of agricultural research
w
~1
Volume 24, No. 3 Fall 1977
Agricultural Experiment Station
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
Director's Comments
DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS in this issue will be devoted primarily to a progress
report on the development of new research facilities resulting from the sale
of bonds authorized by the Alabama Legislature in 1973. Funds have been
made available as the bonds were sold by the State. The final allotment in
July enabled us to proceed with all construction.
The first item funded was the purchase of 3,200 acres of land, officially
named the E. V. Smith Research Center of
the Agricultural Experiment Station, on
which to relocate most of the Main Station
field facilities. (See Highlights, Spring
1975. for description and location of land. 1
Since its purchase, the land has been
used for production of feed and forage for
livestock and foundation seed. This use of
the land has provided information on field
variability, weed infestations, and other
factors basic to the design of field exper-
iments.
An irrigation system was purchased
from bond monies for use at the Wiregrass
Substation. As those in southeast Alabama
know, this is certainly a year when ir-
R. Dennis Rouse
rigation has made the difference between no production and excellent
production. It is fortunate that this research system was available for the
1977 season.
Next, an office auditorium was constructed at the Chilton Area Horticul
ture Substation which has served to up-grade the entire research and in-
formation delivery programs of this Station.
The Forest Products Laboratory was completed and dedicated in June.
This facility will revitalize our research on use of wood fiber, especially
from low grade trees and by products of timber harvest.
The Poultry Science Center, a new eight building complex on the
Auburn campus, will go a long way toward providing the facilities needed
for a research program to support Alabama's important broiler and egg in
dustry. Research is in progress in these buildings and installation of an
automated feed mill has just been completed.
A beef cattle nutrition research facility at the Black Belt Substation, with
its associated feed mill and feed conveying system, is well along toward com-
pletion, and a full research program should be under way this fall.
Development of facilities at the E. V. Smith Research Center is proceeding
as follows:
The beef cattle breeding unit was occupied this past summer, and
buildings and fencing are essentially completed on this unit which occupies
about 700 acres in the northwest corner of the Research Center.
Two dwelling houses and a headquarters shop office building have been
completed.
The dairy unit should be completed during the fall and cows from both
Main Station dairies moved by January. This unit is visible on the north side
of I 85, halfway between Auburn and Montgomery.
A contract was let in July for construction of the facilities for the beef cat-
tle nutrition unit, the fruit, nut, and vegetable crops unit, and the
field crops unit. Field research in these units is already under way.
The Basic Animal Physiology Laboratory located at the new Swine
Production Research Facility on the Auburn campus is nearing completion.
In addition to these facilities being acquired under the 1973 Bond Issue, a
modern bull testing facility with the capability for determining individual
feed efficiency is nearing completion. Funding is being provided jointly by
the Experiment Station and the Alabama Cattlemen's Association.
The 1976 Legislature provided funds for a Seed Technology Center on the
Auburn campus and a foundation peanut seed facility at Headland. Bids for
the Seed Technology Center were received in July, and the foundation seed
facility should soon be ready for bidding.
Finally, the 1977 Legislature appropriated funds to the Alabama Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Industries to fund the renovation and modern-
ization of the Livestock Judging Arena.
Wq we 
WW&aL...
Dr. Paul K. Turnquist, head of the Depart-
ment of Agricultural Engineering. He took
over the leadership role in the Department
following the August 1976 retirement of Prof.
Fred Kummer, who had held the position
since 1948.
Born in Lindsborg, Kansas, Dr. Turnquist
earned a B.S. degree in ag engineering at Kan-
sas State University. He
also holds M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees from Oklahoma
State University.
Prior to coming to
Auburn, he was a Pro
fessor and acting 
Depart-
ment Head in the Depart
ment of Agricultural Engi
neering at South Dakota State University.
Dr. Turnquist has previously been an instruc
tor and assistant professor at Oklahoma
State University and a research engineer for
the Caterpillar Tractor Company.
Dr. Turnquist is a member of Sigma Tau,
Sigma Xi, and Alpha Epsilon honoraries. He
received the Outstanding Young Faculty
Award in 1970 from the North Midwest Sec-
tion of the American Society for Engineering
Education and was the first recipient of the
A.W. Farrall Young Educator Award from
the American Society of Ag Engineers. In ad
dition he has been a General Foods Fellow and
a registered engineer since 1962.
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
FALL 1977 VOL. 24, NO. 3
A quarterly report of research published
by the Agricultural Experiment Station of
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNIS ROUSE .............. Director
STANLEY P. WILSON ..... Associate Director
CHAS F. SIMMONS ...... Assistant Director
T. E. CORLEY .......... Assistant Director
E. L. M cGRAW ................. Editor
R. E. STEVENSON ........ Associate Editor
RoY ROBERSON .......... Assistant Editor
Editorial Advisory Committee: STANLEY
P. WILSON;: J. D. HARPER, Associate Pro
fessor of Entomology, WAI.TER 
D. KELLEY,
Assistant Professor of Botany and Micro
biology; EARL L. WIGGINS, Professor of
Animal and Dairy Sciences, AND E. L.
McGRAW.
Information contained herein is available to
all without regard to race, color, or national
origin.
ON THE COVER. Solar collectors capture
energy from the sun to heat baby chicks
in the Auburn research facility.
1$1
Solar Heating of Poultry Houses
R. N. BREWER, Department of Poultry Science
J. L. KOON and C. A. FLOOD, Department of Agricultural Engineering
S01 AR ENERGY is viewed by many energy
experts as one solution to the dwindling sup
ply of fossil fuels in the United States and the
world. Although it is a renewable source of
energy and is universally available, it is also
diffuse and difficult to collect in large quan
titles.
Current research at Auburn University
Agricultural Experiment Station is aimed at
adapting solar energy to poultry production
programs and finding ways to make it an ac-
ceptable form of heat energy. The solar facility
being used consists of 36 flat plate solar collec-
tors having a combined area of about 700 sq.
ft. These collectors are plumbed into three
separate systems for research purposes. Each
system has a 1.000 gal. insulated water
storage tank for the solar heated water, an 80
gal. electric auxiliary water heater, and
necessary pumps and controls to deliver hot
water to the poultry production units.
Each of the six production units is 20 ft. x
36 ft., insulated in all walls and ceilings, and is
ventilated separately from the other units.
Heat is delivered to the rooms by fin tube con-
vectors or concrete slab brooders. Electric and
LP gas energy used to heat, light, and ven
tilate each unit is metered and recorded. This
arrangement allows for an analysis of total
energy required to operate the production unit
I I
and will be used in determining economic
parameters of the system.
A weather monitoring station is in use at
the research site to monitor meterological
parameters affecting the operation of the solar
facility. The amount and intensity of sunshine
falling on the collectors is monitored daily,
along with ambient temperature, wind direc
tion, wind speed, and dewpoint. Since the
frequency and amount of cloudy periods di
rectly affect the amount of solar energy col
lected, this information is necessary in deter
mining correct design features of the solar
system.
Commercial poultry requires a significant
amount of heat energy to sustain life and to
perform efficiently. At the present time this
energy is being supplied mainly by fossil fuels.
Liquified petroleum (LP) gas furnishes ap
proximately four fifths of the total, followed by
natural gas, fuel oil, coal, and electricity. A
nationwide survey of poultry producers, done
before beginning the solar study, found that
approximately 40 gal. of LP gas are used per
1,000 broilers brooded. Commercial 
layers,
turkeys, and ducks use considerably more.
Heat energy is delivered to the poultry
house by space heaters, central hot water, and
hot air systems. The amount required depends
FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS
Worm water return to storoage--
PEN PEN I
PUMP
PUMP
AUX. HEAT/
STORAGE
MAIN
STORAGE
r, - i
Heat is delivered to the chick rooms by fin
tube convectors (arrow) or by concrete slab
brooders.
on house construction, time of year. age of
birds, and management of the total system.
New forms of heat energy, such as solar, must
be compatible with these delivery systems to
be readily accepted by producers.
Existing poultry houses, therefore, would
need some modification to allow use of new
forms of energy. Paramount to this program
would be improvement in environmental con-
trol in Alabama poultry houses. Sufficient
ceiling insulation (R 11) to control heat loss is
most important. Also required is mechanically
controlled air exchange during cold months.
Among the effective fuel saving management
practices needed during brooding, the most
promising is partial house brooding. This in
volves partitioning off approximately one
fourth to one third of the house to be used as a
brooding chamber for the first 3 weeks. When
this chamber is well insulated and
mechanically ventilated it can reduce fuel
needs by 30 40% over conventional brooding.
Solar heat adapts well to this system of
brooding.
Design and construction of new poultry
houses must consider fuel requirement as a
major factor. Houses located approximately
east-west and having a 2 ft. overhang and in
sulated ceiling will be much more efficient at
handling both summer and winter thermal
problems. When this type of building contains
approximately R 11 of ceiling insulation and
R 6 in sidewalls and ends, birds can be kept
comfortable with comparatively low fuel costs.
