of agricultural research
Volume 25, No. I
Agricultural Experiment Station
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
Spring 1978
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
.Director's Comments.
BECAUSE OF THE SERIOUSNESS of the farm situation, I thought it appropriate
to ask one of our senior agricultural economists, Dr. Morris White, to
prepare the Director's Comments for this issue.
The current unfavorable farm situation that has spawned farmer demon-
strations and threats of strikes developed because of the very nature of
agricultural production and the effects of
government farm programs and world .
market conditions.
Agricultural production consists of a
series of continuous biological processes
that cannot be turned on or off in a short
time span. The elapsed time between
making a decision to produce and the date
the product is ready for market can be
long enough that supply and demand
often change during the period. The sea-
sonal nature of agricultural production
also creates problems--in both produc-
tion and marketing. The high ratio of
overhead costs to direct costs forces farm-
ers to produce at full capacity 
even though
they are virtually powerless to increase R Dennis Rouse
domestic or foreign markets. Since the farmer's price for his products is
determined by factors other than time, effort, and expense of production,
he is required to make large production investments with no assurance of
getting back his investment or of being paid for his risk and labor.
Government attempts to solve the "farm problem" began in 1933 with
passage of the Agricultural Adjustment Act, a measure designed to reduce
supplies of wheat, corn, cotton, rice, peanuts, and tobacco. Under this
"Parity Program," farm prices were supported bythe Government at a level
that would give these commodities buying power equal to what the same
crops had in 1910-14. Eligibility required that farmers accept acreage
allotments. The basic provisions of this program continued through the
early 1960's, spanning the period when research technology became
available to allow tremendous yield increases. Farmers took advantage of
this technology to boost production since they were eligible for support
prices on all allotted acres. Thus, the program that was begun to reduce
supplies of farm products instead resulted in increasing quantities in
Government storage. At the same time, world markets were lost because
support prices were higher than the world market.
In response to public pressure to reduce the tremendous cost of storing
commodities accumulated by the Government, the Food and Agricultural
Act was passed in 1965. Under this legislation, farmers would sell com-
modities on the open market and receive income support through direct
payments. By 1972 this had greatly reduced the volume in storage.
The 1972 Russian purchase of a large quantity of grain, along with two
poor crop years worldwide, increased the world market. Two devaluations
of the dollar boosted foreign demand for U. S. food and feed grains, and the
government encouraged sales to help overcome deficits in U. S. balance of
payments brought on by high imports of high priced oil. Farmers re-
sponded to Government encouragement and high prices to produce at full
capacity. Then commodity prices dropped in 1977, and U. S. farmers were
If farmers 
are encouraged 
to produce 
at capacity 
when the export 
need
is great for agricultural products, it is reasonable to provide income
assistance when the export market slackens and the combined domestic
and export market is not sufficient to keep prices high enough to make
farming profitable. The nation needs a system whereby farm operators can
earn enough for a standard of living equal to what is available from
employment in other industries. Unless this is done, numbers of farmers
will continue to decrease and the time will come when, relatively, per
capita income going to agricultural producers will increase. Then con-
sumers will pay a higher proportion of their disposable incomes for food.
Will adequate assistance come soon enough to cause current farm
operators to continue? If not, will the alternatives be as palatable as doing
what is required to maintain the family farm system of agriculture?
ma we iwds...
Lavern Brown, 
head of the 
Department 
of
Research Operations. The former superin-
tendent of the Lower Coastal Plain Substation
in Camden, has been head of the Department
since it was formed in 1974.
Brown, a native of Montpelier, Mississippi,
graduated from Mississippi State College in
1947 and served as superin-
tendent of the Northeast Mis-
sissippi branch of the Missis-
, sippi Agricultural Experi-
, ment Station until 1949,
when he came to Camden as
superintendent of the substa-
tion.
While in Camden, Brown's
research efforts focused on livestock produc-
tion. He co-authored several publications on
the management of beef brood-cow herds
and was an early advocate of the use of more
forage in the production of slaughter animals.
Brown is instrumental in the development
of facilities at the E. V. Smith Center at
Shorter. He is responsible for the develop-
ment of new physical facilities and the reno-
vation and improvement of existing field
facilities for the Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion on the main campus and the substations,
and he has recently been given responsibility
for the teaching farm on campus.
Brown is a member of Alpha Zeta, Beta
Beta Beta, Blue Key, and Phi Eta Sigma profes-
sional and honorary societies.
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
SPRING 1978 VOL. 25, NO. I
A quarterly report of research published by
the Agricultural Experiment Station of Au-
burn University, Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNIS ROUSE .............. .Director
STANLEY P. WILSON ...... .Associate Director
CHAs. F. SIMMiONS ....... Assistant Director
T. E. CORLEY .......... Assistant Director
E. L. McGRAw ................. .Editor
R E. STEVENSON ......... Associate Editor
RoY ROBERSON .......... Assistant Editor
Editorial Advisory Committee: STANLEY P. WIL-
SON; J. D. HARPER, Associate Professor of En-
tomology; WALTER D. KEUEY, AssiStant Profes-
sor of Botany and Microbiology; NEL R. MAR-
TIN, Associate Professor of Agricultural Eco-
nomics and Rural Sociology, AND E. L.
McGRAw.
Information contained herein is available to
all without regard to race, color, or national
origin.
ON THE COVER. All phases of the life
cycle of swine can be studied in Au.
bum's new and modern swine research
facility.
New -Facility Boosts Auburn Swine Research
T. J. PRINCE, Department of Animal and Dairy 
Sciences
LABAMA'S SWINE PRODUCTON potential came a 
step nearer to ful-
fillment when a new and modemrn swine research 
facilitywas put into
operation last year by the Auburn University 
Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. The new facility, located at Auburn, 
is a total produc-
tion system which incorporates the 
latest design in buildings and
equipment, serves as a model facility for 
producers, and allows
intensive research in a production type unit.
Research at the new facility will encompass 
all phases of the life
cycle of the pig. Facilities for the breeding 
herd include both high
investment total confinement facilities 
and low-cost open lots. The
breeding herd is divided between the two 
types of housing to allow
comparisons of cost of production and reproductive efficiency 
of
sows. These long-range comparisons will aid 
producers in selecting
sow facilities that will give greatest productivity at 
the lowest produc-
tion cost.
Equipment has been included in the 
gestation unit to facilitate
controlled feeding of individual sows for nutrition 
experiments.
Research is planned to determine minimum energy 
and protein
requirements for various phases of the 
gestation period. Such in-
formation could be used to reduce costs 
for the sow herd while
maintaining reproductive efficiency.
The farrowing-nursery complex is designed 
to take advantage of
Alabama's favorable climate for reducing building 
and maintenance
costs. A solar heating system has been 
included in the 14-crate
facility to study the feasibility of using the sun's 
energy for supple-
mental heat. Solar energy is used to heat water 
which is circulated
through the floors in the baby pig areas. A separate 
system is
available for cooling the floor under the sows 
to maintain lower
temperatures for the sow while providing a warmer 
environment
for the pig.
Experiments are being conducted to determine the 
feasibility of
the solar energy system in comparison with 
conventional energy
sources. Efforts will be made to determine 
optimum floor tempera-
tures and air temperatures for pigs during the first 
weeks after birth.
Similar studies will be done in the nursery 
unit for pigs 3 to 8 weeks
old when temperature is less critical.
Nutrition and management practices in the farrowing house and
nurserywill also receive research attention. Methods of feeding 
and
managing pigs soon after birth will be investigated 
to identify
methods of increasing pig growth and survivability 
in early life.
Growing and finishing pigs are housed in a total confinement,
slatted floor barn. The 36-pen facility, with a capacity of 12 pigs per
pen, provides the opportunity for nutrition research 
using a large
number of animals in a commercial-type facility. This unit should
prove to be an excellent facility for nutrition 
experiments and the
testing of new products and feed additives. 
Results from these
studies will be incorporated into recommendations to producers.
Waste disposal at the research unit is handled by an automatic
flushing system and a two-stage lagoon. The flush 
tanks operate on a
preset schedule to automatically flush wastes from 
under the slatted
floors to the first-stage lagoon. Waste water 
is pumped from the
second-stage lagoon back to the flush tanks to be 
reused for flushing
the buildings. This is an exceptional labor-free system 
for removing
wastes from large production facilities.
