~2~, ilk,, S - 9 DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS TIE STRUCTURE of American agriculture is receiving new attention by the Secretary of Agriculture, Congress, and a number of advocacy groups. On July 25 and 26, the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry Subcommittee on Agricultural Research and General Legislation chaired by Alabama's Senator Donald Stewart, and the Senate Select Committee on Small Business on which Senator Stewart serves, held oversight hearings on Agricultural Research and Extension by the LandGrant Universities as they apply to the family farm. Most of the 2 days' testimony was on small farms rather than family farms. The American Farm Bureau Federation presented testimony highly supportive of agricultural programs of the Land-Grant Colleges and critical of the Executive Branch of the FedI eral Government for shifting funds I DENNIS ROUSE from these organizations so important to the productivity of this Nation. Dr. B. D. Mayberry, Tuskegee Institute, Dr. James Dawson, Alabama A&M University, and Dr. J. M. Sprott, Director of the Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, joined me in presenting testimony showing that 17% of Alabama's farmers, with farm gross sales in excess of $20,000, produced 85% of the farm products sold (1974 census data). The 95% of this Nation's people who are not farmers depend on these and similar producers throughout the United States for food and fiber. This Nation depends on these producers for a balance of trade from agricultural exports, which is projected to be about $35 billion in 1979. Certainly these producers deserve a program of teaching, research, and extension to meet their needs. We also recognize a strong obligation to the 83% that produce only 15% of gross sales - these individuals and families need appropriate assistance. Land-Grant Universities are obligated to serve all interested farmers to the extent financial resources permit. We pointed out that the Executive Branch of the Federal Government had not been very supportive of Land-Grant programs. This year is fairly typical. President Carter's budget recommended an increase for research in most areas except food and agriculture. At this time, the Ilouse had recommended a 5% increase and the Senate a 9% except for forestry research where none was recommended by the lHouse and 7% by the Senate. Hopefully, the Senate Bill will prevail. The Alabama Legislature supported Governor James' zero increase budget for these programs. Last year, there was no increase in Federal funds but a good increase in State funds. Even with the best from Congress we have no alternative but again to further reduce our program. Thus, our ability to provide the teaching, research, and extension base required for farmers - large and small - to produce most efficiently, will be lessened. I want to thank editors of farm publications for editorials pointing out that these programs have been and continue to be vital and their concern that the Land-Grant Universities programs in agriculture have not been assigned higher priority for funding. The Progressive Farmer, Farm Journal, Pecan Grower, Fruit Grower, and Agri-Fieldman and Consultant have recently had good editorials. The August issue of The Progressive Farmer has an editorial by Emory Cunningham, President of the Company, entitled, "A Message for President Carter," that merits a special award. I join Emory in encouraging all readers to let their elected officials know where you stand. m" e e rtadace... Dr. Lowell E. Wilson, professor, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology. Dr. Wilson's area of major specialization is dairy marketing and he teaches marketing, agricultural economics, and research methods. A native of New Concord, Kentucky, Dr. Wilson received his B.S. in agriculture from Murray State University, M.S. in agricultural economics from the University of Kentucky, and the Ph.D. in agricultural economics from the University of Illinois. He joined the staff of Auburn University in 1960. Dr. Wilson has authored or co-authored more than 100 articles and publications in his area. He has served on numerous University committees, is a member of the graduate faculty, and is presently secretary of the general faculty of the University. Ile has served oil numerous committees of the Auburn University Federal Credit Union and was president in 1977 and 1978. lie is a member of Alpha Zeta, Cammna Sigma Delta, Sigma Xi, ODK, and has been active in the Alabama Academy of Science. HIGHLIGHTS of Agricultural Research FALL 1979 VOL. 26, NO. 3 A quarterly report of research published by the Agricultural Experiment Station of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. R. DENNIS ROUSE WILSON STANLEY P. 0 CHAS. F. SIMMONS T. E. CORLEY E. L. McGRAW R. E. STEVENSON Director Associate Director Assistant Director Assistant Director . .. Editor Associate Editor Editorial Advisory Committee: STANLEY P. WILSON; C. A. FLOOD, JR., Assistant Professor of Agricultural Engineering; J. D. HARPER, Associate Professor of EnNEIL R. MARTIN, Associate tomology; Professor of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, AND E. L. McGRAW. Information contained herein is available to all without regard to race, color, or national origin. ON THE COVER. This planting of experi- mental Christmas trees is at the Wiregrass Substation, Headland. A statistical analysis wits madle of the factors influencing the prohalbility of respondents' purchase of cut Christmas trees. Factors hypotliesiied to affect the likelihood of at cut tree purc(hase were: Tree price, tree height, population density of the( respondents' County, days before (lhristmas when treec was puirchatsed, household size, age of househiold head, and famnily~ income. Tr ee height, populattion dlensitv, (lays hefore Chriistmas when purtchase wats made, and family income wveire found to have significant relationships to the pr obalbility of cut tree purLOWELL WILSON and RONNIE DANIEL chases. Prol alsilitY of using at cut tree is Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology incieased with incireases in the tiree creported in 228 households, svhicht hei ght, popl ation deinsity , faimily inwer N AiABA5 SA and thtrouighout the South, comne, anid as dass hefote Christmas dexvas almost 601% of the respotndents rdecilitid fotCh'Iristmas trees is siubstanttial. ptortitsg the use of Cliristm as t rees . Albsout Crease. The o)1( piractice of inivxiduals going into Overall, the demand for cut and live the forest o~r grown tip) fields to cut a WVildl onie-fourth of the tree users puirchased trees iii 1978 amn-O1ted to ablout 85% of cut trees, wvlile 14% still cut their owni 5 'pl aced 1by coinl itargel v trce htas 1been the commercial hiouselhold market for tree alt ito cosst. Only 8 respon denits r etries that ofstin icrci aI 'tiri as tree induIis ported piircha~sing at liv e tree tos he Christmas trees. Atrtificial tree user s wxerc fer artificial andt~ plaiitationt growsn tices irt' neral lv satisfied xwithi thI trees atnid eir plainted after itse, as a Chr istmnas ti cc. to hits cis. \lyis Li-ners and other land coiitiniicc to use them for sever al vears. Average age ttf artificial trees in use i ss Al al am a are bsecoin ig itaicro owner Oppoirtiunities for expansion in the comdiing 1978 svas 5 yeats. Appri)inatcl\ intilcsted iiithe profitalsiliv of keci otit' -tliird of the trees in use('it pur- mnercia I in atket for (lit atnd live tirees ingloin05 g (In istinas trieeis. clu de thle uttisatisfiedc artificial tr'ee uisers chai~sed its the past :3 years. Asverage pr ice It is ('5timnated tI at over thIriee fout tIs 10%) aid people whoitate still cutting trees svas $24, hitoxever, paid for artificial oIf the (lit andi live Christmas tirees siold ili atrtificial tree biuvers its 1978 paid an ax at tice at nit cost. The Latter group coini\arkets ate, piotcted in the (ragre price of S29. Nittety peceni t of the sottIH'ri pri sed ab oiut one-fouirthI of thle peo)ple not tlici itUniited States. Wtith the advant wxho secuiied at Christmas tree in 1978. atrtificial tree users expressed satisfactiots Christmas Tree Demand In Alabama I TsE svitli tlsis type of tree anti plaisned to T'BsEm . t ' OF CHItsiSMAS True.i, DeTIuN THE 1978 HIDi~lAY SEASO(\,, 440 consitinue its use. /tLABANIA 1HtOt',FtiOLDS Price paid for at lise cut tree in 1978 Wxas $14 for at tree aver agiing at height of P~ercentettrlini5( has dev elopedi. IHossecver. he- 6.5 ft. For ans increase of I ft. in tree Houtiseage tf Response htolds hon so' fore commtiitting substant ial agr icuilturail height,' retail pirice of tise tree increased holds resoures tit this eiiterprise, kniossledge otf $1.81. Ilossever, inffuence tf hseighit ots No. Pct. ('i of dlemnd foti thte variouis ttittitt psrice otf the Tsstre popular heights oIf trees U~sed at Christmas tre'e 374 85.0 Valucale to edoI types of triecs svoul b~Ie 6 ansd 7 ft.) svas about $2.21) per foot, Did not use' is Clsnstmnas ('ittot's atnd girowsers. As at cottrihutIioni to tabsle 2. Ab~out 80)% osf the cut trees swere (66 15.0 tree at regio na I C'tristmlas t tee pi od nt ionl and( 140 100.0 pturchased duirintg the last 2 xweeks pior Total matrkelting tresearclh proije'ct, a sum'ey ox(f to Christmas. The most poplular species Type' ttf tree usedi Cut tree the houtlsehiold l se of Clhristmtas trees ill tof trees used includinsg trees cut at no Purchased ----94 24.4 Alal ttni ssias contduicted bxy researchers cost wvere easterns red cedar, spruce, and Cut own tree (no at the Atiuurt University Agiricultuoral 14.3 scostch pitse. 55 --Experimenitt Stationi (Ilritig the 1978 hol8 2.1 Lixve cost) to he phansted tree The aggregate househsold use its Ala_ 228 59.2 Artificial tree iday 5('asotis. Use (of Clhiistmas trees ill Itarra of the various types of Christmas Total --- .385 1001.0 the buisiness atnd thitistitiutionial ilaIts trees wats estiisated using the surs cv ic'A few hsousehsolds iised nme tha~n tonit t w~sitls included itl tlte, studyI. itrecent stilts which svere adjusted 1)s a type oif tret'. A I page (flestioinii e wits mailed to Bureau of the Cenisus analysis (If hourseTABLE 2. PROPORTION OF PURCt(ASE.5 ANtD a samp~le (If 1,069 Alahamna residents dlut- htold chalract eris tics. It wats estimated AvXLHA(L PICES PAID tout Cu'r CHRISTMiAS itig late II)ecemheir 1978. Th'e( sample wsas TREEvS, By 'ItBEE II t.r, h~r 1978 that 1 ,0)40,000 It)ousehsolds, or 8.3% tof thc obitatined ftromn a statewside voitetr registra'pe of Alalsacna hiouisehoildls, used somse ts Percentagze Axerage ionnintre was t itn list. A followu p (quest ('Inistmas tree iii 1978. Of these ho~utseTree ht'ight retail of total 1 sentt itoittespotictts in _Jatoiarv 1979. to it litolds, is boot 280,0)00 u secfa prefhasedl price purchsases I. Of thle o tttinai t(' s mailed, 140 peo~ple( cu t tree, 1:~35,000 cut at tircc at til cotst, t(' Ft. Dol. Pct. itt over 60tcounties responided (41" re0- 210,00)0 purchIase'd live trees. and 60)5,000 4 and unsder 4.40 4.4 sponse) . Puirpotse o)1 the (piiestitintirii used artificial trees. 