resout rce allocation patterns based on production and pirice lexvels for the 1980)'s. A linear pro grar n ining riiodel xx\as dex ehopcd to mneet the objectixves of the study. Frxve beef prodcuction regions (W.est, Great P'lains, Southxxest, North Central. and Sou theast) arid srix cons orii Iti 00 regions (P ac'ific (Coast, \Moun ntains arnd Plain s, South (Ceritral, \hidxx est, Soirti Atlantic, 1 aind Noirthueast) are intc utded in the riiod el Mlodel solutions aire neither duplicates of plresent nor predictrorns of future inclustrx organrzations, but instead serx e as reflections of economiic p~ressues 00 the beef indtistr\ Prograriuruing strategx xxas to o1)trimrize the rmio del und er an a ssu toed set of condtlions arid then b\ inodifx ing key xvariablesx, anal\ ze changes in itiodel I' COW HERO SMALL [ORE5 -1C-) Co. HERD -MEDIUM 50 2,,,1- ,,H par' n LARGE CO. HERO 1-SH) -- Po",,n Mlodel results xxitli the b~ase corn pirice indicate that the iieliiiin coxx, herd of 50.2 million coxx s is roost consistent xxitli a least cost inclistrN organization. The axverage coist curv e for this beef coxx herd assuiiril tion is "I'-shaped'' xxitl a iiinimiiiri level near 27 billion lb). A large coxxv herd overshoots the co st effectix c herd sizc for beef pro ducethion lex cI s incIlud1ed in this arna l\ sins. Anid the smnall herd resurlts indicate slil) stantially hrgher costs. isol id B~rokein lines abovxe and beloxx the lines in the figure indicate cost differences for high and loxx, corn p~rrce asirmptions. Si gnif icant ouitpuit x ariatiuris \Nere prgrarnnied xxrthomnt greatlx influencing of produ tiction, givxeni an the r iinirinuin icost adequiate beef coxxv 1ase. Cattle feeding xxas indicated at its highest lexvel x\ ith the iiethiiiin beef coxx herd, rniakirig the cost structure of the rinodel quiite resporisixve to co~rn price. Increases in costs dure to a high corn price \\ crc less than cost decreases doei to a loxx corn price. Results of this analxysis illustrate the desirabihitx of axvoiding the reocctirring (ix rsized indl undersized national beef coxx herls that accoripanN the cattle cx c. A less xvolatile cattle cx('t xould benefit beef p)roduicers and consumers. 25R8 272 1 26 5 27 5 REEI PRDCTO 25R8 27 2 1 26 5 27 5 D2ER 27 2 265 27,5 *EIAM N RLLION POJNDS C-AAS Index of average cost of beef production for specified beef cow herds, corn price and beef production levels, United States. results. Results describe oirganizations of 1 lie beef ind strx, xxhid iii ini iinize all x ani able and xiome fixed costs, Variable costs all act ix ities in th inoi dcl. aire ass essedol Actixvitx lce lx exceedirng peak output lexvels during the ]Last cx ce are also assessed fixed coists other than interest charges for land xxhicli are assuiiied to be offset bx real capulital gains on land. XVsI iimx Ii i' Dv\11xi\i)' luir'io Gm li \ii, xii'\ \Irrii x i\\ v\ ii I, S. 13 \\I) 0m~u\ Plilm I li 'm" xin Ro-'(i\i A.Beet de rnicl lex els B. Courn 1 ii's (1976 (1(dlirs) lb. C'() Ind. 11) (1(1. 1lbi inil. headl 232.9 1171 1,4197 2.5,800( 2.04 S mall 385 2:32.9 121 27,2001 2.:37 501.2 2:32.9 127 2, 1:1) 27,5111 2. 56 Large 6 1.9 I, S. total.......................... .Aiuin F u 'i ,sili1 Agiculturoial 1 * eriiniid Staitioni PIMIENTO PEPPEHS have been cultivated in the Southern United States since their introduction from Spain in 1911. Traditionally the ripe fruits were canned whole in small glass jars without salt. The early process consisted of direct flame peeling; later, lye and steam peeling were utilized. After peeling, the fruit were cored, blanched, and acidified before canning since pimientos are not acid enough to resist the hazard of botulism without adding food acids. The high temperature of pressure cooking required for low acid foods destroys the color and texture of peppers, so pimientos are processed at 2120 F. The canned sweet pepper product has remained popular for use as a garnish and to add color to many prepared food dishes. For most uses, the canned whole peppers are sliced or diced by the consumer before use. In recent years the labor-intensive whole pack pimiento has been replaced for the most part by sliced or diced pimientos. Canners are now producing just enough whole pack to satisfy that portion of the trade that insists on the traditional whole pimiento. The small jars used limit the size of the fruit that can be used for whole pimientos, but now that the bulk of the fruit are canned as sliced or diced pimientos, processors are looking for larger fruited pimiento varieties. Many pimiento canners have resisted changing from pimientos to red bell peppers even though there would be an econoimic advantage to do so. The idea has persisted that canned red bell peppers are somehow inferior and lack real pimiento flavor. Bell peppers produce more than pimientos and thus can be produced at lower cost. A 1976 nationwide survey showed that the U.S. average yield for all varieties of bell pepper was 6.1 tons per acre compared to 3.3 tons per acre for all pimientos. The shape of the pimiento, see figure, lends itself better to the coring machinery used for whole pack pimientos, but the bell pepper is more efficiently peeled by modern high pressure steam peelers and with its larger size results in lower peeling and coring losses. Growers have many more varieties of bell peppers to choose from than pimientos, as well as several sources of hybrid seed. In 1976, over 5 times as many acres were devoted to bell pepper production as were used for growing pimientos. Most of the bell peppers xere sold in the fresh market as green peppers. Peppers grown in the 1978 and 1979 growing seasons were processed and examined by a systematic taste panel to determine if there was any difference in flavor or appearance between canned pimientos and canned red bell peppers. Three varieties of bell peppers were Amubu rn Iit~rsitt Agric ltural Exp;)eriment Station HESLt iIS OF FiLA\ oi TASiE COMIPAHISON' OF THIEE VAIUEI IS )OFCA\\ED PINII, 0 1Pl. ,I'IIS \ill TFII IFi VAIETIS OF CANuFi) Ri) 2 BELL P PI'tRS ar Correct decisions Pip \VS YWL ....... Pip VS KRG........ Pip VS PL.......... Pip VS T............ Pip V\S Mill........ Y\\L VS KRC ...... Y\VL VS PL ........ YW\L VS I ......... Y'WL VS 1Mill...... KRG VS P ......... KRG VS I ......... KHC \ Mll1 ...... VS PL VS T ........... Pt VS \11 ........ T \VS Mill ......... 11 9 11 8 13 12 10 13 8 11 9 8 9 6 7 Incorrect decisions 13 15 13 16 11 12 14 11 16 13 15 16 15 18 17 7a4e Pa",d 07"ze~e l1il, Z)Qeet eW 'Trianlgular taste panel design for detection of flaxNor difference, six panelists judging each comparison four timles. Significance at WS el Ie requires 14 correct decisions out of 24. Bcll 11pepper xaritics \\crc Kcxstone Iesistant CGiant (KRG), Yolo \ onder L (Y\\L), and Pip. Pimiento varieties were Truhart (l). Peto L. (P'L,), and Mlachine lIarxest 1 (Mill1). &"rd grown xwith three varieties of pimientos in randomized complete block design with four replications. The fruits were hand picked when fully ripe and uniformly red. After lye peeling, the fruits were sorted to eliminate any differences in color before canning by commercial pimiento canning procedures. Six trained panelists made up the taste panel. They xwere presented at each test with four sets of unifornly diced pepper samples in simall containers. Each set of samples, labeled only A, B, or C, was made up of two samples from one variety and one odd sample of another variety. The panelists were asked to identify the odd sample by taste in each of the four sets. KENNETH S. RYMAL, WALTER H. GREENLEAF, and DURWARD A. SMITH Department of Horticulture Each bell pepper sample was complared with the other bell pepper samples as well as with all of the pimiento saimples. The resutilts, see table, showed that there was no significant difference in flavor between any of the samples and color and texture were also indistinguishable. Roundtable taste-testing as is often conducted in canning plants usually only reinforces prior opinions. Objective systematic taste panel testing can be of great benefit in inaking decisions such as this in which preconceived opinions are difficult to overcome. Duroc-Landrace and Yorkshire-Landrace Sows Surpass Pure Landrace in Maternal Performance STEVE B. JUNGST, DARYL L. KUHLERS, RONNIE L. EDWARDS', Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences JOE A. LITTLE, Lower Coastal Plain Substation CROSSBREEDING is known to improve the maternal performance of sows when compared to the average of the pure breeds that make up