An environmental physiology laboratory has been 
added to com-
plement the nutrition and production research 
facilities. The physi-
ology laboratory is equipped with two controlled 
environment
chambers, a surgery room, and experimental laboratories. 
The en-
vironmental chambers will provide model systems 
to study physi-
ological and nutritional responses to adverse environmental 
condi-
tions during breeding, gestation, farrowing, and growth 
in the nur-
sery. Temperature and humidity can be controlled 
independently in
each animal room. Thus, gilts and boars can be 
stressed by high
temperature and humidity during breeding while 
baby pigs can be
exposed to cold damp conditions such as those 
found in the farrow-
ing house or nursery during the winter.
An $80,000 donation from the Alabama Pork Producers, 
a division
of the Alabama Farm Bureau Federation, helped 
finance construc-
tion of the new research facility, an addition 
that should prove
valuable to the State's swine industry.
W4
-\ J\ I
R. L. HAALAND, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
T AL .ScUE has been around a long time, having been brought to
the United States from Europe in the early 1800's. However, it did
not gain prominence in the Southeast until the 1950's when seed of
the widely adapted Kentucky-31 variety became available. Today
fescue is grown on much of the permanent pasture land in the
northern half of Alabama, as well as being used as a turf and soil
conserving crop.
Virtually all of the fescue grown in the Southeast is Kentucky-31.
This variety was found in 1931 (hence its name) growing on the
William Suiter Farm in Kentucky by an observant University of
Kentucky agronomist, Dr. E. N. Fergus. Fescue was growing on the
farm when Mr. Suiter bought it in 1887. It is thought that the seed
came from a Virginia seedsman sometime earlier.
Kentucky.31 Variety Selected
Through natural selection, the fescue became adapted to Ken-
tucky and actually developed into an ecotype. Dr. Fergus collected
seed from the fescue grown on the Suiter farm and evaluated it at the
University of Kentucky. Its outstanding performance led to a variety
increase and release in 1945.
Fescue acreage expanded into Alabama in the early 1950's when
seed supplies of Kentucky-31 became available. Because of the
variety's wide adaptability, acreage continued to expand through the
1960's. Badly eroded land taken out of row crop production was
often planted to fescue, providing both land stabilization and pro-
ductive pastures.
Although Kentucky-31 is widely adapted and provides adequate
pasture for brood cows and calves, it has several weak points:
1. Grazing season is often concentrated in spring and fall with
little forage production in winter.
2. It is generally not adequate as the sole source of feed for
growing steers and heifers.
3. Kentucky-31 forms a dense sod that is too competitive for
legumes.
4. Susceptibility to nematodes causes unsatisfactory performance
on sandy soils.
5. Susceptibility to rust results in reduced production and low-
ered forage quality when rust infects Kentucky-31.
Better Varieties Sought
Varieties more winter productive than Kentucky-31 are being
sought in Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station re-
A3
-w '72
Tall fescue is a good pasture for brood cows and calves.
search. Goar, a variety obtained from the Soil Conservation Service
in California, proved to be more winter productive than Kentucky-
31, but it is highly susceptible to rust. Many introductions from the
Mediterranean region were evaluated and found to be winter pro-
ductive. In 1968, a fescue breeding program was initiated at Auburn
to screen Mediterranean types for winter productivity and develop
new varieties superior to Kentucky-31.
The Auburn breeding program has resulted in several new ex-
perimental lines that produce two to three times as much winter
forage as Kentucky-31, as illustrated by the graph. This program
continues to apply selection pressure for nematode and disease
resistance, high forage and seed yield, and compatibility with
legumes.
Today there are more than a million acres of Kentucky-31 tall
fescue in Alabama. As with other pasture crops, the acreage of fescue
will fluctuate with the price of cash crops. If crop prices increase
enough, some pastures will be plowed up and put into row crops.
Winter productive tall fescue varieties will probably make their
commercial debut in the early 1980's. As seed become available,
these improved varieties will be planted instead of Kentucky-31.
Being more compatible with legumes, the new varieties can be
grown with legumes to give more productive and higher quality
pastures.
The new fescue varieties should make a valuable contribution to
the forage economy of the South within the next decade.
Dry forage
per acre, tons
l. 2 " " KENTUCKY-31
SAUBURN EXPERIMENTAL
GOAR
KENHY
1.0 (KENTUCKY VARIETY)
0.8 -
0.2X
is made by Kentucky31, the standard variety.
Auum Winter 
Sp -n Late 
.....
Ao.41 i Auur t e pr...
EACH SPRING, beginning about mid-March and continuing through
May, the forest tent caterpillar Malacosoma disstria (Hiibner) 
de-
foliates as much as 100,000 acres of water tupelo in Alabama. This
activity occurs in the southwestern area of the State in the cypress-
tupelo swamps of the Mobile-Tensaw River basin and extends
northward to the lower portions of the Alabama and Tombigbee
Rivers. The region is characterized by meandering and intertwining
river systems which are bounded by natural levees, fig. 1. The land
between these levees is at or below the surrounding river level and
is covered with water much of the year. These "ponds" provide ideal
habitat for cypress and water tupelo forests. Tupelo in turn provides
a preferred food source for the forest tent caterpillar. It is'not known
how long the tent caterpillar has been in the swamp, but scattered
records suggest that it has been present for at least 50 years and
probably much longer.
The natural levees support forests of oak, ash, sycamore, and
other trees which are not heavily attacked by the tent caterpillar.
Thus most people who use the area for fishing and other recrea-
tional purposes never see the vast amount of defoliation which
occurs just a few hundred feet inland from the river banks. Inside the
ponds, what would normally be a lush, dense-canopied forest in late
May has more the appearance of a winter scene. Heavy populations
of tent caterpillars can strip both canopy and understory of their
foliage within 3-4 weeks following hatching, fig. 1.
The forest tent caterpillar, in the adult stage, is a small brown moth
with a wingspread of approximately 1-1% in. Adults emerge from
cocoons in mid- to late-May. After mating, the females deposit their
eggs in bands around small twigs of the host trees, usually near the
top of the forest canopy. Larvae develop within the eggs in late
summer but do not hatch until the following March. Hatching is
FOREST TENT
_iNTHE .1
JZAMES HARPER, Dept of Zoology-Entomology
always closely synchronized with bud-break in the host trees. Larvae
feed initially on swollen leaf buds, on tender, expanding leaves, or
on flowers, fig. 2. As they mature, they consume any host foliage
available to them. Contrary to their common name, forest tent
caterpillars do not form tents. They feed openly in masses, retreating
in mass to branch crotches and tree trunks between feeding periods,
fig. 3. Larval development is completed in 6-7 weeks.
The population of tent caterpillar in the Mobile-Tensaw Basin has
been under intermittent study by U. S. Forest Service and Auburn
University Agricultural Experiment Station scientists since the late
1950's. Specific studies have dealt with chemical and biological
control methods, caterpillar biology and ecology, impact of feeding
on the host trees, and annual extent of defoliation.
Since 1963, the annual acreage defoliated by this pest has varied
from 14,000 to nearly 100,000 acres. Many areas have been com-
pletely defoliated each spring for up to five consecutive years and a
few for 10 years or more. Repeated defoliation does not kill tupelo,
but U. S. Forest Service studies have demonstrated that a marked
growth decrease occurs. Defoliated trees refoliate in mid- to late-
May.
Several materials, notably the microbial Bacillus tburingiensis
and the chemical trichlorfon have been demonstrated to effectively
control forest tent caterpillar in these populations. On the basis of
small and large scale field tests, both appear to be safe for use in this
relatively sensitive environment. Currently, however, the cost of
control with either material is about equal to the value of annual
growth loss on a per acre basis. Therefore, it would be uneconom-
ical to make aerial insecticide applications.
Other factors such as naturally occurring predators, parasites, and
disease agents are currendtly being investigated in this population.
Many such agents have been found in the population. Future re-
search efforts will be directed toward enhancing activity of these
agents and in introducing new biological control agents which may
be able to establish themselves. Once established, introduced
agents often regulate host populations naturally and require no
further inputs of time and money.
-17 ~imm
PFlGa. 1. Gray areas between the rivers are water tupelo forests completely defoliated by forest tent caterpillar. 
Dark strips
lining the rivers are non.host tree species which the caterpillar does not prefer. FIG. 
2. Feeding damage by young larvae on
expanding water tupelo leaves. Larvae massed on the leaves are approximately seven days old. FIG. 3. Mature forest tent
caterpillar larvae resting on a branch of their host tree in late April.