5 --- _-11.20 14.3 wints to otltaiti iniformtsionislbout thlt lise :39.5 6 ---- --- 13.40 Sitnce approximtatelv 9% of the artifi7 ----- ------15.60 27.5 (If (Chiristmat~s trees iii the sample tresicial trees in use wxetc purchsased its 1978, 8a14.60 8.8 1 densts, househlolds. totald sales to house holds were abottut [355.5.5 19.40 9 and over Chlrisltmas trees w~ere utsed( in 85% (If' 000) trees of all types. Cot atnd liv e tr,'es oi tie eighlt tool ti ic ciotitig Ew.slt the responidents homes duintg the 1978 cttmprised about 85% of Christmas tree S3.01 wouiild jist tlit ixtcri. of this L~i nap lto S16.28. i Il iv season~i, t al e I1. Artificiatl t re( s sales last year. tage of at longer giossing season iii the( South, ais well ats closser ptroxitnity to mnat kets xviltit the r~egiotn, it is little wvonder that keen initerest in this tiew agiicultittal Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station TOP: A screen of english ivy BOTTOM: Hcdges formal look. Burford chinese inner hedge being convexicaf are petit point japanese holly. this patio. trained on wire Drovides privacy to and topiary plants trimmed for the holly is the outer hedge, with the ,apanese holly. The topiary plants liot lt.('5. c ti ii itti J, (1e 1 ,it lii i X'it'. SO (it is nr dc t t i o lit (it itItititi~ to tixe ptii th itdot . ipti . xx e t ct't st' 'Xstu l ZLI ofitl eii ciitts o~itt' itod ixol xtet. tl i ril Iil u 11 9 Ii? iii.. xxL ilt l $I s. itlcx tf, I lcg itts. liedI pla'ts' alrc xpac 2- for a /Td cit. de(ttptCxil xx'aue 1\-2 t Itialttr xptIic oll th ~l'r (tix s ('itll1tt'el tto'lg' 1stix 1 v , idefft iixl, aitw stuFor d r s'ottbrilt Hedges Provide Beauty, Privacy, Security HENRY P. ORR, Department of Horticulture lit in IT'e folin((.tt at rigs a list l i 1 ttl ilc-tt AI -ti lt' r t'iIt t 1 il i\ ti thiiill1 Fitsi/t/ Scientific taiouit Cittomm ltttlterr ii n na"I i/t tis \ ii'nltri t Sit ~ o i ~ Iigt ft.~t I1e t 1s 5 ba lt't to gix o a it itlht t'.k li i c vl lo'tlgt' xx, tlicl i~it ttt partil ,i and sttt i eitl ax i t s scitt'o rt ati tt)oxt ttlt to (rixve scctt Ix', andt eilti 13/rii isttt tr-, rtii Metoritit Ill I-S Caintasmnu I/t'Xxaittiitiii 1/t iiolt 'tniliait Irequ't1 atre ttxd to ti/ito pliilic, pit,il' o littgix l Ile,r t I stiq j Bironzet i l itia 5-9I l eit tt ttlttit 't parh til (.lx t iix t ca pn tt'ite Il t i it'lt' ' i pttitt ptirt 6-10 nta otuii rii ctt aill tretsul t thx x in itox i1 lii fit thei con til I The sit'r tct' tif ht iti lit tlsct'e. atti I 1m~ tfiilg sxmaii ll to lii-gt' it lii .Ica\t' xx lii' g t'i' loy (rxv xii l'Plants lii' i,a Ligr leaxves. Auburn Uttivcrsittj Agricultural Experimecnt Station -WW"--w _ _ _1 Www- -, W',U - x - _w P "I - , -M - - I A. ~J* A"' I ~ ~' ;~ 'I ~ P. -~ ~,. 41. Rye grass vs. Rye-Rye grass-Clover for Stocker Grazing R N R HARRIS, Departmnt. Animal c id Dairy Sc c( 1, McDANIEL arnt E. L CARL)EN, Gui) Ccast Substi lr off theiI 1141as IIX XX d lot- pi iio~ Ili V :31 toh 51 tLa X. 'Ihi Xil~lfi( iii it forilge. pl i I tli Sti tio i i XI I es tI i s cii ItIi)% i I ~ il"lt ~l lm Fast Steer Gain Ii ' caryioir ni c~ilmcit\v of , i 111 l Xlulle dw e u 4,/11 itiii IX Iwas Xili)il, sc b t Xwiih 1% o I IX alJI X c tiI l iii Iroiif cxtit ci X.a i ,t;k tilble. Hat i o i ol \%as i'\ le nt in XI' 'lw i le II 'lt Ii fro X ii IIIIc1 ,3 iacl (111111(14illd hav prdiii XXIX dailX ( 1:i 3da(LIX of Ilid lffcctX Iml Xi loi t- -iXit i Xtoo i ioine. 10111l or41.1/mg g.Iiii pcer Iiiti i 'iiiX kiiw 1 ite i late of gain: .398) iolic. ii). 1)11111 IX (gVasIX WSii19 loti iX \grdis '11Ins \luiitt2.Stt i. Ilitl 1111 t I ciii cii of 21e24 cattle! ll Imt ull IlIX) hil I c i , liii11 heX l t i coceI il)li.X .hill L I ii i ii XX 9tli f( i ill l i Xy 1))I ll i i 4 I~ef .1 t iX' IIitiil Ic f,il Ie 0 miIII is 111 i Iil lit 75il, li.ot N cro) cattl 1141ol oilI h It I)X% abouit 25 i1). IBeiitX oftthe( Fl-hiopi. c l X1 ('1 t ie .1 iI( i lX XXII . IIId \%iii i ill I ilI NI ( ;111 tct Xlo%%X tha~t Xtnckc ei l cakesiII I 14leI tI'i f loil 94 iiii( fa i X e1iXX thimi loi. iXe iXI14i (X Clove pii tiliis. I) I iss IXc cii ttl had1 to ii li'iiiiX I lill . (Xc- sols (,\.I il I I %% nt ll ilitilI lls of1) co1/ ~' i \Nilli v Xi l'i i- illiaiS INo i I (it ((tic ll. X Si 11viil ~iiit , coo ti I 73fI l- ifi X. XIIXli N lIisl llil it( 2.5 11111IXii, ho,1 thu Sil/i w ioti Xtf i to]rC X1, \IIX 171im 1(.13wh litiiiiiW iX ofI iw-kii IX)oi ,1 tit( 12f((l\~\).T .24w 25co _l tt .o38[ll~ tl toi 4 sccd11141i (I 11/1(114ve I* Xyii St If' Iiii ]ON A' I/ii 3 9 5-7 kltl I i)s'tl ~ ~ ~ i. ~ ~ ~ .3 XX. islt 5 Atibmiri Univci itij Apicultmal Experinictil 9ation Lime Slurry WorksBut No Better Than Dry Lime DALLAS HARTZOG, Wiregrass Substation-Cooperative Extension Service FRED ADAMS, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils A RECENT INNOVATION in liming acid soils is the use of "lime slurry," finely ground limestone suspended in water. The suspension usually consists of about 50% limestone, 48% water, and 2% clay (clay helps prevent settling out of the limestone particles). Other names for the suspension are fluid lime, liquid lime, and lime suspensions. The appeal of a lime slurry rests on the premise that (1) it can be spread uniformly on the land with suspension-fertilizer equipment, (2) all the limestone particles are fine enough to react quickly with an acid soil, and (3) it can be used at a lower rate than agricultural grade limestone. (Commercial applicators generally use 1,000 lb. per acre of lime slurry - about 500 lb. per acre of actual limestone.) Unfortunately, only the first premise appears reasonable. Results of 1978 research by the Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station indicate no faster reaction time or greater neutralizing value for the suspension. Lime slurry's effectiveness on Florunner peanuts was evaluated in a cooperative venture with the Ashford Gin Co. Four experiments were established in spring 1978 on farmers' fields in southeast Alabama. Lime slurry at 1,000 lb. per acre was compared with an equivalent rate of a finely ground, dry limestone and with the rate of lime recommended by Auburn's Soil Test Lab. All liming treatments increased the pH of the 0- to 3-in. soil layer, but data in the table show large differences among treatments. The 1,000-lb. rate of lime slurry increased soil pH about 0.2 unit, whereas the recommended lime rate increased it 0.6 to 1.5 units. The 500-lb. rate of dry lime was just as effective in raising soil pH as the 1,000-lb. rate of slurry (equivalent rates). Similarly, the recommended rate of dry, fine lime increased soil pH as much or more than the equivalent rate of lime slurry. The agricultural grade limestone increased soil pH as much as the lime slurry in two of the three comparisons. The pH of the 3- to 6-in. soil layer was affected to a lesser extent than the surface soil, but the same relationship among lime sources was apparent. The 6- to 9in. soil layer was barely affected by liming. Lime affected available soil Ca in much the same way it did soil pH, with one major exception. The recommended rate of lime slurry increased available Ca more than any other liming treatment. This was because it was a calcitic liming material and contained more calcium than the dry limestones, which were dolomitic (391% vs. 21% calcium). The low rates of slurry and dry lime increased available soil Ca in the upper 3 in. of soil an average of 75 lb. per acre; Jincreases were minor below the 3-in. level. The dolomitic limestones increased available soil magnesium, but the calcitic slurry did not. Nothing in these data suggests that the lime slurry reacted with soil any faster or to a greater extent than dry lime. Furthermore, the soil pH and available Ca data show that the recommended rate of agricultural grade limestone was consid- erably superior to the 1,000-lb. rate of lime slurry. The rate at which the different liming materials increased soil pH was not directly measured, but the yield and grade of peanuts gave an indirect measure. Instant reaction between soil and all lime particles would require thorough mixing of soil and lime particles, which does not occur with use of any liming material. However, all that is needed is sufficient contact between soil and lime particles to raise soil pH and available soil Ca above "critical" levels. In the case of peanuts, soil pH needs to be high enough to eliminate aluminum toxicity, and available Ca needs to be high enough to give maximum pod fill and seed yield. The Ca supply is not critical until peanut plants begin to flower and set fruit. Using peanut yield and percent sound mature kernels (SMK) as further measures of lime reactivity, data in the table show significant responses to liming in only two experiments (Dothan and Faceville soils). In both cases, the 1,000-lb. rate of lime slurry increased yield and SMK some, but it failed to provide enough lime for maximum yield. Although lime slurries probably can be applied more uniformly and more accurately than most dry, agricultural grade limestone with currently used equipment in Alabama, this does not suggest that a low rate of uniformly spread limestone will meet the crop's needs. In the experiments reported, it is clear that a low rate of lime slurry or dry lime raised soil pH, available Ca, peanut yield, and percent SMK only slightly. Where soil pH or available Ca was low enough to adversely affect peanut yields, 1,000 lb. per acre of a lime slurry was simply not enough to produce maximum yield. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT RATES OF LIME SLURRY AND DRY LIME ON SOIL pH IN THE PEGGING ZONE AND ON YIELD AND PERCENT SOUND MATURE KERNELS OF FLORUNNER PEANUTS, ON FOUR FARMS IN SOUTHEAST ALABAMA, 1978 Lime source apH abeso. S Dothan si' Y acre2 su, Faceville sP pH Y acreS 5.2 Lb. Pct. 2,150 67 pH 5.3 Esto Is' acre Lb. Pct. 3,190 69 Bonifay Is' pH 5.4 acre S Lb. Pct. 3,240 74 3,920 77 5.4 2,310 71 5.5 3,100 70 5.7 3,610 76 The lime was applied on turned land and disked into the top 3 in. of soil just 5.7 3,540 75 4,210 75 ---- ------------ 5.7 3,530 67 before planting. Each farmer followed his usual cultural practices, from preplant Rec. rate' 5.8 4,440 76 6.3 3,530 73 6.5 3,660 74 use of herbicide and fertilizer through Slurry -bry fine 6.1 4,530 75 6.7 2,960 75 6.7 3,510 70 6.6 3,710 75 digging of peanuts. After digging, the Ag grade 5.8 4,650 76 6.4 3,470 67 6.0 3,830 75 soil of each test plot was sampled at Soil abbreviations: sl = sandy loam; ls - loamy sand. three depths from the undisturbed area Lime increased yield and SMK significantly. 