the crossbred sow. The question facing producers concerns the breed combination that gives best results, and this question is being investigated at the Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station. Landrace, Crossbred Sows Compared The Landrace breed has been shown to excel in reproductive performance and mothering ability. However, specific crosses involving the Landrace sow may be superior to specific crosses involving crossbred sows whose genetic composition includes breeds that do not excel in reproductive performance and mothering ability. One objective of the Auburn project was to compare purebred Landrace sows with crossbred Duroc-Landrace and Yorkshire-Landrace sows. The Duroc breed excels in growing ability and feed efficiency, while the Hampshire breed has been shown to be superior to other breeds in carcass composition. These breeds are believed to fit on the sire side of a terminal crossing program. The Spot breed has not been studied extensively, but it is also believed to fit best on the sire side of a specific crossing program. Therefore, the second objective was to evaluate the Duroc, Hampshire, and Spot sire breeds when bred to the three female breeds. Three Boar Breeds Compared Duroc, Hampshire, and Spot boars were bred to the Landrace, Duroc-Landrace, and Yorkshire-Landrace sows in all possible combinations to produce nine different crosses of pigs. A total of 305 litters was farrowed by the 118 sows. Reproductive traits studied included number born, number born alive, litter birth weight, number alive at 21 and 42 days, and litter weights at 21 and 42 days. Sire breeds did not significantly affect litter size born, born alive, and alive at 21 'Now at Texas A&M University. and 42 days, see table. Hampshire-sired litters weighed more at birth than did Spotsired litters. At 21 days, Duroc-sired litters were heavier than the average of the Hampshire and Spot-sired litters, which did not differ significantly. No significant differences were found among the sire breeds for litter weights at 42 days, although Duroc-sired litters were the heaviest and Hampshire-sired litters were the lightest. Smaller Litters from Landrace At birth, litters from Landrace sows were smaller than litters from DurocLandrace and Yorkshire-Landrace sows, although the difference was not statistically significant. Litters from the crossbred sows averaged 1.5 more pigs per litter at 21 and 42 days than litters from the purebred Landrace sows. Litters from the crossbred sows were of approximately equal size at birth and 21 and 42 days postfarrowing. The dam breeds differed significantly in their effect on litter weights. Litters from Duroc-Landrace and Yorkshire-Landrace sows were heavier at birth, 21 days, and 42 days than litters from purebred Landrace sows. Litters sired by Hampshire boars and out of Duroc-Landrace sows were slightly larger at 21 days postfarrowing than were litters sired by Duroc boars and out of Yorkshire-Landrace and Duroc-Landrace sows. These same breed combinations had litter weights in excess of 100 lb. at 21 days. Litters sired by Duroc boars and out of Yorkshire-Landrace sows were the heaviest at 21 days. Crossbred Sows Excel Of the three sow breeds studied, it appears that Duroc-Landrace and YorkshireLandrace sows are superior to purebred Landrace sows in reproductive performance. Preweaning performance appears to be maximized when Hampshire boars are bred to Duroc-Landrace sows or when Duroc boars are bred to either YorkshireLandrace or Duroc-Landrace sows. LITTER SIZES AND WEIGHTS AT BIRTH, 21 DAYS, AND 42 DAYS Breedborn Litter Number Number Number Number Litter Litter 42- day born alive at alive at birth 21-day born born alive21 days 42 days weight weight weight Lb. Lb. Lb. Sire breed 11.3 Duroc ................... Spot ..................... 10.6 11.5 Hampshire ............... Dam breed Landrace................. 10.7 11.5 Duroc-Landrace.......... 11.3 Yorkshire-Landrace ....... Sire breed x dam breed 10.6 Duroc x Landrace. ........ 12.0 Duroc x Duroc-Landrace . Duroc x Yorkshire11.4 Landrace ............... Spot x Landrace......... .10.1 10.7 Spot x Duroc-Landrace ... Spot x Yorkshire11.2 Landrace ............... 11.4 Hampshire x Landrace ..... Hampshire x Duroc12.1 Landrace ............... Hampshire x YorkshireLandrace ............... 11.1 11.0 10.2 10.9 10.0 11.0 10.8 10.1 11.7 11.0 9.5 10.4 10.5 10.4 11.2 11.0 9.0 8.3 7.8 7.3 8.9 8.7 8.5 9.1 9.3 7.7 8.6 8.5 6.0 9.4 8.0 8.9 8.2 7.5 7.1 8.7 8.5 8.4 8.9 9.2 7.6 8.5 8.4 5.9 9.0 7.6 36.82 32.76 39.48 34.04 39.73 34.74 33.29 36.73 36.29 30.00 35.32 32.89 39.68 43.48 35.10 101.43 213.96 91.56 201.37 86.99 186.03 80.89 177.01 100.13 211.38 97.18 208.49 94.89 196.37 102.07 213.39 106.92 231.99 83.27 185.17 96.80 211.62 94.58 207.08 66.87 158.03 105.98 216.65 87.21 181.88 Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station 41, Peanuts planted in 32-in. (left), 16-in. (center), and 8-In. (right) rows show effect of row spacing on sicklepod growth. Peanuts in Narrow Rows Suppress Weeds, Boost Yields GALE A. BUCHANAN, Department of Agronomy and Soils ELLIS HAUSER, USDA-SEA-AR, Georgia Coastal Plain Experiment Station JIM STARLING and HENRY IVEY, Wiregrass Substation the p~ast txxN~ %% I: I i\\ISin () (lecades haxve caused considerahle interest in [plantinig peanuits in row 's spaced closer thin) the conv entional :30- to :36-in. spacing. Plains) and (1.SIA, Sl,'A. Specifically , the These ,N ere (1) the introduction of benefin Batan )), Ninch has provxided consistent tproject NN toi determiine the effects of roXX as aind excellent controit of iiiost grass NN eeds; sp)acing on coinpetitix oness of tpeanuts and (2) the introduction of the diggerXX itil sickteplod and Florida beggarxs 00( inv(rter-shaker, ss hich can efficientl\ dig ant to teamn hoX roxv spacing affects pealnuts planted in close-spaced ro\N s and XX iiidroX thein in a single opleration. Fltoruniner tpeainuts XX ore Ilanted in 8-, 16f, and1 32-in. rowN' in ireais hoaxvitx inSuipport for the close0 rowv concept refested XX sicklepod and Florida heggarith sultedl fronl pearnut roxx spacing research \\ 00(1. in-roN\ seeding rate, based on :32-in. begun in 1973 h\ the Auiburni tnix ersity roxX s, xXas c(Instant regardless of ro\N A gricultuiral IL*p eril iiont St ationi (at the XX idth. hlocoilnnled tproduiction prc WXiregrass Sub stationi, HIeadland ) in col)tices XX ore follo~s ('c. oration xs ith the Georgia Agricultural ExGroX tl of bo0th sicklepod and Florida Statin (at the South~vest tleriient hbeggar\\ eecl XXas considerably tess in the 8G~eorgia Bra tnch t'xperiiint Station, ilf \I T and 16-in, row ,s than in the conxventionat :32-in. roxX 5 in all experinients at hoth locations, table 1. In soiiO extperiinents, pea~nuts XX ore nore comnptetitiv e XX ith Xweeds XX hen planted in 8-in. ro\N s than in 16 in. rIXX . ee(1s, peanut x ields [in the tprese~nce of XX xxore higher in 8- and 16 in. roXX s than in as :32-in. roXX s, table 2. 't'his difference XX qtuiite striking in soiiie xyears and substantial in all years. WXhen axveragedl across all oxtleriiiients, pea~nuits in 8-in. roX s produced oXvor 5Mmore peanuts than in :32-in. roXX .s XX heii XXeeds XX ere prensent. In somne instances, y ields XX ore greater XX the 8-in. ith F v(N if I SR K11 it P i olm o 15 wi Nd. C EDA hi XXspinlg, inlche(s 197.5 8,188 6,571l Vieighit of sickleod Plans Ileadliurt 19771975 1976 1976 Weight (It Florida heggarw eed at I leadland 1975 1.) 17,(186 1976 78 48 48 1977 I,)). r(IXXs than the 16-in. rIXX s, hut generally this (difference XX not as substantial as lbe05 tXXeen the 32- and] 16 in. roXX sp)acings. Sicklepod wXas niarkedly moore coiiipetitix e XX pleanluts in 1975 at Plains than in ith an\, other extporiiiient. as eeds, there XX a In tile abseiice (If XX c(Insistent initproX enont ii )Ieanut xyields associated XX ith clolser spaced roIXXs. Ax or- :32 .......... 16 .......... 8 ............. tI3,851 7,886 . 12,839 12,3:34 9,8017 Lb. Lb. 28,308 13,345 25 68(i 9 1199 9 :301 20,.928 10l,616 10,009 6,59)5 5,162 ~ sili v 2. XI ii of PF ~ Peanul is (:io\ N \\ ii if X\i) \\I olI ii i i."I t \ield/acre, ill presenlce of XXeeds lo\ss xj-iI.Ii 1110lies - mck lepod1( 1)1 - Honda heggar\\eed aged across all extlerilieilts, p~eanut yields X o,5 about IN~ higher XX \re hen pllantedl ill 8hligher in iil. r(IXX'5 than :32-in. rIxXs and IOT1 16-in, than :32-in. r(IXXs. In all experiments, pecanut yields XX ero higher ill 8-in, than :32iii. r(IXXs, aild ill all extIerinieilts excep~t (11e, yields XX ore hlighler in 16-in. thain ill 32-in. ro\XX 5. 