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DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
T171, AiAn xxi AcCU LTVISxL. ErlRIMENT STATION is tile single
ori mization le'gally chlargedl withl dievc'lopuent of innolvative, nexv
hIforia 11t illi for MlAn111151 agricul turell alld forestry. 
TihIis program,
till found1(1ation of Alab aina's 1:11ges t illdutstry, has I n'eni effective
ill till pa1st and1 ev,'ery indiication is that if give'n support to offset
tile ravages of inflation and meet new
respornsiblilities, it wvill continue to pro-
vide information necessary for con-
tinned growth and dev elopment of
produtction and industrial agriculture
andl forestry.
Funding tis research program is an
investment that retun s div idends to
all people, not just prodlucers.
Economic studlies of the blenefits
from AgricuLlt ural Expeiment Station
research andl dissemination of infor-ma-
tion iby the Cooperative Extension
Service have heen conducted over the
yeiu-s ily several dillferent organiza-
tiolis. These have all shlown that re-
turns oil this investment are great - at
retur ai ilccordinig to it recent an iksi 5.
R. DENNIS ROUSE
36% average annual rate of
Last year, iii view\ of the tight budlget situation is most states
and t the Federal level, the State Agricultural Experiment Station
Drectors across t I e N at ion ass igned ia giroup of dis tin gu i shed (luau-
titaltive agiricultur al econolmists to inake anl analy sis of the elffects of
a (lecease in lexvel of publ)1ic fund(ii)gs of agriculturail research.
liev chose to stul(v tile effect of at 10% reduction iii programs.
This 15ii ppei 1 to 1be app~roxim ate]ly tihe current rate 
of inflation an Id,
thereforIlle, wold 1)e tie re('(ct ion in p)rogram resulting from a fail-
nrc to increase apprliopriations tihe nouiit necessary to offset infla-
01 nI for just I Year. Ill thI e first exam pie, thle funding reduction 1 xaS
templorary and xs'as litter r estoredl in amounts necessary to restore
tihe ben'iefits lost ii urn unllderf fuin]itig. irs this situation, each $1 .00t
saxved( by under-funding required $2.30 is additional tax dollars to
(omrn 'Isate later.
init second1 example, thle funding redulction wvls not restored. In
this e'xampl)e, eacih $ I.00t saved 1y uruler-funding cost tile consumer
ain addilltional $6.14 in inlcreasedl cost (of agricultural piroducts.
Tiis, ('itller way, failure to allclfpateV suppoirt agricultural re-
sei ll aind extenisioio~ 11w ill lbe i1 cost to lbe bSorneC by the consum-
ers f or ver ('1 5(Itilll' ill in creased( t axes or in creasedl food cost.
hI till' Secon I xilinlpil' in volxvin g at fin ily of four, tihe cost per per-
So) for each $ 1.0 Satved\'l, by not iilcl l'sing fundinlg to offset inflationi
for I x ('lr xwou ldl ill $22.44 at till'.,5,0 ittl)innlal 5,11al-v level, $.5. 68
at\, leel and ('. ll 3.77 at the $20,000tt imlnial salary lexvei. Thus, ag ii
((lilturIal scientists are our best iinflation fighlters. Cost of food will
1151' 1more rapily if gi ullt ural rese'archl and( exteinIsill i re uinder-
full'll. Inve(stililts ill agiicultulral research and~ '\tl'isioll save t:Lx
tills)' twoV agricu'lltu)rall pro Igrams ,O (' a goodl inv es trnt!
Atil nn Unix Iisits' is not just olill' (If 14 publlicly sulpported insti-
tult ionsl ofI Liglnl 1 Ililg in AIlabatma. It is imi
1
i11! It h~as be'n
assigfilld thle respo~nsiblity thrloulgh thle Alabama Agricultural Ex-
peinl 11(1t Stat ill and11 tile Alal oa, Coloperative E'.xteIns ion Service
fo~r it pulilly Sulpported prlograml (If re'se'arch andl till IlisseminatiOml
(If researilchl rcsllts s1) as to se'rve ,ll] tile people. Agriculture is
lili Il('i becaulse it is re'sponlsile for an e'ssential c'ommodlity- food.
Alibin ii tillsIrclSitv is Illll I, among hlighecr education ill Alabama
1)11.1(151 it hi ls th 1re'IIspoinsib ility for p roisdilng 0iformion 1 necessary
to keep Alaiusa agiriculture and forestry conspetitive -and healthy.
" W 4eftdAce...
Dr. Nliclal'l Jalmes Cavlor, assistant
professor, Departmenlt of Zoologs 'vEnto-
inologx , Schlool of Agricultui e and Agri-,
culturi Expei iml'nt Staltion. Dr. Cavlor's
are'a (If p1(, ln'iation is cotton insects.
A naitiv e of V'crbena,
Alit., lie camesI to Atibuin
Iom Texas A&\l UTnix Cr-
itY Researchl and1 FI.\tcn-
alin Ceniter att 1)111.15. lie
received hothl 11.5. and
M.S. degrees from Auburn
Unixversity and thle PliD.
from Texas A&\l Unixver-
sity. His sos I'r g r ,l 1(ate
major xxas in zology and graduate major
ius cistonsology xxitis speciailtioni pest
manaI igemenlt arid a mimnor in gaine man-
agement.
Gas br isas authsored or co-authlored
more than a (dozenl techsnical ariticles in
is field, lie is a member (If Sigmia 
Xi,
Pi Kl}5pi Phli, Gillil Skglllt lDclta,
\lpfl .1 Zctailln Pi Etat Slgriil.
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
SUMMER 1979 VOL. 26, NO, 2
A quarterly report of research published
ibv the Agricultural Expelrim('nt Station
of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNIS ROUSE.
STANLEY P. WILSON
CIIAS. F. SIMMNONS
T. E. Coiurn
E. L. MecGAxv
11. E. STEVENSON
Director
Associate Director
Assistant Director
Assistant Dirctor
Edit or
Associate Editor
Editorial Advisory Committee: STAINLEY
1'. XVILsON, C. A. Ficooio jil .,..s o.stant
Professor (If Agfriultural Lu gll ('ring,
J. D). IIAIII'll, Associate Professor of En-
tom~ology/; NEIi, R. MIAR(TIN, Associate
1Prlf s'sor of Ag ri('nli ral Econooics and(
Rural Sociqologq,, AMI) E. L M~CHAW.
Information contained herein is available
to all withlout regard to race, color, or
national origin.
ON THE COVER. Cotton experimental plots
at thre Tennessee Volley Substation, Belle
Mina.
W__
IN ECENT YEAins Alabama farmers have
bcome increasingly concerned with pro-
duction practices that may delay matur-
ity and thus limit yields or in other ways
may lower profits. Delayed harvest in-
creases the probability 
of frost damage,
increases the probability that fall rains
will make harvest difficult, and increases
the cost of insect control. In addition,
when crop residue destruction 
is delayed,
insect problems usually are increased the
following year.
In 1976, a 3-year experiment was initi-
ated at the Tennessee Valley Substation
of the Agricultural Experiment Station to
determine some of the production prac-
tices that may limit yields or delay ma-
turity. Production practices included in
the study were: (1) date 
of planting,
(2) nitrogen rates, (3) control of plant
bugs, and (4) herblicides. The experi-
ment was conducted on a Decatur clay
loam.
Two dates of planting were included
in tile study. In the "early" planting, cot-
ton was planted as soon as possible after
fear of frost was past (April 6, 1976 and
1978, and April 8, 1977). The "late"
planting was about 3 weeks later (April
29, 1976, May 3, 1977, and 
NMav 17,
1978). In only 1 of the 3 years of tile
study did early planting increase yields.
In 1977 the early planting increased
yields by about 15(0 lb. of seed cotton
per acre. Surprisingly, in neither of the
2 years in which earliness was measured
did planting date have a significant inm-
pact.
In 1976, dimethoate (Cygon?) was
applied at 0.2 lb. a.i. per acre to all plots
on Junt 10 for control of a thrips infes-
tation. Additional applications were made
to two-thirds of the plots for plant bug
control on July 6, and one-half of tliese
plots was treated again on July 23. In
1977 insecticide treatments for plant bugs
were started on June 13 and on July 1,
leaving one-third of the plots untreated.
In 1978, a single application was made
on July 19. Despite differences in num-
bers of plant bugs of up to 12,000 per
acre in treated plots compared with un-
FACTORS DELAYING MATURITY
and LIMITING COTTON
YIELDS in ALABAMA
MICHAEL J. GAYLOR,
Department of Zoology-Entomology
GALE A. BUCHANAN,
Department of Agronomy & Soils
W. B. WEBSTER,
Tennessee Valley Substation
FLOYD R. GILLILAND,
Formerly, Dept. of Zoology-Entomology
RICHARD L. DAVIS,
Formerly, Alabama Cooperative Extension
Service
treated plots in 1976 and 15,000 per acre
in 1977, no significant differences in yield
or maturity were obtained. These results
indicate that the economic injury level
for plant bugs is above 15,000 per acre.
More studies are needed to precisely de-
fine the economic injury level of plant
bugs.
Under some conditions excessive ni-
trogen may cause excessive vegetative
growth and delayed fruiting. In the pres-
ent study nitrogen was applied 
at 60, 90,
and 120 lb. per acre. No differences in
maturity were found at first harvest, how-
ever, in 1976 and 1978 the cotton was
harvested twice. In 1976, about 120 lb.
less seed cotton per acre was harvested
in the plots receiving 60 lb. of N when
compared to the plots witli higher rates.
In contrast, in 1977 the highest rate of N
decreased yields by about the same
amount. No differences in total vield
were obtained in any N treatment in
1978.
In this series of experiments the pro-
duction practice with greatest impact oni
yield and earliness was the herbicide pro-
gram. The berhicide treatment consisted
of trifluralin (Treflano), 0.75 lb. per
acre, applied as a preplant incorporated
EFFECTS OF IIERBICIDES ON COTFON YIELDS AND EAllLINESS
1976 average 1977 average
Treatment Yield Percent of
yield in Yield
Ist picking
Lb. Pct. Lb.
Ilerbicides 1,454 a 53 a 1,634 a
No herbicides 1,772 a 63 b) 1,650 a
Averages within columns followed by the same letter are not
5% level of probalbility according to an AOV.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
1978 average
Percent of
Yield yield in
Ist picking
Lb. Pct.
1,176 a 42 a
1,707 b 70 b
significantly different at the
W. B. Webster, superintendent, examines
experimental cotton plots at the Tennessee
Valley Substation for plant bugs.
treatment, fluometuron (Cotoran?), 2.0
lb. per acre, as a prccmergence treat-
ment, fluomneturon + NIS\IA, 1.5 + 1.0
lb. per acre, applied as a directed, post-
emergence treatment, and 
fluometuron,
1.0 lb. per acre, applied as a post di-
rected treatment at layby. This program
was compared to plots which received no
herbicides. Weeds were controlled in all
plots by hand-weeding to ensure that
weeds would not mask results of the ex-
periment. In 
both years in 
which cotton
was harvested twice the herbicide treat-
tment delayed maturity significantly, see
table. Also, during both of these years
the herbicide treatment greatly reduced
total yields. Almost all of this reduction
occurred early in the season and was re-
flected at first harvest. In 1976 the cot-
ton did not recover from this early dam-
age. In 1978 signiicantly more cotton
was harvested at the second picking from
the herbicide treatment than from the no
herbicide treatment. This recovery was
not enough, however, to compensate for
the early damage.
Under grower conditions differences
between herbicide-treated and untreated
plots might not be as great as in this cx-
perinient. Competition from weeds would
be expected to decrease yields in the un-
treated plots below yields obtained in
this study. Results of this study do sug-
gest that herbicides may decrease yields
and delay maturity of cotton. Additional
studies are needed to develop weed con-
trol programs which have less adverse
effects.
A QUALITY COMPAR15ON ot
SEED PIECE and SLIP PRODUCED
SWEETPOTATOES
DURWARD A. SMITH and JACK L. TURNER, Department af 
Harticulture
k,. tk
-1 
Milk.~ i -l"
A ',I:x' LAOR SVIM; ETHO Of p-., t
Ao Swee xxt i oeis xx ivc Nil the1)i~ plantn
of' seed i eces ats is dol ' l i Iishi pi)-
tatiles. Iliis methiod saxv(' ciiiiderable
labor xsleii ompariedl xxithi the old
inithiod iif groxxinig slips ii hiotbeds then
tiransplaitiiig ti) the field. ioxvxer,
yields to (1a1te fiorn the seeid piece stiidii's
hiaxve been lower than vicIds fromn 
the
saliiii t i ai spi.nt ed sie
1
ectiions. Th ese low-x
er x iebix haxve been the iiesiilt of a redhiie
11111 i nd tinde pai tiilly tio seed piece
lilt.
't'l ix study by tile Department of 111)1 ti-
xxs ixinitiaiteid to det eriiil it' di ff ereiices
slin g horni the txx'i idifferent) pi opaga-
tiiiii methods. Six xiiicti's ill sxwectp-
taitoes tested fior Seedi lpiie propa.gaitioni
suiitiiilitx 
ill the 197S 
Sxxeetpotat 
o Co
o~peritixe iTriails xxere seleiteid for this
text. All riiits xwere iarvestid Onl the
sainei date and cuiied at 85"F and 9.5/,
relatixe humidity fiol 8 day - s. Numiber 
I
poutatoe's xwere seleicted( ,iiii tested 
for
flaxvor, textuire, ciolir, solub1 le solids, and
A baking test xxas eoiliited xxith thie
sxxxet pot ,i i ws 1Icilig Iba ked for 90) miiii
ultis ait :325 F in at roiorx trax'. forced-aii
oxen. Th'lis special oxenl insu11red at Ind1
loiiii ciok inig rate. Iu 1 ibikeid sxxee Ipi
tat ocs xve ievxaluiatied hor fla,ixour hIS 
iu
paillel if' fixve trinued judge(,s iisingy a ti
anlgle test. Ill thuis ti iauigle test the judgres
xer pl'lresenl te wi xith thIiree~ sailmple~s firom
the~ saiine xarietyv, txxoI sanspleus 1beinug alike
anld one (different (either seed piece or
slip prodiiced). The( judges were tlicii
asked to iden) t ify tic' o(1( sample. Asre
portedl ini t able 1, 0(o significant diiffcr
ences iii flav or betweeni seed piece and
sIlp produiced sxx eetp~otatoes were de-
ttedi in any of tlit v arieties tested.