Preliminary data from Auburn's solar
research facilities and those from several other
stations indicate that solar energy can be ef-
fectively adapted to poultry houses. Major
barriers seem to be price of solar systems and
availability of equipment which has been
properly tested. In addition, more time must
be spent testing various systems of delivering
the heat to the brooding area. Hot water or a
combination of hot water and warm air seem
to be most acceptable.
The Auburn work is primarily concerned
with determining the most economically
feasible method of getting the stored energy to
the brooding area. Fin tube convectors, con-
crete slab brooders, and heated ventilation air
show promise.Design of the solar poultry house at Auburn is illustrated by this drawing.
| I J
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POND CULTURE OF CATFISH,
TILAPIA, AND SILVER CARP
DAVE DUNSETH and NEAL SMITHERMAN, Dept. of Fisheries and Ailied Aquacultures
P \1 . l I i 111 1 in thc L L.. i ,
presentls the only important 
commercial
method of producing fish for human con
sumption. Economical yields of catfish
reaching 2,000 3,000 lb. per acre can be ob-
tained by feeding them a high protein feed at
2-3% of their body weight per day.
Feeding of pelleted rations to catfish
in ponds usually results in dense "blooms" of
phytoplankton. Catfish are bottom feeders and
don't directly consume phytoplankton. Ex
cessive phytoplankton often leads to oxygen
depletions and fish kills: therefore, control of
these algae is a major concern of catfish
farmers.
Researchers at Auburn University, during
1971-1975, tested the following fishes for
culture with catfish: hybrid buffalofish,
mirror carp, silver carp, bighead carp, grass
carp. male and female tilapias with reproduc
tion, all male tilapias with no reproduction,
and combinations of these fishes. Com-
binations of all male tilapias or silver carp with
catfish indicated potential for increasing total
production of fish without a decrease in catfish
production.
The objective of polyculture research in
1976 was to determine the separate and com-
bined effects of greater productions of all male
tilapias and silver carp on the yield of catfish.
Treatments, fish species, stocking rates.
mean net productions for each species, and
total net productions are presented in the
table. Grass carp at a low stocking rate were
used to ensure control of aquatic weeds. All
treatments received equal inputs of feed and
fertilizer.
Catfish production was slightly lower in the
presence of tilapia, since large tilapia com
peted with catfish for the pelleted ration.
I h vcr 1. i1. Iof tilapia \scer produced for
cv\er 1 .0 lb. reduction of catfish production.
Based on a subsequent market study, farm
prices of tilapia and catfish were /40C and 50C,
respectively. For every dollar lost in catfish
production, $3.60 in tilapia value resulted.
Catfish production was slightly higher in
the presence of silver carp, which did not com
pete with catfish for the pelleted ration. Total
net production increased from 2,371 lb. per
acre with catfish alone to 4,118 lb. per acre in
a combination of catfish, tilapia, and silver
carp without a decrease in the production of
catfish. This increase in fish production was
obtained with fewer problems of critically low
oxygen concentrations.
Phytoplankton density was lower in poly
culture treatments than in the monoculture
treatment. Species of buoyant blue green
phytoplankton, such as Microcystis, which
produce surface scums and are associated with
off flavor in catfish, were scarce in treatments
containing silver carp and dominant in treat-
ments not containing silver carp.
A market study showed that consumer ac-
ceptance and demand was excellent for tilapia
and fair for silver carp. Average retail prices
for fish sold in local supermarkets were as
follows: catfish. $1.89 per lb.: tilapia. $1.29
per lb.: silver carp, 89( per lb. Estimated farm
prices were as follows: catfish, 0S per lb.;
tilapia, 400 per lb.; silver carp, 20C per lb.
Using a partial budgeting technique, it was
estimated that net income from catfish ponds
could be increased $171-$385 per acre using
the polyculture combinations tested.
Polvculture was an effective method for in-
creasing fish production in ponds, for reducing
the occurrence of oxygen depletions, and for
potentially increasing income for fish farmers.
Hybrid tilapia are all male and grow to 1 lb.
average on wasted feed in catfish ponds.
Channel catfish is the basic species in the
Auburn polyculture system.
Silver carp consume excess phytoplankton
(green algae) and improve water quality in
catfish ponds.
MEAN NETr PROIL ( ION POUNDS PER ACRE PiR TREA I M1INI OFi CATFISI , TII.APIA, SILVER CRi\P, \Ni GRASS
CARl' IN THE Po YCLI'REi EXPERIMiENT IN 1976
Treatment Fish per acre Catfish Tilapia Silver Grass Total
carp carp
1 3,000 catfish 2,318 53 2,371
20 grass carp
2 3,000 catfish
800 tilapia
20 grass carp
3 3,000 catfish
1,000 silver carp
20 grass carp
4 3,000 catfish
800 tilapia
1,000 silver carp
,
20 grass carp
2,151
2,429
57 2,976
883 64 3,376
738 979 67 4,118
Bighead carp feed on zooplankton and
provide extra production in catfish ponds.
MANY SOYBEAN FARMERS in Alabama are
leaving too many beans in the field during har
vest. Some farmers have reported losses as
high as 40% with average losses reported to be
about 15%.
A conscientious combine operator, using a
properly adjusted machine and working under
good field conditions, should be able to hold
bean losses to 4 or 5%. The table shows ac
ceptable bean losses in bushels per acre when
combining beans yielding 35 to 40 bu. per
acre. A loss of four seeds per sq. ft. equals 1
bu. per acre.
As indicated, field losses occur for several
reasons. Some beans are lost before harvest
starts. If beans are harvested at the correct
maturity and moisture content this pre-
harvest loss is usually small. The remaining
harvest losses can be attributed to the
machine.
Machine Losses
Machine losses take place at the gathering
unit and during the threshing, separating, and
cleaning operation within the combine. The
table indicates that the single largest source of
machine loss is the gathering unit of the cornm-
bine.
A( s ii \t LossEs Wti t Co.uiNiNo S) ii \N
(Yielding 35 40 Bu/acre)
tem 
Acceptable
loss 
range
Bu/acre
Machine losses (Header) ..... ... 1.1 1.4
Shatter loss .............. 0.4 0.5
Loose stalk loss ........... 0.2 0.25
Lodged stalk loss .......... 0.2 0.25
Stubble loss .............. 0.3 -0.4
Machine losses
(cylinder and separation) ..... 0.1 0.15
Pre-harvestloss .............. 0.1 -0.2
Total crop loss ............... 1.3 1.75
Losses at the gathering unit are caused by
the following: (1) lodged stalks not going into
the machine; (2) beans left on stubble under
the cutter bar; (3) stalks cut but not getting
into the machine; and (4) beans shattered
from the plant during the cutting operation.
The reduction of these losses is a great
challenge.
Bean Moisture
Bean moisture content has considerable in
fluence on pre-harvest and shatter loss. Beans
should have a moisture content of 13% or
more for good harvest. Shatter and pre harvest
losses increase as moisture content falls below
13%.
Stubble and shatter losses can be reduced by
operating the cutter bar close to the ground.
The cutter bar should, if possible, be operated
below the lowest bean pods.
Combine Speed
Proper speed of the reel in relation to the
combine ground speed will help reduce stalk
and shatter losses. Many combine operators
prefer to operate the 
reel speed slightly faster
than the combine ground speed. Some
operator's manuals suggest up to 25% faster.
If the reel speed is too fast it tends to beat the
stalks and knock off beans ahead of the cutter
bar. This fast reel speed also tends to carry cut
whole stalks over the reel top and drop them
in front of the cutter bar in the uncut stalks. If
the reel speed is too slow it will not effectively
aid in getting cut stalks into the machine.
Reel Position
Reel position is also important in reducing
cutter bar losses. The center of the reel should
be run ahead of the cutter bar. Many operators
run 6 10 in. ahead. The lowest bar should run
deep enough into the crop to gain control of
the plant before it is cut. A pick up reel will
reduce cutter bar losses in lodged beans, and
many operators also use them in ideal harvest
conditions.
Weeds also tend to increase harvest losses.
Weeds increase losses at the cutter bat, cause
threshing problems, and generally reduce the
efficiency of the entire combining operation.
In weedy fields it is generally agreed that
ground speed should be reduced to allow the
machine time to thresh and clean the beans
trom the extra volume going into the machine.
OY BEAN PROFITS
1 THE FIELD
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FI. .Maysobengrwrsus seia ic-u ee n he FG.2 Godcmbn oeatrsfeqetl cek o se
combne t hel reuce arvet lsses los. Eah fur seds er quar foo repesets 1bu. oss
VIGOROUS TREES MAY "PITCHOUT"
ATTACKING SOUTHERN PINE BEETLES
L. L. HYCHE
Department of Zoology-Entomology
' - V IGOROUS PINES may often 
'pitch
out" attacking bark beetles." This, or a similar
reference to tree vigor and resin production, is
regularly heard from entomologists discussing
the occurrence and decline of southern pine
beetle, Dendrodconus frontalis, infestations.