1975 lb. With wee~ds 1976 1l. 61:3 1.,03 1 1,787 4.373 4.7 45 1977 197.5 'b. 266 469 6112 1976 1.6. 1,722 2,471 2,959 1975 1976 l). 1977 lb) Results trolil this series oIt extperinieilts clearly shoIxX tilat groX ing p~eanuits in clolsespbaced r(IXX s substantially imoproxes their X coinp~etitiXees \\( ith sick-lepodl and I'l(rida beggarxx eed. While the oi~pportuniity for late season cultixvatioIn is lost, increased oneivns \th aro o\sroe than compitenlsates for cuiltixvatioln. Enhanced p~eanut xielcts OX enl in the coliplete absence (If XX oeds is encouraging. 1l. 718 1,7:18 1,524 1.b. I113 2.326 2,562 .4,926 6,359 6(12 :32 .......... 16 ............ Is............ Without \%Ciel5 312.......... 16 .......... I.............. 2.77 .5 328 5,52:3 6,3017 a552 1,0160 1,224 1,857 2,1.36 2,521 2,272 41,082 4 5t8.5 :3,806 4292 ,88 4 1142 5:379 4,288 :3,92:3 4.710I .5.521 1,962 :389 5.4111 4,64 51:35 577 station Aubirni I unif crsul .AgI'iuhiural 1.511]rimn B.R. BOCK and FRED ADAMS, Department of Agronomy and Soils 'I\.t Usm 1/1(;11 I kmmI \ I oif nitrogen (N) fertiizer at thre right time is a major cionIcerni of A4laba Iira cotton gr( xxers . Tooii little N ineans loxx \ielcls. Buit too Mnuch N also ma\ reduce xyieldl by causing excessiv e stalk groxx th. Late fruiting, dlelayed boll opeining, increased boll rot, and inoredcifficult insect control. There is no reliable soil test for av ailalie N, so N fertilizer recoinii ii ciatinx are b asedI on long-term fertilizer explerimnents conducted hx Anburn t. ii erxity at sexveral Agricultuiral Experiirreit Station locations. lrobablx because of an abundant supplyx of cheap fertilizerx in recent yearx, loan\x cotton far inrz havec used higher rates of N than Aiiburn rec'ommliendx. I )ur rug this xalue pleriod, the c'rolp hax tended to ratirre later all pIlrocdurce Iixx er yieldsl. TIhis hax created a xtrong interest in the Southeast in a tec'hnicque (tried earlier in the irrigated WAext) to mnaintain the 0 1 )tilul N le,, el foir co tton b% mo1n itoring tire \ lexvel prexent iii petioilex (hinring its groxx org pieriocd. The pletile is the stein that connects a leaf to the sta. It is the pipeline through xx ich root-absiirbecl nitrate. xxater, and other nntrients parsx on their xxax to the leax es. Leaxvex convert the nitrate into p~rotein fur the building cof nexx leaxves, stalks, anid bolls. Thlrus, the am on nt iof n itrate pass5log throiugh the petioiles shiould he a i reasure of future groxx th. Sincce the petiole is mnerc'lx a pipeline, the amou01ilnt lifI itrate it containsx at anx one \ Ni o\\\\th nn esc Vallex Auwtlii ritx. timne xxill cdepencd on the alinocunt absorbed bx roiits andc the aniount of xxater c'arrx ing it to the leav es. Idleallxy, petiole nitrate should he (I iite high xxhen cotton firxt begins to h loii1; then, it shourld graduially decline to al 111(st nilthing by b)1)1 II Wi ing time. len field experiments xxere coindclted in 1978 andI 1979 in an effort tol dleteririne pletioile nitrate changes (hiring the seasoin aiic lilix tlrex are iinflueincedl bx fidtill/cr. I1aiiifall lrcliros xxcrc arlsoi kept to see lriixx pletioile n~itrate is affect(,(] by the ainimunt of axvailable sil xxater. The oixerall obhjectixve xxas to determine if petiiile nitrate coldc accuratelx precdict N fe.rtilizer neecds of coitton. Reisiilts olf these exp)erimenits are illustrated bx the graphs of 1979 data art the T ennessee V alley Substation andI the P~rattville E xperimient Field. Fixve rates of pre Illairt N fertilizer xwere us ed, xxith inaxiin yxieldx being ohtained at the :30- or 6(1b. rate in both experiments, as xhoxx n belixx: Sced cotto n yield, acre, lb) -\, rat', lb. acre )................ VillO(' Pr//it ib' :30 .............. t0i.............. 90 )............. 120............ 2,8i90 3,100) 2, 44)) 2ti5)) 1,470) 1,510) 1.510) 1,490) The zero N rate priix iclec too little N, xxhile the 9(1- and: 120-lb). rates provxicded excess N. These yields identify the opti111101 N fertilizer rate, bcit the (ilextion is: did pletiole nitrate also icdentifyx the optiiniln N rate'? 'The graphed (data shoxx that petiole nitrate xxas generally higher at the higher N rates at all samp)~ling dates. H oxxever, pletioile nitrate did not p)rogressixvely cdecrease at suiccessiv e sampr~ling dIates throughout the season. Instead, it decreased in the Tenniessee V'alley experiinent until jukx 2:3 (during a clrx' period), then abruptly inicreased to xvery high lexvel s (foliowxi ng a heavy rain). In the Prattxville explerimient (xx hici suffered fromr drought mrost of the seaso~n), pletiole nitrate xxas consistentlx loxxer than in the Tlenriessee V'alley expierimneit, hut it, too, shoxx ed a shari) increase in petiole nitrate fiolloxxing shoxx ers. Neither expleriment shoxwech a continual decrease in pletiole nritrate throughout the growxxing season. The data in the graphs shoxx that p~etiole nitrate lev els for the optilnil) N fertilizer rates xxere beloxx\ the critical levels repolrted b' Uiiversity of Arkanisas agrllnolnists for miuch of the season. C'learlx tile ax ailable xxater suply~l~ had as Iilich to do xxithr petiole nitrate lexvels as did the N suplyx. In 1978, art the saire locations, pletioile nitrate xxas beloxx' the so-called critical lev el at everx sampling dlate becacise of a season long drought. P~redlicting N fertilizer needs by pletiole analxysis cannot be achiexvecd Wxithout correcting for cdrought effects, a )rolhlelrr that is truly comprllex, and lone that does not appear to haxve a ready solution. 20- rn Ten Sessee S60 0 S2Z N 12ON 90N N4 O- 6ON -5 9 16 23 9 6 93 20 Effect of N fertilizer rate on nitrate content ot cotton petioles between June 26 and August 30, 1979, at two Alabama locations is illustrated. Vertical bars show date and amount of rainfall. The shaded area represents optimum nitrate levels according to University of Arkansas data. Auburn ( lit drsitl Agricunltural Experimnt~i Startioin P. A BAC KMAN and~t in I'! itt Pit i.-~ .. *~ Aerial Application of Fungicides to Soybeans: Problems & Progress AMM 0iof the pes ticidles used in the ha in a, so be)(ans and cottion are mosi co in)t innki treatedl h\ aerial applicators \Nith aeriafllxaipplied treatments for sox beans tx iicalx being insecticidles. InI the last 4 xearx an increasing acreage has been treated x tli funngicidles f or the control of foliage, pod, andI stein dliseases. Research tontloctetl lN the Xnburn I. nix ersitx Agricultural Experiment Station has indlicated that xyield increases up to IN~ can result followinjg tiinelx ap~plications of fungicidies to sox beans. Results from aerial applications of fungicitles to sovbeans indicate that this ap)plication inethod is not al\x a\x as effectix e as apll 11ication~ by grou)ind sp raxyers. IDurin g thc past sev eral y ears, some recuirring p)roblems has e beeui obserxvcd that contribute to this obserxvation: (1) p)oor calibration of aircraft, (2) imnprop~er distributioni of xlpra\ nozzl!es on the aircraft. (3) aerial alppIlictationIi of pesticides duing sobopltimnal \Neather, and (4) incorrect swxathing. P~roblemns one and txxo are rap)idly being corrected by aerial applicatorx xxho hiax e attended flx in \\ orkshops heldl throughout the State. U.nfortonatelY, farmners are also contributing, 1)articulary- to the last twxo problems. The farmer shoold not ask to see "rooster tails" (curling xvortices oif spray ) at the airplane's xwing tips. 'Ibis spray ty pically is lost because it dries out before it rcachies the crop. Secondly, the faniner should not request that treatments be applied duiring the heat of the day. iDuriog holt dlry xxeather ax inoch ax .50! ot the ipesticidte applit'd inay dry (lit and b)e lost beforc it reaches the crop surf ace. (Gro\x ers also should iiake sure that flagii ico or xie other i nean s, arte emplo)1)yed to alssure accurate xxwathinug. The cffectiveness (If oany p~esticides is great]\ reduced by skips doe to piior xsxathing, and costs iiicrease if there are oxverlaps. Research relating to ef ficiency (If application of aeriallx applied fimgicides has b~een conlduicted at Aiibuirn since 19781. iParticularl\ , there has lbeen intith interest in imoproxving the (helixvery (If fungicides to th(e croip surface. Fungi cides applied to 51)5beans in a xxater carrier xxere coinpared to those in wxater p)lus spray oil, and xxater phiis the x iscoelastic agcnt N alcotrill. The percenut (If fungicide reaching the foliage wxas dete'rminedt. Data in table 1 xhoxx that xxhen sinall droplets xxere prodiiced bx thle spray noles, Nalcotrol increased deposition. Iloxx cxer, xxhen large droplets xxere p~roduhcedI the benefits (If this tank additixe xxerc lost. Thew spray xvolumne per acre in xxhich fungicides shiould be delixv(red by airplanes xxas also exvaluated. Results indficated that rates iif delixvery ax loxx as 2.3 gpa may effectixvely delixver the fungicide to the crop, table 2. Loxx x olimes wxere particularly effectixve uinder conditions (If high humridity (Mlarion, Alabaina test), but higher spray) x (Iluires generally improxved deposition. 