Objective measur emenits were miadc
for color using the Iiiiiter Color Differ-
cliee Meter, for- texture using anl Ilistioii
I niversal 1'esting Machine equipped xxth
ItKramer shiear-cell, for sol 1)1e sol id(s
I1sili ribcf~COtoet, and for totail solids
lix A() C methods. A summaryx of these
fda is pi (s('lted in table 2).
Color difl c(lice for total light reflec-
(lice, rednel~ss, a11( N elb)li('55 bew'een
the two clilturial praticis xx ats exialiili'd
'Illb tixture test shear cell is designed
ellis illi tii 1cing of food. In this dei-
\ice' kixex arc forcedi tioigli a slotted
plaite, tinlis shleaiing ald extruinig at Slice
of sxx ietpotaito. The( iniehine rccorls the
,iiiiiiiiit of force ineczessily to bite' tuioiigli
the' slic'e. Nonle oif the x -i1icties tested
shiowsed at signriificant (llerilice iii textuire
Seed pieces cf sweetpoto, abcvc; C. C.
Carlton, Superintendent, Chilton Area Horti-
culture Substation, at left, cxomnines seed
piece that produced the vine he is holding.
be'twee i seeid~'i pice' and( slip propa
1
)gated
Soltihili solidis, wxhichi are pi hiaily suig-
arls, aMi x'ery impor01taint ill sw5eitpoitato
flax or. No silific init diffh'iicc was
foiindi in either solilile solids or total
sidhs bctet l xxitissxee (t p~tait ois g'riw bxOi
])laitilig seedl pice and those 
1
)riillleed
'Ihilexe da~ta indicate that secil piece
groiwn xxx ietpotitoi's arc equ'ipal ill baking
qll~ility tio loots groswi from triaisplanited
slips.
Txiii I t. Si \,oie1.\ 1 Lx 1i slo\ or Si i1 1)i I : S. Si I' (niliN S\i[ I 
iioi siol: BAl~KED
A'l :325' loll 90 \liNU I ES, USIN xiTRAliINED 0t ii ii AN) 
THIAMi xxiii I IS
Variety
Null o
tia~ls
NC-:3?0
N C-3 17
C re
V11l 51
U i 11.11
\ f ) it)0 1
Nijnir of
correct I ixplnses
8
4
6
8
9
8
T1AlilE 2. MExIAN V 5.x115 oi, Coi oni, TFX1 ill , So1l il Soi
01 Sxil I PiiA1OFl BAKED) Al 325 F poll Wt
Variety
NC-320 seed pieee ------ 49.2 21.7 27.1
NC :21) slip --- ----- 47.7 23.4 27(6
V-C 1 slTxid piece --------- 50).6 20.8 27.4
NC-:317 slip -------- 52.3 20.8 26.0
(user xi ici piece --------- 15.8 25.1 26.4
(lrxir slip ----------- 118.8 24.7 28.3
VI11 .51 xeci piece --- (---- (3 4 . 23.7 2.5.5
\'1't 51 slip ---- 45.3 24.1 24A3
G1tinli'il seed piece 50.9 21.1 :30.5
t,1,1iid 'lip 48.3 2:3.9 28.4
Mtil31)1 xeiu piece -- ----- 44.2 21.9 25.2
Mii-304 slip -- 45.3 22.4 24.6
0
L light reflectance, a -redness, h yellowness.
Numbiiier of' correct
rixponscx rireiiid for
signiflicant iitnie at
-51' levi'
1
10
I1)
10
10
10
10
ADS' ANI) To i 5. SOLIDS
MINI- FS,
Soluiill
solids
Pct.
33.4
3.14
26.1
26.5
:32.2
31.2
3.3
35.8
32.1
29.2
31.3
30).3
'I ,il
Solids
Pct.
54.2
54.6
49.3
49.3
55.1
56.0
51.4
501.9
52.3
51.9
Auburn Univers'ity Agricultural Expcrimecnt Station
Color value's 'lexhire inl q
L* a* 1) Slice
5 X 4X 1, cin
HOWARD A. CLONTS, Dept. of
Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
AL AAMIANS CAN SATISFY almost ansv
rcrieational decsir e in one of their statc
palrks. But the futur e looks quiestionale.
State pairks are ceirtin to go down bill
unless adequate operation 
and mainte-
nance funds lbccome available.
The Alitbamna parks systcmn was begun
in the late 19~20's, butt received little at-
tentioni until 1967 when at b ondl issue
mfade( $113 million availalble for develop-
ineilt. loila v state par ks linds coX er 19,-
4741 acres, of XX iich 417,259 acres are .i('i
22 dev'XelopledI parks.
Since 1967, a total of '70) million in
Statte and( Fedeliral fiinds has been Spent
in park deX clopmnent. Mlost of' the funds
XX'cre liscil for initenisiv 'eX il~opinent inl
Joe Whlecler. L~ake' Gunitersville, 
])(,Soto,
Clicallia, Oak1 \Ioiiitaiii, Llakepoiiit. andi
Cult parks. 'I lee others, Lalke Liii -leci,
lb
1 
11( Cooperhr, andl W\ind1 C reek, also re-
eiXv eligroifi(,jolt deCNeloinnt. \lUCl Of
thc e Ii's l)ieit ]li, lweni of theO ],eSort
tYpe, but siginificaiit improvements iln
caiping., hiking, picnicking, fishiing, anid
S5vXX lilil lso XX crc inclutded.
A muajor problemijos' looms for the
parks. Lai ge scalc capital dec el0
1
nit
evelit allv reqjuires lairge scatle opeiration
anld inaiiitiiaiiee CXpeTIdiltiitS. In i-CCent
Location of Alabama State parks is shown by
planning districts.
DECISION TIME FOR STATE PARKS
AciucscGi IN Ai so x SiA STATE P
usN '1,i1 ciOF PAsJnK
Pik andl ty)e
teor parks
jo LI X lleler-? or ---11
I atk(,m G itcsil
Natur al Iparks - ater based
FlI alor
tOak Mtouintaiii ----------
Paiul ( 1it-----
ltiod ('oopcr
Windl Cieek----
Natural parks-Landfouns
Chic kasaw -----------
I ) soto - ---------
Mointe Sain--------
Blue 'Spriii,s
Bit kwool CiX (Fis
tI. nleelopedI parks
'riik l~Aksoii
O ther lands ------ -------
TOTA4L
Xeai s, increasing fundl shortages
sullteif1 in re(Iicell inilinteilalnt('
ailed services iii thei parks. Son
needing development hiave riiiia
dleveloped.
GrowXing ulse of Alabama sta
points lip_ ii('1I5 
for thle fulture(.
an estimatedl 6.,42 1,110 peop
1
le Xi
parks. This XX ill juilp to airiuiid
lion visitors iii the year 200)0, lii
modeIrate rate out increased piibli
Public eoncr abI s. ouit quLa lit V
rere atioinal opportuni t ies iil tli
XvlI5 obvXious inii srveX uiof ovi
pinrk users. Mlost expi essecl eon
less money aind persolnnel shorit.
overcome iii thec near future.
Coi cern iii gsour1ces of fiiiids,
saidl both entrance fees and .icti
in parks could be raised. Ne a
AROKS, liOXXeX r, said tax\ ntili V should pride'il
Acres td'iiicc. NcainIv all 
icso's nllcits conlsicl-
cicd ci li-i cut hce Ic' ls iii state pairks as
6160 I easoi l ile. 
Tllc\ c xpec t to pay 
for ulse,
2,180 but onily lip to at 
poinit. lit e'ssecet, psik
5,8.35 iuseri sa5.id park const1iriction is a pub lic
1,22(0 ep('iisi' pai k operation is at shIaicd publ)
lic and in diXidul1 lsr expciiso', and par11k
596 Inil litelil i ce is prnimai Ily at public ex-
35 p('ilse.
420) BIasedl oi l it]] 
( aeptei plalnlin0g stanl-
1965 dlii of 1,5 acics pI- 1,000)1 residen'its 
iil
1,.327 Alabamlla, an additional 21,377 acre's (of
9 941 land iil (l('Xloipill palrks XXill beo neededi'i
20l0t 1) 19v51Y. Ncall 
:26i,000t atrc ('5Xill be
,354 iio'('d( lIX thc XeL'ir ()0)t. 
This Iu('alls
t~lalt, iiilld'55 addliitionlal acqu~isitiouns arc'
2,000~t iiade, thicre XX ill 
Iikels 110 iicnl ' 11.1) il(res
2,719 per I,0 rt~t esidetnts fIXy 2(000(. Tlicsc fig-
696 ilios ir b'lased oil devcloped parks, nolt
580
4,990 lust landlls 
oXXne il'l th' le Parks 
DlXiiin
2.110) olth (Ii )cpai tiilit 
of Cois'iX tioni aiind
:3.57 N atural Resouirces. A deXve~lped pairk
10:3 do's Ilolt fllcani l( 1 11' ith ('Xers' acie
21050 tiadII( tio imake tlie irk lands acccssill
165
19,. 174 Fo~r state 
parks tio titilX sriX 
e crea-
tiona n ccls of Alabam111ian s, aiii imi ci (I f
changIfes in iniIXiduol pariks XXiII hei i('
have i re- c
lull cur- qiried. 
Somei 
11(1otpaksd not havle
I(, parks I is'slilulI li(' Ipllasio 
lt ,ii(l (Pi l
sse im ith iillie stiitalile atreas. Piinks 
suchli as
I it the TBivdr, Btlue Spriii gs, and Ritkvoiid
to' paorks iced1( sigii1ificaiit cliaiigi's. Othicr i111,15
Ill 1978 folec less tc'Xcoipiiii'nt but more iiiaiill
sit('O the tet alit 
(.
16 mdl All in l. Alabama statc parks hIlIXe
set
1 
onl a greait polte'ntial for 50'l'Xicc. 'T'e tuli liiig
C Ilse. point is ilimv. If energX shortages 
pei'isist,
if pairks' iuiarlI.V JVIV l Itii~iial 01u1tI)(ltiiti('S Will be
e future in higTh demndt. Stitte parks caii fill at
'i' 1(010( portioni of those liiteds. The lug queiostioln
'cmu tin1 Conce'r'ns fuindiiig foir aldditionlal ciiit.Il
ages are de'vielpme)n' t to colinplei'tec the full I iiik
XX'ti'ii I ellOXlion, assure~d amlet 111)11 a
vitv fees fillite( a laind .iC-iluisitin pilgi Triffl to IV-
rl' i' alf, sc'iX nee'ldd lanids for futuinc list'.
Auburn University Agricultural Exrperime~nt Station
,A_.
Trapping
Channel Catfish
from Upland Ponds
R. 0. SMITHERMAN, M. C,
MOHFAD, W. G MU STIN,
anrd R. K. GOOD t\-
Departme'nt of F r [, is ' Ud
Alied Aquacoitor,
Ire I
-PO"
C AllTF ISH T551 Ii liDFI'MNAL Xi 1 ) )11ilixStedi 
fromn Alit
11.1101 I)OMIS1 lby iiainio iifilin lg tihe latte atitunn 
oi- cilv
\ill icr. This pi atHiceI is 1(('e5XirV 511111 tlhese p)ond~s iilui'd 
be
refilled frioinl ruIilofI X avtci dliriiig late XX 1111(1 ail di arl spring~.
Becauise iost fislh fine 111' h~I)iliX cst in at rc'lative(lv, short
timec Spanl, calpacity of' processiing plilts is ex~ceeded, 
anld
priice is dive is w b'IIO xii1 tile tcilpora O, \ X ci slill 
v of fish.
Somei fil aneirs choose toi carXN thecir fish OXver into 
tile 5('llid
Ycar, at most iiicfhicint proHedeli dur(ini g whlichl fish becomie
ii grer ) liii opiltilill Size for pocessilig, thils recliing 
thir
iii .ok ciXalto'. Gi oXX rs iniii'it thlen resoit to fis-i IImt, 
or sport -
fishing to Sell their produclt.
Oligoiligr Iesei ('ii ill f~'is hiarvesting att Auburnl~ 
University
Agricultural V'xpcijinent Station is evaiating 
AilirlatiX c
methilods for (alptill-ing catfi.sh XXithlt diii illiligT pondls. 
Thiree
teellillniles for Partial hl-i Xest lusing l'irp iitlicks 
associ-
atteol wsith feeding live ]ii,(,ii te'sted'l pondls stocki'd at :3,100)
fish per acr e. Tile gear iiieluided lift nets, 
d1101 nets, anld Coi-
rall scilics.
EXvaluaitionis of each gear tXype were made for 
efficieney of
capl-tllrc anid effects of thic tirappinig actiXvity o i Podiictioii of
('l-tfisli. Sigifiicaiit (fiiltitil's of' fish ss crc taken 
Xwith each of
the tirappinig deXvices.
li lift )lii conilsistedi of, a I I '2i ft. rei.tiiiiar 
net \k ithi
.31 i '
1
.Imlasl-1 . iivoiiiil (,itch, atfii' ilitiligy the 
tial) iria
of, iiiiss'staolie si/c. hloiiise , idiie toi i l 
i p ii iid tial
acii2,rt is its, fee ,its XXX oilr liiizti,l rsililia iglli pooi 
tee d
collX irsilill, X ilatihec si/cs if fiSh, id 1CIedi 
iiiliiciiiil.
Illiidrop i \is saIt it -It. hiloll oft hi0 t i. 
(1I'ic is hail
5ilile liar 01l(50l I ill., siispeltiiiiilbs e the 55 itt'i 
sill 111.c oil
metial stakes in at I :3 acie pond, foiiii- li sliflullil 
liii ('iii
ing~ iicii of' 5it000 si
1
. ft. 'i'lic siispiiitu seine aiiss iii fishl
toi SX\ill fl s inito tileI lciniiiir o a 'a al
1 
fish Xwere citii'ci
(IX i(s. Thii iitijii catchi of 1,327 fidii wa',s 
thec laii'icst, aridI
v.iiholits ssc Ici lss affI 'cied I, .iap)iilg oltis 
its than sw ith
the lift liet.
iiiiiai~l s \i t 5s i 123 ft. iiiigtIl if' Ittft. duip 
iisli
s(il i th 5 iii I i. hill iii si oit11ii Ii ii ll a1 3.5 
.0 ii poll1 1. It
ss as pilsitiiiilled i piti'l to ille siliii c foi viilig 
anl op 'ii i'niii'i
illi loropi t tell Iloiiss c if it liicil fish ss cii tlitind 
tio failiiss
bs (i l mimt the ciiois of thei slilie to) til shoire. Fish 
ss iii sile.