Although regularly referred to, the im
portance of resin production as a factor in tree
resistance against bark beetles may oftentimes
be underestimated, particularly during beetle
epidemic periods. During the most recent
southern pine beetle outbreak in Alabama
(1972-1975), researchers at the Auburn
University Agricultural Experiment Station
had the opportunity to observe and document
"pitchout" and its impact 
on a beetle
population. The following is a case history.
In the spring of 1974, research observations
were begun on a small but active and ex
panding southern pine beetle infestation in Lee
i~' I '~
FIG. i. Resin pltchtubes revealing points of
beetle attack. Note some pitchtubes much
larger than normally caused by Southern
pine beetle, indicating heavy resin flow.
County. The infestation was in an artificially
established loblolly plantation approximately
12 years old. Trees were 30 to 35 ft. tall and 5
to 7 in. in diameter at breast height. Tree
growth had been good in early years but had
slowed somewhat during the last 2 or 3 years,
apparently because of high stand density. The
infestation had its beginning in five or six trees
on the edge of a fire-damaged area of the plan
tation. By late August and early September, it
had spread to involve 40 to 45 trees. At this
time activity slowed and spreading of the in-
festation ceased, as beetles entered the over
wintering phase. Overwintering beetles were
concentrated primarily in three trees. These
trees were kept under observation through the
winter and into the spring of 1975.
At the latitude of Lee County, crowns of all
trees harboring an overwintering brood of
southern pine beetle normally turn red by the
end of winter or very early spring. Emergence
of new beetles from overwintering trees
usually occurs from about mid-March to mid-
April, and new attacks of uninfested trees are
well under way by the end of April. In the in-
festation under study, crowns of over-
wintering trees were green and trees were still
alive on May 5, 1975. Inspection of bark
revealed no evidence of beetle emergence or
renewed beetle activity in the stand. On May
5, the overwintering trees were felled for
examination. The entire boles of two of the
trees were peeled in an attempt to determine
the reason for failure of beetles to renew ac
tivity.
Examination of felled trees revealed evi-
dence of heavy initial attack in late summer
and early fall of 1974, Figure 1. Attacks were
distributed along tree boles from just above
ground level upwards to approximately 20 ft.
Attack density was greatest in lower and mid
bole, ranging up to 70 attacks per sq. ft. of
bark. Normally, such intensity of attack, if
successful, is more than sufficient to cause
tree mortality.
In peeling of tree boles, over 1,600 initial
attacks were exposed. In some cases, attacking
beetles appeared to have abandoned attack
holes on reaching the inner bark; however, in
FIG. 2. Resin-filled Southern pine beetle
adult galleries.
.... : 4
4
v
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n",
FIG. 3. Closeup of resin-filled gallery
showing entrapped dead adult beetle.
about 90% of the attacks, some gallery con-
struction occurred. Examination of these
galleries revealed them to be filled with har-
dened resin, Figure 2, and in no case was
there evidence of egg laying or brood develop-
ment. In many instances, the original at-
tacking adults were found dead in resin-filled
galleries, Figure 3.
This southern pine beetle infestation ceased
completely. All evidence points to "pitch-
out", or tree resistance in the form of abun
dant resin flow, as being the primary factor
responsible.
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A LTHOUGH it is not at all related to rabies,
pseudorabies is an infectious disease which is
affecting swine production in many states.
Also known as Aujesky's disease, mad itch,
and infectious bulbar paralysis, the virus can
be contracted by most domestic and wild
animals, resulting in intense itching. self-
mutilation, convulsions, and death. Man is
not affected by pseudorabies, a herpes virus
disease.
Cattle do contract severe cases of the virus,
but swine are considered the natural hosts and
chief reservoir of pseudorabies. Healthy swine
can carry the antibodies in their sera, but this
is not true of sera from healthy cattle.
The continued increase in the severity and
numbers of pseudorabies may be caused by the
rearing of more pigs in large confinement
units or by the cessation of hog cholera vac
cination which carried antibodies against the
virus. The increase is expected to continue,
and until effective control measures are
issued, pseudorabies will continue to be of
economic importance to pork producers.
Transmission
New swine in the herd may prompt the out
break, possibly through nose-to-nose contact.
Since cattle are highly susceptible to the virus
and usually die from it, they should not be fed
in a lot with swine. Wild animals, such as rac
coons, that travel along ditches can also trans-
mit pseudorabies.
Clinical Symptoms
Most older swine can contract mild in-
fections, but pregnant sows are more suscep-
tible and show a loss of appetite, fever,
coughing, and possible vomiting. Half of the
sows abort their pigs and the others will carry
to term and then deliver mummified, still-
born, or weak pigs along with healthy pigs.
These new pigs soon show scours, depression,
vomiting, incoordination, spasms, paddling,
coma, and death (nearly 100% mortality).
When at least 3 weeks old, the pig has less
severe symptoms and the mortality rate
decreases. Adult swine also show symptoms
but an even lower mortality.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is based on the clinical signs
previously described along with possible post-
mortem lesions and laboratory 
confirmation.
Small greyish-white necrotic foci in the 
liver,
spleen, and heart, along with necrotic ton-
sillitis or pharangitis is sometimes found.
Histopath sections often show a diffuse non-
suppurative meningoencephalomyelitis. Virus
isolation from fresh tonsils, brain, spleen, or
lungs from pigs acutely ill is the most positive
form of diagnosis. The fluorescent antibody
test (FA) can also be done on these tissues but
is not 100% reliable. Rabbit inoculation is also
a reliable test employed by many laboratories
to detect the virus.
A serum test (serum neutralization) is the
most common and practical herd test. A
positive titer does not necessarily mean the pig
is spreading the virus but does indicate he has
come in contact with it. Positive titers will oc
cur about 10 days after the pig was infected
and will persist for almost 2 years.
Control
A recent meeting of representatives from
the USDA, Livestock Conservation Institute
(LCI), state regulatory officials, National Pork
Producers Council, research personnel, and
other groups decided to establish a control in
stead of an eradication program. Many
questions concerning the disease need to be
answered before eradication can be attempted.
These requirements include sampling
thousands of herds, studying economic im
pact, increasing vaccine research, and en
forcing regulations of stock movement.
Norden Laboratories in Lincoln, Nebraska,
was granted a license to produce a modified
live virus vaccine for pseudorabies. But, state
regulatory officials must authorize vaccine
usage. Since vaccinated animals have an-
tibodies identical to those of infected animals,
it may be necessary to restrict the movement
of vaccinates.
Vaccinating breeding stock prior to
breeding twice a year is recommended. Pigs
are to be immunized when 3 to 8 weeks old if
they are nursing immune sows and after 3
days of age if the sows have not been vac
cinated.
At this time, hyperimmune serum cannot
be put into widespread use due to expense and
ineffectiveness. Only a 30% reduction in mor
tality can be expected in herd outbreaks.
PSEUDORABIES
INS WINE
HAROLD A. KJAR, School of Veterinary Medicine
Discussion
The APHIS (Animal and Plant Health In-
spection Service), USDA, has recently writ
ten a proposal for pseudorabies regulations.
The proposal covers definitions, a notice of the
disease's existence, general restrictions, in
terstate movement of exposed and nonexposed
livestock, other movements, and cleaning and
disinfection.
Many states are writing their own
regulations, but until more information is
available, several measures can be taken to
protect herds.
1. Properly dispose of dead pigs (burning or
burying) so dogs, cats, and scavenging
animals cannot feed upon them.
2. Buy breeding stock that have been tested
and isolate them for 30 days. Retest them
before mixing with your herd.
3. If you raise breeding stock, do not buy
feeder pigs.
4. Get feeder pigs from a farm that has not
had an outbreak.
5. Keep visitors out of hog lots or provide
them with clean clothing.
6. Keep stray dogs, cats, and wildlife off
your premises.
7. Have your local veterinarian or county
agent keep you abreast of the incidence of
pseudorabies in your area.
8. Keep swine and cattle separate.
9. When show stock are brought home,
isolate and test them in 30 days as you would
newly purchased animals.
Summary
Most authorities agree that now is not the
time to eradicate pseudorabies. The disease
must first be brought under control by testing,
isolation, quarantining, and vaccination. Af
ter thoroughly studying all aspects of the
disease, it is hoped that eradication will be
practical enough to carry out. An increase in
research funds is now being provided for this
study.
Swine producers are encouraged to call their
veterinarian if symptoms of the disease occur.
If an outbr aeak appears, other swine producers
should be notified.
IJA LAO 00 FECU
VIP
4
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CHEMICAL FROST
Aids Ladino Establishment
in Tall Fescue Sod
C. S. HOVELAND and R. F. McCORMICK, JR.,
Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
W. A. GRIFFEY and H. E. BURGESS, Piedmont Substation
L. A. SMITH and H. W. GRIMES, Black Belt Substation
J. T. EASON and M. E. RUF, Sand Mountain Substation
G ROWING LADINO CLOVER with tall fescue pastures gives 
dual ad-
vantages of supplying nitrogen for the grass and improving quality of
forage produced. Unfortunately, most of Alabama's million plus acres
of tall fescue contain no clover. Therefore, adding clover to existing
fescue sod would be expected to boost beef cattle weaning weights and
beef production per acre.