'This resi'arch xxaxxu ppi rtetl by the Alabama ixybean Prioiducers, E. 1. (IiPot dei N en i inrx XX iinlfolk ( 'emical Co.I, Nalco Cheimuiical, GuIlf F i i iLg Siue i c( i .e\\cIi F1i i ig SeIr I cir, itl S t itt' Riesearch cx alliating s\ steis for rent du cing spray xvilii iiit\x it hm sacrificing e dise'ase' ciotrol is contiiniing. WXith energy coIsts increasing rapidlyx, the'se effiirts could reduce pes't coIntrol costs for farii t'rs. lxii] 1. F( \(I(I 11)1,DI)sij(\ I e o soxl Tmi F Csuiiis(1 1978-79 xxxS ILocationl b\ carrlier XX ater Nilciitriil ()il Suiiall diropJlets . ... La~rge dlriiplets.. Marion' Lairge' droiilets ... 29.5 57.4 87.7 4.5.2 52.1 89.:3 :33.t0 42.6 84.8 AlI x aih c are ai\ (rages iif three gallionage rates tet'e'd. 'Condition iif liix RHii., high tempe~tratuire, trios xxiOni H-7 iigilixng tip \ ortici's. mod..ineurate tei'Co'iiditionis iif high icratiir', lo\ xxtroxs iiitsn inilg ti) xvortices. 'lxi F 2.F vi\ j( w)1 ilosi o I il) So) FO( ii)11 -\iIt %xi 1978-79 Ni, vs, Pit. detposiitio n, bx dilue'nt i'per acre rate xxx\S Lcationi Pct ii iii', P0. 46.5 45.3 21.4 - Pc t. 52.2 51.4 58.4 89.i Pc t. 197Y \nluc.-.. . 2.5 \altotrol . .49.6 ()il .......... 35.4 Xal 19)119 All ....... 78.8 ot sinll1 Ax 'rii'( ('ontrol -aqiie'iii 9:3.9 ainid large droplet s'izes. carrier. ith 'No benefiit in depoiiisitionu xx ax obtained xx (t' adti ni iif oil or Naltotiul undelr thet coni ditions oif this text. Anb un f un rrotil Agricnit ural Eximni'it StatIion Weather-Related Data Available Through The Agricultural Experiment Station W. R. WALLIS, National Weather Service C. D. BUSCH, Department of Agricultural Engineering MEAN FOUR INCH SOIL TEMPERATURES WILL CONTINUE TO BE IN THE 70S AND SUITABLE FOR PLANTING CORN, COTTON, PEANUTS AND VEGETABLES THRU THE WEEKEND. NIGHTTIME TEMPERATURES WILL BE TOO COOL FOR MOST PLANT DISEASES BUT DRY WEATHER WILL ALLOW SOME INSECT POPULATIONS TO INCREASE. IT WILL BE TOO WINDY TO APPLY CHEMICALS THRU FRIDAY. The advisories do not attempt to make decisions for the farmer. They provide added information which will aid in planning and decision making. This information supplements the farmer's knowledge of local conditions and indicates actions which may be needed in light of past or expected weather. Weather information from the Agricultural Experiment Station also becomes part of the Alabama Climate Series. Weather information from over 150 locations in Alabama is published in monthly and annual summaries by NOAA's Environmental Data and Information Service. Normals and extremes of elements such as temperature and rainfall are also available for many locations with an adequate record length. Eventually the data become available in a form suitable for computer processing. Recent publications of the Agricultural Experiment Station have made use of the data for precipitation probabilities and statistics, freeze and growing season analysis, and temperature normals for Alabama. 4CLIMATIC INFLUENCES on vegetation are of the greatest importance. The success or failure of crops is due largely to the state of the weather. It is a well-known fact that, not only the warmth of the atmosphere, but also the heat in the soil is necessary to germination of seeds as well as for the development of the plant." The above quote appeared in Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 4, February 1889. What is perhaps the first state-published climatology was published as Bulletin 18 in August 1890. Since that time climatic data have been incorporated into agricultural research studies of crop responses, crop management, irrigation, and the animal environment, just to name a few areas. In cooperation with NOAA National Weather Service, Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station personnel collect daily weather information at locations shown on the accompanying map. A sample of the information collected at the Wiregrass Substation, Headland, and Brewton Experiment Field is shown in the table. The data have a variety of uses in both short- and long-range time frames. The information is relayed daily to the National Weather Service, Environmental Studies Service Center (ESSC), located on the Auburn Campus. Agricultural meteorologists at the ESSC combine this information with forecasts of expected weather for the next 5 days and prepare agricultural weather advisories for Alabama farmers. The advisories interpret past and future weather in terms of agricultural operations of current interest. Radio and television outlets throughout Alabama receive the advisories by National Weather Service teletype or from wire services. Advisories are also included in NOAA weather radio broadcasts from National Weather Service offices serving Alabama. A sample paragraph from the Alabama Weather Advisory follows: April 19, 1979 ZONES 8 to 15 CENTRAL AND SOUTH ALABAMA INCLUDING THE WIREGRASS AREA. DRY WEATHER SINCE LAST SATURDAY HAS ALLOWED MOST SOILS TO DRY TO WORKABLE LEVELS. FIELDS NEAR FLOODING RIVERS WILL REMAIN TOO WET FOR FIELD WORK. SAMPLE OF WEATHER INFORMATION COLLECTED AT HEADLAND AND BREWTON, APRIL 19, 1979 Item Air temperature Maximum....................... Minimum........................ When ohserved.................. Rain............................. Soil (4-in, depth) Maximum....................... Minimum....................... Evaporation ...................... Vegetative wetting................. 10 Location Brewton Headland 79 55 66 0 76 66 0.15 in. 0 85 54 59 0 84 65 0 o Agricultural weather site locations provided by Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station A Additional site locations of agricultural weather observations for E.S.S.C. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station UAA Evaluation of Hybrid Catfish fo r Alabama Fee-Fishing Ponds DOGASA TAVE ANDREW S McGINTY iSSE A CHAPPELL and R 0 SMITnIERMAN F EF IISIIIN( l (i\IJ5 are an limp~ortant part of the catfish todtstrx in Alabama. Ibex provxide both a source of incomne for the pond oxx ncr atid a source of recreation and protein for the public.; therefore,an mixniagemtent prograiti wh ich cart increase eatch NN 1)e beneficial to both parties. ill One mnethod. ot increasing catch is to breedl a faster growxing, inore catchable fish. Crossbreeding is often utilized in a breedbecause it can increase econoinic traits through im prorai lixbrid xigor. Research at Auburn t.'nix ersit) 's Agricultural Experimnent Statiout has showxn that channel X blue hybrid cat fish growx faster, are uttore seinable, and haxve a better food conxversion than the p~arenlt species. A study xxas carried (olt to dletermine wxhether prei pchis Recproal ybrds etwen lueandchanelcatishs ad teir n hi atse hne n btenbu "row hx bridization betxx eeri blue and channel catfishes increases catchabilitx bv hook and line. k ~~ ~I leterosis Ca~tfishes cx ,alated xwere: channel catfish; blue catfish; chan-0nel Y X lule d lixbrid catfish; and blue 9 X channel 6 hy bricd catfish. 