(i'sfi ti ,iiicd ss thuin 5 ike. s to followv tin' fi'cliiig 
Jptil
viilded I .635 fish. As tcipiraIic ec(inelld iii haituiil 
1977,
Fuirtiiir tisting ot the corlral seie ss ,is don'', duriiig Aw-iiist
N7TS toi \liic(.l i) iii list' pailds ;Lwifi riig iiin 
1.3 to 22.1)
iIVns. lIii corrail Use iii its's 2(10 f't. X 6 ft. 
X 1 "4 ill .
Mush. In) pOhIs 1.3 tii 3.5 .1(1 es. i]iix 1001 
ft. iof tihe seinle \%'its
sti etchecd parialli'l to the shore, tue reiiiIind('r folded 
at the
Fish from corral seine being weighed during 
loading opeiration.
cV~ Of iii, coiai. Iidi2 ii'( poiiai 
th(l ii si (lii
Xvas e'xteiniiei for a Laower fie ini ii 
ci.
liii I' isiilts of tie trip.~pii ' (I cli is le suiii 
e i/i ii hei
age~d S4()11)h. (i6.S"/i Ot total po(iliation), 
bilt iiiiil"'i 11iii
2)O to 2.525 l1). per Ilaid. Ili the silalist 
poiid, the fir st
ctch \%-XX's 6fi5( of ill. 55111111 poiiilittioii , iii 
2 ss i ks later
Tel t iapiiiig cli i s \vXr made i iiil ici 22 .11.ic p)111
August :31 to Dcci mud 6, lNTS". Thei iiiiiiai c.itch \X\its 
7,21:3
fish sscigliig (i,.85.3 li., ssliul ripicsi-lll I2)'; iif 
tiii total
)ppulatlion. Iss Iio sep11 ate sites, oil the i'.st allil 
Xscst sidis
(ri'Isd, raciliii fium1 :3.600 to 7.30 1)ii. lInimg 
Siptiilii 6
I7 %k ithlia citcli of 36(1 h. 'lie ,iltch Ii iclcl,di to i ( 1))ii.
oil I 'clrii il 24, atid 5,0)91 1i). onl Iai cll .55 its feeduim 
iiii5 ol
(11 ut l i' ii i illil~ \ it the i o-iI I s I i'll, Ill rs fiiii te Is 1'lI i 
potl ti l
fur iiiil,il Si'l iii s 
1
ft u IhllillC 01' C iLIUI ai i ll 11 0111 i fll
(11 iises iIi (lii Xk i ' i l i I [S i tll O \i' X oii Tiiii csiis \ 
iiii it
f(l>111-lw o iiii ii of, X\w Aeiii. Itsliiicr i s i i 11;I
Date iiiiil 
Pilu
11/15/78
11 /29/78
10/ 6/78
1t)/6/78
10/ 17/78
It/1/78
10/ 17/78
11/i/78
12 /6 ' 78
8/ 31/78
9/6/ 78
9/6/78
9/28/78
i10/1/78
1011/ i78
10/25/78
1t/1/78
11 /211/78
12/6/ 78
1/8/79
2/24/79)
3/28/79
S-1
S-4
S-12
S-it
S-11
S-11
S-9
S-9
S-9
8 1W
8 1W
,S8 i:
8- 1W
8 1W
S_ I F
,S IF
S_ I
1.3
2.8
2.8
2.8
:3.5
:3.5
:3.5
22.))
22.1)
22.0)
22.0)
22))
22))
(t ~ poill it i
LI1). 'Not.
1,9)28 2,525 :3(666
:359) .323 IJ 14
1,375 1,6150 0,t)72
458 55)) 7,6 18
275 :301 7, 160)
2:33 2S80 (1 SS
425 5I)) 9) lii)
4(65 5W1 9, 235
671) 8521 8 ii 15
7,21:3 (,1S5 3 60tt720
8001 79)1 49i)5~
1,471 1,751 18,69)5
:.,578 3,21 5 47,224
1,0)4.3 1,122 1136-16
2 16 :35.1 P1,103
I ,30t3 1,59)) 4)187
59)8 7:31) 41,0184
:12 :36 40, i(Sl
68 101 4)),151)
.1)175 5,0)94 319 1966
PS il I I
tilii
catured11
Pc(t.
168.9
28.2
22.6
7.2
3.8
:3.4
5.)
7.8
11.9
5.4
1 .6
.3.)0
2.)t
0.5
3. I
1.5
1.2
10.2
E - Listl'ri trip site if Ith 
til' ndlf .
W - WCern tirill) site of the' pondi.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
9-',
.5
s-
A
it 
4(
Potential New Mycotoxins in Cotton and Cottonseed
U. L. DIENER, R. E. WAGENER, G. MORGAN-JONES and N. D. DAVIS
Department of Botany and Microbiology
COTTONSEED MEAL is a potentially important source of pro-
tein in human diets. Annual production of cottonseed meal in
the U.S. could yield about 625,000 tons of high-quality,
edible flour containing 65% protein by the Liquid-Cyclone-
Process. However, the presence of mycotoxins in cottonseed
meal precludes its use for human food.
Aflatoxin was first discovered in cottonseed meal in 1960,
when it caused liver cancer in hatchery trout. Although afia-
toxins in excess of 30 parts per billion (ppb) occurred in 7%
of 1,293 samples of cottonseed meals from the 1965-66 crop,
inactivation of aflatoxins in cottonseed and peanut meals has
been accomplished by ammoniation on a commercial-scale.
Only Aspergillus flavus and A. parasilticus of the A. flavus
group of species produce aflatoxins. Cottonseed is invaded
before harvest by other fungi, which potentially may be my-
cotoxin producers. Some of the other fungi were isolated from
Alabama cotton in 1973 and 1974, while others were obtained
from investigators in Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Pure cultures of each fungus were grown in flasks on steri-
lized, nutrient-amended shredded wheat. After 14-21 days
incubation at 25
0
C, the moldy substrates were extracted, fil-
tered, evaporated under an airstream, and prepared for brine
shrimp, chicken embryo, and rat bioassays. Data were taken
on mortality of brine shrimp, chick embryos, and rats. In ad-
dition, the mean average weight gain or loss relative to a con-
trol group was calculated for each group of rats. Rats were
autopsied at death or after 14 days and pathological changes
were noted.
Of 47 fungal isolates tested, the toxicity of 28 isolates to
brine shrimp, chick embryos, and rats is shown in the table.
Forty percent of the isolates were moderately or highly toxic
to chick embryos. Of the 33 isolates tested on rats, seven
killed at least one of six rats in their group. Rats fed extracts
from eight of the 33 isolates showed reduced weight gain of
10% or more in comparison to the control group. Pathologi-
cal examination of treated rats revealed that extracts of seven
isolates caused hemorrhaging, while extracts of three isolates
caused kidney abnormalities. Extracts of F. oxysporum (973)
caused the shedding of hair by one group of rats, the first
observance of this symptom.
Other than aflatoxin no other mycotoxins have been re-
ported in cottonseed. Notable in this study has been the high
toxigenicity of several species of Alternaria, Fusarium, and
Penicillium. All three genera contain species that cause well-
known mycotoxicoses in man and animals. These findings and
the toxicity of other fungi in these bioassays justify continuing
research to isolate the toxic compounds, identify their struc-
ture, and to determine whether they are known toxic metabo-
lites or new mycotoxins. Ultimately, fungal production of the
toxic metabolites on cottonseed and surveys of commercial
cottonseed meals for any mycotoxins, known or new, should
be carried out to determine the hazard to human health of
cottonseed meal and processed protein obtained from meal.
These data showed that some of the fungi (other than the
A. flavus group) associated with cotton bolls and seed pro-
duce substances toxic to brine shrimp, chick embryos, and/or
rats in the laboratory, but it was not demonstrated in this
research that any of these unknown fungal metabolites are
produced naturally in cottonseed, meal, or other cottonseed
products.
Toxicrry OF FUNGI ISOLATED FROM COTTONSEED AND BOLLS
AUA Brine Chicken Pct. wt. Pathol.
culture Fungus Source shrimp embryo deaths Mortality loss changes
2
number 
mortality' total eggs
Uninoculated checks 0 0/50 0 --
582 A. altemrnata GA 1 10/10 0 -13
584 A. alternata MS 2 10/10 5/6
843 A. tenuissima AL 0 19/20 3/6 Hemor.
560 A. tenuissima LA 0 10/10 0 Kidney, Hemor.
823 Aspergillus foetidus AL 0 6/20 0 -15 Kidney, Hemor.
839 A. versicolor AL 0 14/20 0 + 9
561 Botryodiplodia theobromae LA 2 5/10 0 Kidney
586 B. theobromae MS 2 4/10 0 -25 Hemor.
837 B. theobromae AL 0 5/10 0 -10
585 Cladosporium herbarum MS 1 9/10
937 Colletotrichum gossypii AL 2 2/10 0 -13 Hemor.
890 Epicoccum pupurascens AL 1 7/10
825 Fusarium equiseti AL 0 10/10 0 Hemor.
972 F. heterosporum AL 0 1/10 0 +10
845 F. lateritium AL 0 8/10 0
587 F. moniliforme MS 2 8/10 0 +10
893 F. moniliforme AL 0 6/10 0 +10
973 F. oxysporum AL 0 9/10 2/6 -16 Shed Hair
564 Fusarium roseum MS 1 5/20 0 -13
575 F. roseum LA 0 1/10 1/6..
590 Helminthosporium sp. MS 1 5/10 0-
854 Mucor racemosus AL 0 4/10 0 -10
591 Myrothecium roridum MS 1 6/10 1/6--
1002 Nigrospora sphaerica AL 0 0/10 1/6-
1036 N. sphaerica AL 0 0/10 0 - 8
822 P. notatum AL 1 15/20
846 P. steckii AL 2 9/10 1/6 + 9
905 Pestalotiopsis sp. AL 0 2/20 0 Hemor.
'2, 60 to 100% mortality of shrimp; 1, 20 to 59% mortality; and 0, 0-19% mortality (approximately 50 brine shrimp/ml).
'Pathological abnormalities observed: Hemor. = hemorrhages.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
RIGHTS
in the use of water in Alabama,1
SIDNEY BELL,
Department of Agriculturat Economics end Rural Sociology
W Xi Iii is onei of' Alabamia'~s mo1(st alluli
dioi I (id most vidliahle natid rliesouire's.
Th e aviil ability oIf u sable Xwate'r h1as al-
XwXi l''l been i alniloliit to till su~ctcess of
,lin agricultural and11 many0 other enter-
prlises. Todaty's inc'ieased techlnolooy has
made,11 iforI' wXi'er av ailabl' and ill tile
1)rociss has sparlked many colell(x legal
Thei irighlt of at fomer llldXX'ner to use
XX'itcr for algriculturail purposes Xvaries
suibstaintially' XXitfi the source (If Xwater
ini qfuestion. T here aire thrtee different
sourc1 es from Xwichl swater mray he oh)
antI sot face XX'ater.
Rights in the Use of Watercourse Water
A XXvaterc'outrse is diefinedl as aliy Xwater
ffoXXilig genlerally in a w~ell-definted chilli-
nel 1111 or1 beloXX tie( suirface oif' tl it eath.
eIX tol use XXate'r ill (Iit('atrcoulrse is batsed
oni the prtinicipil' of thle ''Riparian Rights
Dlctinue." Th il IiCI premtlise (If tllis doe-
ti ii is tha~t the righit to the use of XXater
i its il itura (1stalte i's appur tellant to the
oXXner'iship of land through Xwich' it floXws.
R'ipa~rian owXneris (owvner s of land eon-
taiing a watercolurse) have an undis-
pliteti property right to the Ilse of chan-
neled Xwater flowXXing through or under
thleir laud. It is an exclusiXve righlt, (ad
only ripartian owners hlave a righlt to use
wilter in a Xwaterc'ourse (or riparian wa-
ter). IHowever, it is a conditioned 
right,
and riparian owyners are limited by law
in whiere and bowy they may use riparian
water.
Alitaaulaw iXX llliIX' that rtra W1111X'it
dele'X'i'illlnt of r1:1(11ian land;lh riparianl
ats tIle, ripar iii XX'telr sourcel. IHetnce, a
rifpArin landowneiI~ll 'r c'an u15e' i m (in XVil
t',r aiiX XXh('ll oi his faurm, Xso lonig its tile
r;iTni is conltain~ed oil ((lilttiguolus tralet
nit it al XXa~tershied iof the ripiani~l SOURlcI
of XXit('r.
'Ilt( gener al i'ile' on us( (If ripari an
XXiit I'r init bXeil refe'rred to as thle "'Inat Iiril-
Ni 'liv oIf till' facts of tfiis ali't ie we're de'
rif foio Bllehtin 99, Wa~ttr Lall s of Ala-
1)0(11(, ( elhogical Survey (If Alabanma 19744.
fIIIXV subj(et to I ('AilIil,i' tl " dotrie.
Ili oIther Xwordis, tile Irighit of 'evr rl arii
XXT Oit'lc'llt i's XX iiici ith 1 ' X'h1: 1 011, low io
IIIl'I~i~e ll Ili lit i'tl' niiillilIC(Iiel
ilil~sl t XXuser"tli 11 isen il to the
ediedf t5(1 hiiitcl-Ase Alld i'qithe X'leeiili
lsiljI tof tit' XXatr illf te i o aist liti
tlarii ltil( ilXX he ft111ril-iiiug n owocr i
titledX ,t' mak itct re Iiil l usi o'naf ilthe
lg ('ile O f or domes'ltI tic g i rIl iltk i] oir
Xiat erc ill il' s(If purposes 101 tI' siI to tl 1-
Inil i~ e 
t ia i r 
rilr 's ll 
l' as it 
h el i rih
tic ius' rlllt(il wter forXX iif os X'itiv'I cing
thibe f~l ili 'li if il t'se fuirrermoe rllit
Rxeig htn the Usew of Pecoatingt Wteri
reroti ig XX',oter 15iaiii XX %itrs totf till'
iTiit gh XX fiic'lli m calf(ll tl ser XXni-I
fille cAlbaIlla to'l Perlilt il XX'(lti seep
ilitil till glltlidr fromt ltill g arth suvrfipci.