2 Rate recommended by Auburn's Soil Testing Lab: 1 ton/acre for Dothan sandy loam between digger swaths and analyzed for and Bonifay loamy sand; 11/2 tons/acre for Faceville sandy loam and Esto loamy sand. pH and available calcium (Ca). Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station None -- ...--. 5.2 Slurry, 1,000 lb. .---- 5.4 Dry fine, 500 lb....... 5.5 Lb. Pct. 3,270 71 u heclitcs ... rl izal fii 11i i .solfliii fluxIinctorius, mo're thani 65% of the roots of the(se seedlligs we re Inve-ori hial wxith P. tjnctorius. The ~~1k weond lot of seedlings carne fl010 Stanlla rd (11011 inoci iat ed ) nurIsei x beds; mlore than 65% of the roots of these seedlings were m ycori hizal witlh tile comm lonl sxin lijolt lb l( /hora t('rr',5Irl . Seedlings inl eachl lot also had been graded for- size blefore heing packaged and( shipped. Seedlings xwere planted at a :3- X :3-ft. spacing at tile E. V. Smith Rlesearchi Center, Shortecr, Alabamna, onl Februar x 2, 1977. Txx enty seedlings xwere planted in cael of 4 r eplicate plots for eael of' the 2 lots of seedlings. InI the spirings of 1978 and 1979, pei tent surx ival of thle seedlings wvas r ecorded ats well ats seedling hei ghit and stem diameter ( at the soil line) of each suri ving seedling. The (data, see tab~le, shoxw that after I year seedlings wvithl mvcoriizal ro(ots of P. tiflctorh.s were 34%o taller and 5.5% greater in diameter than seedlings inx'eoirh izal xxitl TI'.lcrn'stris. in addit ion , the pec ent suiiixxal of seetdlin gs mx ecorii llal xWith P. /tinrll11 was al molst doubl le th Iat of the T. tcrrcstris seedlings. Data aftei 2 xears shoxw that the samne I end continnied foi groxwthi in hleigh~t and( stemn liamneter. The site xxhere tllis studv xwas eondueted xxas pimiarily sandf and ivxer gravel and1( xwas extreme(ly low in plant mitrients. The data ind~icate that P. tinc torils is muchl moie efficienit thlan 7'. t rrestis in funneliing nutrients. to the host p)lant. Sfince pine seelin gs I e Iitoleralnt of shade, the morie rapid growvth exibl ited I)A the seedllinlgs mx col riIl withl P. I illc jlls obhly accoun for ill neil of (I 5 I tlits thle oblserv ed (differecute inl suirvixval peircent. Tailored Mycorrhizae Improve Growth of Loblolly Pine W D KELLEY Department of 13 lcny .and Micr Li Ihlo T illIjI H X 151 IX 11 I111 X(dip Iroo~t Is I (I gus xx0)111 11it relationSilp lltelxv a fIn~gUS 11 an it lanlt Iroot. With thle excepjtio~n (of (11(111its, all p1lants ill their natur11al elnIXiroriment h axw roolt." A 1115Ciri ual is a1 of funlgi i11111111 its v.1 Iolls rookt . lOiffertelies exist .illlollg tli1e fugi ats to their efficiemc wxill finne linig inut rient s to thle seedlinlg. The11 followSing stutdy \\,is tol- Seedlings mx cIII Iiime uieciallx Long t ailor etd x-i t P. tillct/i). are not) .%(t axvailale' Iloxxcxci, Abbott Lablori ls, Illinois, is experIimlenlting ( ;i OX I ivXeordIIi/tIC. rfile importance o11C(f rnveorrhiza(C to tlhe sur vival andI gro~oxx t f sou'~ tihIern pine hCs I 1 lon g 1ee i('~gized/'. reco MI eorrl li/al roots are inuc mitll efficenot t lln 010n mx t!ll rel ihizal roots ill nultienit iptake. Thc fungus m totl e ( xlea til) ofI 111veorl~ri l roots provideIs a phlysical barrier tol infeetion byI soil 1 (Irn11 pa1thIogei c funIgi . At least (lilt species (If inyelri iae has becen Iibts illnf(etioni iby solillIIrne pathlogenls. Several gei wra of fIngi. all (If XVwiloll are hiasidiomnycetes, folrm rnveorrhi,.ae o11 roo~ts of sou thiernI pinles. dutted 1)5 thle Auburn Uix ersity Agiricultural Experinlt Station. to1 compare twoIm CI i1Ycrlizal 5 vinho 111Its of) groxvth of Soblolly pill(,' seelin gs. Twvo lots of pioe seedlings werec ohtainedi firom the( Ii SDA Foirest Serxvice Mx elorrhlizal Institute in Athens, Geoirgia. One lot of seedlings had been gI oX\ u in nursery beds inoculated xxwith thle myNCor-XXEAG il 5 1 wxi th thle comme0rceia1 l prouto for usec i1) fore(st o(1(1)1(f P. 1111 tjlletoritis ilIoclul seix bed'(s. I'll(, pecent suivaix.1 and fast growvth (of seedlings ilIn1I Iliizal xwith~ P. tinctorills ill this stlildX Ilelliolsti ate thle value of such seedlings for- use in reforest ing Poor sites suc1h LIS reel aill) C strilp inines and 1 a dlY er oded a gricuiltur~al lands. PINE 1 iENT St IIXAL , SE ED)LING 1IGiil , AN) STEIiilixi D ITE OF 01' JOI~.ILX SIEI LNGS MYCsOiIi'L NViT11 Piolitliii tilletorills il Tllcpllora terrcstris O'sL AND TWO 1Ails Xi.-i, II il (tPLAixx NI MIyeorrhizal syllbliont A single pinie PtSI)Iithlis tifletoris ----The(le'/h11rai terrcstris seedllinlg may haveX nycolrhizal roots IrepC resentiiig several genera and/or species Pcreeot i illi 1978 1979) Pct. Pet. 863 84 45 37 Sce,(lill( eight~t 1978 1979) 19)78 cib 1979 (111 1.12 0.72 2.630 1.91 Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station ISION ix g('IlCi'lallV dlifilldi ax a'il tililiiiig rixse i thle genel leve''cl of' putc''. Ni Ii I ,Iixd(' , I. X i ( I( x i t, IIifI I I ii lx lit 1,11 I li t'lixti a litmited (Iiittitx' of fooidix. iii g xilit'x a ciiiit tli11 1 Illfli iiilit li( ((i\ pit ti At lit Itiltlg. IIII\ ixx iH 1il 1M 1 ill I('lix e 1(titi Lii it beil i I ilii' till i li t lix oi iitlii I' ii r I l il it Ii jiolt111 f xii II oxx cx ii it ix Ii[ lit' policx tii I '-sll o xfl i'iiii h i t (lii plop: ilxxi xs ax clx to Ircil I xiSiiiPt11)11 p l xi ll i i (ii lilb l ilc jt iiili-in 1 Jll iol11 the' illoill' oii, xeli) c' p111illx ix tl iside co A~lealil il('aiill l li dllStt iii t is xxlx xtli ti u Hli 'I ' [ and effects Department of Agricult~raI l ii lit iiixl xi at11 hiellic tw litt' l i i~ hi utill)- Ixi'i ittI liiii till iouce ix 01ixilli ilixP i l ilt S.i fiiii fpt l if it liotxii th chiit i i froni t lion-i i d has li'lt ilCiut ll N7 i H YE/\iGER c iii Economics and Rural So c Ioqy ii' ii n li hu s 'iix it t t ]( it t clx i it to 'it I 1ii'lt'i' iti'it il i'', 111 lilt Cbut he ii I I ( 'al Au l t li (d ' t ili till 1 I \ li~ Ow iifti 'tIl~ gIlt ) O 1(ii 1ti' \i I .1 t i 1) i it xi iii Il prll e x 11 e eIL o\iItl i It i llii 'N i'. iL ol itll( i ab lx hi lo i t, r Cci i' il' tllloc i iloi 1111 ci I pug bilithiu l thos ' iil he '\.aile xtiil its ixxai ke i 1,x it i 13 'ili xxi xi t llt10. iax' xli idit il tip t hilprduti s xI'l li iii talliilCit Ax lsiiilit'tl'l piiig jiIl(xx ii ie of ti 6 illiax. . Tah e til'' ie ihll 0' ilx xiiliii( IxI kix li t'li l .((..ft x cilx i(llt\ toil]',( CI flxx i ut e 195 in t'ilieiilg wIl s h v illliu iiilt xli uni tti it9 e rsi f'' rili allt (tkeeotll \ ihift lititiit ht 'at\ h fildx' ('xI nili i I IstIt I o ~ll X IIii lii e , I tiiiillt i to ilo itii \%i ih i lbsii 1t I tiI l tl the'xx i c t is titii'Illixili .1 itIlwix lxiii eclx it i s \IT L7. ii) Si Ii I I 150t (I )t37 I oo ) P1' rI' i' ut Y'I r Indxlix tixti firxui 1978 onlyi(l t fialix' e doubla di'it xinfii I (ix] I 1)0 oxtittg xbui tho( ill ,Iti cax out 1 l i b\ iix 10% ixl t thll i'e ii'liiix i 'Ilt' ilx kSto li 'x ti S,t ttt) coild A ht'1'i iii 2 poxw'ur ivftu p uistionsx.a xuii'i i \\ it xitii ilt 1\\' if doilir iii xxii i hI~ tnf ii'atio ' tx iiAs'di i iit'l'x illpx Cll " Si till, a xi llt) doil'i ~c'llr hit s 19501 Its 971,' ts poxx i The1 l Wti prict)s inved i'9ixitx iiulI iii to.1 c its ft p theo 19.51 19t52 11)53 19)5.1 72.1 77.8 79.5 1.t 7. 9 2.2 .8 .5 .4 1.5 3.6 2.7 .8 SI.39 iiigix iliiu ti i h iit la ts pit f tidi'lii~ it 80.1 80.5 80.2 81.4 84.'3 86.6 87.1 ililt i\i 1.265 .25 124 1-2;5 illti thex tii'u'li of it ii 1 l l \t iii I. eX llitlli ih P cii lstiii aowe ts oxmxii)ar'i' to the~ 19'67 19.55 1,9 56 19)57 19)58 1.19 1.1.5 1.115 1.12 19159 19601 iillliti (iixc 'lioit XX prsn out ixt I 'lt- 1961 S9(62 1963 1N61 9t6.5 1968 1969) 1971) 19 T1 19)72 t907x 19)74 88.7 89.6 911.6 91.7 92.9 94.5 10)4.2 109.8 116x.3 121.3) 12.3 133.1 117.7 1.6 1.) 1.1 1.2 1,3 1.7 .1.2 5.1 5.9 4.3 3.3 I .09 108 1.10 .96 91 .86 82 .8(0 '75 .68 .6x2 '59 51 6.2 11.L) 197-,5 1976 197 T 161.2 170t.5 1Ii )54 9.1 5.8 7. Auiwn t nivcrsity Agricultural Expo-timcnt S alion Choice of Rootstock Affects Performance of Peach Trees W. A. DOZIER, JR ,Deparmn C C. CARLTON an ofHriulture K C. SHORT, ChitnAe Horiulture Substation A ' I''Xx %IA: I) x \ix ), 1)( (I I I I 'Iix \( I ilhiol 20e _N ( lii th ill o ile t Ii i ix A tixit 1 ihiitiiig iii eight rooixtoukx xxli Poor condition of the six trees in foreground, in ixtililixlied at thle (iuiltciu Area lliuiticiil comparison with surrounding tuees in test plonting, illustrates the effects of nontili Subsxtationi iii 1976. ELnlJpliis of itic adopted root-stock. peach tree lollgex iix , xilliixix al proil the1ii i x t I ii~ ci] xil i li ill~s T x h11tis lii liixi decrasc i ii iik abolitlIx 'Ili i mcxl prcmixiii .~f rootxtiockxsxx ci Rut gerx Red ILiaft ichosuen foi ihi xtiidx c I () ikIp l a Ii acn iI (re Ii Ii is d(i majo n Lioxeill flalord, SiN(: 152 Al-2 NA cl 11) JIill A I x~labama ail hi iaii (, I Liri cxx \V 20)8, lall Neinathex i i I i )lil . ShortI Ililili le li c' i iiisli x c , Inti gliard. Lo~rinig and Bill Ilax ci xaricticx are beiiig exva1luated oii each roo~txtocek. Six trexs of echi xvarietx, roioitxtock 11,01( ii peix proill ith ll dea i tiI d iI 11it ion xxcie pl anted ll eiici of the fci ii ihcix beu iiliei lwfie Ii Ic (011'I1 i\% notii tixst blocks (ri ctesx). The xitc xxax ('Ii\% '1 l 11t1 1i l x iiic mostix ofi w ohilii liiivii(T.atiil Prior to piiting xxtl lIl(A) oii e x'l piliiid to sevil I1lld1, liisben finn igatell ech Ixxintei iiyitxta (of'iiixi i )% l (u i of ai . lvod xe ]liit Sic plii iignlexiiici iix i li i iixl ito if ciis ti l ix o\ ii ef eIi o ti111 i 1 igThe tliice, xc1axc i.li ihigtl iicc x rc it-\ I'i sx t ii xx iti till Beid Ilaxel ciix iiitxt thli Laa 11g. Siuci iii (: iiid Ni lagliiili xxiii pro- thei oihei irootxtockx xxithi bhi xaiies. Tlcx Oni I lilhuru. Loxell, aiiii N: 152 Al- (Y ~ ll~ Ill ilxJu jillileliixer (( xiei x. Accul~iatied x ild fur ilie 1978 andll 19)79 hri ig xcolaxsi d1 i ull \al. xlo x 'rIv ducedl~ ol :oildxii lilirix, liat Ii Ia k iic ciiiiui Iwitd l-i sI ,ill thii xxre seaons itLoiiia t3l ix li iiir illolil hi it ihliil Hl I Ii lxs the xaime rooutxtock. lrce iiiaiii xx'xgireatei ill thei Rell \iii x i ci tilllH x ohilil 11,1 l xc tilie ii ;Is' al cii xx I lioitil th il alilki xhe avr tresi ll Re illuv s1(111 il all xihiiroxt stocksx icIii iill h re r tlll~ei I I ix en iliih LoiIliii., 1111 l iiroduxced ii. ti-jt il o11 Si olial i tITe miii ti ii tillix irlix 12 ote 111 l "t i t he tree ci " Ald o xxotitoiici fiii xandl cmi the Nloxd(S 11 ncir xciviil xlcS i % ilf (iii.