'en-mnonth old fingerlings (68 lb. per 1,000 fish) wxere 12 heat branded wxith group miarks for identification. A~fter the I r'ands had healed, a randomn samiple oif 187 fish fromn each group Ws stocked commouinallx in a 0.25-acre earthen pond (3,000) lper are). Fish were fed a lielleted floating ration (36%, protein) adj .uted to Tf axverage bod\ wveight 6 clays per xweek for 181 days. Imom1edliately folloxx to the groxxing season, 140 moan-hours iif fishing pressure xxere applied. Size 6 hooks were ater used, and baits wxere earthxxorms and chicken lixvers. XX ~teinlperatutre during fishing xxas 65'F. Fish not caught xxere liarvested bxv draining the pond 48 hours later. Tlotal xweight lhareight xxvas 1.2 lb. xvestecd xxas 2,552 lb. tier acre; axverage xx Sexventy-fixve fish (14.M) xwere caught by hook and line. Hy bridl catfish wxere miore catchable than the Iparent sp~ecies (P < 0.01). Hylxbrids comprised 7M~ of the creel and 81 of its xx'eight. lper acre (hy brid xvigor) for catchabilitx xxas 15W~ bx numiber of 9 h ~ fish and] 204% by weight of fish caught. The hybrids xwere, resluectix clx 2.6 and :3 tunies uttore catchable than the p~arent ~secies. Channel Y d hxybricds xwere moore catchable than X b)lue the blue Y X channel 6 hybrids (P < (0.01). Channel Y X blue d hyxbrids xxere 57T oif the creel and 64 oif its xxeight.T'here xxas nii diffe'rence in catchabilitx betxxeen the channel and blue cat- fishes. D~ata fromn this experiment suiggest that catch in fee-fishing ponds could be filprox ed by stocking channel 9 X blue d bybrid catfish. floxx ever, before this inilproved technology can 1)e exploited, reliable spaxxning techniques to piroduice hybrids itlist be dexveloped. Research at Auburn has shoxxn that hor- mitone inijection can increase spaxx ning success in hxbrid pairings, but it is nt sufficiently dlependclable to p)roduce the hy brids eco~~ ~notnicallx . Other enx'ironmiental and ph) silgca 1itanipula__________________________________titins xxill be cx abtated infurther research inart effort to increase spaxvning success and make the liybricd catfish itiore axvailable to Catches ot cattishes from experimental tee-tishing ponds. Aubur liI (ni the catfish indlustry. city Agtq icultural Exper mnit Stationi oro Dog Hecirtworm: GARY R. MULLEN and BONNIE A. BUXTON Department of Zoology-Entomology Transmission by Mosquitoes tallk, in fected I It fetedling then) onl a (log xxith Iieartx orlox. Infected mosqu~jlitoies of e1aCh strain xx tre then dissxected at 2 day illterx aix for tile next 20 dlays to ileteri Inne rate of piarasite dcx eloiiict and their sucecess in ireacing, the infective stage. 'I'he tour strains tdifferetl coiixideralx in their ablilit\ to suppo111rt compj lete te I de lop ilient of 1D.iinniitis. Approxiiiiatel\ half ifth dini ges ted paraisites in each stra itl hecalniltrIIapp jetd inl the Co agullatetd blood1( of tihe mlosqu itol illitdgit thus failing to reachl 1 thle \Ialp~i ghiianl tiildes 1115 i i ng thot se xxhici tliti su cceed in nioiIxin g frin the thle T li l 5 t)t Jirotilaria ill- 1)i(( unimit ix, xhe piiljresenttin apptreciable nnii herx. tend,, to bliock the floxx iof hliood antI cxii e circulla torx 1tridlein i its caninie li hiist. If left intreated,. it iofteii rexsilts iii deathl. Din rooar 0001 aitisx is I a traiitic f ilarial neiiiatiice xx hicli lixe cs ax adult in the a heart and lniiiitinary arteriex otf diliextic (ligx. \X liereax tis paraxite wxax otnce largelx rextricted tio the Souithern Statex. in recent x earx it hiti heciline tin increaxiing eterinarx cioncernl in imatny other ptartx oft the ( nited Statex aix xwelI. Du)iring the pasit 4 \ ears. rexearch entit initligixtx at Auihirn 1.ilixerxitv' A gricultural Experinitent Statioti haxve hccii xtuidy- IltittetI tot anoithier clog xxhen the lllitsqiltii feedsx agaiii. I ex elI jinieit toit the Iparasxite tot the inifectixve xtaige in the mosquilito reiqiirex aboulit 2 xweekx. ing the rolle otf nilitqiiiticx ax carriers otf dlog heart\ xxIrinis iii Alalxi ia. Their e4ffortx haxve heen diirected at deteriniiiig the p)rinci pal i lit xii tti o ecies iix olx ed and( the nature of xusceptihilit\ ott ilitxfliitoex to infectioin xxith thix ptarasite. Aiiiing the .52 xpecies otf iniixiiiiitecs kni\ Ixi tot occur in Altihtin, onl\ xabouhit a dozen are cotnsidered xignificant pextx itf iiiai and dIliliextic aniiiials. It ix xtill uincertain jiixt xxhich of thexe spteciex plaN an ride iii the tranxiisio xoiitf the ui itrttutt Moslquitotex pick up the iiitature xtage otf thte ptarasite, called iiicritfilariae, xxhen thex feed onl the hlotod otf anl infected dog. Once xxithin the inlixuito hbodyx, the inicritfiltiriae itx e friii the inidgut to the excretotrx oirgtanx, calletd \lpighian tuibules, xx\here thex- uindergt dex elitlt ineiit tot infectixve larxvae. Thexe larx tie then iiiake their xxax tot the ittoithilartx otf the I )uiriiig 1977 aind 1978, m~osquiitoles xxere co~lleted't frii April thruugh Septteimber iii Lee Coiuintx tat an ouitdoor huilting-dulg iiiidgiit to the \lalpigiiai tuhiiles, inanx keggs>milk> SMA. A high value of Zn availability was expected from eggs, which are of highest biological value. However, eggs are a rich source of copper, calcium, and phosphorus, which are antagonistic to Zn absorption. Cooking always improved Zn bioavailability probably due to denaturation of proteins which aids in digestibility. Boiling or freezing allows 65Zn to be more tenaciously bound to denatured proteins than to non-denatured proteins in fresh milk. It appears that EL Zn binds weakly to some substances in foods which may prevent some 65Zn from entering the common Zn pool in the GI tract or stomach and, hence, low bioavailability values were obtained in EL foods. Cereal was expected to lower the bioavailability of Zn because of the presence of phytate, fiber, and ZnO. The addition of cereal to different foods has an adverse effect on the availability of zinc in decreasing order as follows: chicken breast (42% decrease), milk (38% decrease), and eggs (35% decrease). Biosynthetically incorporated 65Zn (IL) is more available than EL 65 Zn. Before the EL technique can be used to determine an accurate value of zinc bioavailability, further experimentation on various food products labeled intrinsically and extrinsically have to be done. TABLE 2. BIOAVAILABILITY OF ZN IN Cow'S MILK AND SMA FED TO RATS Source-treatment Source-treatment Zn consumed Bioavailability Pct. Ag Cow's milk2 refrig.-EL ....... Cow's milk frozen-EL ...... 3 Cow's milk + cereal M boiled-EL .... refrigm-EL ....... 23 6.6 82 46 46 175 8.6 47.2 39.8 24.5 uncooked-IL ....... 14 44.1 Breast-cooked-IL. 36 64.5 Breast + cereal' cooked-IL ...... 179 36.5 'Each rat in these groups was fed 1.2 gand 0.7 g of cereal (Froot Loops, Kellogg) before and after the consumption of eggs or meat, respectively. Froot Loops contained added ZnO. Mention of commercial products does not constitute an endorsement of those products. boiled-EL ...... 1 2, 4 Rats in these groups weighed 100, 270, and 50 g, respectively. 3 Each rat in this group was fed 1.2 g and 0.7 g of cereal (Froot Loops, Kellogg) before and after the consumption of milk, respectively. 15 Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station FARM REAL ESTATE PRICED LIKE N is alu real ized upjon sale' o! the asset. It does not enter the cash I loxx needed to aimortize debts inecirredi i thle initial acquiisition. Becauise net farmn earnings after dledcltinig cosIxts of xvariab le inpu1t,,, capi tal, ailci maniagem ent mnav be loxix, a large equiity dloxx1ii linent is n(ecessarx.Fo e xaminple if land is pu reha sed foir 50() peracre, a simipile interest charge of IN~ wxill require $120 the first year lhef ore an\, pay nilent to p~riniicipial is miade. Fewx crops Canl .suipport such pa\ ilients. Thierefoire, a large dow~xn pax iient is needed to reduce thle annual charges against the ilnone stream. At prex ailing interest rates of 12 to 157, farm earnlings axvailable for anmortizatiion oif GOLD? HOWARD A. CLONTS Department of Apricu tLra Economics and Rural Sociorogy FS1 11li\1 \1, ATF is not gold, butt it has IlF bee oii a "precious con01111odity" to iiiany p)eop~le. Durming the past decacde, prices for farm real estate rose 180M and 211T in Alabamia and the I nited States. respiectixvely. MIorce recent]\- Alabania farm real estate price lev el changes haxe fallen behind the U). rate but the climb still continues. As of Noxvember 1979, farmland and buildings in Alabama wxere selling for ant axverage xaliie of S551 per acre. Combined xvalues for the 48 cointermlinous states reached $609 per acre at the same time. Changes of this magnitude give an appiearance that "land is gold." Fortuinately , farm real estate has not experienced the xxvilclyx fluctuating and speculative panic trading of the xxldc gold market xxhere prices ranged iipxxard fromi $:300± tco nearly $1,000 and dlownwxarc1 to $500 in a fexx months. AX mnajor contrast exists hetxxeen the gold and the real estate markets. \Most gold traders in recent months seem characterizecl as high risk takers and speccilators, xxhereas land buy ers in the farm market have been farmers. Nearlv three-focirths of all Alabama farmland bought in 1979 xxas acquired by actixve or retired farmers. 