Seeding ladino into tall fescue has had limited success because
strong competition by the grass makes it difficult to establish clover in
the sod. Now there is evidence that use of a "chemical frost"
(chemical growth suppressant) may make possible successful in-
troduction of clover into fescue sod. Applying the chemical in narrow
strips reduced grass competition and aided establishment of the small
clover seedlings in Auburn University Agricultural Experiment
Station experiments.
Two chemical frost materials were tried at the Piedmont and Black
Belt substations. Roundup? and Paraquat @' were sprayed in 5-in.
bands 9 in. apart at a rate of /2 lb. per sprayed acre with a Zip Seeder
during September. Regal ladino was planted at 3 lb. per acre either in
rows 9 in. apart or broadcast on the Kentucky 31 fescue sod. Grass
and clover forage was harvested when available throughout the year.
No nitrogen fertilizer was applied. Diazinon@' insecticide was applied
to control striped field crickets.
Paraquat gave rapid top kill of the tall fescue sod. The kill was
slower from Roundup, but longer lasting than from Paraquat. At the
Black Belt Substation, dallisgrass in the tall fescue sod was unaffected
by Paraquat but killed by Roundup.
Both Paraquat and Roundup improved clover establishment and
subsequent production, Table 1. At the Piedmont Substation, clover
'Roundup (common name, glyphosate) is a product of Monsanto Chemical
Co., and Paraquat is a product of Chevron Chemical Co.
'Diazinon is a product of Ciba Geigy Corporation
Effect of chemical frost on establishment of ladino clover in tall
fescue sod is illustrated by this comparison at the Piedmont
Substation. Both plots were seeded with clover.
production was better when seeded in rows than in broadcast plant
ing. At the Black Belt Substation, broadcast seeding was similar to
row seeding. Early spring growth of clover was generally best with a
combination of chemical frost and row seeding. This was true at both
locations.
Clover production the second spring was best when chemical frost
had been used in planting, Table 2. Where clover seed were broadcast
without application of a chemical there was little clover the second
year.
Results were similar at the Sand Mountain Substation, except date
of seeding seemed to be critical. September seedings have been suc-
cessful, while late October and November plantings resulted in winter
kill of clover seedlings. March seeding resulted in poor clover stands,
and April seeding was a complete failure. Small clover seedlings from
late spring plantings failed to survive summer heat and drought.
Subsequent trials at all three locations have established the
necessity of cricket control. Without application of Diazinon in-
secticide, clover seedlings were destroyed by crickets.
Results of the Alabama tests indicate that use of chemical frost
(Paraquat or Roundup) will aid in establishing ladino clover in tall
fescue sod. Paraquat is labeled for use on pastures, but Roundup is
not yet cleared for this use.
Row seeding proved to be the most dependable planting method to
assure clover stands. Machines available for row seeding of clover in-
clude the Zip Seeder, Power Till, and Pasture Pleaser, and several
others are currently being developed.
Early autumn seeding appears to give best results in Alabama. Ap-
plication of Diazinon insecticide for control of crickets is essential for
success.
TSil F 1. FORAGF YI.I) IN 1976 oF TAI FESCUE Soo OV IIRS I)DED) IN
S'iPTEMBER 1975 wiTH LADIINO CIOFR, USING, GROWTI f SUtI'I'RisANT
Cieiit tII. Two CENTRAl AiAMAi1 Locl i IONS
Sod Clover 
Yield per acre, dry forage
treatment seeding Piedmont Substation Black Belt Substation
method Grass Clover Grass Clover
SL L Lb Lb.
Roundup Rows 3,260 3,560 2,840 1,450
Roundup Broadcast 4,970 1.500 2,210 1,930
Paraquat Rows 3,600 2.640 2,190) 1,050
Paraquat Broadcast 4,030 2,000 2,250 1,720
None Rows 5,030 1,420 2,980 570
None Broadcast 5,770 260 3.100 660
None None 4,110 0 3,140 90
TAMLF 2. FORAGE YIEI) BY APRIl 1977 of TAti FESCUt SOl) 0\ VRSEFL)EDE
IN SEPTEMBER 1975 WITH LADoNo CI OVER, USING GROW II SI PPIRESrANI
CiEMICALS, PIEDLMON T SUBSiATION
Sod Clover seeding 
Yield per acre, dry forage
treatment method Grass Clover
Lb Lb.
Roundup Rows 200 1,110
Roundup Broadcast 39( 720
Paraquat Rows 360 920
Paraquat Broadcast 260 980
None Rows 520 580
None Broadcast 720 290
None None 440 0
_ii
ci'X P
BABY P lAL IRON
HOWARD F. TUCKER, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
PIGS BORN UNDER CONFINEMENT conditions are unique among farm
animals in that they have a definite need for supplemental iron within
a few days of birth. This need is explained by several factors, such as
those listed below:
1. Pigs are born with a low body storage of iron.
2. Sow's milk is low in iron.
3. Pigs are isolated from soil, which is their natural source of iron.
4. Pigs do not consume enough solid feed to meet their iron needs.
5. Pigs grow rapidly (size triples in 3 weeks) thus depleting the body
of its iron reserve.
Because of the conditions described, iron in some form is critical to
the well being and health of the baby pig. This supplemental iron is
needed until the pig is old enough to consume enough solid food to
meet its dietary iron needs.
Iron is an essential mineral component of hemoglobin, muscle
myoglobin. and several enzymes which are indispensable for oxygen
transportation and cellular respiration. The most obvious deficiency
condition is anemia, accompanied by a general unthrifty appearance.
Thus, the hemoglobin content of the blood is a good measure of the
iron nutritional status of the baby pig.
This report of selected data from several Auburn University
Agricultural Experiment Station tests compares some of the iron
compounds most frequently used in preventing "baby pig anemia."
The control group of pigs received no additional iron, whereas the
iron dextran group received 100 mg of iron as an injection at the
sixth day of age.
Hemoglobin levels decreased rapidly, dropping to 70% of that at
birth in the first 6 days of life in both groups. By the 14th day,
hemoglobin levels in the control group had dropped to only 44% of
the original level and they were also significantly lower than the iron
treated group throughout the study, as shown by the following data:
Hemoglobin level (gram pet. ) by age
Treatment At 6 14 21 35 56
birth days days days dais days
Control ........... 11.7 8.1 5.1 5.8 4.9 5.3
Iron dextran ........ 12.3 8.7 10.1 11.6 9.1 8.0
Differences in weight became evident at 21 days of age, as shown
by data in the table. Pigs that did not receive iron gained at only 70%
of the rate of the iron-injected group (28.2 vs. 40.2 lb. at 56 days).
Two injectable iron compounds, iron-dextran and iron peptone
plus vitamin B,
2
, were compared with an oral iron compound, ferric
oxide, in experiment 1. Ferric oxide is common iron rust. One hun
dred mg of iron-dextran or iron-peptone were injected the sixth day of
age. Ferric oxide was given by mouth at a dosage of 200 mg of iron at
the same age. (This rate used because other data showed that 100 mg
was inadequate.) Although pig weights were similar throughout ex-
periment 2, pigs that received iron dextran were somewhat heavier at
every weigh period.
Experiment 3 compared the efficacy of two oral iron compounds,
ferric oxide (200 mg of iron per dose) and ferric citrate (100 mg of
iron per dose), with 100 mg of injectable iron-dextran. All pigs were
treated at 4 days of age. Pigs that received injected iron were heavier
than the two orally-treated groups at 56 days (41.7 vs. 38.0 and 37.4
it
I
Iron injection boosted growth rate of pigs farrowed in confinement.
In experiment 4, efforts were made to increase the weight response
of oral iron treated pigs to that of pigs injected with iron. In this test
the same levels of iron were given as in experiment 3. However, the
oral iron was given at 4 days and again at 14 days of age. Rate of gain
was essentially the same for pigs in all treatment groups, as shown by
data in the table.
Based on the Auburn trials, it is concluded that iron sup-
plementation is necessary for desirable performance of pigs farrowed
in confinement. Either oral or injectable iron compounds are effective
if given at the rates indicated by 3 4 days of age: however, in each
experiment pigs that received injected iron were slightly heavier at 56
days t age than those that received oral iron.