(]()]( ol till ILiing ii-(lx, ol Sihbl iaii ilijlxr xvaxS guirxitli that had1 a hligilir mil xci iiiiitiiekxt 1111011 ctv( 7u01oxofe.t xxiesick- tel frol ilii lllltxtlill xxax11111 xx phloe tr thandi iied liii finiisWiiiTi itl oiiil gthe~ui uiluireeIs. ci i ltii ii ma i (cirt tlan giec \vull Be liii lall old ilijiii- rtlihgs i ilix uh Iyitxoed 18 il(l iii atil x eu(eitixis t IoliiuiiK AND SI :10\ xABli 0\ YILD 'ii c lii SuLuxxI\I', (CiiD INIi ix Sinli ix i iMx iiili x icl itill' I 9)78 11)719 iilv 1979 Acciniaiiid HIe~i (Coldl iflilry rim ,i I 'l i Hc i 1111 iw-' lied I~t ii 1 li i ir_ I Lixvin 1, 1. PclL 173 )6 182 100) 168 167 71 1193 t1i0 170 5i) I li lIiir ill(-, Lb. ILii iixx211 N.\\ 8 45 135 :32 143 I19 Pct. 100 9(6 9(G 9(6 100i Baeruiail Sliier I ,iikcr, treexsil piodiiiiii xxithi x xpiuoiitx injury tri'lBeI uLor- Hill LlirIliltlix, u in 1] No. No. No. Nox. 2 5 (6 0) I1 1.0) :3.3 1.8 cldlhii iiir ad baciiuteri loxxcx ci Rootslx iticx dii iiiu ifiii C Illixiie lilid bcil 3 Ilixll dlte, 11,111 x lcxx ti x liii sifefieilit ii xpiit il,iii [calx baeliIlix spot ill-i ifiileiiii Bed ii Have 111ici it 11'i torcou tie.I Iollixtil, iii lii 1111,1 c ( a11 i lll 0) 1 9 2.8 2.0 1.8 lo%,-ii e iinigii all ofiiu fuuuiui lli xspoit t thu inid e nce Siiuiul tree 2 9 9 .3 7 5.6 7.5 :12 4.) I) ii I, it\ 111, 4 NC ci utu 152 Xl -2 iniii 6-ii~ i7 26 1:3i0 17:3 li0t 194 9G 8 1) 88 92 96 oi 3 2.8 2. -1 til truu dcai 4 2.0 2.0) tlie S,\(Ix iii ill ixxiiiu toii total tirielili. ( iid NA 8 are the lieaxt proising. Alxso, xeiiiii x ii cixaffects Ilullixililk pei- foili1) Aiubun niuciiiirxilu Agricultuirail Experimecnt Statioin ANI) Ni SilER AND WXEIGHTi OF SWCKLEPOD S IViINI., HELADLAND, ALABAM\A, SICKLEPOD: tough competition for peanuts GALE A. BUCHANAN, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils ELLIS W. HAUSER, USDA-AR, Tifton, Ga. J. G. STARLING and H. W. IVEY, Wiregrass Substation AND PLAINS, (;EII(IA Week~s of xveed free maintenance ----0 2 ------4 ---------6 - - --8 10 All season Siekiepod plants/10 Sq. ft. Plains Hleadland No. No. Sicklepod weight/aci e hecadland IL'ins Lb. 11,798 Pecintiit y. eld aci e I lealaitid Plans Lb. 1,1418 1,8632 56 17 1.3 20 7 1 Lb. 14,899 :3,52:3 Lb. 1,269 2,65a2 3,084 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 (6,710 1,935 515 8.3 78 68 259 0 0 0 0 2,616 2,950 3,021 3,021 2,893 2,97:3 2,991 3,098 2,979 S It KLIP0') some. IS lONE of the most trouihleweedls in peanuits growvn ini the U.S. 1 is filst gi oxx xxid Cottstail 1 haiii. 'I'li ing and hiighly competitive wvith peaiitts. Siinee both sicklepod and peanuts are 1 h gt imi , the I otamica similarity inakes cliem eal coin trol of sickl epod d iffictilt. Ali iii ill istanding Of the coin petitio (lxnamzics of sicklepod (Cassia 01)1usifolia L. ) is esp~ciatlly impoirtant because (dexelopmuent (If (lie peanut foliage close to (lie sil xiiiface precltudes the use of directed postemnergeiicc herhicide app lc atilins aind (lie inost timely mechanical imoin ation of these twvo cult iv~ation. E1l ctlininilnlV used hackup weedI cointrol procedutres miakes it essential that early sea- Kinowxing xxhlen sicklipttd this xxwell. emerges arid competes most severely with the peainut crop wvould enahle the grower to concentrate his control s(o as to he most effective. The sicklepod stuidies reported hiere were cooperative betwxeen Aubumrn Uniivesiy's Agricultural Experiment Station and (lie (;eorgiat Experiment Station. (ontiicted at (lie \Viiegrass SuhStition, HIeadland, Alabama, and (lie Georgia Southwest Exper imnent Station, Plaiins, ciiisidefti thrlbee g(,ia, the etp'fliinits (itt basic questions: ( 1) hoxv long must peanuts lie maintainied free (of sicklepod to prdulce' maximum yield? (2) ]ioxw long can this weed remain in peanuts and, if carefully removed, not reduice yields? ecgtilator tonl (3) 1low (foes the growth Kvlar (SADIL) affect the xxeed-crop rehat ionlshtip? Th'le exper imental area was treated with Ilalan (beniefiu) , 1.5 11). per acre, to contiol grasses and susceptible broadleaf weieds. This resulted in a sicklepod population of about 5 to 10 plants per sq. ft toi the first series of tests, peanuits were maintained xveed free for 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, ,and 101 xxecks, anid for the clun e seasonl. The peanuts were not weeded f or the remainder of the growing season followxing the weedl-tree tireatment pieriod. Results show that peanuts maintained free of sicklepod for- 4 weeks or longer had fewer sicklepod than peanuts that were not wxeeded or those maintained free of sicklepod for only 2 weeks, table 1. Peanut y ields xvere inversely related to amount of weed growth. In only one cxperiment over .3 years at the txwo locaions did I oi more \%x'eek, of xx c I (i ci ].(,Suit inl a xigiiificanlt x iehI Iniiiiteciaiic i all othert tr ials, yields of' luictioi. il] 'hxb 4 or fcxvci puliitits xx(w iere itlede xxc~ oktf ell free iiiititniliCc. xx In (lie second series of experiments, sicklepod wxas allowed to compete wvith peanuts for 01 to I8 weeks and then carefully removed. In only two of six experiments over the 3 years at twvo locations did competition of 10 weeks or less result in reduction of yield of peanuts, tablc 2. Iniother experiments, 1-4 or more wxeeks of competition lbv sicklepod xwas req~uired for yield reductions. The evaluation of Kxvlar's effects on the competitiv e i elationship of sicklepod wvith peanuts gave surpirising results. lBecause of the increased compactness of the peanut canopy when treated with the growth regulator, it would he reasonable to expect such peanuts to be more com- petitixve. I loxx cx c, restults shioxwed no incireased coimpetitiveni ess xxith Kx lar treatme] ts. T1'e iriestilts,, carly indcica te te i icessity for Conitrolling sicklepod during the fir st 4 wxee'ks after pearnut emiei gcncc to cdxets oii tlie c W i iuZ O leCiCet of' lths wx cirop. Othierxxise, despite t mlclY cilxI eill (ix ations, the xveedls Icft in the roxw 'pop tip" abomve the cirop ab oult inidscsn One of the uncxpcted fininiigs xwas the partict l a rI stironig competitive ahilit , of tlhe peanout cainopv. Sicklepod control piogi ins thalt jtidicioishx titilize this ixe relhationishiip of' peanluts ahingl cliifitit wxithi the best (linilil~t ions of chenlicall cliltur intlaid miiechaial Proiedels xxill he tlie iiost Successful and piroduce the gireitest pitofit fir thle groxver. 'IAmiiE iF ERir I C-T OF lDiIi iii NT PEIlODS Ci~PTxit' tON itY SIC EP Oi ON -S x T I Lcsi Ni, r r YIELD 01D Pi Ai Ai xn xxIA, ANT) PLA INS, ( ;I o NVi ii 2. W~eeks of comipe(it ion Pcintit yield/acre I IcaIl land Plains Lb. 3,086 3,t068 3,04 1 2i,959 2,807 2,7.5 1,150 1,106 Lb. 3,086 2,890) 3,116 2,80)7 2,705 2,187 1,119 1,227 4;.,,'. 9 Unless sicklepod is controlled during the first 4 weeks after peanut emergence, up 'above the crop about midseason and cause trouble at harvest. weeds "pop Auburn tUniversity Agricultuial Expciirnent Station .~ I ~ ig jpi ( > ~t~ 44 aind shioving lio-its w/ith a'chi other, llilX' e'Xtilllisliig Some0 IX pc NC f the app1oa11114 Ilit. 'Ile peaik tof tilt, rut (Xciii-e betweenX'C'i teil(, Los (1k ill ljau andt dw cttltt li' XXCAk iii l't'i\ iii i976. A 1XX week peiod~t the ictiX ity p~rlll 1 alildl 11 c- IV* -y, Il1(11 tilliC 1110 ilIgI about llil('. prs loitiiitl ill ;etar'ch of rcCC1 )IIX I' "tI 111 dI's 0l11lX "r~f Illis Ici~tjX11 lttif 011. 11 iCCli' was also i)a tilliC of fr'luiit alnd between Soiicaduilt tiiit Xvjiot enic~oters bucttks. By't~ te , 'l X )cn l~ofX OXrui ,iiiul v,1 Lvr t Xl- y ~ I (ck il March pursu1 it (of I tla'S XX, ill) Adult lbtcks Xer Oti CFC littget' Ai1e'tXII. liilit titratli olt CerX viIi treling i (11 tttp . ~ *1 ~ lIlt r certai'f l iii. 11 oh ill lt ir ilit Pr' I KEITH CAUSEY, Deportment of AR THUR G. HOSEY, TIM Zoology- Entomology IVEY ant KEITH GUYSE Ind itX iti~iti p titsC XXhei hitt rii i i 1t'it~ii tf i lti V tt 1- I i titit II 21 X iti lii I I tlit ti( 1111 A ll v1 x l ii I I ii I II i' 1 Xiii liii Iha\ 1 1 t 1'iic l d II' li11 111111 l'xpilded il i l ;il(X\ llo..al ll lii lit' Iil 11I '~ 1 c~ur towild tit, S it ' end ohflt 11)1) t till 111 X I'l' lt'ts XII(' ' odsi i an1d ilt-i did t n i t chl'lt t 141 d ittit XX ill till (I t-ail i i filo" IX XII ip The 1975ol for 11 log in biilw*g tf XX leti' . 1 I111 1 I ltii jlttlX t ruting Illid wasittt 111111 11111 ito d. ( 1 itr ipatti il' XX IX lir l cit till' Ilt pali terni o' brei t1 ng11 ii iil il FI lit' til liltilt l li' it e til d11 illd oigter Sou1'ther Su t' bail'l XX (''l hc it' t't' t lug ofII t'i tIm' IilIIX hilt 9 1111. adul A In Ill 1 acI\ it 1XXlse ( t u'l it ii a paliiiii I( 111111 X'1' ii Hil ('l tg lttt it's Stll)1' 1111 Alibiu nii ve/I rsity Agriciulitmal Ex 1 I('Tini t Staltimt ADJUSTMENTS INBEEF ENTERPRISE ORGANIZATION ON NORTH ALABAMA FARMS N. R. MARTIN, JR. and J. M. LESLIE, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology A LABAMA BEEF PRODUCERS have ex- perienced problems of income variability associated with the cattle price cycle. They are now earning a respectable return to labor and investment. But memories of depressed cattle prices and soaring production cost during the period 1975-77 could make even the most optimistic producer apprehensive of what the future may bring. The relevant question facing each individual producer could easily be "How can I adjust to the extreme price variability brought about by the cattle cycle?" A computer analysis study at the Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station has an objective to determine the beef production strategies for a model producer to cope with the different phases of the cattle cycle. Data were obtained from a USDA study designed to estimate cost of production and resources representative of the average beef cattle operation in the major beef production regions of the United States. One production region includes areas of north Alabama known as the Limestone Valley, Sand Mountain, and Upper Coastal Plains. Using the resource base of the representative farm, several production alternatives were compared to determine the optimum beef farm organization during different cattle price cycle situations. In the computer analysis several options were compared. The model producer could stay with cow-calf and sell all of the calves at weaning, or he could elect to carry weaned calves and/or purchased calves on pasture for 6 months and sell them as stockers or "backgrounded feeders." The producer could extend the operation one more step and keep the stockers for an additional 3 to 4 monLhs using grazing with supplemental grain to achieve a fairly high rate of gain, and sell the animals for slaughter at weights of 950-1,100 lb. Still another alternative for the producer would be to put his stock in a feedlot. Two feedlot options were compared. In the first option, weaned calves were placed