INTERPLANTING CORN and SOYBEANS
COOPER KING, DON THURLOW, GALE BUCHANAN and DAVID TEEM*,
Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
LAVERNE BROWN** and JOE LITTLE, Lower Coastal Plain Substation
JOHN EASON and MARVIN RUF, Sand Mountain Substation.
M EASUREMENTS OF CORN grain yield from
outside border rows of an irrigated, 20-in.
row experiment at Auburn University Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station showed that
present-day hybrids have the potential of
yielding over 350 bu. of grain per acre.
Tests were begun in 1973 at the Lower
Coastal Plain Substation and in 1974 at the
Sand Mountain Substation to determine if the
"border effect" might be shown when corn
and soybeans are grown together. Peak re-
quirements for light and moisture are during
the months of June and July for corn, and
August and September for soybeans. It was
thought that planting alternate strips of corn
and soybeans would be advantageous for
corn, but it was not known to what extent. The
effects of such practices on soybeans had not
been determined. Three row patterns of in-
terplanting corn and soybeans versus solid
corn and solid soybeans were used to make
evaluations.
The planting pattern treatments were as
follows: (All plots consisted of 16 narrow
rows, 20 or 30 in. apart.)
*Presently with the University of Florida, Gaines-
ville.
**Now Head, Department of Research Opera-
tions.
(1) Solid planted corn-middle 4 rows of
a 16-row plot were harvested.
(2) Solid planted soybeans-middle 4
rows of 16-row plot were harvested.
(3) Four rows of soybeans alternated with
2 rows of corn-rows 5 and 6 and 11 and 12
were harvested for corn yield. Rows 7, 8, 9,
and 10 were harvested for soybean yield.
(4) Four rows of soybeans alternated with
4 rows of corn-row 5, 6, 7, and 8 were
harvested for corn yield. Rows 9, 10, 11, and
12 were harvested for soybean yield.
(5) Four rows of corn alternated with an
area equivalent to 4 rows skipped-rows 5, 6,
7, and 8 were harvested for corn yield.
The experimental design was a ran-
domized complete block with four replica-
tions. Narrow rows were used for both crops
at both locations (20-in. rows for all tests
except 30-in. rows at Lower Coastal Plain Sub-
station in 1975 and 1976). Corn was planted at
the rate of 36,000 seeds per acre 6and soy-
beans were seeded at the rate of 60 lb. per
acre. Application of P, K, Zn, and lime was
adequate for both crops as recommended by
soil test with the corn receiving 200 to 300 lb.
nitrogen per acre. No N was applied to the
soybeans. Recommended herbicides were
used to control weeds in both crops and no
cultivations were made. The test at the Lower
Coastal Plain Substation was irrigated each
year while the test at the Sand Mountain Sub-
station received only natural rainfall.
On a planted acre basis, dramatic increases
in corn yields were made by all three in-
terplanting patterns at both locations each
year; however, in each case a moderate re-
duction in soybean yield was obtained. At
Camden, the two corn:four soybean pattern
produced 75% more than the solid planted
corn and the four corn:four soybean pattern
produced 53% more than the solid corn. At
Crossville, the two corn:four soybean pattern
produced 63% more than did the solid
planted corn and the four corn:four soybean
pattern produced 34% more than the solid
corn. At neither location did the four
corn:four skip row show any real advantage
over the two planting patterns in which soy-
beans were interplanted with corn. At both
locations, both the two corn:four soybean
and the four corn:four soybean patterns re-
sulted in a 25% to 30% decrease in soybean
yield. However, assuming the value of a
bushel of soybeans to be about three times
that of a bushel of corn, then the 10 to 14 bu.
per acre reduced soybean yield just about
equals the value of the increased corn yield.
In summary, the increase in corn yield per
planted acre was rather dramatic (similar to
that for skip row cotton). However, the over-
all economic value of the system needs
further evaluation because of the reduced
soybean yields.
YI.D oF CoN AND SOYBEANS AS AFFECTED BY INTER.LANTINmG PATTERNs, LOWER CoASTAL APN AND SAND MOUNTAIN SUBSTATxnON, 1973-1976
Yield of grain
Treat Treatment Camden (irrigated)
no. description 1973 1974 19751 19761 Mean Relative yield
Corn Soybeans Corn Soybeans Corn Soybeans Corn Soybeans Corn Soybeans Corn Soybeans
Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Pct. Pct
1 Solid planted corn ....... 140.0 - 114.5 - 66.7 - 87.5 - 102.2 
- 100
2 Solid planted soybeans .... 17.7 - 2 - 52.5 - 45.0 
- 38.4 - 100
3 2 rows of corn:
4 rows of soybeans ...... 253.3 17.6 222.6 2 84.4 34.4 153.7 27.3 
178.5 26.4 175 69
4 4 rows of corn:
4 rows of soybeans ...... 214.8 13.0 180.8 2 90.8 38.0 140.5 13.6 156.7 
27.5 153 72
5 4 rows of com:
4 rows of skipped area ... 171.3 - 189.7 - 89.4 - 148.2 -
149.7 - 146 -
'Yield of grain
Treat Treatment Crossville(unirrigated)
no. description 1974 1975 19763 
Mean Relative yield
Corn Sovbeans Corn Soybeans Corn Soybeans Corn Soybeans Corn Sovbeans
Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Bu Pct. Pct.
1 Solid planted corn .... 97.1 - 170.7 - 47.8 - 105.2 -
100 -
2 Solid planted soybeans ... - 34.5 - 43.1 - 63.2 - 46.9 - 100
3 2 rows of corn:
4 rows of soybeans ...... 189.8 16.0 212.5 39.6 113.0 46.7 171.8 
34.1 163 73
4 4 rows of corn:
4 rows of soybeans ...... 142.0 16.6 195.4 38.1 84.3 47.7 140.6 34.1 134 73
5 4 rows of corn:
4 rows of skipped area ... 175.1 - 215.9 - 91.7 - 160.9 
- 153 -
Yields of corn were reduced by early lodging of corn.
Mields of soybeans were not valid because of excessive nudsedge competition.
Wields of corn were reduced apparently by poor seed set.
Subsoi ii cidity
STOPS To.mato Roots
REDUCES Yield
B. D. DOSS, USDA, ARS
C. E. EVANS, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
JACK TURNER, Dept. of Horticulture
S UBSOlAo ITY is a common problem in the
Southeast, and one that is being intensified by
use of high rates of acid-forming fertilizers
without a balanced liming program.
Low subsoil pH reduces root and shoot
growth of many plants, and thus results in a
restricted root system. A shallow root system
prevents plants from making effective use of
subsoil-stored water during periods between
rains. Even during years of normal or good
rainfall, there are usually periods between
rains when water in the surface soil is insuffi-
dcient to prevent drought stress.
How subsoil acidity reduces plant growth
and cuts yield of tomatoes was shown by
cooperative USDA, ARS-Auburn University
Agricultural Experiment Station research in
1975-76. Tropic and Walter tomato varieties
were test varieties for the experiment on
Lucedale fine sandy loam soil. These varieties
were used because of their different growth
characteristics: Tropic is an indeterminate
plant and Walter is semideterminate.
The surface soil (0 to 6-in. depth) of the test
field was uniformly limed to about pH 6.0.
Subsoil (6 to 12-in. depth) pH treatments
ranged from 4.4 to 6.2.
Rainfall was favorable during the test years:
126% of normal in 1975 and normal in 1976.
Both plant growth rate and plant height at
beginning of harvest were greater on plots
having higher subsoil pH than on low pH
subsoil plots. Final plant heights ranged from
24 to 46 in. for Tropic and 18 to 31 in. for
Walter. Marketable tomato yields of both
varieties increased as subsoil pH increased,
LOW subsou pn causea smaller plants ana less roor growtn or tomatoes iert as
compared with rooting depth and plant growth on soils with 6.0 subsoil pH.
with maximum yields occurring at pH 5.4 to
5.9, as shown below:
Subsoil pH
4.4 to 4.5 .............
4.6 to 4.9 ..............
5.0 to 5.3...........
5.4 to 5.9 ......... .. .
6.0 to 6.2 .............
Per acreyield, lb.
Tropic Walter
25,140
30,420
30,030
45,660
38,290
19,190
24,650
29,280
34,130
31,460
Yields for Tropic ranged from about 25,000
lb. per acre at the lowest pH to about 46,000 at
pH 5.4 to 5.9. With Walter, the range was from
19,000 to 34,000 lb. Tropic outyielded Walter
by an average of about 6,200 lb. per acre.