EFFECTOF VARIOUS IRON COMPOLINI)S AND MEI [ iS OF ADoINISTRATION
ON GROW I ot BABY PIGS
Weight at specified age
Treatment At 6 14 21 35 56
birth days days days days days
Lb, Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
Experiment 1
Control ................ 3.0 4.4 8.5 10.2 15.6 28.2
Iron .................. 3.1 4.7 86 12.0 20.7 40.2
Experiment 2
Iron-dextran ............ 3.4 5.5 9.A 13.6 21.7 43.3
Iron peptone plus vitamin Bo 3.3 5.0 8.8 12.5 20.8 41.3
Iron capsule (oral) ........ 3.4 5.3 9.1 12.3 19.4 40.1
Experiment 3
Iron-dextran ............ - - 9.5 13.5 22.8 41.7
Ferric oxide (oral) ........ - - 9.0 12.4 20.1 38.0
Ferric citrate (oral) . ..... - - 9.2 12.8 20.6 37.4
Experiment 4
Iron dextran ............ - - 9.3 11.7 21.0 43.1
Ferric oxide (oral) ........ - - 8.7 11.8 20.7 42.6
Ferric citrate (oral) ....... - - 8.7 11.7 20.7 42.9
ERADICATION OF
BRUCELLOSIS-
a look to the future ..
Contact between non-infected cows and aborted fetuses can result in spread of brucellosis.
calving. Calves born to infected dams have
millions of brucella organisms in their
stomachs and for some time after birth these
bacteria are shed in the calf feces. Brucella
organisms also leave the body of the cow in the
milk. Although udder infection 
lasts for years,
the numbers of organisms in the milk fluc-
tuate widely from year to year.
The nature of problems from brucellosis is
indicated by a comparison of conditions in
clean and infected herds, as given below:
N. B. KING, Dept. of Animal Health Research
P. R. SCHNURRENBERGER,
School of Veterinary Medicine
IAN SWANN, Dept. of Animal Health Research
T. T. KRAMER and ROBERT BROWN,
School of Veterinary Medicine
W. M. WARREN,
Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences
B Rt'CEI.IOSIS IS THE TARGE1 of expanded
research underway at Auburn University.
Veterinary medical and agricultural research-
ers are seeking to provide information
needed to eradicate this costly cattle disease in
Alabama and the nation. The urgency of
eradicating brucellosis is illustrated by USDA
data showing that American livestock
producers suffer annual losses in excess of $30
million because of the disease.
Since 1934 USDA has conducted a nation-
wide brucellosis eradication program. Un
fortunately, within the past 4 5 years the in
cidence of brucellosis has increased nation-
wide. and particularly in the South. This has
resulted in a resurgence in the number of
human cases.
Brucellosis, caused by the bacterium
Brucella abortus, is readily transmitted from
infected to noninfected cattle. The disease may
or may not cause abortion. However, the
reduction in fertility and milk production is
certain to cause a significant loss in income.
The disease in humans is characterized by an
insidious, and frequently misdiagnosed, illness
with fever, fatigue. night sweats, and myalgia.
It often progresses to serious complications
manifested in any and all organs of the body,
and may lead to long periods of invalidism.
Abortion is the most frequently noted and
most obvious sign of bovine brucellosis. but
most infected cattle abort only once. Farmers
often believe that their herd is not infected
because they have not observed abortions. It is
not clear whether fetal death is due to an en
dotoxin or to placental necrosis and disruption
of circulation to the fetus. Blood tests of some
animals that become infected may remain
negative until after abortion or calving, a
situation that is not understood.
The brucellosis organism is found in large
numbers in the vaginal discharge following
Clean Inectcd
herd henrd
.. 6%
4%
87.8%
.. 100
1.7
87
64/
47%
44%
25.6%,
S100
2.4
43
38
Since the beginning of the eradication
program, there has been a marked reduction
in the prevalence of the disease in cattle-from
approximately 11% of all cattle in 1935 to less
than 1% at present. Greatest progress towards
eradication has been in the North and West.
Unftortunately, about 90% of the existing
bovine brucellosis is in the Gulf and South
Central States, an area undergoing the
greatest expansion of the cattle industry.
New research at Auburn is aimed at
lowering the incidence of brucellosis in
Alabama and the Southeast. A new diagnostic
test is being sought in a study by Drs. T. T.
Kramer and Ian Swann, of the School of
Veterinary Medicine, and Dr. Phillip
Klesius. of the USDA Regional Parasite
Laboratory. Results to date are encouraging. It
is hoped that this test may aid in dif-
ferentiating antibodies produced in the blood
stream by vaccination from those produced
upon infection by the field strain of the
organism.
Animals are now being assembled to
evaluate the role of calves born to brucellosis
infected dams as a possible means of spread. In
the past it was assumed that these calves could
be retained for breeding stock and they would
not transmit the disease. However, results of
preliminary studies in France indicate that this
assumption may be false. The studV of this
problem is a cooperative project betwveen the
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
of the USDA and Auburn University
(Agricultural Experiment Station and the
School of Veterinary Medicine), funded
primarily by USDA.
Another project on brucellosis now un
derwav at Auburn is concerned with the study
of wildlite and their importance as a possible
means of spread of the disease. The
Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit is
cooperating with the School of Veterinary
Medicine and Agricultural Experiment
Station.
Although research is needed in such areas
as diagnosis, prevention (vaccines),
pathogenesis, and epidemiology, a big need is
for Alabama producers to accept and follow
key elements of the eradication program.
These steps include:
1. Maintain closed herds if possible.
2. Raise own replacements.
3. Purchase animals only from brucellosis-
free herds.
4. Isolate and retest new additions.
5. Confine calving to a 2 to 4 month
period, rather than have year-round calving.
6. Practice sanitary and hygienic measures
as an aid in preventing diseases.
If Alabama producers expect to maintain
demand for their cattle throughout the United
States, greater consideration needs to be given
to maintaining brucellosis free herds. Buyers
from states where eradication progress has
been made need assurance that Alabama cattle
will not transmit brucellosis to their herds.
Furthermore, consumers of Alabama live
stock products have the right to demand that
meat, milk. and milk products are free of
brucella organisms.
The tests and procedures now being used
are adequate to accomplish the goal of
eradication of brucellosis; however, a major
research effort is still needed to improve ef
fectiveness of the program. This in turn would
permit the accomplishment of the goal of
eradication at an earlier date.
Condition
Retained placenta for
completed pregnancy ...
ANhrtions per completed
pregnancy ...........
Calves per completed
pregnancy ...........
Nunmber of cows bred .....
Nunlcer of services per
pregnancy ...........
Number of pregnancies ....
Numb er of completed
pregnancies ..........
&M99j C0~6 iofPw"pia pg9wJdio4 Waite6uWe&
J. L. STALLINGS, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology; E. W. ROCHESTER, Department of Agricultural Engineering;
J. McGUIRE, Department of Research Data Analysis
ALABAMA FARMERS have steadily been in-
creasing acres irrigated to ensure high yields
for several years. Now, with a drought in
Alabama, the number of irrigation units used
and acres irrigated could increase more
rapidly.
A research project now in progress at the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station has
these objectives: (1) to collect data and im
plement an information retrieval system for
evaluation of irrigation potential of Alabama
cropland, and (2) to evaluate the irrigation
potential, including physical and economical
benefits and costs, of irrigating crops in
Alabama.
This article will be concerned with only a
small part of the objectives-that of energy
costs for two typical irrigation systems by dif-
ferent power sources. No attempt is made to
treat the fixed costs of the systems themselves,
responses by different crops to irrigation, and
many other aspects of a complicated subject.
However, energy requirements alone are of
increasing importance in this era of un-
certainty concerning these subjects.
A recent survey conducted by the authors
for the year 1975 found that 58.1% of the
irrigated acres and 42.4% of the systems in
Alabama were powered by diesel engines. LP
gas provided power for 22.9% of the
irrigated acres and 20.3% of the systems. Elec
tricity furnished power for 14.6% of the
irrigated acres and 21.6% of the systems.
Gasoline and city or county systems ac-
counted for only about 4.4% of the acres
irrigated and will not be discussed here. The
traveler, or cable tow system, accounted for
51.3% of the acres irrigated in the 1975 sur-
vey and the center pivot for 22.5%. These
were the two most important systems for row
crops.
Pumping cost is affected by: (1) height of
lift, whether from a well, pond, lake, or river:
(2) conveyance losses from the source to the
application; (3) drive system requirements;
(4) pump efficiency; (5) power plant efficiency
TABLE 1. ESTIMATED PUMP ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
(KILOWATT HOURS/ACRE-INCH WITH 65% PUMP
EFFICIENCY) TO DELIVER 1 ACRE-INCH OF WATER,
By PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS OF 70 AND 120
POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH AND BY
DIFFERENT PUMPING DEPTHS
Pumping Typical center Typical traveler
deth(f.) pivot system system 120 psi.
depth(ft.) 70 psi.
(KWH per acre-inch)
0 22 36
100 35 50
200 49 64
300 63 77
400 76 91
500 90 105
in converting an energy source to use; (6)
nozzle pressure requirements for different
systems; (7) costs per unit of different energy
sources; and others not mentioned.
Simplified estimates of pump energy
requirements are presented in Table 1 for two
representative nozzle pressures, the center
pivot system (70 p.s.i.) and the traveler system
(120 p.s.i.). These are converted from
horsepower requirements to a common
denominator of kilowatt hours per acre-inch
for different pumping depths. These
requirements are generally independent of
pumping rate but are dependent on outlet
pressure and pumping depth. Persons using
this table may estimate energy requirements
for other nozzle pressures by interpolating or
extrapolating from the 70 and 120 p.s.i.
figures and for different depths.