'liese buyers arce not likely to trade axway their acquisitions in a short-run situation as the gold trader wxouldl. IlIoxx ever, there is no question that the spec-lilative trader is having an influence in the land market. In the 1.S.., 2M% all acres of purchased in 1979 wxent to absentee landowxners. Numnerous sales xxere obserxved across the Southeast wxhere purchase prices were significantly above the prevailing local market expectations. MIany F of these xwere puirchases of additional acreages for existing fariiis xwhere a higher "1marginal" pirice is justifiable. Y et, the amoumnt (of activity bx absentee buxyers is also a contributing factor to "higher than expected" real estate xalies. Oxver the past sexveral xyears, the Southeastern States seemed to be xx ing for leadership in the race toxx ardJ higle r prices. lit the early 1970's, Alabama and Geolrgia x alues increased at a faster rate than those in other siurroiinicing states or the United States. Today \li ssissippi and Tennessee are ahead. In the 6-mnonth period of February to November, 1979, farmland xvaliues rose 247, and 15% in Mlississippi and Tennessee, respectively; xxhereas Alabama xvaliies rose only 7Y, table 1. lIn faict, for the first time in illalix y ears Alabamia and sexveral o~ther states did not hav e value increases xwhich kept pace xxith inflation. This is not to say farii real estate values are declining. Alabama farm real estate xvaluies haxve declined in only 3 out of the last 5(0 years. Rather, the rate of increase in value has sloxwed. Mlany obserxvers in the market predict additional sloxxing of the rise in land xvaluies and] sonie are predicting a short-term pice decline. Hoxxevxer, the long-rcmn strength of the "Sunt Belt" leads to the conclicn that demands for land in the Southeast xxill surge' again as soon as national economic adjustmenits hixve been compiletecd. The sigiiificant probleii facing anyone entering the real estate market today is raising sufficient equitx for a dowxn payinent and amortizing the debt based on farm earnings. The rapid ap)preciatio~n in valcie over time makes land look gdood as an investment. Hoxxevxer, appreciation in say $60 to $80) per acre xxould he stiffieien t to suippoi rt aboiit halIf thle xvalue of farm real estate, table 2. 'I'liiis, a dowxni pas ii ent of a p prximiatex 5M%\Notild lie niecded, or nonf11armi inicomle muist he used to suppllemlenlt farm earninigs. Taken together, all eonditioins in the farm real e sta te imiarket todayx inake it seemii like gold. In fla tioin is expectedl to eon tinuie for sonlie timle despite the fact that certamn segmients of the mnarket \Nill experience recessionu. IThe nleed for farmland should wxill not dliiImiish and land Iies reflect that eoiitinned need by oxverall stability in price. A xxilclx fliietuating price lex el. such as is seen in the gold market, certainlx is not expected. ; ~ PIN A( Illi'\l itI ISlI 1 b\ 1Ii i,\ N ) V %[, : m,0SI.:~~ i i) S i \,i i5 i F xii 1976-1979 \Valuei clalgc' bx xNear ,State 1976- 1977- 1978h19798 7T9 79* 7 7T Alabamia .... Georgia ......... MIississippi.. Flotricda......... T ennessee ... 48 States... 0 6-i non th period Feh marx to N oxci iler 197,9. 'Source- ISD)A, Fariii Heal Estate MIarket IDex elopiiients. TAxLE 2. IxNAxiot xis Plill Aiu Ill ki G151(' BF, H4Ii \xi) I\ 30 Yl slis xl I1SEIFIED) Axiii i Z t,\sikx lsxxI : INliEL ls HtlIE s \\i) Interc'st rate 9 ............. 10 ............. 11............. 12)............. 1:3. . . . . . . 14 ............. 15 . . . . . . . 16 ............. Amiount rep aicd, b\ annuail pax iients pier acre $50 $60) $70) $80) Auth ci t nit e rsitul Agricultual I.x peritnenlt Sta tiont M L iLLIAMS Departrment of Zoology- Entomology State Flower Plagued by Numerous Scale Insects is sbjetattck t Nninc rou s pe cies of scail' insects. Ini .lahaiiia alone there are 15 sp~ecies of scale insects recorded fromn camnellia. Oxver :35 scale spe'~cs are knoxx n to infest cainellia in the Southeastern States. Scale insects feed hx sucking the cell juices fromn the foliage,' twxigs, steinos, and rioots of their host. 'Their feeding actix it\ reduces plant x italitx, w xhich is reflected ill impiairedl flowxer production. NelhxxN ing of leaxves, premlature defoliation, stunting, txx ig (lie-1)ack . or ev en (leath of the pla nt Plants wxeakenedl by scale insects are also mnore suiscep)tible to attack hx other pests. 'I ie th re e noist coiiin scale in sect pests of caiiellia in Alahaiioa are: tea scale, Fio rin a th~ea e (reen cami el lia seal e I cp ido saph es ((Jinel/iae ( Hoke); an Id Indian xxiix scale, ('eroplastes ccriferois (F'ahriciuis). Tea scale is hxv far the inost \x iclelx distributedl and mnost claiiiaging pedst of cainellia in 'lahaia. Figure 1 presen ts a dlistribuitiioal mnap of these three sptcie's ini Alahaina. Tea scale. figure 2, has been collected fromn 40) counties iii the State. It is a scale insect pest xirtial l\ all iiiirse rxiiien and serionus caimellia groxwers in 'Xiahaina are ( faiiiliar \\ ith. Tleai scale attacks the underside of camnellia leav es. often cansing the upper)C leaf surface to turn x'elloxx . When infestations are heax v, cottonV mlasses of xxa\ filaiiients can he seen hanging fromn the leaxves. LUnder close obserxvation, indiv idiual insects can he seen. Tlhe femiale tea scaile is at first thin ,ind light x elIloss , later hldic hi xmxit elngate ox al or hoat- shaped, and ahout 1/16 in. long. \lales are smnaller and haxve an elongate, xxhite,, xx -axx coxver. Actixve infestations can he found throughout the \ear although actix itx sloxxs during xwinter. ]'here are several oxverlappiing generations each ecar. ('amiell ia scale, also) is fo undl on the are light to (lark broxwn, ox ster-shapecl. and ahout 1/10 in. long. Mlale coxvers are simiilar, hut not as large. 'l'his scale is preSent mlost oftenl onl cuttings and x oung p)lants in the greenhouse. Foliage is cdexvitalizecd hut not discolored. Iiician xxax scale, figure :3, is a mnuch mnore ohxviiiis scale insect, It is fiiiuncd priumarilx on the steiiis and txx igs. It has heen ciollec tech in 1:3 cioiunties in Alabami a . Fe inale Indian xvax scale are easily recognizecd. TIhex haxve the appearance of large, xxlte, or ciitton\- driops of \\ ax. 'Ilie scales are stickx tii the touch, upl to 4 in. long, cocx.\ circular, xxith an irregular surface. \ales are rare. TIhese aure p~rolific procliucers xwi th each f emi ale cap able if Ia yin g 1,500t-:3,0WX eggs. Tlhev ox'erxxinter as adult femiales. Eggs are laid in early sp)ring an(] hatching continues for 2-:3 xxeeks. IThere is only one generation per xear. 'lhe campilhor scale', Psecdaonj(/ja d(u1i/ecX (Ciick ,rcll), shiixx i in figure 4, attacks both leax ex and steiis. It has been ieciorcded fromi B~alcdxwin, Barbour, I ee, and Moiibile cunuties in Alahammia. It cal)n he a serious pest, causing dic-hack iof infested txx igs. The feiale cover is circular, miuoderatelx' conxcx', clark 1)lack ish -brox\n, about 11It) in. in dliametcer. It appears to haxce a limited distribution in thce State and is not often collectec. A similar specices, the caielha ining scale, Du p/a spidiotus clauiyg'ra (Cockerc'll), has not b~een found in Alahamna hbit is causing consicherablc prouhlem s foir caiimellia grioixers iii Flhoriha. This species actumally clexvelopls under the epidlerinal cell lax er of the' steini and canl cause sex-ere claiage to the plant. It max appear onlx' as a smnall lump or sxxelling in thc stein. (Once the covxer is remnox c'c, a circular xx inte scar is left on the plant. (Control (if these scale insect piests (if caiiellia is difficult because oif the protectixve covxerings ovxer the scales' bocdices. hFii hest rcesuults, spraxys should hc' applicec xxhen yoiung scale insects are hatching, he' fiorce the hiaxve settled and formed their xxaxx cov ering. Gouod coxverage of the plant is a necessity'. T'he addcition of a slpreader-sticker iir xvetting agent to your sp~ray imixture xxill generally' result in bettc'r ciontroil iof scale insects. Tw'x oiir three appllicationis about 2 xxeeks apart are generallx needled for goiod control of scale insect p~ests. . . t * .~ -1' 1- .. . S ' . ~1*. $ * 1 * \, 0~ *. * FIG. 1. I~istrihutjonal map of tea scale. camnellia scale, an(1 Indian ss ax scale in Alahama. iincdcrsidc of the leaxves. It is not as seriiiis a priobleii on caimiellias in Alabaiiua as tc'a scale. It has been rcecorcded in 12 counties iii the State. Camellia scale femrale covers A FIG, 2. (left) [ea scale male and female cov ers on underside of camellia leaf. FIG. :3.