directly in the feedlot for 8-10 months and then sold for slaughter at weights of 950 to 1,100 lb. The other option was to take stockers at weights of 700-800 lb. and put them in the feedlot for a short feeding period of 3 or 4 950-1,100 lb. All post weaning alternatives were compared for both spring and 12 fall calving season and, also, using steers and/or heifers. Two decision settings were considered. The first represents short-run planning; the model producer has fixed facilities and equipment in an ongoing operation and experiences prices at specific phases of the cattle cycle. The second represents long-run planning; the producer looks ahead 10 years or so, roughly the length of an entire price cycle. The major difference between the short- and long-run decision settings is that in the former the model producer has facilities and equipment, and is concerned only with costs associated with production and added facilities and equipment. He must recover cash outlays for livestock, feed, fertilizer, additions to facilities, and equipment and achieve an acceptable return to labor, capital, and management. In the long run, however, the producer is accountable for all costs, including the value of his own labor and fixed capital as he seeks the greatest return to management. Forage alternatives considered for the model north Alabama beef farm were fescue-clover pasture, Coastal bermuda pasture, and native bermuda pasture. Stored forages included hay harvested from both the Coastal and fescue pastures and corn silage. Corn silage storage and handling was assumed to be accomplished by the use of a trench silo, frontOPTIMUM SHORT- end loader, and auger wagon. Concentrates assumed in the study were corn grain for energy and a 31-35% protein supplement. For the representative beef farm, nitrogen is the critical input for forage production and corn is the major energy concentrate. Therefore, these inputs were ccmpared at different price levels to determine their effect on the most profitable farm organization. The table presents optimum organizations for short- and long-run decision settings with four combinations of corn and nitrogen prices. Results indicate that post weaning alternatives are more profitable than the beef cow-calf enterprise. A short-run planning strategy favors finishing animals on pasture rather than in the feedlot. However, the long-run situation favors finishing animals in the feedlot. Stockers are included in all planning strategies in the short run and also in the high corn price situation in the long run. Fescueclover, Coastal bermuda, and native bermuda pastures are included in all cattle systems using pasture. Silage is in all short-run solutions, but is only used in the long run when corn prices are high relative to nitrogen. The "grain on grass and feedlot programs favor using heifers rather than steers. Heifers finish at lighter weights, requiring less labor and feed, which offsets the price differential between heifers and steers. Flexibility in beef enterprise selection and thorough planning can reduce variability of income caused by the beef cycle and fluctuations in prices for inputs. AND NITROGEN AND LONG-RUN RESPONSE TO VARYING CORN PRICES FOR A NORTH ALABAMA BEEF FARM Item Unit Base corn L Short run High Base corn corn base nit. base nit. high nit. High corn high nit. Base corn base nit. Long High corn base nit. run Base corn high nit. High corn high nit. Returns to: Land, labor, dol. 55,181 50,097 55,015 48,819 management dol. Management Cattle system: hd. 181(S)2 259(S) 151(S) 260(S) Stockers hd. 329(H) 136(H) 371(H) 130(H) Grain-on-grass 0 0 0 0 hd. Feedlot Pasture system: Fescue-clover ac. 91 63 91 45 103 57 85 57 ac. Coastal bermuda ac. 43 43 43 43 Native bermuda Hay: ac. 20 28 17 22 Fescue 8 7 12 0 ac. Coastal bermuda 57 57 5 10 ac. Silage 770 5,585 cwt. 5,137 753 Corn lb. 6,710 10,853 5,760 10,665 Nitrogen hr. 2,965 2,706 2,985 2,618 Total labor dol. 69,002 68,133 69,000 69,964 Total capital 1 Base nitrogen price, $0.170 per lb.; high nitrogen price, $4.18 per cwt.; high corn price, $6.50 per cwt. 'S - steers; H = heifers. 20,004 15,221 19,951 14,537 197(S) 0 0 88 60 43 0 0 276(H) 197(S) 0 0 0 0 276(H) 88 60 43 0 0 0 0 23 0 23 2 0 0 2 0 0 20 19 244 4,520 4,521 250 446 6,152 446 6,128 1,516 786 1,514 786 51,677 52,260 51,672 52,182 $0.275 per lb.; base corn price, Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station role ill thei pi otiitioii of alg~liltuill loIlIltI fIMIll ilii inI 110M]iililb- of Ilciatilig of liv estock still tibs di-i g gi dill illiii otlier crps ;11(li iatioii iri 1 hel k 5:3) were olitt111. Climnatic week I otit.i MaIrcel 7. Iiilta I is Miarchi I liii XX(icI iliX zedl flr 26 of tihe 27 S( LMiET 5V1" tCI-il a Is ' fX' iIS t stlig rd i OfX tilli Orl stitt1)ion. Ai exal e~ (If till' reslts is shiown il 1 ofI if itillil si111115 lcstl of' hiss e ist II tl ('llll te IT iY~iili eits d b for' rew511mmrinelg thas illil'isl wer Ig rlof- i tins have h)('olmii crisedi fliii itd 1)((, atli aitciilt 50 siltrces (If 0111 .v. Stich it slli-cis( 5soLO(liii Soloh i'ig is idlso a majo re tii(inlit for pliilt gi (55ll l)iis andi (c)sts illat 5lill-ci for silit i)i~ at a selkrttdifor calulat Ilk or liaX, of tI ill l iSo lllicit i( Uitill te States.l I' ll, ~ii~ ('liulitof rccXil atl'est it] lX(h 51ilatl' dark li. sinX' X i('a illoIt i tha ete 11 of XrtigI till' v o siii iXIl'rc. (hilvlt tl(Il i5 the1) XXo es oi JI lto ki In dc f15l~ of tl(,i(T llglli I olii lill gs i gill s s to~l soIll r ra.iareisn ith oi ontal (alt eii t c oil Theliitwlighe il ilest derein ithe 1(1i tis ii i iiowledariel illa l tioric soa i er'i Of ohe as til iiiakl's well00 '1110 sillillre flit(Till e (lf, theililld lis 1 ie ilid5spltifor(list olX eliablf solarli Iliiti~ll ii (Ila lid P illit a~(tiS t mitl0 Ill iv , Xshowsi ta il hee is 1 ril1 th lie 11 ill' tiiiail(liatie esjiolsilt fte for eittei deeo als, llils l)Ia op l ilili \i itio 'alli1,('is in la k r l very g diati o l large n from 'ii S Ill sigii XThereks itu to' I it rsd ts(II 'j tI it itiolll ilil with is'. (I, iti fil sllies Ifitv illlt(ol-l Hati ies onpudt i 10 thro oruihtlg ees 2I, duig :39ics MaX (5~ lgil49. trtigh eo SO'\i( Nio 1111 oiinatihscte N (N h i he i icsolibilifo illhii'tl il~itis n jll a ol6ir 'ao , llltiolill ildletoiog itai. available by climatic week ROGER GETZ, Environmental Studies Service Center ROBERT BREWER, Department of Poultry Science CLIFFORD FLOOD, Department of Agricultural Engineering tIl('5s 29,5 Odtl ill iiiri tlaS , Xlle r ii'P iii('tii t)ill' till 2100 i X5. il ls1 til'er sil lte per it yetr Much less rilt511 l .\inl'ricisdie ti5IlliiX' tiltiti at d(l 1111439 itoill uaise toil itek ll 2St Au lfile Taple 1)111 fnli' oiir Ida 111)1 to recolsteliS. (01 Ni and olri ii(lio 7ta.T thirowlti I lilIs XX, Nvek thil be til': 22 ro(:1 llt(' Ill"c rX It er riotll SOIcil'norit coIlo fie.lti cldd 1975 oh Isoa 52 for it ()'05( ith p ialrtiilan Ieeteoi':1, f, II))1 i tlile tilt I s'dt th retilt. li( rl'i X(' I i 6,40 lir aiS hI i's1 i g il l p erksquit 'in til i 23% I itll' eilvd) lINi T(1 r('lt'it formall Ilow N((1. ii Solar radiation, kilojoules/ sofmeter/day 3 fi 11s ('liflhltl l'' to k :3t s t 9 tiiii h 4i 9.l X libt i s tin-l' T is d'riasiutile favors'planforrduc'tiotn (thiring winI i'l ie sy 1)1t (til ('itis hllh flstol it rad~iatio ollirl (ilid p eiisk lend ix iltil d frc rliie if 0,000r maxi mum itoo' A 20,000 mean± id adevs 'll(, other1 (aplicIftoe and wh1 ich rei-i tLilit lo t 2 I l hIXlileli' 15lin NOATIillel X1litiirThe thilt itli hsi clli be incS rasd 13. tilttinto thSillsl tis to tolols Il t 'Ol 1(1 (If dti t 1 ll il be111reore liX \linited Stte i3 fr ill theI (illi e I a1 l0pl00 SI' ' mninimum 0 20 30 40 s0 daii titi fi hsfl ill,. coe 1,i 1) 11111lthoug iDecembe,1 X ici ('nkr t foM' ai I'ils, Climatic week stuties' (XX] ('11 hire tv l ypitli 1 based' on 1 cl illmatic XVeek s) XVIld bet poss1ile. Al so, il shor~lt-te'rmf ill )ait X ltih161 hi h (ltill dl)1'ir C~iOil d aX(II~ X11110SI)ofIieI llltlt. Ileli Iat till hcllilrill end1( o'11(f till p)1(11 elinliltic eeIlk. For tli( purplose of Auburn University Agrizcultural Experiment Station Effect of chronic cigarette smoking on vitamin C status, lung function, and resting and exercise metabolism in humans ROBERT E. KEITH Department of Home Economics Research testing. Plasma vitamin C levels were also determined from venous blood taken from the subjects prior to testing. All volunteers were initially weighed and heights recorded. Spirometric (lung function) tests were performed with a 6-liter spirometer and consisted of two forced vital capacity (FVC) and 1-second forced expiratory ~I i -c_ ~L~E~s i~ NVESTI(CATORS have shown that cigarette smoking can cause temporary changes in cardiorespiratory performance. However, the chronic (long-term) effect of cigarette smoking on heart and lung function in healthyv subjects is less clear. Furthermore, other research has indicated that plasma and leukocvte levels of vitamin C are lower in smokers, but these findings are not in total ageec meIll. The present st udv was performed by the D)epartm,nt of HIome Economics Rleseaich, Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station, to assess the ascorTABLE I~~~~ ---. bic acid status, lung function capabilities, and resting anid exercise metabolism of apparently he althy male, untrained cigarette smokers and nonsmokers. Twelve simo kers and 10 nonsmokers, 25-38 years old, participated in the stulyv. loth gr(oups exhibited comparable physical activi ty profiles as determined by an activity- medical questionnaire. Inforimed consentts and 3-day food records for determinat ion of vitamin C intake were obtained from all subjects prior to TABLE 2. I volume (FEV1 ) measurements with the highest values being recorded. The FEV /FVC ratio (FEV percentage) was calculated. Volunteers were prepared for electrocardiographic monitoring, and resting heart rates (HR) and blood pressures (lBP) of the subjects were determined. Volunteers next mounted a motor-driven treadmill and worked at 50% of their maximal capacity as estimated by heart rate for a period of 5 minutes. l)uring the last 2 minutes of the exercise, subjects were required to breathe through various gas collecting and recording instruments. Treadmill workloads, oxygen consumption (VO,), and inspired ventilations (V l ) were recorded at this point. Blood pressure readings were again taken at 3 minutes post exercise and a fingerprick blood sample was obtained for the determination of blood lactic acid levels. Anthropometric and pre-exercise data on the subjects are shown in table 1. No significant differences were seen for height, weight, or age between the groups. Smokers exhiblited a smoking habit of approximately 