To estimate energy costs from pumping 1
acre-inch of water, the physical energy
requirement for a particular farm situation
must first be obtained from Table 1. This
figure is then used to estimate energy costs
from Table 2. Table 2 presents energy costs
for pumping 1 acre-inch of water for the three
energy sources or systems (electricity, diesel,
and propane gas) and for different costs per
unit of these three energy sources.
Users of this table may read the cost per
acre-inch for their particular situation directly
from Table 2 as the nearest figure, or in-
terpolate and/or extrapolate as required to ap-
proximate their particular situation. For exam-
ple, assume that a user has a pumping depth
on his farm of 400 ft. and is figuring energy
cost for a center pivot system. KWH needed
per acre-inch will be 76 from Table 1. In
Table 2 he can either read from the 80 KWH
column (the nearest) or interpolate between
the 60 and 80 KWH column in proportion
that 76 is from 60 or 80. Assume that he is
comparing the three power sources as a
replacement to a present unit and he assumes
that electricity will average about 60 per
KWH over the future life of the unit, diesel
fuel will average 60 per gallon, and propane
will average 50 per gallon. Reading from the
nearest KWH per acre-inch column (80), the
energy cost for the three power sources will be
$5.33 for electricity, $3.87 for diesel fuel, and
$5.34 for propane. If he does the arithmetic of
a proportion problem and interpolates between
60 and 80 KWH, the figures will be $5.06,
$3.67, and $5.07, respectively (76.3/80 x
each value).
This of course will not be the only cost of
irrigation--only one of the items in the total
picture, but, an important one. In evaluation
of whether a total system is feasible for a par-
ticular farm situation, the user needs to know
something of the costs of the irrigation system
planned or used and the expected returns
above the non-irrigated situation. Costs of the
total situation will include, in addition to
energy costs, labor and other variable costs,
depreciation per year of the different facilities
and items of equipment, interest on in-
vestment, and other detailed considerations.
TABLE 2. ENERGY COSTS FOR PUMPING 1 ACRE-INCH OF WATER, By SOURCE OF POWER, PER UNIT ENERGY
COSTS, AND TOTAL PUMP ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Energy unit costs Cost of pumping 
1 acre-inch when pump energy requirements 
in KWH/acre-inch are:
20 40 60 80 100 120
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars
$/KWH electric power plant (90% power plant efficiency)
.02 0.44 0.89 1.33 1.78 2.22 2.67
.04 0.89 1.78 2.67 3.56 4.44 5.33
.06 1.33 2.67 4.00 5.33 6.67 8. 00
.08 1.78 3.56 5.33 7.11 8.89 10.00
.10 2.22 4.44 6.67 8.89 11.11 13.33
$/gallon Diesel power plant (31% thermal efficiency with 25.8 KWH/gal.)
.30 0.48 0.97 1.45 1.94 2.42 2.90
.40 .65 1.29 1.94 2.58 3.23 3.88
.50 0.81 1.61 2.42 3.22 4.03 4.84
.60 0.97 1.94 2.90 3.87 4.84 5.81
.70 1.13 2.26 3.39 4.52 5.65 6.78
.80 1.29 2.58 3.87 5.16 6.45 7.74
.90 1.45 2.90 4.36 5.81 7.26 8.71
1.00 1.61 3.22 4.84 6.45 8.06 9.67
$/gallon propane power plant (29% thermal efficiency with 25.8 KWH/gal. best value)
.20 0.53 1.07 1.60 2.14 2.67 3.20
.30 0.80 1.60 2.41 3.21 4.01 4.81
.40 1.07 2.14 3.21 4.28 5.35 6.42
.50 1.34 2.67 4.01 5.34 6.68 8.02
.60 1.60 3.21 4.81 6.42 8.02 9.62
.70 1.87 3.74 5.62 7.49 9.36 11.23
.80 2.14 4.28 6.41 8.55 10.69 12.83
11
)L-'(2p I I dSC ,0 IL0 IilCU I[di 1 1K KwULcl rdI Vd(LIWC
T ILLAGE AND TRAFFIC PRACTICES can
significantly influence availability of soil water
to cotton in sandv Coastal Plain soils. 
In fact,
wrong tillage and traffic practices can result in
loss cotton yields in soils wsith abundant sub-
surface moisture, because compacted soils im-
pede root penetration into lower soil profiles
which contain crucial supplies of water.
Gypsum blocks have been used for 3 years
to measure soil water as percent of field
capacity in tillage and traffic research plots at
the Agricultural Engineering Research Unit
in Marvyn. These plots included six treat-
ments: three levels of traffic (traffic restricted
to permanent lanes, normal tricycle tractor
traffic, and normal tricycle tractor plus
sprayer traffic) imposed over two levels ot
tillage (conventional 6 to 8 in. deep and deep
chiseling to 18 in.). Cotton was maturing and
reproducing when moisture measurements
FIG. 1. 1973 soil water profiles measured by
gypsum blocks at 8-in, depth for tillage and
traff ic main effeacts.
were made. Rainfalls during the periods of data
collection were 5.79, 9.84, and 11.97 in. in
1973, 1974, and 1975, respectively. How
ever, 1975 wsas abnormally wet during the
winter and spring preceding the test.
Soil moisture profiles for 1973, showing the
responses to tillage and traffic main effects at 8
and 18 in. depths, are characteristic of re-
sponses during the test years, figures 1 and 2,
respectively. Soil moisture was generally
higher at the 18 in. depth than at the 8 in.
depth and showed a slower response to rainfall
and drought. Surface aeration and a larger
volume of early root growth in the shallow soil
extracted moisture more readily at 8 in. than
at 18 in. On the other hand. recharge usually
occurred more rapidly at 8 in. than at 18 in.
A higher percent field capacity of water was
usually observed in conventional tillage than
in deep tillage plots at both depths. Intuitively,
this response may seem strange when one
assumes that deep tillage can help conserve
moisture. Such an assumption, however, does
not consider the difference in size of plants
growing in the field under the two tillage prac-
tices. Plants on deep tillage plots were con-
sistently larger. Their root distributions were
also much more prolific and extensive.
Although deeply-tilled soil allowed plants ac
cess to larger regions of soil water, the
moisture demands of larger plants resulted in
lower measurable soil water. Plant water
deficits were never of critical magnitudes, con-
sequently deep tillage cotton consistently ex-
hibited higher yields, Table 1. While larger
deep tillage plants could get water from both
measured soil depths, conventional tillage
plants were unable to penetrate the hardpan of
these soils. Much soil water went unused as
suggested by the high values of percent field
capacity in conventional tillage, Figure 2,
even during a drought period from day 234 to
256. Tests indicate that soil water must be
available to the plants to increase production.
Soil water variabilities were not as apparent
under different traffic practices as tillage prac-
tices. Certain points of interest were, how-
ever, evident. Soil water tended to measure
slightly highest at both 8 and 18 in. depths,
with extensive tractor plus sprayer traffic. Ob-
servations of root distributions, however,
revealed more extension and proliferation in
soils receiving lower levels of traffic. Also,
with the exception of the unusually wet 1975
season, yields were higher for lower traffic
levels, Table 1.
Tillage and traffic practices can greatly in-
fluence the accessibility of soil water and the
subsequent production of cotton grown in
Coastal Plain sandy soils. Larger, more
productive plants are grown where tillage is
deep and vehicle traffic is restricted to per
manent traffic lanes outside the root zone.
FIG. 2. 1973 soil water profiles measured by
gypsum blocks at 18-In, depth for tillage and
traffic main effects.
Yin us OF SFFD COTTON FOR TIiG A(, ND
TRAFFIC MAIN EFFECTS
Yield
Treatment Year per acre
Lb.
Conventional tillage .... 1973 1,803
1974 1,887
1975 1,966
Deep tillage ...... 1973 2,399
1974 2,699
1975 2,263
Controlled traffic ........... 1973 2,429
1974 2,464
1975 1,911
Tractor traffic only .........1973 1,960
1974 2,305
1975 2,203
Tractor and sprayer traffic 1973 1,916
1974 2,111
1975 2,229
ir 
L
2 ~
-No traffic
Scale Insect Pests of Alabama Shade Trees
MIKE WILLIAMS, Department of Zoology -Entomology
THE PRODUCTION of beautiful, uniform
trees of desirable, lasting species will do more
toward increasing property values and at
tracting buyers to a given section than any
other single item of improvement. It is
therefore important to protect shade and or
namental trees from attack by damaging in
sects.
Scale insects are among the most destruc-
tive agents of shade trees and ornamentals and
at times may cause serious damage to forest
growth. Injury results either from the with
drawal of sap or the production of galls while
feeding. When scale insects occur in large
numbers, the extensive withdrawal of plant
juices causes discoloration and eventual
drying of leaves or needles. This feeding may
cause death of the tree or of heavily infested
parts. Also, the feeding damage makes a tree
more susceptible to winter injury and disease.