L'il' iltT (i ther Ol c o0'r fnil laall (It i
tisl'0111'd t'(iln ii Xatris priii -v 1t'I 1 ieI o-
Illi co.s X'r wat'ing''Tecu livestoc iller
XX itli' a upilli hodni' its(, flr'lidilil liii
wI 'X'l'lu'ie' i of 1(111 ci e fo Sll~izel11 till Ill c-
lthfl'lg 1110( XX'.l'r f iligill fatme rires
met thic' i s eahinabl snt'ftre XX iioril-
talle te risosil o lc ( iie Ih
It must be remembered that this case
applies only to perclaing water (o1 v10-
dct'grolln( XX ater not 1it it well-deifine(d
cha,1ITIcl ) atici that the ''Jiparlian flights
Doctine" (roXems tite ulse Of Clillili('l(d
III(1( l lgi oiuii X iter. NVitl toIaX's tech-
lilologX , tite diistinlctioni ietwel t''i t(e tXXo(
tN pt's of 1111(1(1 gioul wil X tti is Iiilily
di scerll 11
" Sloss-Sli(ffield" 
is notable 
in that 
it
add s a cliffern v1I. i w to ~V tile ire asonialie
o C 1)1 oncept. Tb is c ise al lowXs thIiat per-
colatillgr waiter ilaitll be (sedfly a lind-
owvner to tile exte'nt that undlergiroutnd
seater (If Iiiililorinllg pi'oJ)cr1ties is hler
fereci wXithi or diX ''teif. T'e oly 1 (''ttit'
may lot Xwiitte tlit X iter to tite iljui'y
of others.
A fif at ('lr- LInos'it is t IdII S III s AIOX c\\c'
gTr(atli lcediim to 1use petcohit joig 
XXaterI
thli lie is ilp11 li XX'lt('i' So flg its tile'
filAt-Ine is litiiiil g i put Iicold iii( g wiltet
flI I IIIi('i' his f illnl for- ai reasot idde
is idlost lto legral hliit oil the qifiiititt
liw i,, ci itithl i to Ilse'.
Rights in the Use of Surface Water
Siiilce sX'atei is tllilt XX ltl l ith is
oil tlit'(I eillhs surfaLce', bit (fills l101 fliX
illiA Xwell defiined c llii o hiiiIsis. Thle
((XX 1 Mil",X use all] si filce XX at(' is lie
plea~ses5, eX cli if such'i iuse (1(1)1 e iX t liiXXci-
'leX atill liiiifiXX fll of, till XX Atel s fItill'
fits. hts, \laif)llit lit\% tuli discr11ili
ililittc5 Aiinst lowXe r M%(11( te ( ill's.
liakiligT tfieir Iiglit to the( list, oif Xiilitce
Xwater sifliii diiliti' to fiatt of, Iliil ('lc-ceil'a-
tion lanidowXners.
iluss r (X in Illabm wX~~t Xitli it's iiboi
it ('(1111S g' (riiCiIIXii iltl i"iriiW t t l' Xiii-
falce XX'tct . Ill rill al ( lililicil pin iteil
to (ilscllg'c tile st it face XX'ltets whX'ichf
('i- can ilt illti'rt ifitt olobtruict this flow.
011lY XXiti tilt the( 1iltillicipill liviits Of il
l'rts' oXX'Tli Ilgillisv t r 'lilt suirfacei Xsitt'i
Ilse ill] stililae XXatr lie can catch oii con-i
5 etite'( fIX 1;1\v froill dliniiingr oi. blocking
sf(icc XX'll'l' llis ieit liowilfitsi \it-
ter ottite pr(IpertY of alowe lX'' ilid(-
IIXX'ners.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
SECTIONED AND FORMED STEAKS FROM FORAGE-FED BEEF
DALE L. HUFFMAN and JOSEPH C. CORDRAY
Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
acceptability of restructured steaks
indicates potential market for
young bulls finished on forage
R ESTRUCTURED FRESH MEAT cuts may
be an idea whose time has come. These
sectioned and formed cuts seem to fill the
growing demand for convenience foods
at retail and by the fast food industry. In
addition, there is a chance for a savings
to the consumer since more economically
produced meat can be used.
Use of beef from forage-fed bulls in
restructured products has been an active
interest in meats research at the Auburn
University Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. Such animals produce lean beef
more efficiently than steers, but the bull
carcasses grade lower than steers. Au-
burn findings indicate that this beef can
be used to produce a restructured prod-
uct with desired sensory and physical
properties.
Restructured steaks for evaluating
were made from carcasses of two 14-
month-old Charolais x Angus bulls that
were slaughtered at the Auburn Meats
Laboratory. The carcasses were chilled 48
hours at 36
0
F, and the chucks and rounds
were removed, boned, and defatted. The
boneless chucks were frozen overnight at
-30
0
F, tempered for 36 hours at 26'F,
and sliced wafer thin on an automatic
slicer. The boneless rounds were tender-
ized three times using a reciprocating
blade tenderizer with a belt setting of 1
in. per advance. This tenderization as-
sured maximum cell disruption. The
rounds were then cut into 2- to 3-in.
cubes and the excess gristle and connec-
tive tissue were trimmed off.
Steps in forming the steaks were as fol-
lows: (1) 25 lb. each of the wafer sliced
chunks and tenderized beef cubes were
blended in a Hobart horizontal mixer for
15 minutes and formed into logs; (2)
the logs were frozen at -300 for 48
hours and tempered at 26
0
F for 36
hours; (3) the logs were pressed using
a 3-in. diameter cylindrical die in a hy-
draulic press, and thin sliced into 
5
/%-in.-
thick steaks. These steaks served as the
control in comparison with other restruc-
tured steaks that recei-
ment in efforts to impro
Steaks for the salt
were prepared in exact
except that 0.75% salt a
ter were added to the
ginning of the mixing
were placed in styrofc
overwrapped, and froze
evaluation by a sensory
an Instron, an instrumei
toughness.
Color was evaluated
from each treatment
trained sensory panel.
pared for the panels and
uation by griddle broilii
temperature of 160'F
electric griddle. Cookii
termined by weighing s
after cooking.
The sensory proper
juiciness, flavor, and an
tive tissue, were evalua
using a rating scale. Ins
values (measured in kil
RATINGS OF RESTRUCTI
SENSORY PANEL AP
Quality measure
Sensory panel
1
Tenderness
Juiciness
Connective tissue ....
Flavor
Color.
Instron values
Compression
2
Tension
3
Cooking loss, pet..
1 Rated on scale of 1-E
tremely undesirable and
sirable.
2 Kilograms of 
force re
metal plate through a co
'Kilograms of force t
5-centimeter strip of cook
pieces.
ved a salt treat- give evidence of the amount of force re-
ve quality. quired to push a metal plate through a
added treatment cooked meat sample, 
while the Instron
ly the same way tension scores reflect 
the force required
nd 16 oz. of wa- to pull a 1.4 X 5-centimeter 
strip of
meat at the be- cooked 
steak into two pieces.
cycle. All steaks As shown in 
the table, the sensory
am trays, PVC panel noticed 
no significant difference in
n for subsequent tenderness 
or amount of connective tis-
panel and with sue between steaks containing salt and
nt that measures the control 
steaks. The average values
for juiciness were slightly higher for the
on two steaks steaks 
containing salt than 
the control
by a 6-member 
steaks, and 
cooking loss was 
significantly
Steaks were pre- 
lower for salt 
treated steaks. 
Adding salt
for Instron eval- 
caused improvement 
in flavor, according
ng to an internal 
to the sensory 
panel. Panelists 
were per-
on a commercial mitted 
to use salt on the cooked sample
ng loss was 
de- during 
testing if desired, 
so the flavor
teaks before 
and difference 
noted was 
related to flavor 
al-
teration of the meat mix during process-
ties, tenderness, 
ing and cooking.
nount of connec- Previous 
research also found that 
flavor
ted by the panel 
was enhanced 
by incorporation 
of salt
tron compression 
into the meat 
mix. The same 
research
ograms of force) also 
showed that steaks containing 
salt
develop off flavors during freezer storage.
Color of steaks containing salt was sig-
URED STEAKS BY nificantly more desirable than the color
ND INSTRON of control steaks. This agrees 
with results
Results by of 
previous studies with 
restructured beef
treatment steaks.
Control Salt Physical 
properties of the cooked 
re-
added structured steaks containing salt were
superior to the controls as evaluated by
5.3 5.5 the Instron. Compression scores were sig-
4.4 5.0 nificantly lower and the tension 
scores
5.2 6.2 were significantly 
higher for the salt treat-
4.0 4.7 ment. This indicates that the meat 
parti-
cles bound together better with salt ad-
838 755 dition, but still retained more desirable
33.4 31.8 compression scores, which is 
indicative
8 . he 1.= 
of desired 
tenderness.
3, where 1 - ex-
3 = extremely de- The reported findings established that
an acceptable restructured steak product
quired to push a can be manufactured from young bull
oked meat sample. beef. Based 
on this study, the addition
ked meat into two of 0.75% salt provides improved 
sensory
and physical properties.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
MARKETABLE TOMAT cr0 F. LDS' XITIi I 
iiiII T, I Ii' 11\ItI( 1lIW III1ODS,
Irrigation and
In-row Chiseling
Boost Tomato Yields
B. D. DOSS, 
Dept. of 
Agronomy 
and Soil 
s
Coop. USDA-SEA
J. L. TURNER, Dept. of Horticulture
C. E. EVANS, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
en cR GNF 'l RALLY Il'XD xli E i Iii ST iif
factiors thait limniit cropi prouctionl iii Ala-
lirna. Excen iii y ears of high rainfalll,
poor. cdistibio illuiringy critical periods
anld poor- wxater us e caulse iof soil cornm
pn'liiol may ieut in rediuced yields or
cropi
1  
lailluri. 'liis, isc' uof suplemen'i'ital
xxaiter anid bi lking tip uf siiil harldlpanis
ciu ld lie expeucted to redcuce crop lossces
fromn rainfall xl iiitalge.
A comiaition iif ir riaion and in-roxv
cliisl'lillg gavx a'~ positive yield respoinse
ill I976-78 tinm to pioct lion resech i at
till' Ft. V. Smiithi licsearcli (eilter. The
project evxaluat11ed fuiriixx, sprinkle, and
trickle irrigatioii methodls xxithl and1( xxith-
ouit ii roxv chlixseling for stakecd Troipic
11)11ill(oCs giow oxxil n Oraniigcebui rg sai icl
lialli soil.
(o ) i irroxx aid piii)nkle iriigatc'c ploitl.,
wate1r xxas addei ld 6-7 clays afteiri rains o f
I i. iir more, andlc at 6- to 7 (lay init(erxvals
thieireaftcer iuitil a xxetting rain occurredl.
i rrigaution on i ticklce plots wav~s appicdc 1 -5
cax ' s after raini ancd tlii cx cix'r 2 cdayx
lillitil aniothier rain carl'. i lickle iii iga-
I ion wvatei xvas1 appl icec thiroiigh a single
line iif lxxill xxall plastic tiililg plaucecd onl
lh' siiil sillface niext to the plants. Chlisel-
lng xx'as donle directlx' heic'.tli the roxy
to au depth of 12-11 iii. iimiedliately he-
fore' plants xx'cre su't in midApil.
Al11 plots xvere' adlou'c 11el v fe rt0 iizcd ac-
coi ii li to sil ltest i eco I en (1 daition 5.
Planiis xxerce st~le'( and lieu wxithlW txie
xx n-u appi1 i\ iiia yt~ I) in) hiigh ' i1 (d
ti i'riAte whexni'eve'xc'r th e plants grewx all
otheir 6 in. tallir. Wecekly spralx iig xwithi
insx eticide a iid fi iii ici de proxvidedl e ffec-
lix i push co(ntroil. Wueecds xx'cre controllced
isbY hiride.
(Iri ation ren-ptiiemenls xxere relatix clx
Iligi illirilig 1977 amid 1978 as a resiiit of
lowxx i ,infall. Raolf'll cliiiing, Ilie poriil
friont pl11a1ntig In last hairvest xvas approi-
ina~ti'x 21 iii. in 1976, bnt onv I11 in. iii
1977 and agraii i ii 1978. Lowxxest amoii
uif irrigation xwater applied per sceasoin
Irrigation and tillage me thod
No irrigation
Not chiseled
C h ise led----------- ---
Furrow irrigation
Not hiseled
Sprinkle irrigation
Not cil ed-------
C hiseled--- ----- ---
Trickle irrigation
Not chiseled
Chiseled
Average, all treatments
Not chiiseled
Chlehd
Per acre produlct ion
4.3,8 10 17,180
45,670 24,710
12,280
50,120
43,500
52,020
45,830
48,960
4:3,860)
49,1901
wvas inl 1976 - 3.3 in. firont 6 trickle irri
gations alld( 9.() in. 1mmll 6 irrigatins by
the sprin kle inethod. Most wvater applied
in a x ear xxas 9.6 in. im :35 iriigatioiis
lix the ti ickli' method anid 20.0 iii. front1
1:3 spriinkle irrigations in 1977. Anioiit
of wxaler applied was ax ipiroximately the'
same for tille fiurrowx anid spiikle ietli-
ods m nole than ltwice as mnuch as wxith
tr ickle iiiigaition.
Boithi till' rate osf plant urroxxtli inl early
season and1( plant height at first haixv(st
wxere increasedli lby in oration and1( in-roxx
eciiseling. 11 cigh t of planuts ait (lie begin-
Ilung of haixest rangfed fromt an ax ir .ig
of 25 in. for the noi irigaiteil, unel iseled
tr eatments to 48 in. fiol the in igated aind
chiseled tr eat meint. Theii greatest eff~ect
f rom irrigalion or eciiseliig xvas in 197
whenl axveirage plant height wxas increased
an axverage of 16 iii. lby irrigation and
another 4 in. Iv chiseling.
TPhiee ver axverage' markieLtable niato
vieids rallg('i firoim :32,000 to 47,0011)h.
l' acre'(, se( e table. Yields we re incireased
ibx irrigationi dtiiing 1977 and 197S, hut
not ill 1976, a1 year of iiigh irainfall duiinig
tile gi oxxilig Season.
Response to irrigation wa s gireatest in
42.160
40,370
41,930
41,610
40,370
44,940
35,410
:37, 910
197-8
Lb.
34,610
30,:380
45,350
47,400
Axveratge
Lb.