16 pack-years (inunber of packs/day X number of years subject had been smoking). Plasma vitamin C levels were significantly lower in the smoking group even though daily ascorbic acid intakes of the two groups were not statistically different. Smokers also exhibited som(ewhat higher resting heart rates, but no differences were seen for blood pressure values. Spirometric and exercise data are shown in table 2. Lung function test re- LUNG FUNCTION AND DATAL E XERCISE 1. ANTHI1OPOMETRIC AND PlE-ExicmisE DATA' Height (in.) Weight (lb.) Age (yr.) Vit. C intake (mg./day) Plasma vit. C. (mg./dl.) Resting HR (b/min.) Resting systolic BP (mm. Ilg) Resting diastolic BP (mm. Hg) Smokers 70.4 - 2.8 172.0 - 22.4 29.8 t 4.6 81.4 ± 54.1 0.69 - 0.262 71.9 - 13.1 126.8 ± 8.8 Nonsmokers 70.5 +- 2.4 167.9 + 29.9 28.4 - 3.7 106.0 - 60.2 2 0.88 - 0.272 64.1 ± 9.1 125.5 ± 9.6 74.0 ± 7.5 75.8 ± 6.0 'Values are mean ± SD. 2 Values significantly different at P = 0.05. FEV, (1) FVC (1) FEV r% Treadmill workload (METS) 4.35 1.49 VO ( ml./kg./ min. ) 15.9 - 4.8 22.9 ± 6.4 VI (1/iin.) Post-exercise systolic BP 131.9 - 9.0 (mm. Hlg) Post-exercise diastolic BP (mm. HIg) 69.8 -- 7.2 Post-exercise lactic acid (mg./dl.) _ 21.4 - 6.5 Smokers 3.85 t 0.47 4.98 - 0.59 77.3 -+ 6.32 Nonsmokers 3.96 -t 0.35 4.76 - 0.37 83.2 - 7.2' 5.32 1.02' sults indicated that smokers had somewhat lower FEV1 and higher FVC values and a significantly lower FEV percentage than nonsmokers, possibly indicating some impairment of lung function in the smoking group. Treadmill workloads were significantly greater for nonsmokers although no differences were seen for VO.,, V 1, post-exercise blood pressures, or blood lactic acid levels. In summary, the data presented in the current study give some indication of decreased vitamin C status as well as decreased lung function and cardiovascular-exercise performance in an otherwise healthy group of smokers when compared with a similar group of nonsmokers. 16.7 ± 2.0 26.1 - 4.5 135.0 ± 9.0 73.4 ± 8.6 17.8 - 4.8 Values are n ean - SD. Values significantly different at P < 0.05. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station Oystershell or Limestone? Both Good Calcium Sources for Hens DAVID A. ROLAND, Department of Poultry Science MAJOR GOAL of the commercial egg producer is to maintain acceptable egg shell quality throughout the life of the hen. However, the hen often fails as she ages, and the decline in egg shell quality results in a large economic loss. The problem is complex and confusing, as evidenced by the different, and often conflicting, suggestions the producer receives from other producers and from commercial and government "experts." One concern to the producer is whether to substitute part of the fine granular limestone (calcium) in the diet with hen or pullet size particles and, if so, whether to use limestone or oystershell. The producers' dilemma arises primarily for three reasons: (1) since calcium is probably the major nutrient involved in shell calcification, he wants to use calcium from the best sources; (2) there are several calcium sources available; and (3) these sources vary widely in price. Economic considerations dictate that producers buy the cheapest source that will do the job. This report reviews available information 1 comparing oystershell and limestone, which should provide a basis on which to make a decision. A both were adequate sources of calcium for egg shell formation. A 1960 report noted that the form in which calcium was consumed did not influence shell quality. There was no difference in egg shell quality when hen size oystershell (52 lb. per ton of feed) was substituted for an equal amount of fine granular calcium carbonate. Between 1921 and 1963, at least 12 papers were published in which oystershell and limestone were compared. Of these, 10 reported that limestone was equal to or better than oystershell for egg shell quality. The other two concluded that feeding oystershell gave better egg shells. Controversy Picks Up The controversy of oystershell versus limestone began gaining momentum in 1970 with at least 19 papers published during 1970-77 comparing the response of laying hens fed various sizes of oystershell and limestone. A paper published in 1970 reported improved egg shell quality by hens fed diets in which oystershell supplied twothirds of the added limestone. The explanation given was that the hen size particles of oystershell were retained in the gizzard during the day, with the calcium then metered out at night. This prevented hens from becoming calcium deficient during nighttime hours. The next 7 years saw at least nine other researchers conducting similar experiments. Five reported that the inclusion of oystershell in the diet at the expense of limestone was not beneficial, whereas four said including oystershell improved shell quality. One researcher reported that the effect of oystershell on shell quality was more evident when the diet contained 3.00% calcium than when it contained 3.75%. Most of the studies were not true comparisons of oystershell and limestone because hen size oystershell was compared with a fine, granular limestone. However, eight comparisons of hen or pullet size oystershell with hen or pullet size limestone were published during 197277. Seven of these reported equal responses and one stated that oystershell gave better results than limestone. While there may be several reasons for the variation in response of hens fed various sources and sizes of good quality calcium carbonate, probably the most important were: (1) researchers were not comparing the same particle size, and (2) the hens in which oystershell was substituted for a portion of the fine granular limestone were not always consuming adequate calcium. In several studies, for example, the inclusion of large particles of calcium carbonate gave no response in diets containing adequate levels of calcium. However, other researchers reported a response with hens that were consuming inadequate amounts of calcium. Adequate calcium is hard to define because the calcium requirement can be influenced by several factors. In the 1970 report cited earlier, hens fed diets containing 3.5% calcium were probably calcium deficient because they were consuming only 3.2 to 3.3 grams of calcium per day - below the NRC requirement of 3.6 grams. Conclusions 1. The vast majority of research showed no difference between good quality (38-39% calcium) limestones and oystershells in promoting egg shell quality. 2. The inclusion of hen or pullet size particles of oystershell or limestone in diets will improve shell quality if hens are consuming inadequate calcium. 3. Hens need to consume a minimum of 3.75 grams of calcium per day to ensure maximum shell quality; older hens or hens with shell quality problems need up to 1.00 gram more, depending on the severity and type of problem. If hens consume these levels of calcium, the inclusion of hen size particles of oystershell or limestone in the diet would not give beneficial response. If for some reason (feeder design, feed separation, temperature, dietary calcium level) hens do not consume adequate calcium and shell quality is poor, hen or pullet size limestone or oystershell should be included in the diet. Because of the cost differential between sources of calcium and particle size, only one-third to one-half of the added fine granular calcium should be substituted with large particles. 4. Since the majority of studies indicate no difference in good quality limestone and oystershell, the source used should be least-cost formulated, just as for most other nutrients. 15 Early History In 1892 it was already a common practice to add calcium in some concentrated form to the feed of laying hens to maintain optimal shell quality. From 1923 to 1935, comparisons of Atlantic oystershell, Pacific oystershell, and various limestones found no appreciable difference in egg production or shell quality. However, there were conflicting conclusions from these early studies. Some reports indicated that oystershell was more beneficial than limestone for shell quality, while others concluded that limestone was more beneficial than oystershell. Part of the inconsistency of results is because of wide variation in physical and chemical characteristics of the different calcium sources tested. Several researchers reported that dolomitic limestone reduced egg shell strength due to its high magnesium content. Others found that white, shiny limestone was more attractive to hens than dull gray limestone, but 'A complete list of references can be supplied upon request to the author. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station IRRIGATING PECANS Speeds Growth Boosts Production Increases Nut Size H, J AMLING arnt K A AMLING' Depti f H( rt1ClJt1( C D BUSCH, Dept ,f Agri ulitirul Ergineirirg E. L. GARDEN, N. R McDANIEL and F. B. SELMAN, Gulf Cocast Sob ration Al [I seiledilled fio siipplcllelitilry irrigationt XXcr ('1 1if) 1(1 lliid suippilti xx ter fronto a tanik. Treatmenits wxere he imii the secondll itrCa af ter pliitting 1 li flirs Xl itiiceaile ctiler of' suilieiiintaiv irrigation was the high siiiX Wal of newly'I planited trees. Few ('plankit e wer season, spi ikh'i it igilt m trees wr 1.0gcr thiani tiose iiiiii drip ti tatinis and :39% T11111 irrigiatle tr ees. TIhis iffeet hats (oittillilli thllolgiiolit the leipei illlit. BoX tile cild of the seX ('1th glow-5 seaxso, spinkler iiiiatec ti( %ver{' 55%, iaigei than non) es igteli trees. C iiopy oluiW XiIo\e Lge diiierenees doel( lif B\x tihe fouirth (roxxiio (llii~steiitiN\ largt.' titl fing firi to irii gtill tri'tmelit. talble 1. S t miii iNTIXlX l1i i lill(%itXi iN Otf ple'ills, is ait -litix eI' 1tiigs ill coIll 11tlt lWXX Xitiionghi spr inkler fi ligation promolted i t( gieat'Xt (lgieC of' ve(grea'tix Cllt>X anid restiltedillii the Lowegst trees, it delaxecd the eiiset of pistilla~te' finxw ( formlation. IThis ieliaxvsoed XIOX tip) In reduied ie d11 the sxthi growinlg 5(015011 ft(e fii t Tooii (r01) tabile I .Spiinkhti ii-iigrittion estiftil Wn 11 less inotx e I). Ies g'ttiiig no iIgitioti Xielded 9:3.3 less l1). IntS 1)(le ael' iC thi (1iJI to iiAiiit. Illtie sixthli ilxl(g 5115011 pei01 1( df~rouight stress occuriied du1111 logt<, time xxlin tit size wa s decterind. No 'teh 5tit'ss wil axllcointetcl iiri the fjljror pec iod. (:oil30 cit1tiirts). an it' 121 X i lc li'tsli (finiit p -igh 'llxacice, p ih irii ition gs htil~ i ge stilland XXipili ii" gWl i1 ~iii I iiitxestoii Ilc rii l I ll i, ~r opltls 1)ill l Xits is li neftil l(fT,11 l IX ,iht tei l' it( h t 1 1e5 1 e it ll 'll 15 ll l ii 11 ;1 tlill'sixtli w p ilts til X Loiiitil. n ia t of151 illIXX i t xw gI ll\X t p1o B r h i lit is ItIX% ill-igattion