Scale insects do not resemble the usual form
of insects. Most scale insects do not move
about much after they begin to feed; so they
often go undetected when trees are inspected
to determine the cause of death or loss of
vitality. The scale insects may appear as
brownish, reddish, or grayish growths or
small swellings on twigs or foliage. Pine needle
scales appear as white spots on needles, and
heavily infested branches may seem to be en-
crusted with scales.
Many scale insects excrete a sticky sweet
fluid called honevdew, which may become so
abundant that infected leaves glisten in the
sunlight. Usually a black sooty mold fungus
grows on the honeydew causing foliage and
branches to look black. These two conditions
are often the first symptoms of scale insect in
festations.
Auburn University Agricultural Ex
periment Station entomologists have been
conducting a survey of the scale insects of
Alabama since 1973, with the intent of find
ing out which species occur in the State, the
extent of their distribution, and which host
plants are attacked. Current records indicate
157 species and 70 genera of scale insects in
Alabama. Many of these scale insects attack
both deciduous (leaf-shedding) and evergreen
trees.
Many species of scale insects do not build up
large enough populations to injure a tree, and
some trees are able to withstand attacks
without evident injury. However, some
species of scale insects occurring in Alabama
are very detrimental to shade and ornamental
trees and may cause noticeable injury or even
death of the tree in a few seasons. Such scale
insects include the obscure scale, gloomy
scale, tuliptree scale, white peach scale, and
terrapin scale. Other species, such as
European elm scale, pine needle scale, cottony
maple scale, woolly pine scale, pine tortoise
scale, and European fruit lecanium may occur
in large numbers but generally do not kill the
trees they attack. These may, however, make
the tree unsightly and the large amount of
honeydew they produce may attract other
noxious insects such as bees, wasps, and ants.
Field tests indicate control of scale insect
pests may be achieved by applying sprays of
Carbaryl, Diazinon, or Malathion during
periods of crawler emergence (when young are
born), but close and constant inspection of the
trees is necessary to determine when sprays
are needed.
Research has shown that: scale insect pests
of shade trees can best be controlled by
spraying in the dormant season, that is, in
winter before tree buds swell and burst open.
Treatments immediately preceding bud break
are most effective. Spraying should be done
when the temperature is above 32 F and
there is no likelihood of freezing for 24 hours.
Best spraying time is a dry, mild, sunny morn
ing. Dormant sprays should not be applied in
late afternoon or repeated in the same year.
Use an emulsifiable concentrate of 60- or
70-second Superior type oil spray, or for dif-
ficult scale insect pests, use a combination of
oil plus Ethion. Oil sprays may cause plant in-
jury to the following trees: Japanese maple,
sugar maple, beech, birch, hickory, walnut,
butternut. Douglas fir, and blue spruce.
When spraying insecticides Always Follow
Label Directions Caret llv.
I ~:, . 4
"
J10
Overseeding Coastal Bermudagrass with
Winter Annual Clovers and Grasses
Boosts Beef Cow-Calf Performance
C. S. HOVELAND, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
W. B. ANTHONY, Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences
J. G. STARLING, Wiregrass Substation
C OASTAL BERMUDAGRASS is dormant or un
productive in southern Alabama for 5 to 6
months of the year. Results of a 3-year grazing
trial at the Wiregrass Substation show that
overseeding the grass sod with winter annual
grasses and clovers can extend the grazing
season by 1 to 3 months and increase calf gain
40 to 75% per acre.
In this experiment, closely grazed Coastal
bermuda,,rass sod was overseeded in October
or November with a grain drill. The four treat-
ments compared were: (1) rye, arrowleaf
clover, and crimson clover; (2) arrowleaf
clover and crimson clover; (3) ryegrass, and
(4) not overseeded. Seeding rates per acre were
56 lb. Wrens Abruzzi rye. 8 lb. Yuchi arrow-
leaf clover, 10 lb. Autauga crimson clover,
and 20 lb. Gulf ryegrass. Nitrogen at 50 lb.
per acre was applied to non-overseeded
Coastal bermuda in early April and July to
total 100 lb. N annually. The treatment with
ryegrass received 50 lb. N per 
acre in January,
April, and July, to total 150 lb. annually.
Rye clover received 50 lb. N per acre in
November and January to total 100 lb. an-
nually. The overseeded clover treatment did
not receive any N fertilizer.
Grade Hereford and Hereford-Charolais
cows bred to crossbred Charolais bulls were
used. Calves, born from November through
December, remained with the cows until
weaned in September. Pastures were stocked
whenever grazing was available, but no sup-
plements were fed to animals while on pasture.
During late autumn and winter when no
grazing was available, animals were removed
the overseeded winter annuals. Stocking rate
varied from 0.6 to 0.7 cow-calf units per acre
on rye-clover or ryegrass during January
through March, to 1.1 units on Coastal ber-
mudagrass in 
summer.
from the paddocks and fed Coastal bermuda
grass hay and a protein mineral-vitamin sup
plement.
Pastures
Overseeding Coastal bermudagrass with the
rye and clover mixture increased the grazing
period about 3 months, with ryegrass nearly 2
months, and with arrowleaf-crimson clovers
nearly a month. Overseeded rye clover fur
nished a 9-month grazing season, with 
rye
furnishing most of the forage until early April.
Crimson clover was available early March
through late April. Most of the arrowleaf
clover production occurred during April,
May, and June. Ryegrass grazing was
available from early February until mid-May,
followed by Coastal bermuda. Most of the
grazing during the first 2 to 3 weeks on non
overseeded sod each year consisted of weeds.
Coastal bermudagrass growth was delayed 4 to
6 weeks by overseeding, but the loss of ber
mudagrass was compensated for by growth of
PERFORMANCE OF BEEF COWS AND CAI.VES ON COASTAl Bi'RMUI)A PASTURES OVIRSEEDED WITHI WINTER
ANNUALS AT WIRFGRASS SUBSTATION, AVERAGE OF 3 YEARS (1974-76)
N/acre
Species overseeded applied Dates on Grazing Cows Calves
on Coastal bermuda sod annually 
pasture days Gain/acre 
ADG Gain/acre ADG
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
Rye-arrowleaf and crimson
clovers ................ 100 Jan. 8 Oct. 5 268 240 0.90 510 1.91
Arrowleaf and crimson
clovers ........... ..... 0 Mar. 11-Oct. 5 211 290 1.37 /110 
1.94
Ryegrass ................ 150 Feb. 14 Oct. 5 240 190 .18 420 1.76
None ................... 100 Apr. 6 Oct. 5 187 160 .49 290 1.57
Animal Performance
Calf gain per acre was increased 75% when
the Coastal bermuda sod was overseeded with
rye and clover. Calf gains per acre were in
creased 45% with rvegrass and 40% with
clovers overseeded on the grass sod.
Average calf daily gain on pasture for the
season was increased 10% with ryegrass, 20%
with rye clover, and 25% with clovers, as
compared to Coastal bermudagrass alone. The
lower average daily gain on Coastal bermuda
grass was mainly a result of poor performance
in late summer. Calves on overseeded pastures
maintained a higher rate of gain throughout
the grazing season. Cow gain per acre was also
increased by overseeding rye clover or clovers
on the grass sod, with the highest daily gain
from sod overseeded with clovers.
Total cow and calf gains per acre were high
on overseeded Coastal bermudagrass sod. Cow
and calf gains per acre were 750 lb. for rye-
clovers, 700 lb. for clovers, and 610 lb. for
ryegrass, compared to 450 lb. for Coastal ber
mudagrass sod alone.
By overseeding the sod, nursed calves
gained almost twice as much as similar calves
on the same sward without overseeding. Calf
gain per season was 520 lb. on sod overseeded
with rye and clover, 410 lb. on ryegrass, and
410 lb. on clover, as compared to only 260 lb.
on Coastal bermudagrass alone.
Although ryegrass extended the grazing
season and increased gain per acre, it is ap
parent that applying the same amount of
nitrogen to overseeded rye and clover provided
more grazing over a longer season. Over
seeding clovers alone on the sod, although fur-
nishing a shorter grazing season. sharply in
creased calf daily gain and gain per acre at
relatively low cost over that of Coastal ber-
mudagrass alone. The value of clover in sup
plying nitrogen to the pasture and improving
calf performance is apparent from these
results.
F SIFORM RUST, caused by the fungus
Cronartium fusiforme, is the most destructive
disease of loblolly and slash pines in the
southeastern United States. Annual losses
resulting from this disease have been
estimated to exceed $28 million.
Like many other rust fungi, C. fusiforme
requires two hosts to complete its life cycle.
Aeciospores, yellow-orange masses of powder
like spores produced on galls of pine trees in
early spring, only infect emerging leaves of red
and black oaks. Although small, orange leaf
spots (uredial stage) become evident on the
underside of oak 
leaves following 
infection,
damage to the oak host is negligible. Within a
few weeks dark colored, hair-like columns
(telial stage) are formed from the leaf spot
areas. These columns are made up of
numerous small cells, each of which ger
minates to produce four basidiospores.