Subsoil pH did not affect fruit size distribu-
tion for Walter, but Tropic had a higher per-
centage of large size fruit at pH levels above
5.0 than at pH below 5.0. Cull tomato yields
were not affected by subsoil pH.
Tomato roots failed to penetrate subsoil
that had a pH of 4.6 or less. Roots stopped at
about 6 in. where the limed surface soil met
the acid subsoil. With subsoil pH of 6.0, how-
ever, numerous roots grew below the 6-in.
depth, along with a taproot that extended
below 24 in. The amount of soil water ex-
tracted from various soil depths paralleled
observed root growth, with more water being
removed from the less acid subsoils.
Considerable disease was present at the
end of the season in both years, with low
subsoil pH plots having a higher percentage
of diseased plants. Disease decreased the
number of harvests on some plots, especially
during 1976 when more than 50% of plants
were dead on some plots by the last harvest
date.
The reduced yield of marketable fruit from
low subsoil pH probably resulted from a
combination of a shallow root system, which
was unable to furnish adequate water during
the critical water-use period, and more dis-
eased plants, which shortened the harvest
season.
The problem of subsoil acidity can be pre-
vented or alleviated by a good liming pro-
gram.
'77--.A Summer to Forget
Cause and Control of the Fal1
Armyworm
MAX H. BASS, Dept. of Zoology-Entomology
D URING THE SUMMER of 1977 the fall armyworm came early and
stayed late in Alabama and became the number one insect problem
in the State. The fall armyworm has been recorded as an annual pest
in Alabama for more than 100 years. Auburn University Agricultural
Experiment Station records indicate severe outbreaks several times,
especially in 1912 and 1930, but there is no indication of any
previous year when damage was as severe as was recorded in 1977.
As the name would indicate, the fall armyworm usually occurs in
late summer or fall-but not in 1977. Frank McQueen, extension
survey entomologist, reported in his "Weekly Insect Survey Report",
dated April 4, that the fall armyworm (mistakenly identified at that
time as the true armyworm, since the fall armyworm was very
unlikely to occur so early in the year) was occurring on grasses and
young corn in Geneva, Covington, and Coffee counties. Two weeks
later, (April 15) the identification had been clarified and the fall
armyworm was again reported in south Alabama counties. Infesta-
tions were light at that time and there was not cause for alarm, but
the occurrence that early, especially following the severe winter of
1976-77, was certainly an oddity.
Infestations of fall armyworm continued to be noted progres-
sively further north in the State until, byJune, light infestations were
occurring in North Alabama and serious problems were developing
in Central and South Alabama. Almost no crop escaped some dam-
age. The fall armyworm attacked peanuts, soybeans, 
cotton, grain
sorghum, corn, sudan-sudex grasses, johnsongrass, Coastal ber-
muda, various pasture grasses, and commercial hybrid grasses on
golf courses, lawns, cemeteries, and football fields. Various other
crops were attacked to a lesser extent. Infestations peaked in latejuly
or early August andslowly diminished. An occasional population of
damaging proportions could still be found in late October.
McQueen has been a professional observer of the insect prob-
lems faced byAlabama for the past 42 years. Perhaps a quote from his
report of September 27, would be a worthy epitaph for 'the summer
of the fall armyworm.' "There seems to be no end to the amount of
damage done directly and indirectly to Alabama Agriculture and
agribusiness by... the fall armyworm. This insect was a major pest
of corn, soybeans, peanuts, grain sorghum, and cotton; of lawns,
pasture grasses, and hay crops; of golf and other recreational turf
areas. This insect first lowered the yields of the corn crop and then
allowed entry of aflatoxin fungus, further reducing the crop's dollar
value. Damaged corn shucks allowed entry of stored grain pests
before harvest. Cattle herds, already in poor flesh as a result of the
dry summer and insect-damaged pastures, are heading for winter
with hay barns empty. Light calves are being produced for the
market. Brood cows have been reduced (since the feed supply will
not accommodate larger herds) and years will be required to re-
build these herds. Also, the fall armyworm caused a tremendous
increase in the use of insecticides, with accompanying increased
costs to growers and increased amounts of these toxic materials
being placed into our soils and air... and the first killing frost is still
35-45 
days 
away."
Fall Armyworm Biology
The adult fall armyworm is an ash-gray moth with a wing span of
about 1 in. Forewings are mottled and have white or light gray
spots near the tips. Hindwings are white with a narrow, smokey-
0
FIG. 1. Adult fall armyworm moth. FIG. 2. Fall armyworm egg
of fall armyworm. This is the most destructive stage. FIG. 4.
(Figures 2 and 4 courtesy of Ronald Smith and John French, Ala
brown edge (fig. 1). The moths are seldom observed during daylight
hours. They become active about dusk and feed on flower nectar.
Adults live for 2 to 3 weeks. Females lay their eggs (fig. 2) in masses
of 50 to several hundred on foliage at night. The eggs are light gray
and masses are covered with grayish fuzz from the moth's body.
Eggs hatch in 2-4 days..
The destructive stage is the larval form (fig. 3). Larvae are white
when first hatched and have black heads. Their bodies darken and
noticeable stripes appear as they become older. When fully grown
the larvae are about 1 in. long and vary in color from light green to
almost black with several stripes along the body. The head is dark
and shiny in the fully grown worm and is marked with a light colored
inverted Y (fig. 4). Development from egg to mature larva requires
2-3 weeks. The larvae then burrow into the soil for an inch or two,
construct cells, and pupate. Shortly after pupation the pupae are
reddish-brown, but gradually darken and become almost black.
Most fall armyworms in a given population are about the same age
and usually pupate at about the same time. Because of this, a severe
population may seem to suddenly disappear. During summer pupa-
tion lasts from 10-14 days, after which, moths emerge. This insect
overwinters in the pupal state.
There is a question as to whether the fall armyworm overwinters
in Alabama, because the insect is highly susceptible to cold tempera-
tures. From this year's experience, it would appear that the insect
O EM
S . t *Nall
0 hr saqeto st hte
tasses on underside of cotton leaves. FIG. 3. Top and side view
Fall armyworm on corn-note inverted Y on the worm's head.
ama Cooperative Extension Service.)
either overwinters in southern Alabama or makes its way (the moths
are carried by air currents) into the State very quickly in some years.
Why This Year?
Why was Alabama plagued by such severe fall armyworm popula-
tions during 1977? Perhaps there are several reasons:
(1) The cold winter. The winter was uniformly cold from
November to March. Alabama's winters are usually characterized by
intermittent freezes and warm spells. Insects emerge during warm
spells and are caught by the next freeze. During the winter of
1976-77 there were few extended warm periods and many lepidop-
terous insects (like the fall armyworm) were kept safely in hiberna-
tion. Thus we started the summer with an unusually high number of
surviving fall armyworms as far north as the cold permitted.
(2) The cold winter-again. Many of the fall armyworm's natural
enemies are wasps and beetles which do not hibernate in the soil,
but hibernate under trash or in natural cracks and crevices in and
around fields and remain relatively exposed to the elements. Au-
burn research indicated extremely low populations of beneficial
insects until late in the growing season.
(3) The dry summer. Virus diseases that affect 
the fall armyworm
are frequently started from soil-borne viral particles which are
splashed up on foliage (or on the worms themselves) by rain; hence,
no rain equals no diseases.
Control
During the summer of 1977 several experiments were conducted
to determine control measures for the fall armyworm. Several insec-
ticides which had given good control of this insect in previous years
were found to be ineffective; at least when applied to populations on
peanuts, soybeans, and cotton. In tests on peanuts, materials and
rates per acre which consistently gave 80% or better control in
several tests were: methomyl (Lannate
? 
or Nudring), 0.5 lb. (active
ingredient), monocrotophos (Azodrin?), 0.5 Ib; chlorpyrifos
(Lorsban?), 0.75 Ib; Bolstar
?
, 0.75 lb; acephate (OrtheneO), 1.0 lb;
and methomyl bait (NuBait?), 0.25 lb.
Trichlorfon (Dylox? or Proxol?) and carbaryl (Sevin?) failed to
afford acceptable control of fall armyworm populations onpeanuts.