( mill) Ind~ian wsax scale females oin stem of camellia. F"IG. 4. (right) ('amnphor scale females om tw~ig of canmellia. N ote wh ite scar left after scale coxver remos ed. Anhu)o ci tmii ersity Ag ricultural Experiment Station INFECTIOUS BURSAL DISEASE (IBD) is an acute viral infection that can adversely affect poultry by (1) possibly producing clinical disease which can reduce weight gain and feed efficiency as well as produce morbidity and mortality and (2) by possibly inducing a subclinical immunodepressive disease by adversely affecting the bursa of Fabricius, which is involved in the production of the immune response. Immunodepression can then result in poor vaccination results and thereby render birds more susceptible to many common poultry pathogens. Poultry pathogens may cause susceptible birds to experience lower livability, poor growth and development, and increased plant condemnations. Although clinical IBD is relatively uncommon in Alabama, subclinical IBD resulting in immune depression appears quite common, as evidenced by the high incidence of IBDV antibodies in unvaccinated birds, the presence of atrophied (shrunken) bursae in market age broilers, and relatively high condemnations due to infectious causes in many broiler flocks. Even though the vast majority of breeder flocks in Alabama are passing maternal antibody to their progeny, protection against the immunodepressive effect of an early IBDV infection may not be complete. The problem arises with older breeder flocks (older than 50 weeks of age) which are passing lower levels of protection to their progeny than are younger breeders. Broilers from older breeder flocks are susceptible to IBDV during the first 2 weeks of age. Infection at this early age can produce permanent destruction of the bursa of Fabricius and long-lasting immunodepression. Therefore, vaccination of poultry flocks during the first 2 weeks of life against IBDV seems to warrant further investigation. The objective of this study was to test the effectiveness of a commercially prepared IBDV vaccine under field conditions. The vaccine was examined for the Immunization of Young Broiler Chickens with IBD Virus Vaccine J. J. GIAMBRONE, Department of Poultry Science M. K. ECKMAN, Cooperative Extension Service ability to prevent both forms of IBD, as well as for pathogenicity, and a lack of adverse effects on other vaccination programs. Approximately one-half of 1 week's placement of broilers (294, 720) (groups 1 and 3) were vaccinated in the hatchery TABLE 1. IBDV TRIAL KEY TO TREATMENT ANDI CHICK PLACEMENT, 1979 with a combination of Salsbury's Laboratories, Inc. (Charles City, Iowa 50616), IBDV vaccine No. dosage at: broiler dose of cell associated HVT vacchicks Treatment (No.), cine and one-half the recommended dose farm (ID) placed Day-1 Day-10-15 of IBDV vaccine (Bursine®). The com(0.5)2 (1.0)3 bination was given subcutaneously be(1) Vaccinated hind the neck with an automatic vacci+ A............ 41,400 nator. The remaining 233,735 broilers + B ............. 30,400 (groups 2 and 4) were vaccinated with C ............ 44,630 + HVT alone. All 4 groups of chicks were + D ............ 18,400 (2) Vaccinated also vaccinated against Newcastle disease + A ............. 12,000 virus and infectious bronchitis virus with + 15,500 B ............. a combination vaccine using a commercial + 31,000 C ........... Beak-O-Vac system. + D ........... 34,700 E ............. 30,055 + Between 10 and 15 days of age, approxiF......... ... 36,400 + mately one-half (125,200) of the birds re(3) Vaccinated A ............. 31,600 + + TABLE 2. IBDV TRIAL: (SUMMARY-PRODUCTION) B......... ... 15,000 + + 38,000 + + C ........... Lb. Average F + + D ........... 31,600 Treatment weight G Livability condemned' + E ............. 9,000 + (4) Control Pct. Pct. B ............. 34,615 C ............ 12,840 D ............ 31,800 'Date of placement: (1) 7/17; (2) 7/19; (3) 7/16; (4) 7/20. 2 Via injection-hatchery. 3 Via water growout. 18 (1) Vaccinated............... (2) Vaccinated............... (3) Vaccinated............... (4) Control ................. 3.91a 3.87a 3. 5 9 b 3. 7 1ab 2.04a 2.06a 2.05 2.04a 95.84a 96.65a 96.57a 94.52a 1.36a 1.41 1 .78 ab b 2.11 ceiving Bursine ® at 1 day (Group 3) and one-half (124,955) of the birds which did not receive Bursine@ at 1 day (Group 2) were given a full dose of Bursine@ in the drinking water. Group 4 broilers (108,780) did not receive Bursine@ during this study and served as controls. When the broilers were between 52 and 54 days of age, they were shipped to a single processing plant. Data including livability, live weight, feed conversion, and individual condemnation causes were then recorded to arrive at a cost per pound figure. These data were analyzed statistically where possible and compared with the vaccination costs to evaluate the efficacy of Bursine@. Cost figures for vaccinated treatment (1-3) were based on savings (or loss) per pound when compared to controls (Treatment 4). The key to treatments (IBDV vaccination groups) and date of chicks placement are summarized in table 1. Production results are summarized in table 2. Production data indicated that birds vaccinated with Bursine® either at 1 day (Group 1) or at 10 or 15days (Group 2), but not at both times (Group 3), had statistically lower overall percent condemnation and numerically better feed efficiency and average body weight. This resulted in a statistically significant savings in cost per pound when compared to the unvaccinated treatment group (4) and when taking into account the vaccination cost. Even though Group 3 (birds which received a second booster dose of Bursine®) had numerically better livability and lower percent condemnation than the unvaccinated group, these birds had a higher cost per pound figure than the controls. This was entirely due to their lower average weight, which is the most variable of the criteria used because of the differences in the age of birds when sent to the plant. Based on production data, it is evident the 1-day vaccination with Bursine® produced the best average weight and lowest percent condemnation which resulted in a savings of 0.42¢ per pound over the controls. Since this is the most convenient time to use the vaccine in commercial poultry operations and since the dosage can be cut in half, this would seem to be the recommended program to initiate. Savings cost/lb. over controls Ct.' +.48 (+.42)a +28 (+.15 a 12 (-.34b 'Figures summarized from condemnation certificates. 2Figure in parentheses includes cost of vaccine. Numbers followed by different superscript within the same column differ significantly (P < 0.05). Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station I OEJ UO EYE9 J JULJEREJ HJ J.H. YEAGER, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED COSTS AND RETURNS FOR SOYBEANS IN ALABAMA AND CORN BELT Item Corn Belt Alabama 24 6.00 144.00 SOMEONE has to farm if we eat. As each day passes it becomes more difficult for farmers to continue operation and for young farmers to begin farming. Many problems center in financing the farm, in particular farm real estate. Major problems farmers face arise from growing capital investment requirements, higher interest rates, increasing demands on cash flow for debt retirement, and accelerating vulnerability of the farm to outside economic forces. Growing Investments The average total investment per farm in the United States was reported as $258,824 in 1979. This has more than doubled since 1973 as a result of inflation, larger farms, higher farm real estate values, and increased amounts of farm machinery and livestock on farms. Farm real estate accounts for about 79% of the total farm capital investment. Farm real estate investment per farm has increased 138%since 1973. This resulted from increasing size of farms and higher values per acre. In only 2 years since 1940, 1950 and 1954, did the average value of farm real estate per acre decline. Farm real estate is not only higher priced, but number of sales has declined since 1974. For a new entrant to farming, competition in the farm real estate market is a real problem. USDA statistics show that 63% of farm purchases in recent years have been for farm enlargement purposes. In many cases a higher than normal market value has been paid by farmers for adjoining or nearby tracts of land. Farmers are major purchasers of land, having bought 67% of the acres of farm real estate sold in 1979. With higher investments required, credit financing has become a critical factor. Ninety percent of the farmland transfers in the United States in 1979 involved credit financing, compared to 80%in 1970 and 67% in 1960. The availability of credit and terms involved are important to both new and existing farmers. Surprisingly, the ratio of debt-to-assets on farms has not changed greatly in recent years. Although debt