Basidiospores only infect emerging new
needles and meristematic tissue of pines;
viable basidiospores usually are present from
the last week of April through mid-June.
Loblolly and slash pine seeds are planted in
nursery beds during April, thus seedling
emergence coincides with basidiospore release.
For many years the carbamate fungicide, Fer-
bam, has been used to control fusiform rust in
nursery beds. Unfortunately, Ferbam is a con
tact fungicide that acts as a protectant, i.e., it
does not move inside the plants (systemic), it
has no therapeutic effects, and it must be
present on the surface of the plant to prevent
infection from occurring. In Alabama nur
series, Ferbam is applied two or three times a
week and after rains from seedling emergence
through late June: total number of ap-
plications ranges from 
30 to 50 per year,
resulting in considerable costs for labor,
equipment, and fungicide.
An experiment was conducted to evaluate
the experimental 
systemic fungicide,
benodanil, as a possible alternative to Ferbam
in controlling C. fusiforme in loblolly pine.
Five replicate greenhouse flats, each con
taining 20 transplanted seedlings of a genetic
family known to be susceptible to C. fusi-
forme, were used for each treatment. Treat-
ments were: (1) Untreated control; (2) Fer
bam control (2.27 lb. per acre active
ingredient(ai) applied 
as a foliar spray 9, 
7,
and 2 days before inoculation with C. fusi
forme); (3) benodanil soil treatment (17.8 lb.
FIG. Two seedlings shown at left are healthy
and the two shown at right are galled (see
arrows).
INCII)ENCE OF FUSIFORM RusT ON LOBLOLLY PINE SEEDLINGS TREATED 
WITH FUNGICIDES
Rate Method of Seedlings with
Treatment pounds active applications 
galls
ingredient per acre percent
Untreated control -- 
42
Ferbam ............. 2.27 FS (9, 7, & 2 days)r 
0
Benodanil........... 17.80 
PPI 0
Benodanil ........... 0.88 FS (26 days) 14
Benodanil ........... 0.88 FS (13 days) 
0
Benodanil ........... 0.88 FS (2 days) 
0
Benodanil ........... 17.8 + 0.88 PPI + FS (26 days) 
0
Benodanil .......... 17.8 + 0.88 PPI + FS (2 days) 
0
"FS = Foliar Spray; PPI = Pre Plant Incorporated
'Days before inoculation with C. fusiforme.
per acre (ai) applied pre plant incorporated);
(4) benodanil foliar spray (0.88 lb. per acre (ai)
one application either 26, 13, or 2 days before
inoculation with C. fusiforme); 
and (5)
benodanil soil drench 
and foliar spray (com-
bination of numbers 
3 and 4).
Seedlings were transported to the USDA
Forest Service Rust Testing Center near
Asheville, N.C., for inoculation with C.
fusiforme 40 days after being transplanted.
Each flat of seedlings was sprayed with 10 ml.
of an aqueous suspension containing 
35,000
basidiospores per ml. Following 
inoculation,
seedlings were stored in a humidity chamber
for 24 hours to enhance spore germination
and penetration. Seedlings then were main-
tained for an additional 24 hours in a header
house before being removed 
to a greenhouse,
where they remained for the duration of the
study.
Sixteen weeks after inoculation, 
each
seedling was examined 
for C. fusiforme galls
(see photograph), and the data obtained were
used to calculate the percentage 
of seedlings
infected in the various treatments.
In the untreated controls, 42% of the
seedlings were galled (see 
Table). In plots
treated with a foliar spray 26 days before
inoculation, 14% of the seedlings were 
galled.
This indicates that benodanil applied as a foliar
spray retained some activity against C. fusi-
forme for at least 26 days; however, the
amount of protection provided was not at an
acceptable level. All other treatments, in
cluding Ferbam, provided complete protection
against C. fusiforme.
Data indicated that (1) benodanil, 
applied
pre-plant incorporated at a rate of 17.8 lb. per
acre (ai) provided complete protection for at
least 40 days; (2) following pre-plant in
corporation at the rate tested, subsequent
foliar sprays with benodanil were un
necessary; and (3) foliar spray with benodanil
at a rate of 0.88 lb. per acre (ai) provided com-
plete protection for at least 13 days, but less
than 26 days, thus benodanil on a 2 week
spray program provides the same protection as
Ferbam applied two or three times a week.
Benodanil is not available commercially 
and
is not labeled for use with pine seedlings.
Further studies with this and other systemic
fungicides are currently underway.
Systemic Fungicide Protects Southern Pine
Seedlings From Fusiform Rust
WALTER D. KELLEY, Department of Botany 
and Microbiology
TALL FESCUE FOR TURF
RAY DICKENS, R. L. HAALAND, and W. J. JOHNSTON
Department of Agronomy and Soils
TALL FESCUE IS WIDELY GROWN in Alabama
as a pasture grass. However, it also has some
other uses, expecially in some areas of north-
ern Alabama where it is popular as a turf
grass for lawns and highway rightsof -way.
Tall fescue has several characteristics that
make it well adapted to Alabama's northern
region. It is more cold hardy and has a longer
growing season than bermudagrass or other
warm season turf species. In addition, tall
fescue is more heat, drought, and disease
tolerant than Kentucky bluegrass or the fine
leaved fescues. It is also adapted to a wide
range of soil conditions and is easily
established from seed.
The major disadvantages of tall fescue for
lawns are its coarse texture and bunch growth
habit. These characteristics can be temporarily
overcome by using heavy seeding rates at
establishment. But as the stand matures,
wide, coarse leaves and clumpy growth
predominate. This occurs because only
pasture type varieties, in particular 'Ken-
tucky-31,' are available for turf use.
Variety evaluation tests were established at
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment
Station in the fall of 1972 to compare available
tall fescue varieties for turf in Alabama.
Evaluations were made by ratings taken
periodically through 1975 on plots maintained
as fine turf at the Auburn University Turf
grass Research Area.
None of the varieties proved superior to
'Kentucky-31'in color or general appearance,
tables 1 and 2. 'Fortune' had significantly
poorer color and appearance characteristic
than all other varieties. Persistence of 'For
tune' was also inferior to the other varieties.
When it became evident that no superior
varieties were available for turf use, a breedine
program for a turf type tall fescue was initiated
at Auburn in 1975. Selections are being madc
from forage breeding nurseries and evaluated
under space plant and turf conditions.
Promising plants will be utilized as parent
material in the breeding program designed to
produce a superior turf type tall fescue variety.
Characteristics being sought in the selection
program are dark green color, good summer
color retention, fine texture or narrow leaf,
and a creeping-type growth habit. Nematode
and disease resistance are also desirable to en-
sure long lived stands that do not become thin
and clumpy.
A few plants with better overall turf quality
have already been found. As additional
superior plants are found it will be possible to
develop a turf type variety. Perhaps in 
the
future, homeowners in northern Alabama
will have available a variety of tall fescue
which combines the species' excellent adap
tation with superior turf quality.
In addition to the Auburn turfgrass
breeding program, selections of tall fescue
from other plant breeders throughout the
United States are also evaluated. These selec-
tions are being compared to Auburn material
for turf characteristics and persistence under
Alabama conditions.
T:\I 1. CoI OR COMPARISONS OF TAIl FFIsn VARiFTIS MAINTAINED AS TU RI
Color ratings'
Variety 1974 1975 
Season
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. average
Kentucky 31 ...... 7.8 7.0 8.4 8.2 8.7 
8.5 8.1
Goar ............ 7.7 6.8 8.2 8.7 8.8 
7.8 8.0
Fawn ............ 7.8 6.3 8.5 8.3 
8.7 7.7 7.9
Kenh .......... . 7.0 6.7 7.8 7.8 8.3 
8.3 7.7
Kenswell .......... 8.0 7.3 8.5 8.8 
8.7 8.5 8.3
Penngreen ........ 7.8 6.5 8.3 8.3 8.2 
7.5 7.8
Fortune .......... 5.0 3.8 5.8 6.2 6.7 5.5 
5.5
'Ratings 1 9, with 9= darkest green color
TAn.t 2. A'PPEARANCE COMPARISONS OF TAIl FESCLF' VARH lIES DURIN; 1974
Appearance rating'
Variety
Jan. Mar. May July Sept. Average
Kentucky 31 ......... 7.1 7.0 6 7 7.3 7.8 7.2
Goar .............. 6.1 6.1 5.9 5.8 7.7 
6.3
Fawn .............. 6.5 6.2 6.3 5.8 6.7 6.3
Kenhv ............. 6.9 7.8 6.9 7.8 5.( 6.9
Kenwell ............ 6.7 6.9 6.8 6.2 6.7 6.7
Penngreen .......... 6.8 6.5 6.8 5.7 6.2 
6.4
Fortune ............. 5.5 5.8 6.4 2.5 2.0 /.4
Roc m L , I '), o h 1) =-W ierr
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
PUBLICATION-Highlights of 91
Agricultural Research 9/77
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