Personal communications with entomologists in other states indi-
cated similar results when these materials were used against fall
armyworms on peanuts. However, some research in other states and
observations by Extension personnel of farmer applications in Ala-
bama have indicated that carbaryl at 2 lb. per acre and trichlorfon at 1
lb. per acre have given effective fall armyworm control when
applied to populations on grasses. The diet of insects is known to
affect their susceptibility to certain insecticides, which could be a
factor in this case.
The new synthetic pyrethroids (Ambush?, Pounce?, Pydrin?)
were tested against this insect and failed to give acceptable control.
Summary
In the summer of 1977 the fall armyworm was the most serious
insect pest in Alabama. It attacked many crops, some of which had
never been damaged by this insect before. Farmers need to be able
to separate these larvae from other similar caterpillars in order to
initiate control programs early and to select appropriate control
chemicals. The destructive larval stage can be identified by the light
colored inverted Y on the head. The fall armyworm's extreme
abundance this year can probably be traced to the unusually cold
previous winter and to the unusually dry summer. Research indi-
cated that good chemical control could be obtained with Lannate?,
Nudrin?, Azodrin?, Lorsban?, Bolstar?, Orthene?, or NuBait? at
previously stated rates.
Using Nuclear Science to
Improve Centipedegrass
-W. J. JOHNSTON, RAY DICKENS, and RON HAALAND
Department of Agronomy and Soils
CENTIPEDEGRASS is a low-growing, sod-
forming grass used for lawn and general pur-
pose turf throughout much of the lower
South. Even so, the grass as it presently exists
is less than ideal for these purposes. All
centipedegrass looks essentially the same.
This lack of morphological variability has lim-
ited selection of turfgrass varieties. Use of
centipedegrass has also been limited by its
lack of winter hardiness, and slow rate of
establishment.
Genetic mutation using gamma radiation
from a nuclear source offers a possible tech-
nique for rapidly improving turfgrass. Centi-
pedegrass is well suited to mutation breeding
because problems of seed production can be
overcome by vegetative propagation. In Ala-
bama, vegetative propagation is presently the
most common method of establishing centi-
pedegrass.
Work is currently under way at Auburn
University's Agricultural Experiment Station
to evaluate the use of gamma radiation to
induce morphological variations, increase
cold tolerance, and improve establishment
rate in centipedegrass.
Centipedegrass seed were exposed to 0,
10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 kilorads of gamma radia-
tion from a cobalt source at the Auburn Uni-
versity Leach Nuclear Science Center. The
seed were planted in fumigated soil, and
seedlings were grown in flats in a
greenhouse. After 4 months, 95 irradiated
plants and 11 controls were evaluated for
differences in leaf blade width, blade length,
and internode length.
The range in all three criteria was greater
for the irradiated plants than for plants pro-
duced by the untreated controls, table 1.
Other changes noted in treated plants in-
clude wrinkled leaves, variegated leaf color,
TABLE 1. MORMPIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS IN IRRADIATED
CENTIPEDEGRASS
Irradiated
Cplants ontrols
Max. Min. Max. 
Min.
Blade width (mm) . 6.8 3.7 6.1 4.1
Blade length (cm) . 6.3 1.8 4.7 2.5
Intemrnode length
(cm) ........... 4.0 0.6 4.1 2.0
dwarfness, and a more prostrate growth
habit. Therefore several changes in the mor-
phology of centipedegrass have been in-
duced by nuclear radiation.
Thirteen irradiated selections and two
non-irradiated selections, 'Oklawn' (cold tol-
erant) and 'FC-2' (not cold tolerant), were
cold hardened, exposed to subfreezing tem-
peratures, and returned to- the greenhouse
10
where plant survival was determined 3 weeks
later. Three irradiated selections were consis-
tently superior or equal to Oklawn at each
exposure temperature, see figure. These
three selections offer the potential for devel-
oping a more cold-tolerant cultivar of cen-
tipedegrass and are being evaluated under
field conditions this winter.
None of the irradiated selections showed a
superior rate of cover when compared to
non-irradiated controls in greenhouse
studies. Dwarfs or plants with a reduced
growth rate were quite common among the
irradiated selections. This is a common effect
of irradiation of plant seed.
Real possibilities exist for using mutation
Survival (%/)
80" ag 
AC-23
701 
a AC-17
AC-13
50 - -FC-2
b
-50C 
-70C -90C
( 0 F) (19F) (16F)
Exposure temperature
FIG. 2. Effect of temperature on survi
val of centipedegrass selections.
breeding techniques to improve morpholog- dwarfs does present the possibility of making
ical characteristics and cold tolerance in this selections for the development of a very
species. It would appear that the rate of cover low-growing, dense type of centipedegrass.
of centipedegrass established from sprigs can Improvements in these aspects should in-
not be improved through irradiation breed- crease the suitability of centipedegrass for
ing. However, the development of numerous turf use throughout the South.
-M
" . -* . :-- .we
FIG . Leaf length (right) varied greatly among irradiated selections of cen-
tipedegrass. A common effect (left) noted from radiation treatment was reduced
growth rates as illustrated by piant at bottom.
S-"NOW
in flas 
'14
.s, 9 irraiatA
:e evatatF. fz
th, bade lngIV
3Ct1
LUMBER FROM SOUTHERN PINE is one of our
most highly favored materials for construc-
tion of buildings, especially homes. It is also
highly favored by some insects.
Termites and certain species of "powder-
post" beetles and wood borers are common
attackers of lumber in homes and other wood
structures. It is common knowledge that
these insects can cause serious and costly
damage; consequently, most homeowners
are alert and have conducted periodic inspec-
tions of evidence of infestations. Wood-
infesting insects work quietly and secretively
most of the time and may often go undiscov-
ered until evidence of damage gives away
their presence. Thus, signs of damage, such as
tunnels and exit-entrance holes, are often
valuable aids in detecting infestations of
some species. Also, because type of damage is
often characteristic to a species or insect
group, it may aid in identifying the insect
involved. However, to automatically assume
that visible signs of damage definitely estab-
lish the presence of an active infestation is
hazardous and may lead to the application of
expensive control measures which are
needless-needless because the existence of
such signs does not always mean that the
wood is currently under attack.
A Case in Point
Figure 1 represents a typical and common
case. In this section of 2 x 4 southern pine
framing taken from a residence, holes and
tunnels made by insects are obvious. Dis-
covery of damage of this extent could cause
alarm. However, in this case it would be un-
warranted for: (1) this damage does not indi-
cate presence of an active infestation; (2) the
board and other like boards in the house are
not in danger of reinfestation by the species
originally responsible; and (3) no control
measures are necessary. Why not? The an-
swer is found in recognizing the damage type
and understanding the habits of the insects
causing it.
The Insects, Their Habits and Damage
The small, dark, circular pencil-lead-size
holes and tunnels, figure 1, are typical signsof
activity by ambrosia beetle, figure 2, and cer-
tam "pinhole borer" adults. The oblong
cavities, figure 1, are typical of the larvae of
one of several species of common round-
headed or long-horned wood borers, figure
3. In each case the wood was infested and
damage done before the board was in
place-in fact, most likely before it was even
sawed. The habits of these species explain
this.
Ambrosia beetles and "pinhole borers" in-
volved attack only freshly cut green pine logs,
green lumber, or still green trees dying from
bark beetle attack, disease, fire, or other
causes. They do not attack, nor can they sur-
SIGN of INSECT BORER DAMAGE in
SOUTHERN PINE LUMBER
DOES it ALWAYS MEAN the HOME IS
INFESTED?
L L HYCHE, Department of Zoology-Entomology
FIG. 1. Section of southern pine 2x4 with typical ambrosia beetle, "pinhole
borer", and round-headed wood borer damage sign.
FIG. 2. Adult ambrosia beetle (photo
by J. V. Edelson).
vive in, dry seasoned wood. The adults tunnel
in both sapwood and heartwood, and signs of
their attack remain conspicuous in the
lumber. Habits of the long-horned wood
borers are somewhat similar to those of am-
brosia beetles in that these particular species
also infest only green logs or freshly killed
green trees. Adults deposit eggs in the inner
bark and larvae develop primarily in this re-
gion. Prior to pupation the larvae tunnel into
the wood and construct pupal cells. Process-
ing of the timber to lumber then exposes
FIG. 3. Larvae (Sawyers) of a common
species of long-horned wood borer.
these tunnels and cells to view. These borers,
unlike a few species, do not reinfest the same
wood after emergence.