gltatX ifl i \i, eight. h ut l)i(ii Iht tle ellect ol p I 111(1 (1c .e ile, peeanxis table I_ s191111 TALstP l 'I t i11tsie and ke i lin' sh1lotit flu Shiolli Pei 11illfrth 1113,1111 ill F pifi n 1 dic 1w t i h% llbiX Xll 11 5 ll( f v 1y51 icitlit ii Stat11)11,1 in i t tii 197 at if Xt(Gul I 1.EtilOF ILD 1IGTi [lON tON CXNIIPY \'OLUl 'At III OFt llt , Cxii FEA \xiisouit x) Substtion lx ( Igl.c pu'ulilj wils )11 t ii lldt IviXX l t t e getins Irrigation treaitmrent per to ce' per ait, ,illoiX Noh 111 lww m I'~m 2li e"(ittibile ti'p11t51111.llp'l d h ii1111 h \iid IIit iil o it l )il Itl r (ai 30) centhibi I gill. dip peI9r IhiX 1 (ill 111111ter (a 5(1 cent iiOil I gill. drip Pe1 (hli Tnief' riil ) (LIX ll Sprinlktr xxith tctisiolnetet i 8 Lb. 32.8 A .9 Lb) 1,36 1 1,32 1 1:1. :340) 316 iit x xill il ,xlu 1 r J~r1'igailti ii tilkt ho lt ('ist X lc lld f lilth vic 28A1 23.6 19.2 19.2 18.6 10).3 1,179 9)79 797 797 772 4-28 299 224 2 19 29 3 3630 204 Is ii('lX s cii f i to pi nklcr1) ireliti('oiii .11. tu 1111s IlX IX \]' l(rll lig t(' i nserted' I I +5 i I tii Xllt XII Ii lli it'xs IitIe f ill il (ittl t i' titherl tutu xtd t Sp ii' :30 X( 35 it -41.5 tires per ittu' iii iie~ till t x c it el ilki of l i irgtion l wle s 1u TABLE 1)1111its Tltil lll t Slts H~ ( of I (( .11111 ) 8 itti 11 0Ii 2. hI' ii T OF IRIGATION t nliils oN. Nt-i's ii I POtUNDo Ri loiL Wl~ttilT, ANDt ItiEt(IN I SiiiiiLii.T, Si-XII iOxNI,~ SIAM\,t. ZSHOll1sol ANDI Ciii X N \L 'AIEXT1 Ii rrgtntreatmoent Nuts, S1 No. S iullht(I('l oo Snl sllih)risl lttd clp 11e th in trc iiw Shllot S C Pet. Pt o 52.8 51.63 SpI inli (lit XXiti tlinii(ter hIlls1:3 8 glill. drip ml( dily 1 gill. dip1 petda ieflsilliilter eutihiars T1ensioitttr Tciesillllltter centitlin 48 49 53 58 56.5 5.5.8 ((-1 15 52.4 50.1 (32 (33 71 (37 4.8 4.5 4.2 3.7 4.1 4.1 3.7 4.0 52.3 52.1 52.3 52.7 51.6 55.8 5(32 56.7 563.9 58.5 48 (a) :30 52 ((it 50 No iirig ;ttion , aity: S 57 (35 SI 1111, C ist Ch eyenne. Auburn University Agricultural Experimnrt Statitnm Serola 76 tright) made good growth on nematode-infested Plot, while susceptible check (left) foiled to survive. test T0r 5 XtFFIit is tr i sititt thlat ate resistant tot toot-kt tiettities -Set ala 76 itnd Inter-state 76 -hisve liv the Ailttibr IUtivisity AgittiurlIsttiei been (cased Stationi 'The tsvii %iii thisveloped~t fiii sixutil tu'sistatt inhitut lines ideveloipedl cooper)tativ ely sytli the Cciii ia Airt icitlttil Fx Need lou- t'sistaitt sat (tics has bee(,t shiownu by stantd faillites atlter thel fitst hatvst year' wlttI) vatrieties sttsceptthde to itit-kutot utiiatoiles sxvc e plintcd On illf Csted Soils. liglietr t otageC \ llait diIdMoe mit l pc ItststeltIt statI] (SI Ia ceen itltitIietlc o% \6x1 tticsistitit \ai tics tunder fte stunl tititlittitts. Variety Development Set ila 76 is it s5 tivtlietic comtrposed of Itt elite tulbt ed litocs that litccl tru for resistatice to the te t not ueituitothes !i lidilt mfiit i nmita ant IAlu. ti,ita ticritu. Ftu of t he i It0 lutles tlsot ate resistant to Al. Iiopib. Six of the Itt lines ot igfitateh ftrot cotounooti seniea andi fouir ftront the Atrlington Vatrietys Serala 76 and Interstate 76, New Auburn Sericea Varieties E. D. DONNELLY, Department of Agronomy ond Soils N. A, MINTON, USDA-SEA, Tifton, Georgia littet state 7(6 svas derivedI frm txvo Ft (ftouth genieratiotl) itoes frti Inter state X Alit. 1, 11I This nless satiety hireeds trip' fot' ttsisttti(e toi all thrtee of the ittkitot nciitatitie species listedl. 'Ilii lIter state parent \ itv is tesistitit tot .11. illcog it ii atM( . intci i(ni ita at rita spe~cies oifitem a todes. 11he i thCY parent, Alat. L, II is at tall gioss itg itibted line that is tesistat to all] thr ee of' the species of' iuiot kitt tiltotts listedl. Variety Description and TAttLE Performance 1. Ilittit liAcTitON OF' Si tic A VAtItI FiLtES AND LINES 'T) xii N\ si ittits I\ 'k Fittj lT It PANTEtD MAYx 18, 1975, AT It-IO\, C;i otuot ;A fhatve siu5 c oif soil, by dte 1t/t9/75 12/6t/76 2/22/77 7/6/77 No,. Nit. No. AN,. Serala 2:36 694 32(6 t26 Sit alt 76 :38 248 4 18 Alit. L 1t) reisistanit cick 22 42 It) 6 Ala. L, 10t) susceptile 1,094 2,352 82 t Intertstite 7(6 28 46 6 72 48 46 Entry mostlIsehpletiel. SEiRit A VAtIi. Yit' SANDt IANES, AT TIssttC xI itNs '1 a'l&act e, by location tani syear Tifton, CeorgiaAibin-n, 1978 1978 1977 1976 Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Seralti 6,745 5,150 7,693 10,886 Scrala 76 7,429 5,768 7,258 10,980 Alat. L It0, resistatnt chick 7,739 6,157 7,659 Alat. 1, t1t), siiscvpttli clitik 5,987 0 0 Inte'stte 763 8, 194 6,62:3 8,251 11,298 Inttirstiti' 7,1 I ' (,242 6 8,248 9),936 ,Stil typie Was study cioastail phi ii at Tiftoin andt Pieditot claty at Nutrth Attbutrn Agricuilturial Etnintieritig ani. "Ntot ittcluded in this test. Entry Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station Si ila 7(6 is aI fine stcimmeti tall-groiis itit.rtietv simlilat to Set dla inl stei t5 )te aiid liciglit. It is tonic resistanit to thei cotton loot-knot neiattode (M!. iflo~pnila actaO) thlan Set iLi tale 1. I liimv('5 ci Set dla produ.tces stnie I esistalit atld stiln suts'epttibtle pliants adl is much itiore resistatit thtan Alat. LI lt0t, the sliisceptildt cotriol. Yields1 andt standis of Sctala 76 and Set ala ate similar' I) oil Soils that are not infested w5itli these titniititils, and (2) oil inifestedi soils \shen Set ala is seeded at high iates, ftltl 2 Thie higTh seeding tate of Set ala is reqiried oit tieiitode-ii tested Soils to compen~lsalte for the Por tioti of plants that an, sttsc()t ihie. lInterstate 76 is itternietiate lbetsseett Seralat and liitet state iii height atnd has at mrote open gi'ioxtl hiabit thani itetstate. hioti litterstite 76 and Interstate hiase at high lev el (il teststance to thle cot ton i not-knot nem ati (1e, talde 1, and arie tlo e resistant thati Set ala atid the suiscepttihble Ala. L 100t. For age sields of Set ala 76 and Itetrstate 765s vetc similar to Serala and Inter state prodttctton at Tiftont, Gemrgia, tduting eatch itf 3 test years, table 2. Both of the newv viaricttes s teldeil I igliet titan tHe stisceptile check, Alat. L 11, platnts of wh Iichi wxci e killed biefotre the second lharsvest scat-. On thec heavy clay 1 sioil at inirth At dn for age Yields of Seral a 76. In ter'istate 765, and Set ala wet e similar. All three made mnote forage than Intetrstate at that location. (;'teitdlls both Inter state anti Interstate 76 produtced mlote eati Is betrbage (Aptril) than Set ala 7(6 or Serala. Th'lis is im]) portattt because forage usutally is in shotrt sttl)pIlv at that timle of yeatr. Also, M'ieni utsed for contserv5atioti purponses (liiglwas Vegetatioitn), an ciilIssat ietv is mote coitm 1 ctitis c ssitli weeds andicpieset its it Morite attractisve appeitatatee thian at late var tiiety Seed of Serala 76 and Inter state 7(6 wsill Ibe av aildble after the 198t) seed crop is harvested. How Residents Perceive Area Affects Success of Development C. L. VANLANDINGHAM, Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology D EVELOPMENT IS A TERM that has different meanings for different people. Even professionals who work in this area have not reached a consensus. Therefore, development in any geographical area is greatly dependent on how local people define it and what they perceive as being strengths and weaknesses within their geographical domains. Varying views of development by local leaders are being gathered in Southern Regional Project S-120, which was planned to determine relationships between social organization at the county level and degree of development in the county. The Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station portion of the study began in spring 1978. Leaders in Clarke and Tallapoosa counties were interviewed to obtain information concerning their perceptions, assessments, and definitions of development. The procedure for selecting leaders involved several steps. First, a list of positional leaders was compiled. This list was then shown to each individual whose name was on the list, and he or she was asked whether the people listed were indeed leaders. Each individual could add names to the list. After obtaining the final list, the individuals whose names appeared were to be interviewed. Information was obtained from 26 leaders in Clarke and 29 in Tallapoosa. ers emphasize the more traditional economic factors. Perceived Strengths and Weaknesses Clarke County leaders appeared to agree on the strengths of their county. The response with the most mentions (20) was people. This is rather vague, but more specific responses were morality of the people and their commitment to the county. It is difficult to argue that people are not a strength, but it also is difficult to determine exactly how this strength can be practically utilized. Rurality was the next most often mentioned strength. Since rural areas have become an attractive place to live, this may well be an important asset. However, increasing cost of energy may work. Three other perceived strengths with six mentions each were potential for growth, recreation (hunting and fishing), and natural resources. Climate could have been included in natural resources, but because it was singled out by five leaders, it was left as a separate category. Of the five major categories in which weaknesses were listed, need for employment opportunities was one of the most mentioned, along with health care and roads-transportation. Tallapoosa County leaders agreed that their main strength was recreation. Recreational facilities are important in any LEADERS' area's development, of course, but especially so in Tallapoosa County because Lake Martin is partially in that county. The second most often mentioned strength was people, whose significance has already been discussed. There was far less consensus among Tallapoosa County leaders on what their weaknesses were. Mentioned most often was roads-transportation, but only 11 leaders perceived this as a weakness. Lack of employment diversity, housing, and health care were other perceived weaknesses. Tallapoosa County employment is centered around the textile industry and is less diversified than many Alabama counties. Even so, only nine leaders mentioned this as a weakness. Conclusions Comparing the two counties, one can conclude that there is more consensus on strengths than on weaknesses in each county, and Clarke County leaders are more in agreement on their weaknesses than are Tallapoosa County leaders. Another conclusion is that Clarke County should be able to more easily attack its weaknesses since leaders are more united in their perceptions. A third conclusion is that the two counties are similar in what leaders perceive as being weaknesses, but