has increased, the value of assets, in particular farm real estate, has gone up. Thus, many farmers have been able to finance additional real estate and other items on the basis of equity they have built in their farms over a period of time. This has been advantageous as farm values increased, but complications have come in recent months as real estate values stabilized. Higher Interest Rates Interest rates have increased substantially in recent months. Interest costs are considerably more significant as a cost item than they have been in the past. Interest is a cost for the use of capital, and capital has substituted for labor to become a major farm input. In 1950, capital accounted for 25% of all resources used in farming, but by 1977 it had increased to 43%. Higher interest costs along with accelerating costs for most other farm inputs place a farmer in a vulnerable position if gross income does not increase. As illustrated, in Year 1 a farmer had $80,000 gross receipts, $60,000 in production expenses, and $20,000 net income. In Year 2 his gross income was the same but production costs increased 10%. As a result, his net income declined 30%. Considering the increase in living costs which may come out of net farm income if members of the household are not working off the farm, the drop in debt repayment capacity may be even greater. Year I Year 2 Gross income . $80,000 $80,000 Costs ......... 60,000 66,000 (increase 10%) Net income ... $20,000 $14,000 (decline 30%) The example points up one of the reasons farmers have continued to expand production in the face of increased costs. High interest rates also present a problem for the farmer who is buying a farm or additional land. For example, the total for interest cost to borrow $100,000 at 8% a 15-year period with annual payments is $75,233. However, for the same loan at 16% interest rate the total interest cost is $169,035, more than double the amount at 8%. 32 Yield per acre, bu ........ Price per bu., dol.........6.00 Gross return, dol........ 192.00 Costs per acre (variable and fixed costs including management, but excluding land), 95.00 dol . ................. 97.00 Net return to land, dol... Assumed average value of land per acre, dol..... 2,000.00 Return on present average 4.8 value of land, pct. Interest cost at 15% based on average value of land, 300.00 dol . ................. 110.00 34.00 500.00 6.8 75.00 Total interest costs also increase as the length of a loan increases. If the $100,000 loan at 16% is made for 30 years, the total interest cost is $385,642, compared to $169,035 for the 15-year period. Other terms of financing a farm, such as the amount of down payment, also affect the amount of interest paid. Terms of financing should be evaluated critically in light of possible income generated and available for debt payment. If this is not done, cash flow problems are likely to arise. Interest Costs and Land Returns The present level of interest rates also points up problems faced by farmers in analyzing returns to land and in making decisions about the purchase of land. The table provides an estimate of costs and returns for soybeans in Alabama with average farmland values in the vicinity of $500 per acre and in the Corn Belt with average values approximating $2,000 per acre. With the assumed yields, prices, and costs, the estimated return on the average value of land is 4.8% in the Corn Belt and 6.8% in Alabama. However, interest on the market value of the land at 15% would be $300 per acre for the Corn Belt and $75 per acre for Alabama. Obviously, this amount of interest, if considered as a cash cost, could not be paid from use of the land for soybeans or most other crops. The implication for a slowing of appreciation in land values adds further complications to the problem. Farmers face serious problems in farm financing in the 1980's. If they are to survive, the best of farm financial management must be used. 19 Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station GOOD STEER GAINS MADEr on Fescue, Phalaris Pastures O S. HOVELAND, R.L. HAALAND, and C.C. KING JR., Department of Agronomy and Soils W.B. ANTHONY, Department ot Animal and Dairy Sciences (Retired) L.A. SMITH, H.W. GRIMES JR., and J.L. HOLLIMAN, Black Belt Substation Will 41I of ox ti 1.7 11).per da-\ bx of steers xxas high ii dI about eqtual ftor the Excellent appearance of this steer coming off fescue grazing illustrates the good steer pertwo cool sea so per iinial grasses. steer,, gra zing pereni jalpasture sounds1( formance during the 3 test years. iiiost too goiid to be true. But such gains Steers oil both g rasses had excellent appearance from tli c standpoliint tif hair xxcre achicx cd oxe i a 3 Y car perioid on bo0th Kciituck :31 tall fescuc andi AP-2 coat and degree (if fi iiish at the end oif the Thle fungus occurs betxx cen cell xxalls lhalaris grass pastuires at the Black Belt grazing seasion. No prtibleiis xxere enSiubstatioin, ciiinitered xxith fesci ie toxicitx during an\x oif the grass leaves and steis and cannot be Wihat iiiakcs these resuilts sit spectacular of the 3 xyears. seen externally . It is potssible that the is thec usual liixx avecrage grazing gain (of Thle most interest ing finding xxas that ftingls Truax irtitlice soime cotmpound grow iing steers on tall fescue xxithout (failx gain ot steers \Nats nearlx double that that is toxic to cattle. Research iii protgress leginnc often I Ilb. per day or less oxver the generallx obtained o ni tall fescue piastures. to identify the causes tf poo perfourmnce 1(season Th'e other cool season perennial Steers tin boith tall fescue and phalaris of cattle grazing tall fescue is seeking toi grass in the test wxas Alt.2 phalaris. a x ariety inarlc gains similar to thotse obtained on determine the role otf the fuingiis, and to dex eluped b\ the Auiburn 1,nix ersit\ Agri -high q~uiality' sinall gr amn pastiures. finid xxay s tot eliminate the piroblemn. cultural Experiment Statiiin. This grass 'Ilic, reasons for tl it' goodt p~erftormance Results tif this grazing study indicate incorpoarated piala ri s introd uctjionis fromn on tall fesci it are n1 knttxxn, but there itt that tall fescue has the pottential for better are sonic exciting Al iWs. A fuinguis, Lpicu the Mediterranean area haxving high digestaninial pierfitrinance than is noxx being realized. Phalaris ptasture also furnished and ibilit\ and xxiuiter foirage priidiuctioini loc fimp/iuw. x\Inhii Ilasb~een ftound in tall ,re xx thoiiught tii be potentially superior to as f esciue pastire's x\]h( animal gains are goodtt gains, but hurl a loxwer carrying poor, xx absent or at very lowv lexvels in as capacity and xxas less persistent uinder tall fescue in animial p~erformance. grazing than tall fescue. Three paddocks of each grass, each .3 grass in this experii cut. planted on pirepiared acres in area, xx\crc kEi ir Pi1,1AI iiixixiiOF S Iivi,:iis o\ lxkti Fi st( i AMi Puxi sliS PxSIi li' BLCK 3i~i Si si xiiON, calcareous soil in October 1974. Nitrogen 1975-78 A\ iiit at 10011lb per acre xxas applied in Septemn her audI again)in Februiary on boith grasses. (Xirrx ing Average Aninial Beef gain lDaxs of Crossbred steers xx eighing approxiCrass species (iittiit t gra zing dailv gain per acre dax s/acre stcrs/ac rt wxere purchased each Sepiiiatelx 500 lb). teinber and] grazed duiring the seasoins of 1975-76, 1976-77, and 1977-78. During Kenutiikx 3I till fescui januar\ and Febriuarx xxhen suifficient \P210,1i1 I.... grazing xxas not axvailable, steers we re remnoxed frtini the 1 )adldltcks and fed hax\ and AGIUTRLE F'ERIMENT STATION I)rtiin-iiiineral x itiinii suipplemient. UBR UNVES TY' POSTAGE PAID Phalaris xxas mnore suiiiier cliiriiiai AUBURN UNIVERSr TY, ALABAMA 36849 U.S. DEPARTMENT than tall fescue, resulting in less forage R. I)cnnis Rotscw Dit 'eto OF AGRICULTURE ax ailable throughout the sulilimer and aPUBLICATION-High ~lights of A;R 101 9M Agricultural Researc :h 6/80 loxwer stoickinig rate. There xwere ntore BULK RATE xxeedls in phialaris pastures than in tall fesPenalty for Private U Ise, $300 cuie, esticciallx by the third x\ear. l)igesit as ibilitx, of both grasses" xx highest in latc xx inter-earlx spring, declining in Mlay and as June. 'l1iere xx ntidifference in dligestibilitx betxwecei the txx'ti grasses. Avecrage grazing periods, ftor :3 y ears the xwere frt)In October 17 to 0 eceinber 26 and March 7 tti June 19. Tall fescue had greater carrx ing capacitx than phalaris, xxhich resulted in 87 lb. mnore beef gain per acre annuially, see table. Ax erage daily gain Ij~xi(.\I\