31,880
33,590
-13,260
-15,960
43,470 42,970
45,500 46,3801
40,390
48,210
10,9:30
-12,160
47,370
40,070
1.3 320
1977 x\-]tl irainfali xwas loxwest ciirimlg the
peak fruiitinlg peiond. Theirie xx as little
diffeiriice lictxvcii aixci age( xiclils of thle
miltliod ulsed less dilli hlf (lie fiiki lns
xxater that wxas appliedl to the fiirroxw or
sprinkle ii raled ti caients. AlXi axer-
age fI ii 97 aincd 19 shioxxedi that iri-
gTatioil iincreased iclils by 16,75 11). 
per
a b loxve iioiii gaeil xields.
lii1-o rix'1iliseliiig iniiieased x iilds for
all ti-cilments inl 1976. Ill 1977, chisel-
ing( did lnot mlci ease pridcioniii oil the
Spriikle alld fiurl oxx II eiments. 'Ilii' iiext
year cise'ling uppedl x \ilds onn iiirigated
gi i atest deffc fi oln c hiis(lig~ xxis iiil iiii-
irr igated plots iii 1977 x%,]tl x iclds wr
on1cliisu'lcd Plots.
The percentage oif large fruit xxas in-
creasedl i\ bxoth Ii iii ationl andc ciiiseli g
bx chliseihg. hiut tlielliii to lie diecreasced
lwx n riaioni. A colunt of diseased plaints
at the endl of eachl ll,.ivest scasoii showexdcc
that a hliglie- peceniitalge of plants xxei
lisiasi-i il spr1inl~ke ill igalc'c ploits than
onl eithler fusrroxw o1 r iickle irrigaitcec plots.
Effect of sprinkler irrigation on tomato growth is illustrated by this comparison of irrigated
plants (right) and those nat irrigated (left).
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
B rITE which are often mistakenly at-
tributed to mosquitoes or black flies are
actually caused by minute blood-sucking
flies which, like mosquitoes, must feed
on blood in order to develop their eggs.
They are members of the family Cerato-
pogonidae and are tlhus called ceratopo-
gonids or biting midges. Because of their
extremely small size (.04 to .08 in.)
which makes them nearly invisible to the
casual observer, they are often referred
to as "no-see-ums." Another common
name is punkies, a corruption of an Al-
gonquii Indian word for ash or 
ash-like,
referring to their grayish, fleek-like ap-
pearance and the associated 
burning sen-
sation produced as they feed.
Biting midges are especially a problem
in coastal areas vlhere they breed in salt
marshes and along 
beaches, accounting
for another common name, sand flies.
Further inlaud they cause severe discom-
fort to camil)ers
, 
sportsm(en, and othler
outdoor entllhsiasts. In addition to biting
man, these flies readily attack wildlife,
cattle, and other domestic livestock, caus-
ing an undertermined amount of eco-
nomic losses.
Not all ceratopodogonids feed on man
and large mammals. Those that do tvpi-
callv ),long to the genera Culicoidcs and
L'plloconops. Other biting midges feed
on birds, snakes, frogs, and even many
groups of insects. The feeding habits of
most members of this large, diverse fam-
ily are still unknown.
These flies b1reed in a wide range of
aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats includ-
ing the edges of ponds and streams, low-
lying woodlands, seepage areas, and the
organically-rich soils of swamps and bogs.
Rot holes in trees in which water and
organic debris accumulate provide ideal
sites for development of several of the
woodland species that readily attack man.
Although biting midges do not appear
to play a significant role in the transmis-
sion of human disease agents in the
United States, they are vectors of two
important viral diseases of domestic and
wild animals: bluetongue of sheep and
cattle, particuilarly iln the Westerl 
States,
and epizootic hemorrhagic disease of
deer in the Southeast. The latter hils
caused high mortalities in white-tailed
(ldeer populations as the result of out-
)breaks in Alabama, Georgia, North Caro-
lina, and Tennessee over the past several
decades.
A state-wide survey of the biting
midges in Alabama was initiated in 1976
to determine what species are 
found here,
their seasonal occurrence, relative abun-
dance, and breeding habits. Prior to this
time only 16 genera and 59 species had
been reported in the State. With the co-
AI
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
' I
/'ON
/
J
f
BITING MIDGES:
Pest of Man, Livestock,
and1 Wildlife
GARY R. MULLEN and JAYSON I. GLICK
Deportment of Zoology-Entomology
FIG. 1. Adult biting midge showing con-
spicuous wing markings, which aid in identi-
fication.
operation of personnel of the Agricultural
Experiment Station, five State Parks, the
Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge, and
the Tennessee Valley Authority, regular
trapping locations were set up to collect
these flies in each of the major physio-
graphic regions of the State. Standard
New Jersey light traps, figure 2, were
operated nightly from April to Novem-
ber. In addition, extensive collections of
substrate samples from potential breed-
ing sites have been made from \\hich
adults have been reared in the laborator..
A total of 142 species in 24 genera is
now known to occur in Alabama, includ-
ing 42 species of the man-biting genus
Culicoidcs. A number of previously un-
described species in at least four different
genera has also been collected. Culicoidcs
variipennis and C. occidcntolis sonorcnsis,
known vectors of bluetongue, have been
found to be common near livestock facili-
ties in several parts of the State.
In an effort to learn more about C. o.
sonorensis and its potential role in the
transmission of bluetongue virus in Ala-
bama, a detailed field study of the biol-
ogy of this species was begun earlier this
vear at the Black Belt Substation in l)al-
las County. This t pe of study, together
xithi an on-going survey, will provide
much needed iiformation on this eco-
nomically-important, yet poorly 
known,
group of biting flies in the Southeast.
FIG. 2. Standard New Jersey light trap used
in ceratopogonid survey.
- I
- ~'' F
in-row weed control in pecans
HARRY J. AMLING, Department of Horticulture
EMMETT CARDEN, N. RONALD McDANIEL, and FRANK B. SELMAN
Gulf Coast Substation
A COIBINATION of herbicides and
mowing is one of the widest used weed
control management practices for orchard
floors in the eastern portion of the U.S.
pecan belt. Herbicides 
are used to main-
tain a 7- to 8-ft.-wide weed-free strip in
the tree row. Remainder of the orchard
floor is mowed.
In young trees, the weed-free row strip
is primarily needed to reduce weed com-
petition. In bearing orchards it elimi-
nates the need for cross mowing. A
harvesting advantage is that nuts from
the weed-free strip can be blown to one
side, which improves efficiency of the
sweeping operation.
Pecan weed control 
research by the
Auburn University Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, conducted since 1962, has
defined weed problems 
in the tree row,
as follows:
1. Annual grass and broadleaf weed
complexes in the tree row.
2. Perennial grasses in the row.
3. Perennial broadleaf weeds immedi-
ately adjacent to the tree itself.
4. Annual grasses in newly planted
trees.
Effective chemical control for each has
been found in the Auburn research. The
data have been successfully used for label
registration of the more promising chem-
icals evaluated, with the exception of
2,4,5-T.
Persistence of preemergence herbicide
activity of Simazine and Kannex differ ed
considerably between central and south-
ern Alabama. These herbicides used
alone had insufficient persistence in
southern Alabama to maintain the weed-
free, in-row strip. This was attributed to
the higher prevailing temperatures and
rainfall in that area. With 4-year-old
trees, long-term trials were then set up
to evaluate a Karmex-Sinbar combination
and Surflan. These treatments were con-
sidlered at the time to be more persistent
in precemergence activity, but they were
not registered for such use.
Earlier work had found that continued
use of preemergence herbicides alone
without applications of postemergence
materials increased perennial weed pres-
sure from bermudagrass, dcwberry, and
blaekherry. Consequently, Roundup was
included, used alone and in conjunction
with the preemergence herbicides.
No visual tree damage occurred wvith
any of these herbicides, even though the
lower 1 ft. of tree trunk was sprayed. In
separate studies it was found that
Roundup coIuld not be allowed to contact
cU(C( oe COnloound Icaf Iihout s h.stan-
tial phyttotoxicity the following spring.
Appl -in g Roundup wit Simazine, Kar-
mex, or Sinar as a tank mix also resulted
in nearly complete inactivation of the
Roundup. This did not occur when tank
mixed wvith Surflan.
Herbicide treatment did not affect tree
size or number of nuts per tree. tHow-
ever, size of nuts was substantially larger
cp;r
EFFECT OF SELECTED IEIIICIDES ON C iOWTII, YIELDS, AND 
NUT QUALITY OF
7-YiEAH-OLD CAPE FEAII TREES'
Treatment
Nuts
per )lb.
No.
Yield and nut data
Nut Percent Yield
volume shellout per tree
cc Pct. Lb.
Yield
per acre
Lb.
Nuts
per tree
No.
owed cheeck 66 9.8 58 17.3 718 1,142
louindup, 4 lb./acre 51 12.6 56 21.6 896 1,102
Boundup, 8 lb./acre 55 11.9 58 28.6 1,187 1,573
loundulp, 2 lb./acre, plus
Surflan, 2.25 lb. 57 11.8 59 21.9 909 1,248
Roundup, 2 lb./acre, plus
Kannex-Sinbar, :3.2 & 0.8 lb. 54 12.3 58 21.6 896 1,164
'Trees drip irrigated with one emitter per tree, 8 hours per day; trees spaced 30 X 35
ft., 41.5 trees per acre.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
Weed-free, in-row strip reduces weed com-
petition with young pecan trees (right) and
eliminates the need for cross mowing and
improves harvesting efficiency of bearing
trees (left).
on all herbicide treated trees than on the
mowed check. This increase in nut size
occurred even though all test trees (in-
cluding mowed only) were drip irrigated
(8 hours per day with one emitter de-
livering 1 gal. of water per hour).
Surflan did not adequately control
broadleaf weeds as it 
did annual grasses,
and annual grass control was poorer than
from the Kannex-Sinbar combination.
Better annual weed control results from
Surflan were noted on newly planted trees
in recently plowed and disked fields, a
situation where Karmex-Sinbar could not
be used because of possible phytotoxicity.
In this situation, there was no visual
toxicity from Surflan.
The preemergence herbicides evaluated
do not prevent the pegging down of per-
ennial grass stolons that grow into the
treated strip. The greater the vigor of
these grasses the more intense is this
problem.
Perennial grasses in the tree row, par-
ticularly bermudagrass, are readily con-
trolled by Roundup and Dalapon. Shad-
ing does not improve Roundup effective-
ness as it does with 
Dalapon. IHence,
Roundup is far more effective in young
orchards than is Dalapon. In contrast
to Dalapon, Roundup is not effective
against bermudagrass in the spring. Its
use for this purpose is restricted to mid
and late summer. However, Roundup
will also control perennial broadleaf
weeds, such as honeysuckle and poison
ivy, even if applied in the spring. Con-
trol of brambles can be achieved with
Roundup applied at high rates in late
summer. Best control of brambles and
other perennial broadleaf weeds adjacent
to the tree base was obtained using low-
volatile esters of 2,4,5-T in water applied
as a spot treatment. This use for 2,4,5-T
is not registered.
Ut--+LIHVKUl-
in Pond-raised
Coatfish
R. T. LOVELL, Department of
Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures
M osr catfish farmers would probably
agree that pond related off-flavor, namely
a musty or muddy flavor, is the number
one problem in the industry today. Be-
fore a pond of fish can be harvested, the
farmer must present a sample of the fish
to the processor who cautiously tests the
fish by smell and taste for off-flavor. If
even slight off-flavor is detected, the fish
cannot be harvested and the farmer must
wait until the flavor improves.
Off-flavor is not a permanent thing;
it disappears soon after the source in the
pond is gone. This may take only a week
or several months may be required; con-
sequently, off-flavor creates considerable
inconvenience in maintaining pond har-
vest schedules.
Studies on causes and controls for
pon(l related off-flavor in catfish con-
ducted at the Auburn University Agri-
cultural Experiment Station have allowed
for some of the following conclusions.
(Ceosmin is the major compounid re-
spoisible for the musty flavor in pond
raised catfish. Ceosmin, or chemically
related compounds, also causes musty
odor or flavor in public water supplies,
various foods, and decaying organic mat-
ter in the soil.
Ceosmin is produced by some species
of blue-green algae and by some actino-
mwycetes. A hecavily fed fish pond is a
good growth mcdiuim for both 
of these
organisms, the algae using inorganic nu-
trients and the actinomycetes growing on
decomposing organic matter. Odor-pro-
ducing species of both organisms have
been identified from ponds with musty
flavored catfish.
Musty flavor in catfish occurs more fre-
quently in heavier soils, such as in the
Black Belt and the Mississippi flood plain,
than in sandier, more acid soils. Off-flavor
is reported most often in late summer
(perhaps because more fish are harvested
then), frequently in cool weather (spring
and fall), and occasionally in the winter.
A survey in 1975, covering Alabama and
Mississippi, indicated that approximately
two out of 10 catfish ponds could be ex-
pected to have off-flavor fish at any single
time during the summer and fall months.
The geosmin-like compounds can be
absorbed by the fish through the gills di-
rectly from the water; thus, ingestion of
geosmin-containing materials is not nec-
essary for the fish to obtain the flavor al-
though they absorb it quicker through
the digestive tract. Geosmin is stored in
the fat tissue of fish.
\Vhen a musty-flavored fish is placed
in a geosmin-free environment, this com-
pound disappears from the flesh relatively
quickly. Tests showed that no sensorilh
detectable off-flavor was present when
musty-flavored fish were held in clean
water for 7 to 10 days at 750F or for 10
to 15 days at 620F, depending upon
initial flavor intensity. Ilowever, along
with disappearance of off-flavor there will
be a weight loss of 5 to 12% if the fish
are not fed.
Controlling off-flavor is difficult be-
cause enriched catfish ponds are favor-
able media for growth of geosmin-pro-
ducing organisms. Selective destruction
of the organisms which cause off-flavor,
while sparing those which enhance pond
water quality, is difficult.
General recommendations for the con-
trol of off-flavor in catfish ponds are not
available. Transfer of fish to clean water
or rapid exchange of the pond water is
effective, hut most farmers cannot do this
adequately or economically. Judicious use
of algacides has shown varying success,
but this is hazardous because of the pos-
sibility of overkill of algae and subse-
quent oxygen depletion.