A Word of Caution
The foregoing indicates that discovery of
insect damage sign does not necessarily
mean an active infestation is present; how-
ever, with certain species such sign may be a
true indicator. Thus, detection should be fol-
lowed by thorough investigation before the
decision to treat or not to treat is made.
11
PERFORMANCE of
COMMERCIAL SOYBEAN
INOCULANTS in ALABAMA
A. E. HILTBOLD and D. L THURLOW
Department of Agronomy and Soils
SOYBEANS without effective root nodulation are as nitrogen defi-
cient as cotton or corn without fertilizer N. Root nodule bacteria
(Rhizobium japonicum) provide the potential for high 
yields of
soybeans by supplying nitrogen from the air. With expanding 
soy-
bean production in the South, many fields are planted with 
soybeans
for the first time. Effective inoculation of the seed withRlizobium is
essential in fields where soybeans have not been grown recently. 
To
meet this need, the legume inoculant industry markets cultures 
of
Rhizobium dispersed in peat, clay, or oil. Some of the products
include the trace element molybdenum and a fungicide to provide
seedling plants with protection from disease.
Field experiments were conducted at the E. V. Smith Research
Center with more than 45 products purchased at seed stores in
Alabama Soils were essentially free of soybean Rbizobium so that
nodulation was dependent upon the product applied. Each inocu-
lant was applied at planting according to manufacturer's instructions.
Plants were dug at early bloom stage each year to determine nodula-
tion of soybean roots. In 1976, a rating scale from 0 to 10 was used to
measure taproot nodulation with 0 being no nodulation and 10
abundant nodulation. In 1977, root nodules were counted. Results
are shown in graphs.
Nitragin inoculants were superior to other peat-base products
tested in 1976. Dormal (dried bacteria with clay base) and Triple
Noctin (dried bacteria with molybdenum and fungicide) produced
no nodulation. Among 32 products tested in 1977, Nitragin and
Rudy-Patrick inoculants produced more nodules than did other
products. With hot, dry soil conditions that occurred after planting in
1977, many of the Unico, ABC, and LegumeAid treatments were little
if any better than untreated controls. Dormal and the various Noctin
products were consistently without effect.
The 1977 inoculants were also compared in a greenhouse exper-
iment where nitrogen content of soybean plants was determined
after 6 weeks of growth to provide a measure of N fixation resulting
from the treatments. The graph shows the order of N fixing ability to
be essentially the same as that for nodulation in the field. Several
peat-base inoculants performed better in the greenhouse than in the
field. Bacterial plate counts of these inoculants showed low nodula-
tion compared to others producing abundant nodulation. With
drought stress in the field these marginal products fail.
In four instances, samples of the same lot of inoculant were
obtained from different stores in Alabama. No evidence was found
that different storage conditions were related to inoculant perform-
ance.
The peat-base products of Nitragin and Rudy-Patrick have pro-
vided adequate nodulation and N fixation in soybeans. Addition of
molybdate and captan fungicide to the peat-base culture at planting
(Nitragin Pro Treat) markedly reduced nodulation. Incompatability
of molybdate or fungicide additives with Rhizobium in the various
Noctins may account for their poor performance as inoculants.
Liming acid soils to favorable pH for soybeans generally eliminates
the need for added molybdenum. In fields without the soybean
Rhizobium, however, the essential key to success is a good inocu-
lant.
Nitragin
Nitragin Nitra Mo
Nitragin
Nitraqin
Nitragin
ABC
Unico
Unico
Legume Aid
ABC
Unico
Unico
Triple Noctin
Dormal
Dormal Planter Pack
Triple Noctin
None
Nitragin
Nitragin
Rudy-Patrick
Rudy-Patrick
Rudy-Patrick
Rudy- Patrick
Nitrogin
Nitragin
ABC
Unico
ABC
Unico
Unico
Unco
ABC
Legume Aid
A8C
ABC
Unico
Nitrogin Pro Treat
Triple Noctin
Triple Mactin
Triple Noctin
Molynoctin Liquid
Unico
Triple Noctin
Hy Rize 905
Triple Noctin Liquid
Molynoctin Liquid
Triple Noctin
Dormal-Moly
Triple Nactin
None
Nitragin
itragin
Rudy-Patick
Nitrogin
Rudy-Patrick
Rudy- Patrick
Rudy-Patrick
Unico
Unico
Nitraqin Pro-Treat
Legume Aid
Unico
ABC
ABC
ABC
Unico
ABC
Unico
Triple Noctin
Triple Noctin
None
Triple Nactin
Dormal - Moly
Triple Nactim
Triple Noctin
Molynoctin Liquid
Triple Noctin Liquid
Molynoctin Liquid
Triple Noctin
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Nodules per Plant at Early Bloom, 1977
0 20 40 60 80 I00 120
Total Nitrogen in Plants, mg/pot, Greenhouse
12
I 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Nodulation Ratingo 1976
I I a
by Sil ndule
~s Lect o Ni A 2 1Pl
FoREST TREEs can grow well utilizing lesser amounts of essential
soil mineral elements than agricultural crops. As would be expected,
therefore, trees also respond less consistently and less positively to
fertilization. Forestry research has defined only a limited number of
situations in which economic responses to fertilization are assured.
Demand for timber has grown steadily in recent years, resulting in
more intensive management practices. Intervals between harvests
have shortened and the proportion of tree crop harvests has in-
creased. Evidence is accumulating that without fertilization the
greater drain of mineral nutrients under intensive management may
cause reduced yields within a few rotations. Whether to stimulate
increased yield or to prevent reduction in yield, forest fertilization
seems certain to become increasingly common.
As with agricultural crops, the nutrient element most often 
defi-
cient for good tree growth is nitrogen. Simple studies of growth
response of forest stands to nitrogen fertilization, however, have not
clearly defined the conditions which must exist before a response
can be expected. Effective fertilization of trees, which are long-lived,
relatively slow-growing, and deep-rooted, presents more involved
problems than annual crops. The fertilizer may be applied 
at the
wrong time of the year or at the wrong stage of the 
tree's life. Other
vegetation may compete strongly with the trees for uptake of fer-
tilizer. When an element appears to be limiting for good growth,
some other essential factor may be even more limiting.
Forest scientists are currently investigating various fundamental
aspects of the role of mineral nutrients, including nitrogen, in tree
growth. One important area of study is the dynamics of mineral
elements in forest ecosystems. With long-lived crops, such as trees,
minerals cycle continuously and repeatedly between trees and 
soil,
and a reserve storehouse of minerals accumulates in the 
litter on the
forest floor. Forest scientists need more data on the quantities and
rates of transfer, respectively, within and among 
the different parts
of natural forest ecosystems. More knowledge is also 
needed about
the fate of applied fertilizers. What proportion of the fertilizer 
is
absorbed by forest stands, and how long and where is 
it retained
within the ecosystem? Answers to these questions should lead 
to
more efficient fertilization practices and less pollution 
of drainage
waters from fertilized areas.
In 1971 a study of nitrogen cycling in loblolly pine 
plantations was
begun by forestry researchers from Auburn University's Agricultural
Experiment Station at the Lower Coastal Plain Substation in 
Camden.
Several unthinned, 13-year-old plantations were sampled to deter-
mine the amounts and distribution of nitrogen contained within the
vegetation and the soil. In March of 1972 ammonium nitrate was
applied to portions of each plantation at rates of 100, 200, 
and 400 lb.
per acre. In August of 1972, a series of three biennial samplings 
was
initiated to monitor stand growth and changes in nitrogen content
and distribution.
NrrROGE.N CONCENTRATION OF EAcH PART OF STAND FOR EACH FERiuZER RATE,
AUGUsT 1972
Rate of fertilization
Part of Unfertilized 100 lb. 200 lb. 400 lb.
stand per per per
Percent
Foliage 1.18 1.27 1.37 1.41
Branches . 0.15 0.20 0.21 0.22
Bole wood ..... 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09
Bole bark 0.21 0.23 0.28 0.30
Understory
vegetation . 0.83 0.97 1.35 1.36
Litter ............ 0.65 0.69 0.72 0.75
Soil ........... .. 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
H. S. LARSEN and W. J. WATSON,
Dept. of Forestry and Lower Coastal Plain Substation
ESTMATED AMOUNTS OF FERTILIZER NITROGEN PER ACRE CONTAINED IN EACH PART
OF STAND, AUGUST 1972
Part of Rate of fertilization
stand 100 lb./ 200 lb./ 400 lb./
acre acre acre
Lb. Pct. Lb. Pct. Lb. Pct.