there is a great deal more diversity in Tallapoosa. Tallapoosa County leaders mentioned about twice as many weaknesses as Clarke County leaders. Clarke County leaders emphasized their county's natural and human resources as being strengths, while Tallapoosa County leaders emphasized previous accomplishments, such as recreation (Lake Martin), low unemployment, and good schools. Definitions Obtained As expected, the county leaders interviewed defined development in a vari ty of ways. Such responses as a terse "progress" to longer definitions including industry, government services, and human resources were given. Categorization is difficult, but there appears to be some agreement among the leaders. Definitions given by more than two leaders are listed in the table. For Tallapoosa County, development means job opportunities, economic development and growth, and more services. Definitions given by Clarke County leaders included growth in industry, natural resource development, and human resource development. Clarke County leaders tend to emphasize improving county resources, while Tallapoosa County lead18 PERCEPTIONS OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN DEVELOPMENT, CLARKE AND TALLAPOOSA COUNTIES Strengths Responses* People Rural location . Potential for growth Recreation (hunting and fishing) Natural resources ...... Climate ..... Weaknesses Times Responses mentioned Clarke County Employment opportunities20 H ealth care ............. ----- 11 Roads and transportation -6 Education ... --Housing 6 6 Times mentioned 16 16 16 8 6 5 Tallapoosa County Recreation 21 Roads and transportation People l11 Diversity of employment Geographical location ------------------ Health care 7 Low unemployment -7 Rural county 5 Schools 5 * Only responses that were mentioned at least five times are included. 11 9 5 Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station Cloudy Weather and Dissolved Oxygen in Catfish Ponds ROBERT P. ROMAIRE and CLAUDE E. BOYD, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures LOW CONCENTRATIONS of dissolved oxygen (DO) and problems associated with heavy "blooms" of phytoplankton (dense growth of microscopic plants) are commonplace in channel catfish ponds during late summer and early fall. Fish farmers widely recognize that DO concentrations are lower throughout the day during prolonged periods of cloudy weather than for fair days because of the TABLE DO at dusk DO at dawn - daytime change in DO. All terms in the two equatioins are obtained for ponds which do not have "muddy" water by recording ti he following information: pounds per ac,re of catfish, Secchi disk visibility 1 of pomd water, daytime solar radiation, and w7ater temperature at dusk. The Secchi disk visibility is the most important te rm in the DISSOLVED of 16 to 24 in.) and moderately overcast and partly cloudy weather results in DO depletion after 2 to 7 consecutive days. Little chance exists of a pond becoming completely depleted of DO during the night following slightly cloudy or clear days. Channel catfish culturists frequently initiate emergency aeration in ponds when DO concentrations decline to 2 p.p.m. or less. Dissolved oxygen levels of 2 p.p.m. are likely to occur in ponds with moderate to high Secchi disk visibilities, 16 to 24 in., after 1 or 2 days of moderate to heavily overcast weather, table 1. Secchi disk visibilities of 8 in. or less are likely to result in DO concentrations declining below 2 p.p.m. during any given night regardless of the magnitude of solar radiation. DO concentrations at dawn are generally lowest during July, August, and early September because plankton and fish densities, the major components of respiration, are greater at this time than earlier in the growing season. Furthermore, water temperatures are still high enough to favor rapid rates of respiration. One would therefore expect cloudy weather to have its greatest impact during this period. Knowledge of the probabilities of consecutive days of cloudy weather and of the number of consecutive days required for DO depletion, table 1, will be useful to catfish pond managers for predicting DO depletion. For example, the probabilities of incurring consecutive days of moderate to heavily overcast weather were calculated from 14 years of data obtained by the National Weather Service at Auburn, table 2. It is apparent that the probability of having 2 to 4 consecutive days of moderately overcast weather at Auburn is low during July and August but increases sharply during September and October. However, from mid-September through October reduced water temperatures result in lower respiration rates of the pond community and usually prevent DO depletion. 1. NUMBER OF CONSECUTIVE DAYS OF CLOUDY WEATHER TO DEPLETE OXYGEN IN CATFISH PONDS, FOR SPECIFIED PLANKTON DENSITIES Heavily Moderately overcast overcast Depletion to 0 parts per million 1 1 Below 8 2 ------------- 1 ---------------16------------------------3 2 24 .... ................. . .... 2 3 3 2--------------------- ----Depletion to 2 parts per million Secchi disk' visibility (inches) Cloudiness Partly cloudy Clear S2 c S s 2 6 6 7 ... 0 Below 816 -----2 4-----------3 2 -----------Measures plankton density. Higher numbers indicate less plankton. 2 S denotes that pond is safe from oxygen depletion. unfavorable influence of low light intensity on oxygen production by the phytoplankton. Therefore, less DO is available for use by organisms during the night and DO can drop to dangerously low levels after a few days of cloudy weather. Unfortunately, little is known regarding the number of consecutive days of cloudy weather that may be tolerated before DO in channel catfish ponds is depleted to unacceptable levels. In order to accurately predict the relationships between cloudy weather and DO dynamics in catfish ponds, a computer simulation model was developed by fishery researchers at the Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station to determine DO in ponds for varying degrees of cloudy weather and plankton densities. The computer model solves two basic equations which give the concentration of DO in ponds. First, the amount of DO in pond water at dawn may be defined by the nighttime equation, DO at dawn = DO at dusk - DO exchanged with air above the pond - DO used by fish - DO used by bottom organisms - DO used by the plankton. Secondly, the DO concentrations of pond water at dusk may be predicted by the daytime equation, nighttime equation because it is used to estimate DO consumption by plankton, the major user of DO. Likewise, solar radiation and Secchi disk visibility are the most important components in the daytime equation because they jointly regulate the daytime increase in DO. Results of the computer analysis demonstrated, as expected, that the combination of dense plankton blooms and cloudy days was closely associated with low DO concentrations. Dense plankton blooms (Secchi disk visibilities less than 8 in.) would result in DO depletion (0 p.p.m.) after 1 day, table 1. Moderate plankton blooms (Secchi disk visibilities 1 A Secchi disk is a disk which is 8 in. in diameter and painted with alternate black and white quadrants. The depth at which it disappears from view is the Secchi disk visibility. The Secchi disk visibility gives an estimate of plankton density in ponds not contaminated with mud turbidity. TABLE 2. PROBABILITIES OF CONSECUTIVE DAYS (NUMBER PER 100) OF MODERATE TO HEAVILY OVERCAST WEATHER AT AUBURN, ALABAMA Number of consecutive overcast days 1 -11/100 2--------------------------- 3-----------4 July 6/100 2/100 0/100 August 13/100 7/100 1/100 0/100 September 26/100 24/100 22/100 17/100 October 39/100 39/100 37/100 31/100 19 Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station can b)e d1er1ived fax t c Tile major0 oire ec20 onniiind m resealrchi ist thru of the pro- "If teracts wXithI its el11 Iin t,1t12 loXX a1 1ir ironmenlft. Mannedl(( research~l for thll to- Research Capabilities JOHN BRAKE, Department of Poultry Science tlboiisnl, forced1( mroltinig, immunollllogical period to repro duc1tive2 perfor)man1e.21 Recsults of' these51 stud~iexs will ,illoxx signs and 11111 agernent practi~es to llt- C. A. FLOOD, JR. and JL. KOON, Department of Aqricultural Engineering Tis requ11iremen11ts o~f thet hiis. slilt ill b~etter qual~iity eggs ande wviii Illit 112 at T OGY I ilI 1 PH ENVIiO)NNllNTAI lIYSIOLof D epalrtment11 111111(11121n (If thei 5X AN CXtenivc1 renlovation to imlprove1 tile caparlil 1 liit ie of tlis iqu l)esearcih faciiity. Stat ion , haIs recen11tly been21 tilr-Oll gil1 General design of air handling system: air enters (1) and is partially dehumidified by refrigeration units (2); further drying occurs in dryer (3) where hot air is supplied by gas burners (4); coaling of heated, dry air is accomplished by refrigeration units (5) before enterinq chambers; individual hot water coils heat (6), and steam humidifics (7) each chamber (8). The ficiiit v 1121 conlltrolle cali Eaich cha11111ber 11as 100 s~ I torlillg room1. ft. of, floor space21 a11n( (c11l house all ty pes (If pslltrv. Presenitly each21 chamiber is 1 equipped wvith 2(0 cages to be used2( foi research with broiler breeder and caged( layers. ihoses 16) envXiironmen1tllyX 1 111111121s, nece ss arv riser 1111 (h1illi 1(0, a wVorIksihop, anlld moni All chlambiers are supplied xvitli air h%, l1t) cui. ft. of L111 prminuite to each chamber. The supplV alir from) this system calil h)1 varied1 as needed an~d possessex ill tem)perature11 less than 10% relative hlumidlity. Tile suply air is tlien reheated and rehiumidtelyl capale (If stipplx iig lficd byv ]ot wvater aind steam, rcspc2 tix ely, ass it enters easch chamber achlieve ind~ividua~l temperature and to ilu- nudlity conitrol. Air quality is maintained iby c1h11nging thle air ill thse chamber ever y 6 ff111111115 xWith~ this sxstelm. AdditionaLlly, llindiiduasl pliotoperiod conitrol is maintalined~ il time clocks on eac2h chalmber. Ten chalmb~ers mainltain constant ternper ature and( ihumidity as selected. Six chambers have programmahle controls whiichi alloxw the reseasrcihers to select spe- EXPERIMENT AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830 R. Dennis Rouse, Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 9/79 Penalty for Private Use, $300 AGRICULTURAL STATION 9M POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK RATE cific tollperliture and1 huimidity cycles. 1Each cilambker and tile commlion air sup- Ply s) stcm are equlipped xxith recorders to ensure and( moiltoring eqilipmen 1 piroper conltrol as wel as a -ecord of the env'ironmenltl condlitions during an experimlent. TheCsC environmental chambers wviil allow experimentation with a nurn- her of enlvironmental situations simul-