Producers and processors have been
educated on the etiology of off-flavor de-
velopment in catfish and the significance
of this problem on marketabilitv of the
fish. Research is in progress at this time
on pond control measures and objective
tests for measuring off-flavor in fish.
illustration of the influence of continuous
infusion of fish feed into the pond on growth
of geosmin-synthesizing organisms and sub-
sequent absorption of the off-flavor com-
pound by fish.
ctinomycete
Growth
A
Unobsorbed Feed
Nutrients
De
Minerals
C02
N
ecomposin
Algae
Algae
Growth
Food
Chain
Compounds
Secreted - Fish's Body
in Water
Consumed/
Directly
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
r -Oho
---------------------
I--
,rIFu
___.__._______L---
FIG. 1. Onychiurus encarpatus (top) and praisatoma minuta (bot-
tomn), soil dwelling Collembola tspringtailst from Alabama cotton
fields.
FIG. 2. Control of coiton seedling disease by Collembola added to
Rhizoctonia-infested field soil. A) Natural, R hizocton ia -infested
fic'ld soil only; B) natural field soil ICollembola added; C) sup-
plemcntary Rhizoctonia inoculum added to field soil; D) supple-
mentary Rhizoctonia +' Callembola added.
S1 i i~issiti'.. oi, sortiei root disease fungi by antagonistic
cotiii liittts of te Soil il irni ltira ( fun gi, bac'teriai, etc. ) is
XX' 'ii dt i tonen teid, hut thei( po) tt il role cif Stil insct s in
plaiit tiseIse contol has bieni Xii tuially igitoic'd.
hBt gl in iig XVIthi thei( giadteiit studie's of Elizabetil A. Wig-
ghts iut 19761 it tile Atubitrnt Uive'sitv Agi ic'ultii al Experime(nt
S Lit ion, seveiral facts ablit inic'rtartlti tpocls of tile Order ('ol-
It iii ii I ( sp ri itgt~ii s) htavc' been'i ('stablish edl. 
Twol gene cra,
IPro .1i itt la andii On tyr'i ittrils, of theicse mii u tC in sects (1-2 iin
10t11g) ate pirevalenit ilthtliiaot ill sUailiX soils eooilloi tol
iiiai t Alabi am a cot ton fie('Ic,,. Like' the c in i rofiot a, ti icv arce
ctiits ist eit IX v nlorc' iiitii inmt inl theI roiot zoneI ( rIi tsliiC rC
thltli ill root-iree stil, andc their nuimbers are intcreasedl tUind(r
stipl d (iient aiX i nirgaici fert ilizationit. 'FT c inisets ailso li ( (
ai tl'iti'icc tti miigiraIte toiXXa rd lantii roots cluiiin g pCIrils XXieii
stii is cIt-i XIg. It XX as f
t
thtier siliXX'n that they can tra.nsport
ftit gwat spotrcs lit tI tillr Spotg res of tile cot tol t XXiit patti It) ieCl
lu sritt o(XtJsponun f. sp. t tinfct 'ln, on their bi istlcc
graltisitis. Thusi', it appeac'redc (bat tite inisects ighiyt be a1 thieat
tto cot li cirops liv XcI Xii ig as v'ectors of cdise'ase aglents.
Siiitsetjii 'lilv, it XX Is (eatrne'd that tXX i spiels iol thttse' Ciii-
1p01115) atrc liX \cM(iotgUtS (fuLnguIs feders) and feedi dcstruc-
l ively' ii pni [lie ctn rotiiit lt patli igen, Rbi/t 
oCIn ia so/o of,
als XXl 'is o i i F .itts itt an td m iX i 0 tli r soiil ft 
i gi . Thecrefore',
it is bliev Xeid tha~t these ins'cts may pilay a liial irole iii cotton
fields: ( I ) ltt'v inatv tranosport litiniall sportilatiiig futngi,
btth 
1
atlitgt'ns anti iion-patiogt'os, toi thi'i rooit /toCl, thuts
in fit iti tciii( ge'olotgi c'al pi c'n tiia airotund thC roots andc af(feet
iitg 
1
i1.iitt litlltli anti gTrliwti; tir (2) tteX mnay servet as ntttrt
Ibitiltigical ctttti oh igt'ltts 1)X destrtictiXe ('Iv feeding tupon path-
togents mid re'lii 1 tile iiioc'tltim llensitv requiiredi for iroot
infecticon. The sectondl part tif this htyivithil'sis XX is te'sted'llii
itil tlttr lahiiitiioItv aind gYrt't'iittitsec' xpe~riments tising mixedt
poulationis oth tit' XXo (Xilt'niita species agtainst RlizLoctottia
.5(/tti. Tiis liaitittigeni does iiolt produt ce sporc's aindc, th erefore,
First, the diestrutiXve Capacity of titC insects aginst Rhi'-oc-
Itttli(! Xvai5 dter'mintt'c iii iabiitory fee'Cing tests. Wheicn tile
miixe'td s pecie werXel' in) rt t t cel into tti lsites Xvhere Rh/i (id/toi
was girow~i ng frtiin iinoculatect oat gri l is on agar, 75-100if in-
sects c'tnsuimit'd .liprliniatt'iv 90% cif the ftingai nix c'llim
sil satpi tiiiX t ( Trir'iodcrttto iiorziattittt ori Xsjn'ti-iis ttr
Suppression of Rhizoctonia Disease
in Cotton by Mycophagous Insects
E. A. CURL, Departmc, f Botory and Microbiolngy
J. D. HARPER, Depa I IfZoloy Entomology
FIG. 3. Destructive feeding of Collembala an oat-grain culture
(right) of the fungus Rhizoctonia solani, a cotton root-disease path-
cgen, culture without insects (left).
rciOs X ('c (iltitie cilli tihe sm.ifle tish, tile' ins~ects XiloiXX til a
di'stinict fe('i'ciiitg ilcl ice lot- the pimtittge'i.
A ser ies of r epeatedi expeimnents XX as then conducted to
de term ine the capaiiil it X of tih' Coilh'mibol a to reduce tihe
inocilr tim((iisit v of li zo ct 00) in a natu ral fi eld soil andi
thlus pi oteet cotton seedlings from clampitignilf disease. Fer -
tile sailtIX loamri cllitainlit0 a natui al mieroliot a and knjowni to
be ifesteci wXiih li t iC/0 solaiot, Nvas col leected fr om a local
cot ton field and1( mixed f or ii oim itX , thlen sni ject el to dc,-
siredi treatmcents and ciispentsed in 5.4 cui. in. (abou~nt 1 5 pt.)
quantities jno (
1
t. plastic greenhoumse pots. Replicated ti eat-
liI('its X ci C as flowiXs: \SS non-sterilizecl (inatut ai) soil,
itotitin g addceci NSS + -t, CO natutoai soil pis I abora toi
reVt et I Ccliii thol a ( i\Cll spcics) add cedi at 1,000 or 2,000
inisects foi 2.2 lb). Soil; NSS + 1S3- natur al soil suipple-
innt ec Xvi)h hi ltUocto(ittia soln ioni chol lpped ( oats at the rate
of0.22 
T 
per 2.2 lb). of soil; and NS i- 1RS + ('0 -sodl
XXNi it t oth llizton!il in octi i ti and cIo llcnm lat addted. 1Tell
inl eaci of cil'fi t pots per ti eatm nrt. 1'rct i) gC eedliii g
ei. ei tce \v~i recorcded andi, 12 ci, \s Ilateri, all roo ts ani ciln-
,ger minatecd seed XXr crc c ieti ion tile soil anic XX asltec.
Botiot disease seX CritY wvas rated ton a scale of 0 ( health'
1 
) toi
.5 ((lead) . Uiigermiatei sieed andit rottedt inpoi~citXis XX Ci
c(ror' i /el its p'-C~'mctnec datniping-nfl aiic ratedl 5. The
presenc: o f li; oI'tottia iii diseased'c roo~ts XXa ver iiifie'd ii
ciii tii iii g firom XVUalICL ro(iot sCarints.
Thec r esults are( illustrtedc in figore 2, using pots representa-
tiv e of eaceh treatment. T'1 li mxopliagois action of Coliemn
biola coiti ibtted to a siginificantt redclutioii inl bo1th pie- atici
puist-emneigertee damping-otl disease, conseqjuently faXvoriing
plant grilt i and a mor e folly cdevelopecd root system. WXhere
2,000~t insects XX crc added per pot, tite UX erage Tnml eal dis-
eas rtings for treatmcnts repr esented in figure 2 Xvere: N SS
- 2.25, _NSS + COt-I0.), NSS + RS -4.1(0, and NSS
+- BS +t CO -2.2)). The addition of supplementarv Rioc
ttm inoui'iiii to soil alreatdy naturally infes.ted Xvitl the
pthogen represents tin extremely ihigh level of inocuhuir
ava ilablle for infection; thterefoie, the disease reduction by
insect actiXvity in treatment NSS + RS 
+ CO is paiticularlv
impressive.
This inv estigTatto n stronigly sulggests thatt miei oiitsects assoei-
tedc With tlIe roiot surlfatce Oir i itizosphei e of crop plants miust
lbe considleredi along Xvitit the mnicrollora in eclolgical rescearch
relating to biological control of soil-bornte pathtogens.
One grin equals .035 oz.
Auburn Universqty Agricultural Experiment Station
From
Cotton Gin
Residue, Bark,
and Wood Fiber
EVANGELOS J. BIBLIS and WU-CHUNG LEE
Department of Forestry
C OTTON GIN WASTES (from spindle-picked cotton) consist
of various portions of stems, leaves, burs, cotton 
fibers, sand,
and soil. Collection and disposal of these waste materials has
been the concern of cotton gin managers for many years.
Until recently, most southeastern cotton gins burned their
wastes in a teepee or open type burner. Other gins have trash
hoppers to collect their waste and haul it to a dump. In other
cases, gin trash has been composted and then applied to fields.
In specific areas, limited amounts of trash have been fed to
cattle. Presently, pollution control regulations prohibit some
of the above disposal methods.
Cotton gin waste, in most cases, contains an appreciable
amount of bundled short cotton fibers. The existence of the
cotton fibers could qualify the gin wastes for use as part of
the raw material (furnish) for fabrication of non-structural
building panels. With the addition of wood particles or fibers
and a thermosetting resin, cotton gin wastes could provide the
major portion of the needed material to produce insulation
building panels for housing.
This work was undertaken to investigate process and other
variables for fabricating panels containing large amounts of
cotton gin residues, and to compare the properties of these
panels with the properties of commercial insulating building
boards.
PROPERTIES OF EXPERIMENTAL BOARDS' AND OF COMMERCIAL
INSULATION BUILDING BOARD
Lower Higher Commercial
Property density density insulation
board board board
density (pcf) 
(1.2)2 (1.5) 
(0.2)
Plate shear 31.2 42.5 12.8
Modulus (10'psi) (1.8) (2.2) (0.7)
Modulus of 93.9 125.4 32.9
elasticity (10'psi) (16.1) (15.7) (4.5)
rupture (psi) (89) (96) (23)
Internal 3.6 6.3 4.0
bond (psi) (0.9) (1.6) (0.4)
Nail holding 9.4 16.7 8.4
face (lb.) (2.3) (4.7) (1.2)
Thermal conductivity K 0.401 0.449 0.353
(BTU-in./hr.-ft.2-F) (0.014) (0.022) (0.007)
Experimental Work
The work involved fabrication and evaluation of building
boards from various mixtures of the following components by
dry weight: 60% cotton gin residues, 20% southern yellow
pine bark, and 20% sweetgum fibers. Bark was included to
improve thermal insulation of the board. Boards in this ex-
periment were surfaced on both sides with Kraft paper (0.006
in. thick, % oz. per sq. ft. weight).
Cotton gin wastes were collected from Alabama gins, dried
to 6.5% moisture and crushed with a hammer-mill-type ani-
mal feed grinder. Wood particles of southern yellow pine
were obtained from a particleboard plant and hardwood fib-
ers
1 
(sweetgum) from a fiberboard plant.
The components were dry mixed for 3 minutes in a motor-
ized drum mixer and then blended with urea-formaldehyde
concentrate resin (Allied Chemical Fiberbond) at an 8% rate.
Board mats (24 in. X 24 in.) were hand formed. Paper sur-
facing was accomplished in one operation while pressing the
board. The inside surface of the Kraft paper was thin coated
with urea-formaldehyde concentrate resin. Boards were hot-
pressed for 5 minutes at 400 psi (pounds per square inch)
and 300
0
F. Mechanical stops were used to control board
thickness of 1/ in. and board densities of 22 and 27 lb. per cu.
ft. There were eight boards in each density group.
After fabrication all boards were conditioned at 65% R.H.
and 72
0
F. Each board was initially trimmed to 16 in. square
and tested non-destructively in plate shear according to
ASTM D 3044-76.2 Afterwards, each board was cut into five
flexure specimens 3 in. wide (15 specimens for each mixture)
and tested for flexure stiffness and strength. From the tested
flexure specimens of each board, six internal bond specimens
and three specimens for nail holding were cut and tested.
Experimental results are listed in the table. These boards,
as they have been described in the experimental procedure,
are reinforced with paper on both surfaces and thus form a
sandwich construction. The paper-skin reinforcement has sig-
nificantly improved all strength properties except internal
bond strength. The flexure and plate shear properties of both
low and high densities (22 and 27 p.e.f.) paper-surfaced
boards are two to four times larger than corresponding prop-
erties of the commercial insulation board. The internal bond
(I.B.) strength of the low density board is slightly weaker
while the I.B. of the higher density board is stronger than that
of the commercial insulation board. The nail withdrawal re-
sistance of both density boards is higher than that of the com-
mercial board. The thermal conductivity factors (K) of the
low and high density boards are, respectively, 14% and 27%
higher than that of the commercial board. However, the in-
sulating values of these two density boards are twice as good
as that of -in. softwood plywood sheathing (K - 0.8).
Results indicate that it is possible to fabricate commercially
acceptable building boards that contain large amounts of cot-
ton gin residue (60%), southern pine bark (20%), and hard-
wood fibers (20%). These boards are reinforced with Kraft
paper on both surfaces, and are two to four times stronger
and stiffer than the commercial insulation boards. They have
good thermal insulation values and are light and easy to
handle without breaking.
1Sweetgum fibers had been processed in a Bauer 418 pressurized
refiner with plate clearance of 0.050 in., stem pressure of 100 psi,
and dwell time of 5 minutes.
2 American Society for Testing and Materials. 1977. Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Part 22. Philadelphia, Pa.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
'Experimental boards contained 60% cotton gin residue, 20%
southern pine bark, 20% hardwood fibers, with paper surfaces.