Trees
Aerial parts .... 53.5 54 55.3 28 69.6 17
Roots .......... 3.3 3 31.8 16 12.2 3
Understory
vegetation ...... 1.3 2.0 1.8
Litter ............. -0.4 5.9 8.3
Total stand ........ 57.7 58 95.0 47 92.0 23
All parts of the stands showed evidence of some increase in
nitrogen concentration in the first samples following fertilization,
and concentrations increased with higher levels of fertilization.
Greatest increases, as would be expected, were in the foliage, bark,
and roots of the trees, and in the understoryvegetation. No increases
in growth due to fertilization were detected in the trees or other
vegetation after one growing season, nor'had any been expected
after such a short interval. Therefore, by applying the nitrogen
concentrations, which were determined the year before fertiliza-
tion, to the weights of the various parts of the vegetation after
fertilization, it was possible to obtain estimates of fertilizer nitrogen
recovery.
Quantity taken up by the aerial portion of the trees increased as
the rate of fertilization increased from 100 to 400 lb. of nitrogen per
acre, but percentage recovery decreased. At the lowest rate recovery
was more than 50%, comparing favorably with average recovery by
fast-growing crops such as cotton and corn, but it fell to less than 20%
at the highest rate. Understory vegetation was light, as is typical of
young, well stocked pine plantations, and it recovered less nitrogen
at the higher rates than was held by the litter.
The importance of stand stocking was indicated by the relatively
low nitrogen content of the trees above ground on plots which
received the 200 lb. per acre rate. A pine beetle epidemic caused an
average drop of 10% in stocking during 1972. By contrast, there was
an increase of 5% for the other treatments which escaped heavy pine
beetle attacks. The high nitrogen content of tree roots in this treat-
ment suggests that nitrogen was absorbed soon after application but
not transferred well to the tops of dying trees.
Later samplings will reveal how well these plantations are able to
whether it produces any growth response. Such information should
help to define the picture of nitrogen cycling in pine plantations and
thereby to improve fertilization practices.
13
PEANUT WEEDS
BY RONSTAR
GALE A. BUCHANAN, Dept Of Agron omy and Soils
PAUL A. BACKMAN and R. RODRIGUE-KABANA, Dept. of
Botany and Microbiology
Ro NSTARO is a new weapon in the chemical
arsenal of peanut weed killers. This herbicide
provided effective control of several peanut
weeds in 8 years of testing at Auburn Univer-
sity Agricultural Experiment Station. Pending
approval of an experimental use permit by
the Environmental Protection Agency,
Ronstar' (common name, oxadiazon) will be
available on a limited- basis for control of
weeds in peanuts in 1978.
Experiments at the Wiregrass Substation,
Headland, measured both herbicidal per-
formance and peanut response to Ronstar.
Because it controlled certain broadleaf
weeds in 1970-72 tests, subsequent experi-
ments concentrated on Ronstar's ability to
control Florida beggarweed.
Ronstar was applied preemergence in
15-17 gal. of water per acre with a com-
pressed air, tractor-mounted plot sprayer.
Florunner peanuts.were planted in 3-ft. rows
in all experiments at a seeding rate sufficient
to give 3 to 4 plants per row-ft. Experiments
specifically designed to measure effective-
ness against Florida beggarweed and
siclepod received a pretreatment of benefm
(BalanOD.
.Disease and insect control and 
other cul-
tural practices were at a level for maximum
production. Weed and peanut plant counts
and the early-season ratings were made ap-
proximately 4 weeks after planting. A second
control rating was made 3 to 6 weeks later.
Control of crabgrass, goosegrass, and
crowfootgrass was commercially acceptable
in all years with all rates of application at the
time of the first control evaluation, table 1.
Later in the season (second rating time),
however, control was commercially accept-
able in only 2 of the 3 years from the 3-lb. per
acre rate of Ronstar and in only 1 of 3 years at
the 1.5-lb. rate. Control of broadleaf weeds
(momningglories, sicklepod, and Florida beg-
garweed) was similar to control of annual
grasses in most of the experiments.
In 1974 and 1975 experiments, Ronstar was
found to have substantial activity against
Florida beggarweed, one of the most trouble-
'A product of Rhodia, Inc.
;4J 44-LI__~ 4 ________
YEEDS .,ff.,
A44
TAE 1. Wm CONTROL FROM RONSrAR, WIREGRASS SUBSTATION
Grass control Broadleaf control
Herbicide
rate, First ratings Second ratings First ratings Second ratings
lb./acre 1970 1971 1972 19 70 1971 1972 
1970 1971 1972 1970 1971 1972
Pc.Pct Pct . Pc Pct Pct. z Pct .Pc~ Pct .Pct. p Pct.
1.5............. 86 97 84 89 22 8 74 86 84 80 23 19
3.0 ............ 100o 99 94 99 85 44 99 91 93 99 66 46
4.5............. 98 99 99 95 78 77 98 95 100 100 68 78
0............... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TAB.-E 2. CONnol. OF FLRIDA BEGGARwED WIrH
RONSTAR, WIREGRASS SUBSTATION
Herbcide Control at two rating times
rs, ThiHerbicided
rate, First ratings Second ratings
lb./acre
l/ce 1974 1975 1974 1975
pct. Pct PC t Pct.
1.5.......... 94 90 41 80
3.0.......... 99 100 74 99
4.5.......... 100 100 99 99
0............ 0 0 0 0
is further supported by the lack of a yield
reduction following treatment with Ronstar at
rates as high as 4.5 lb. per acre, table 4. Al-
though appearance of the peanut plant indi-
cated complete recovery, treatment with
Ronstar generally reduced plant canopy size.
Extensive studies on non-target effects of
Ronstar have revealed that this herbicide re-
duces losses to the stem rot fungus (white
mold). This observed reduction in disease
apparently more than compensates for any
phytotoxicity to peanuts.
TABE 3 COP ~rRV FROM UsE OF RONsTAR FOR PwmuT Wm CorrroL., WIREGRAS SUBSTATION
Herbicide 
Crop injury 
observed at 
each rating 
time
rate, First ratings Second ratings
lb./acre 1970 1971- 1972 1974 
1975 1970 1971 1972 1974 1975
Pet Pe Pct. Pct?. Pct Pct. P. Per. Pet a Pca Pat. P
1.5.................. 3 10 11 14 3 0 0 0 0 4
3.0 ................. 14 16 13 39 32 0 3 0 0 13
4.5.................123 32 5 45 43 0 10 0 4 16
0................... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
some weeds in peanuts, table 2. Late season
ratings showed that 1.5. lb. per acre gave
commercially acceptable control of beggar-
weed in 1975. With the 3.0-lb. rate in 1974,
control was 74% or better.
Ronstar often caused substantial
phytotoxicityto peanuts, expressed primarily
as early-season stunting, table 3. Such
phytotoxicity was relatively short lived. Rat-
ings made later in the season usually indi-
cated complete recovery. Complete recovery
TABI.E 4. PEANUT YiEE WmIh USE OF RONSTAR FOR
PEANUT WEED CONTROL, WIREGRASS SUBSTATION
Herbicide Per acre yield, unshelled peanuts
rate,
lb/acre 1970 1971 1972 1974 1975
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
1.5 ......... 2,382 3,256 2,087 3,773 4,112
3.0 ........ 2,364 3,149 2,622 3,773 3,987
4.5 ......... 1,900 3,131 2,319 3,532 4,326
0 . 2578 3,068 2,498 3,550 4,469
14
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J. D. WOLT and FRED ADAMS, Department of Agronomy and Soils
AL.ABAMA FARMERS were quick to recognize
the value of basic slag soon after it was first
ground and bagged at the Ensley plant of U. S.
Steel Corp. in Birmingham in 1915. This
steelmaking byproduct had a high content of
phosphorus and lime, both of which were
deficient in Alabama soils, which made it an
excellent soil amendment for use in the State.
Basic slag soon became a major fertilizer
and liming material in Alabama and the
Southeast, and it also was used extensively in
Europe. By the time World War II began,
basic slag ranked second only to super-
phosphate in the worldwide use of phos-
phorus fertilizer. But recent-year steelmaking
changes have altered the composition of
basic slag, and it is no longer a major fertilizer
and liming material in Alabama.