2 Number in parentheses indicates standard deviation.
15
ALABAMA'S COASTAL COU NTIF
ROBERT G. NELSON and WILLIAM E. HARDY, JR.
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
C OASTAL RiEGIONS in the United States
are receivinlg more and more attention
fiom administrators, planners, and citi-
zens hecause of tile variety of actixvities
xvhichi take pliace on or near tile coast anti
bCcause5 o~f tue neecdc to pceserve the mnan '
unique environmenutal ch aracte ris tics of
coiastal areas.
Re'searchers 
in tile 
Department 
(If Ag-
riculiturail Econ om ics anti Ruralci SoCiol-
ogv (fiidecl by tile NOAA Office' of Sea
Graint, D~epaiitmen~lt oft Commece) hasve
iindtackcei a xliii is l illi int ilerctionls
iletxv''n(cil C ilulit . uad enivironmental
concern(' i s ill the i o' viciiii lt c'oa still 11'giill
(If Aiaaina. The stuys d(ixvicded iinto txx (
tlii' Il iilltlal (OIl giit, aic cix ipc i
NI~lI (il iii ;lxx ii counties.
'rut basis iof tue economic miodel is a
tecihiiue kiiowx :iis 'input-output anal-
y six.'' iiput-oituit anlyixsix is fuiitiamen-
tails il ccc'uint ii igxstc'in cPi~l('ii to
shoi%)th liii 1(15 of goodlts aind xsirv~ices be-
x\V(ei1 IWOp i i(It-r ciiid iifrlill PrdU C'(rS to
iduttive' prlce'ss, as well
1 
as til( ou11put
froml it, lie decibeil' l i a tA)iiilar formlat
antI ii in this fi iI(5511k furtilicr ilnltil('
(lit 
1
)t miIocdil is to deidi(c(ll thei gilnerail
giilllps, ior "se(tors," into whlli the( sari-
Otis buisineCsses (If thei l'cin y5 tain lbe
incciiiilfuols comibiineh. tiIn tiis sliltiS, ai
total (If, 3.3 setor we x re tilOs~tiIliip
Senit all alix itO's anid ilnidustieis iil t110
re'gioin. Tit' Ildille an chieomipositio~n of
wvhichi tih're ace 85 sec'toirs) exce'pt that1
incluxti 115 importn 1 to11 tihe rionii sill hi
iilc'bilig dcciiic th ir ownsi sectl ,
xxiie relaitixvely insigif3 ilt iniiiislrii's
su ch ias II'cit I c prodicts 5i 111 lm11ct I le
R('xxindiiiig Sholps W'i (' ciilnilil'cl ilitil
xvas iise(d as lheb'ase year 1 ii'i s ll ta
ptit andlt employmilenlt staltistics cotulcd ile
obtaiinetd for tilt' mlajority cof sectors. Man-
ufacturing sectors iold a proimirient ple
sinltce Mobilc' Cclillv is quiite Iligill ill
ciisti ializcdt. Coils crsclx, xwhile tile ilat-
ural resource sectori suchd as wi'afooii ag.-
ricoltore, aild millingy are 11ot as xi tiifl-
cant ill tile maginitudie of tileir output as
tile manufacturing or service sctoirs, they
prov icdc stibstania ~l c'lpoyment il-I hiid-
xx ill Colltv.
I a c lassic inlput-output studitlv, a sam-
plc' of estaldishmiilents troim i'ach sletor
xxas coniider'ed pibiiliiitixvC, tihis sltici al-
chase5(s is siilar t ti0halt (If thiie ruoa1l
'c olloivis, an-d the p-attern 0o(f floxws inl the
Siom CK a ti xtil S for rei'i iil ihffieriincxs.
Wheiln all the inforitili oOil puirc'hiase's,
sales5, lil tio1t1al (1(11p1ut is col lecte an'c dllc
ortraii/c'i tile result is a tilet iii xx ilil
c'lei Sectoi lias (llc rox vxiliiii rep11st'st
its sale1s, and oile coluin xxii lieu ic'-
sent 5 its purichacse's. Slcs (If pirodccts ar e
distributccd I lit (11115 ti) thter inciiislril's
buot also) to 11111si'iholiids aid eiC
1
1 xports(frim
macdc on thle sale (If ltlt by each eilc'tor
is exactly ac'llctd for ill Ii e ainlilnt
of mon01ev spenit lx thait sectori
\\ hill' the malgnilit's of tile flowvs (If
gi lilt andi c sec'ies hIave c' ale si111 i'nxlcc'
1V972, it is a suii ithaiit tilt peircen'tIage
sector relaive I to that setor's tollt outputil
is riexiili'e It) cha the tit' ovec''r tlce
Iisatpo'sile to~i- analn the iffet's xxthlt
cal es (Ii eciirngi inpu fin ll hav
1
e' to- ,i
dayt ar. Fort Csoalll 
1
'llt'li5lcitical' itt i-
illaion pa tlet canil be i npts. ic'e 5tat
55iiiel pros "i e ctioneiltsi'i i wuldt
tile imlpulsxe geler'iatetl Illay ('5 lntilialx af
feet dir ect].x or indirectlyv all of the sec-
tors in tile entir e economyv. This chiain
reaction is k nowxn as thle "Iil itp1 icr (4-
feet" and a change in sales to final de-
mnand 1w one sector mix be multiplied
several times ov er in its total effect.
Using data on employee compensationi
and cinpioxment, wh ichl are an integral
part of tile p roduc t ion pirocess, it is also
possi 1)1e to tran1slate' theii effits of chiainges
iii final sales inito h ous1(1hold tiniome' and(
emnplo vmt'nt cli ('Us. Thius the ecoinomic
in odcd of thle legion proxvid(e(
(1) a diescr iption of the actual flos
of goodis and~ seirviees for 1972; (2) a
tionalitv of x'aiiolis illptuts to total outplut;
:3) a talie xwichl ijiaiitifies the iiiagnlri-
tllicle Of dlireet alit indirect elletUIS Oii eaech
x etor involved'( inl ai con omie chii n re-
act ion; aiiit (4) income anld Cnmpios 1Inlt
in iilt ipIiei s xwhi ch aire uised 1(o triallslate
thle ()itpot VlleetS into iincome anti cni-
pbs Nmeilt eff ects.
Thie sectondt plia5(' of the i eseareli is
a stuidy of hoxv tile ens momineiit iiiter-
acts xx ith the ecoinomy of tile iregion,. 'r his
Comlprises twxo aispects: piroductioii 
of air,
xWater, aind laud pollutioni, anti ililization
Of i-iatni al reStii Ii Ce SUCI i iS Nvater, 
lanid,
alit ciergy. The applroach used1 iii this
ph xe is to exteini tile iconmici(i it' mii ti'
to e ncomipass othier fact ors ill thle pric t-
lix e pmrtcess whiiich may not 1he as ob-
viOlis als iraxv materialls or labor. bit xxiih
ar e io 5 ertlielesS intlispensalie to eachi
wectoi in the prodcteioin of' its ouitput. All
iiitiiistiePs neetd space an iicerlgx to funi-
tion; inalix inidustieis iocate ill tcoastail
[i ('clx ileeai of Ia! ge prce'(ss dill tool-
lug w5ater ri illeniicits' mlost indisi ts
rcequiire the caiildcits to (iiscliirge wxa~stes
intio tile eli linlent. Pust ais there~ aie
ltOiiiit' in iii liti ii so I l'lie there tlo
researchi xwiiill liltif y the efftct oil Ciili5-
sions of tiitAi Sspendeidl't Solids, or sulfur11
diioxiiie Ill sollitd5 iti', or tihl c'oisllilp
till of fossil fuiels ori xxlecr ill the i egloil
xx l ais sector expei iences aci ialin' ill
Sdi('s Ii) final (t'illMlI.
mocd'
1 
sholuli prllside a powc'ifiii tooi ill
a fornllat xxhiichl cai llllat ifs vlic' iinter-
iItitioiisiips. Alabaina call iLoil aheaidl
for gi oxxtl aind t'la ill its coatl~li coill-
Auburn University Agricultural Experimecnt Station
CREEP FEEDING EFFECTS
Carry Over To
FEEDLOT PERFORMANCE
W. B. ANTHONY -f rurwrt~ AII DI ir DvS r icc
L. A SMITt, I W G Mt ' t, ir L. HOLLIMAN
[IM 't [ Id d ,Ioti
I I t I 'FI F ()I I( F I, oIII, 6--0 ) aod ~F I wif er i f7
aX F't (I I II F ('I F(lt I e ll 1111111'' tki caks,tl t lii tc iI~i' llh p ii T
fit F oo, oft . 1 5 ~ 't I- .\I I) I I T IX 1. i~t\ 'at 
I IillI( ti' I X( teel t C.ix IX X l c puit
atI IXt( ,FX. I F't'tIch l kt lllF FticFh tio'F 'X 9FIIFF Xl('IIlld 1It((FF1 1)0 > 5iiH( tl 0 1W1.611;
''I~it ; Flit] , F
1
F lot X(XX'i l'l'(t Farat, (_,roundX sh1b co 1 51 '1FF Il(FoidFX' ioh.5
F I' tII'I XXl ItlI t (1FF' IFF Fl]1 FFI f 'iX t. s~~t .o lii ( 1 i. , II 0IFF FIc i iI ll1) ~ s :3ItIF]
( IF' (F Flit ( I I FI' IF lt.( : (I IFFFFI' lF I tF F'( s I I ri (1o o) w t111FF;L ( iI'4) FF F r } ) , X . , itF l \ F l Itt fi
lulcl] iie N Xtti c.lI h i ni Fslih'l0 15'; X Ii.lT F'llfF'.S ao F'0. F15 'llj tictl
lw tc i l F31 F' il t 2 llli F~(1;1\ to I c)11 'il l tF)~lll!' IF 1(1 F)V lllll A t( I tl " 1fil'
I' I iFc( c(i Flt (1r lp ofI I I II I I I Fl(.'X wr h I (( I I IIc' t I w I. ' I'' o ltF FF11i X Fs
3od 111oi il \ 1 t('lf d 12111F] fo thF c ltt lilichll''' FX' pt li X 1FIFX' tl
ac (I ~I t Ic t niI I II It i III IIX( on t r I (Xlow li IIIFXIF\ rF1F i' d lcwcFIINI.
Ir) civ(.1) lc :I, ( 2 1 IIij p t i .(Troup 1 3nFl, to I)', l p ro\f~'t k i
te i'll% pr. 
I
No. 1,1). Lit)
Pill 2 hI 5 .70
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rc1 , ltI d
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It it 6:3.5 1.I
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till'
2. 9
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I ii It 
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2. 9
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F t~ \ \ JI , I Id ui I or titi 1( 1 1IX II l] tI I ' ()(IT
(ill ( III , t u11FF]] Isp).-(I o
lit F ItFF l fill ' Ic li'Il ll' (X I I ldIX I FI
c14' It "i1tIF2,ii('l XX I', I a 4'J c IIIttF' 1FF: I
i of ('I II I li ii 1( IFF l X L St.ll
I Fi'' crc ,1r Fil l FII ti' X XXl I I' Ii 2,IiIoX
i2111 c" XX(I ill XIIIto I tah"i Iltl filil \tald iiFI2
at1111 sI I Lowltctl(i t I'll 'I o li ( X X ' l o F t
(1Il foiX d l, ; 'II 1.6 11 XIXth lo' Ft till'
BothF'l fItr o lIs t( irosii2i' ed'I !(' XI 114111d
XX~drl aX XiIir F'\F'I'lIk,(J is1,1 tilr IIIIl 's~~
AuIburnl I Ui'iXiest AcltJi1(1 /111 Ex~ticImenF~ft S tationf
1111] ilI'' t I I'lllitI
('Flittll
p loili
Lo p11't 11ItI m
l(llc lot (FiX I
llwIl
DIETARY PROTEIN and
METHIONINE
in
APPETITEREGULATION
DAVID H. REIFSNYDER and ANNA J. SVACHA
Department of Home Economics Research
L IQUID PROTEIN and high protein 
diets
have received much attention today in
regard to their ability to promote weight
loss. Consumption of a normal diet con-
taining fats, sugars, and protein causes
the stimulation of certain brain regions
which act to suppress appetite. 
However,
depressed appetite after eating high
levels of dietary protein or imbalanced
amounts of amino acids (building blocks
which combine to form protein) occurs
through control of different brain regions.
High protein and imbalanced amino
acid diets lead to elevated blood levels of
amino acids which cannot be used to
build body proteins and consequently
may serve as a signal to reduce food in-
take. Food intake may also be depressed
since the animal is unable to utilize the
excess nitrogen from degraded amino
acids. Furthermore, it has been shown
that high levels of ammonia have pro-
duced several changes in sugar utiliza-
tion. Therefore, ammonia poisoning may
be an important factor governing de-
pressed food intake after animals have
eaten a high protein diet.
In the first experiment, 50 male
Sprague-Dawley rats, average weight 224
g, were divided into 5 groups and al-
lowed ad libitum 5, 20, 40, 60, or 80%
casein diets. These met the nutrient re-
quirements for growth except for the
5% casein diet, which was low in protein.
After overnight consumption of the diets,
all animals were sacrificed; blood and
livers were collected for subsequent anal-
ysis. Consumption of the 80% casein diet
resulted in depressed feed intake and
body weight change relative to the 20%
casein control. Blood ammonia-nitrogen
was elevated above the control level by
the 60 and 80% casein diets. Blood sugar
increased with dietary protein content to
a maximum of 293 mg/dl at the 80%
casein level. A concurrent drop in liver
glycogen was observed with the mini-
mum being 6 mg/g at the 80% casein
level.
The increase in ammonia-nitrogen after
eating the high protein diet was ex-
pected, since more amino acids were ab-
sorbed than could be used to build body
proteins and had to be broken down
yielding ammonia-nitrogen. The source
EXPERIMENT 1. OVERNIGHT EFFECT OF DIETARY PROTEIN LEVEL ON FEED INTAKE, BODY
WEIGHT CHANGE, AND VARIOUS METABOLIC PARAMETERS IN RATS'
Treatment Intake Body wt. Plasma Liver
Feed Protein 
change Ammonia 
Glucose glycogen
g g Pct. ug/dl mg/dl mg/g
5 % casein___ 23 1.0 3.3 237 222 67
20% casein - 19 3.4 3.3 193 212 51
40% casein - -- 14 5.0 1.8 232 246 32
60 % casein-- 12 6.5 2.6 344 264 15
80% casein -10 7.2 1.5 359 293 6
1 Values are means obtained 18-24 hours after male Sprague-Dawley rats (av. initial wt.
224 g) were offered experimental diets.
of elevated blood sugar observed in rats
given the high protein diets is not clear.