Phosphorus Recovered in Slag
Because phosphorus makes steel brittle, it
must be removed from the ore in the steel-
making process. This is done by adding lime-
stone to the molten ore so that the lime com-
bines with the phosphorus and floats to the
top. It is then separated, cooled, ground, and
bagged. This material is called basic slag.
Iron ore contains other impurities that
must also be removed during steelmaking.
These impurities also are removed by lime.
Thus, the composition of basic slag depends
on the kinds and amounts of impurities in the
iron ore. Since the value of the slag is primar-
ily from its phosphorus content, steel made
from low-phosphorus iron ore will produce a
basic slag of little value as a soil amendment.
Slag Composition Changes
There has been a significant change in re-
cent years in the steelmaking process, in the
sources of iron ore, and in the chemical im-
purities contained in the ore. This has led to a
corresponding change in the composition of
basic slag marketed for agricultural use in
Alabama.
Basic slag has been studied at the Auburn
University Agricultural Experiment Station
since the 1920's. The phosphorus present in
basic slag was found to be as available as that
from superphosphate on Alabama's acid
soils. Experiments in those early years were
done with basic slag that contained about 10%
available phosphorus, about half of what
superphosphate contained in those days.
Old vs. New Slag
In a recent Auburn study with present-day
basic slag, major differences were found be-
tween the "old" basic slag and the "new"
basic slag. The most important differences
were in phosphorus contents and liming
values. A comparison of these properties is
given in table 1 for samples of basic slag
produced by U. S. Steel Corp. in Birmingham
in 1957 and 1975. The available phosphorus
content in 1975 was found to be only about
one-tenth of that in 1957 basic slag. The lim-
ing value was about two-thirds as much in
1975. Whereas practically all of the phos-
phorus in the 1957 sample was available, only
about two-thirds in the 1975 sample was
available.
In many experiments between 1930 and
1960, the old basic slag was equal to super-
TABLE 1. COMPARISON OF OLD AND NEW FORMS OF
BAsic StLAG
Property Comparison
1957 
slag 
1975 
slag
Pct. Pct
Available phosphorus
(P205) ................ 10.1 1.3
Total phosphorus (P205)... 10.9 2.1
Lime equivalent (CaCO3a) .. 78.0 55.0
Passing 100-mesh screen... 80.0 80.0
phosphate as a direct fertilizer application to
crops. As a residual phosphorus fertilizer,
slag was equal to or greater than super-
phosphate. The liming value of basic slag was
generally rated as about three-fourths that of
agricultural limestone.
Value of the new basic slag relative to the
old is demonstrated by comparing how many
pounds of each are required to supply 60 lb.
of available phosphorus (P205), table 2.
Whereas 600 lb. of the 1957 basic slag
equaled 130 lb. of concentrated superphos-
phate (300 pounds of ordinary superphos-
phate), it took more than 2 tons of the new
material for the same amount of P205.
TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF AVALABLE PHOSPHORUS
CONTENT OF DIFFERENT MATERt.S
Availa'ble Amount to
Material PoN05 furnish
content 60 lb. P2Ns
Ordin.Pct. Lb.
superphosphate . 20.0 300
Concentrated
superphosphate . 48.0 130
Old basic slag ...... 10.1 600
New basic slag ..... 1.3 4,600
In a similar comparison of liming value
(CaCOa equivalent), the new basic slag had a
lime equivalent of 55%. This compares with
78% for the old basic slag and 90% for calcitic
lime. Thus, it requires 3,300 lb. of the new
basic slag or 2,300 lb. of the old slag to equal
2,000 lb. of calcitic lime.
The test results emphasize that the new
basic slag differs from the old in its lower
liming potential and in its much lower con-
tent of available phosphorus. Extremely high
rates of present-day basic slag are required to
supply adequate phosphorus or lime on defi-
cient soils.
15
THE FASTEST MOVING, most serious game
around these days is planning estate distribu-
tion.
A recent survey of farmers in the more
prominent agricultural counties in Alabama
revealed some alarming information. Most
farmers do not understand the needs for es-
tate planning. There was limited realization
of the tax liability or asset distribution prob-
lems in improper planning. Fewer than 40%
of the farmers had drafted wills. Of those
individuals with wills, nearly 25% had wills
over 10 years old. The number of old wills is
not bad nor does it indicate poor planning.
Rather, it means that many 
farmers could be
facing unforeseen problems if no periodic
updating has been done.
An effective will can accomplish many of
the estate planner's objectives. However, fail-
ure to draft a will may result in serious com-
plications in estate settlement. Where an in-
dividual dies intestate (without a will), his
right to dispose of property as he pleases is
forfeited and the property is distributed ac-
cording to State "Laws of Descent and Distri-
bution." This method of distribution is inflex-
ible and oblivious to any particular objectives
the decedent may have had. Thus, family
hardships may result.
Other estate planning tools include gifts,
trusts, insurance, and the method of own-
ership. Use of these tools as complements to a
will and to themselves greatly increases the
assurance of desirable estate settlement.
The need for proper estate planning by
farmers increased in the last decade as the
value of farm estates rose dramatically. Most
of the increases resulted from land value
changes. Higher real estate values have re-
sulted in estate tax levies far in excess of
levels anticipated because of the low cost
basis in farms and ignorance of the real value
of farm land. Increased capital investments
also contributed to a pressing need for plan-
ning.
These pressures have resulted in new laws.
The most recent Federal tax legislation,
passed in 1976, provided for significant
changes in the tax levies on personal estates.
The personal exemption level of $60,000 was
replaced by a unified estate tax credit system
which makes the effective tax exemption
reach nearly $176,000 in 1981.
An indication of the need for planning even
though tax laws were changed is found in the
table-farmer net worth is growing.
Net worth averages for a survey are 
often
misleading. In this case more than 65% 
of the
estates were valued less than $300,000 
net.
However, over 20% were valued 
in excess of
$500,000. In fact, the net worth for farms
ranged up to $2,380,400. These statistics indi-
cate significant planning needs regardless 
of
the 1976 Tax Reform Act.
Assets and liabilities
Average Percent of
value net wortbI
Land value (total)........$ 236,850
Residence ............... 22,700
Insurance ............... 45,430
Stocks, bond savings ...... 11,230
Supplies and inventory .... 2,020
Machinery and equipment 29,470
Other personal property... 9,960
Livestock .............. . 39,520
Total assets ........... 359,070
Liabilities ............... 22,910
Net worth ............ $ 336,270
69.0
10.9
19.3
4.0
0.6
9.2
3.5
8.2
11.0
'Percentages will not add to 100 since values
represent only farms reporting each item.
YDepartment 
of
Estate Agricultural Economics,
-
A general lack of knowledge concerning
estate planning among respondent farmers
was evident from the survey. More than 88%
of the respondents had not studied any estate
planning publications at the time of inter-
view, and 95% had never attended training
sessions of any sort on the 
subject.*
In most instances a lack of knowledge on.a.
subject means one should seek competent
assistance from others. The logical source for
such assistance is an attorney trained in the
particular area of estate planning. Fewer than
40% of respondents had consulted 
attorneys,
and not all of these had used their services.
Attorneys who were named by respon-
dents were asked to determine the extent of
estate planning in the study areas. 
Respon-
dent attorneys averaged 23 years in practice
and had drafted an average of 18 wills 
per
year for clients. Few of these were farmer
clients. Approximately one-third of the
lawyers encouraged clients to develop a
comprehensive estate plan. Most of these
lawyers had special training in estate plan-
ning or tax management. These data suggest
that farmers should use caution in 
selecting
consultants for estate-planning. As there
exists in other professions, there are 
spe-
cialists trained for estate planning. Likewise,
attorneys need to acquire more skills in this
area in order to properly advise clients.
Thus, problems in estate planning and es-
tate distribution for a majority of Alabama
farmers are a logical expectation. New tax
laws may have a tendency to lull farmers and
estate consultants into a false sense of secu-
rity. This is especially true since 95% of the
surveyed farmers mentioned tax avoidance as
a major estate planning objective. Taxes are
an important factor, but proper estate admin-
istration and distribution may be more im-
portant, especially if a decedent has specific
desires, or heirs have specific needs. Over-
concern with tax liability among respondent
farmers and limited concern for other plan-
ning objectives were implied from the sur-
vey. Each farm family needs to discuss the
needs and goals of the family in the event of
death. A carefully developed estate plan,
when carried out, will eliminate much of the
cost, confusion, and frustration common in
the event of an unexpected death.
:' 
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