Since the 80% casein diet contained no
carbohydrate at all and because liver
glycogen stores were severely depleted,
the most obvious explanation is increased
sugar production from the highly avail-
able amino acids and liver glycogen
breakdown. However, other factors, such
as decreased release and activity of in-
sulin, could produce the excess blood su-
gar observed after eating high amounts
of dietary protein.
In the second experiment 18 male
Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing approxi-
mately 300 g, were placed into 3 groups
and offered a nutritionally adequate, 10%
casein diet supplemented with 0.3, 1.5,
or 3.0% methionine. As in the previous
experiment, all animals were sacrificed
following overnight consumption of the
experimental diets; blood and liver sam-
ples were collected for analysis. The
3.0% methionine treatment resulted in
depressed feed intake, loss of body
weight, elevated blood ammonia-nitro-
gen, and depressed blood sugar and liver
glycogen concentrations relative to the
3.0% methionine control.
The loss of body weight cannot be ex-
plained on depressed food intake alone,
but appears to be related to some specific
toxic effect of the excess methionine.
Theoretically, the excess nitrogen from
the methionine itself may be a source of
the observed elevated blood ammonia-
nitrogen. In addition, the loss of body
weight on the 3.0% methionine treatment
suggests that body protein breakdown oc-
curred to provide energy and may also
be a source of blood ammonia-nitrogen.
The drop in blood sugar and liver glyco-
gen may be explained on the basis of
depressed food intake which necessitated
glycogen breakdown to maintain blood
sugar at normal levels. However, the
actual mechanisms by which excess me-
thionine depresses appetite is unknown.
The results of these studies suggest
that ammonia-nitrogen, which was sig-
nificantlv elevated by the high protein
and 3.0% methionine treatments, may be
a major factor in the basic control mech-
anism that responds to protein quantity
and quality.
The purpose of these experiments by
the Department of Home Economics Re- EXPERIMENT 2. OVERNIGHT 
EFFECT OF DIETARY METHIONINE LEVEL ON FEED INTAKE,
search, Agricultural Experiment Station, 
BODY WEIGHT CHANGE, AND VARIOUS METABOLIC 
PARAMETERS IN RATS'
was to investigate the immediate relation- Intake Body wt. Plasma Liver
ship between blood ammonia-nitrogen, Treatment Feed Methionine change Ammonia Glucose glycogen
blood sugar, and liver glycogen (a stor- g g Pct. ug/dl mg/dl mg/g
age form of sugar in the body) following 0.3% DL-methionine....... 
24 0.15 2.1 207 205 46
overnight consumption of high dietary 1.5% DL-methionine - ------. 16 0.29 -0.9 
208 170 37
protein or excess methionine (an amino 3.0% DL-methionine ....... 12 0.41 -3.6 294 163 24
acid known to depress appetite when fed Values are means obtained 18-24 hours after Sprague-Dawley rats (av. initial wt. 300
in high amounts) in rats. g) were offered experimental diets.
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station18
TO MANY PEOPLE agriculture means
farming. But agriculture is much more
than just farming. There is a wide va-
riety of occupations and employment op-
portunities within agriculture. Like any
economic industry, personnel must be re-
cruited to fill these occupations and to
perform the essential activities and duties
involved.
With time a youth may be attracted
to a specific occupational goal. As de-
cisions are made leading to the attain-
ment of this goal, choices are made and
attitudes formned relative to such things
as educational courses, parttime and
summer work, and organizational mem-
berships. The accumulation of choices
creates a sense of commitment to the oc-
cupation.
Information for this study of students'
commitment to agriculture in the broad
sense of agribusiness or the agriculture
industry, was provided by students en-
rolled in Colleges of Agriculture at State
Land Grant Universities throughout the
South. The sample consisted of 4,567
students responding to a mailed question-
naire during the spring of 1977. Among
these were 3,551 attending universities
commonly referred to as 1862 institu-
tions which originally served white youth
and 1,016 students attending 1890 in-
stitutions established for black youth.
Throughout this article the designations
"1862" and "189'0" are used to indicate
these two types of institutions training
students for occupations in contemporary
agricultural occupations. The descriptive
information presented here focuses on a
number of indicators of public and pri-
vate commitment to agriculture as an oc-
cupational goal.
PUBLIC COMMITMENT. Five indicators
of behavioral commitment to agricultural
occupations are considered, see table. A
major commitment was made by each of
these college students when choosing to
enroll in an agriculture major. But other
STUDENT COMMITMENT TO
AGRICULTURE
J. E. DUNKELBERGER, JERRI L. HAYES, and J. J. MOLNAR
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
commitments could have preceded this
action. One was in taking elective high
school agriculture courses. Of the "1862"
students only 23% had taken agriculture
courses, compared to 47% of "1890" stu-
dents. More of the "1890" students re-
ported these courses had influenced them
to choose a major in agriculture.
Another act of commitment is to be-
come a member of agriculture related
student groups. Two such groups avail-
able in many high schools are 4-H and
FFA. Students attending "1890" universi-
ties were more likely to have participated
in these groups than were "1862" stu-
dents. However, only 19% of "1862" and
30 to 34% of "1890" students had made
this type commitment.
Experience working on a farm or in
agriculture-related work is considered yet
another example of commitment to agri-
culture. The proportions of "1862" and
"1890" students having agriculture work
experiences were similar. About 75% had
some such experience but only about
40% had multiple agricultural work ex-
periences.
Finally, attention was given to whether
adults holding occupations in agriculture
other than a parent were viewed as in-
fluential in the decision to enroll in a
College of Agriculture curriculum. The
majority of "1862" students indicated that
no such persons served this role; and
when some significant adult in agriculture
was identified, this influence usually came
from a single individual. The most
often mentioned person was the agricul-
tural education teacher. Students at
"1890" schools were more likely to attrib-
ute influence on their college educational
INDICATORS OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE COMMITMENT TO OCCUPATIONS IN AGRIC
AMONG AGRICULTURE MAJORS ATTENDING SOUTHERN LAND-GRANT UNIVERS
Indicator
Type univers
1862
Public
Took an agriculture course in high school
Participated in high school 4-H program
Participated in high school FFA program
Worked on a farm or in agriculture related job
Influential contact with adult in an agriculture related job_
Private
Pct.
23
19
19
73
39
;ULTURE
ITIES
ities
1890
Pct.
47
30
34
78
59
There are good career opportunities in agriculture (agree) - 87 94
Agriculture is a declining industry (disagree) 85 79
Most work in agriculture can be done by people
with little education (disagree) 74 62
Most agricultural occupations are unsuited to women (disagree) 57 63
choice to such a significant person in ag-
riculture.
PRIVATE COMMITMENT. Four indica-
tors of a favorable image of agriculture
as an occupation are considered. The
vast majority of agriculture students held
positive orientations toward the career
opportunities in agriculture, with 61% of
"1890" and 40% of "1862" students indi-
cating very favorable attitudes. Similarly
strong commitment was indicated by re-
jection of the statement that "agriculture
is a declining industry." Eighty percent
of the students disagreed with this con-
tention, with the majority indicating
strong disagreement.
The negatively expressed idea that ag-
ricultural occupations do not require high
levels of education was broadly rejected.
The majority of both "1862" and "1890"
agriculture students (74% and 62%, re-
spectively) disagreed with the statement.
Although agriculture is a traditional male
occupation, 74% of "1862" and 62% of
"1890" students reacted negatively to the
contention that "agricultural occupations
are unsuited to women."
Conclusions
This study reveals two things about
the commitment to agricultural occupa-
tions of college students in agricultural
majors at "1862" and "1890" universities
in the South. First, "1862" students had
not made a heavy public commitment to
an agricultural occupation prior to enter-
ing college. Only farm or agriculture re-
lated work experience was a widespread
commitment characteristic. From a tra-
ditional perspective, students attending
"1890" universities were more likely than
"1862" students to have made public
choices reflecting their commitment to
agriculture. Today agriculture students
do not have the kinds of training
and experiences that were common a dec-
ade ago. Second, in spite of a lack of
public commitment, private commitment
in the form of favorable attitudes toward
agriculture as an occupation is exception-
ally strong. It would appear that the ma-
jority of these students, male and female
- black and white, are interested in and
committed to agricultural occupations.
The questions is: will college trained
people find rewarding and meaningful
career opportunities in agriculture as it
is traditionally structured?
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station
IIILVUtLIIVUL 11113 aL11~1~ LII'CS U~31t~llallV113 ~nr~r
t
19
FORCE MOLT
CAGED LAYERS
IN 6 WEEKS
JOHN T. BRAKE
Department of Poultry Science
7% toj5 pr otein, 0.7%T total stilfur
crgv, .3.5"r calCiumn .iil.(l 0.
5
%' available
phlosplorlis. \Vb enl fi a 1er growvth is
complted, iornial ntrlitilon)al guidelin es
for lax (15 carl be, followedrt.
Ligi it Cri otrl_ is critical. Reseatrch re-
sillt' sm"iggi st that tihe lighlt Cottiol pot-
tiotn Of tlit Otitlin('d pi OgrIran Ielps to Stop
egg pr oduction qu ickly and untifotmlv,
tltICCIaS(' 1111tailit V Lind hel
1
)S to ('(t
birids 1back io production q uickly. Bitd
toist not he, exposed to ine asing day-
letigti durut-ig davi I to ihix 17' Stable ot-
dee l( da\ len gtl is abiso1lutelx nCeCs-
sosN duintg this petriod to ensurte an ade-
(pltate test per iod
1 
for tle flock.
As withi the maiagemnt oh iri flocek,
crt Shotuldf be takii to ax old the effects
of sce c xx eatliet disease, ot otheir prob-
lems.
Oi ci uxi oi, Fonern \hOT.T 1PneOCT11',E
Dv Enironmentil
DJV " datkoit hiouse
1 Rtemoxve fetil 6 am.
6 hours light
mt riasite' ifax li1tigt
I ito 22-Dlc nhfat 22
Itetiox i'ted 6 a m.
Cut lighlt', oil
liI to ih liaia daN uli. i thinX
pit ted it ulax 17 Ii on iilt
Wi atliit tx ix ic for sunrt c and
Remove wvater 6 a.m.
Al osi, itor iuksrs for force niolting
cagedt laxiis taki 8 xxNecks to complete.
Btuit a t ccci dIx evelo ped pto gi Tain rit
this tfil ) (3 xx i'ik' in Xiubtirt Ilitixer-
sit 'Igiritulttial l;Fiit imitit 'Shitiiiti tests,
alit wxittiut I illiin tu pltst nilt 1)11 (tititi
aur e. 'Ilii' reiliied t itme tesults in saxiigs
of, It)' I V per hell lieulcaust of loxx t'ed
feerd costs.
As a pt (molt treatment, lights shioutld
hb' rcon t inuout~s fiori 7 to 111 rlaxs 1before he-
ginnitng the foredr molt. Differen t pro-
rceduires ate I olloxxccl in "bl arkouit" h ouses
thtan for liens in conventional liver
houses. Also, procediti cx for a r'oit r'tt
titial house xa a Ny accotrding to titme of
year, as noted in the t able.
Tenl daxys of feerdx tihaxa in mord-
crate xxeat her slhotuldl eaus' [t'e botlx
xveighut of lirens to rerrrase tio aiouit 2.8
lb). (ntotinal 211 to 22 xx ('k borl xx rwight
for the breedl) . Depetnding ott t('mlp(ta-
ture at time of thle fotrcrrd tmolt mor iori i
fexxcr than 101 dax s of ferl xxiitlt raxx i
xxill lie nercessary' to achuiexve an ax r lii
flock liodv xxcigrlit of 2.8 lb). 1)alx xveitcli-
tug of tlir saint' 511 birl simlple Is n ('ris
sarv to assure oiptimumi xxeight loss.
11wi pilli(t giixs t rtion user
1
, stuirlt
t.6i .7'~ tota~l sill in miiio arid', I 2.5:1
Kcal mtabltizabille citi gs 1.1% iilriit,
and 0.5% ixviilablle phoisphiorus. T1his die't
is fortintuuiiu to achieve ripid feather
giroxvth auh rititin to (gg produiction.
Normtaiil lax Nci diets are' itnadequiate fot
lill i'gg ptodlitrtioii intl feathi'r giroxxthi
TIliii Itori'. n itfite fiist xxeeks of ir
pro duttimn ii let a motlt t~e Laxver rtioin
shioiulrd contain additijoal ntits to aic-
complishi 1)011 of these functions. A layer
Remove wx
4 Return xvater 1 pm. Itetirri xx '
11I Feed putllet -roxx ir Vecd idbl
6 am., 5 lb. per 6a 1m. 5 1
l1t) birds, 10ft bitril
12 Feed. piillt t groxxer, Fied pill](
It) lb. per 10lt birds, itt lb. pet
13 Beizin fcciin pilitlle ' 3~inl (ci
g1roxxer free chioire "t1oxx 
r Ire
17 8S hours, flght Natural d
I lhouir inl
Iti timmi
dlasx n")
1
)
minuttes
24 1t) hours ight
28 13 hours licght Ticrease Ii
mniutes, I
mitimurr
Return 1 iyer ration at .5-101' rate
1A(1Tl mi rnal I 'jf'u' r '-'
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830
R. I)ints Rouse, I)iircctor
PUBLICATION-Highlights of
Agricultuicil Recsearch 6/79
Penalty tar Private Use, $300
'ater 6 am. Remnox xx iter 6 am.
ter 1 p m. Reiturn wx ttir I p.m.
I 'toxx'oer IFiif pil! t ''lox r 6 am., 5 lb).
1). per p I Itt0 fuitti
4 ''toser, I uul pull. t gloss r 1 It)li. pcr
1ing1 11tillit ici ficlit' plillit 'iro\\cr
I, dhite ftice thficie
ixlit'',th pil
till
r, natural
plus .50
1Do ii o t . it ill to iii''
Ill xxintir, taliti
1
iti da~l_tit
Icitt, 132 hoositrini"lt 31)
:3 1.' houtrs
of lax . This wxill fit abiott das 28
%tlu 14-13 1)11111 dLix lit'th
P0STAGE PAID
U.S. DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE
9M AGII 101 R
BULK RATE
('01lV('Tlti0TlA1 110111C