of agricultural research
Volume 24, No. I
Agricultural Experiment Station
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
Spring 1977
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
SOMETIMES we are reluctant to remember how rapidly the world
in which we live is changing, but it is important to keep 
this in
mind as we plan for the future in producing food 
and fiber. As I
write this, we are in the throes of the coldest 
winter in years with
resultant frozen waterways, energy shortages 
closing schools and
factories, and snow as far south as
West Palm Beach, Florida - all mak-
ing the news along with the inaugura-
tion of a Georgia peanut farmer as
President of the United States.
The cold has stopped growth of
winter grazing, and hay is: short; cat-
tlemen are in an all too familiar di-
lemma. If he sells his hungry cattle
at depressed prices, he takes a beating;
if he buys scarce feed, he has more
investment in his cattle than he is
likely to get back.
On another front, this Nation is
concerned about drought conditions
in its "bread basket." One factor, 
not R DENNIS ROUSE
common to Alabama, contributing to
consistently high grain crop yields: in the Central 
United States is
soil characteristics that enable crops to draw 
on a reservoir of sub-
soil moisture, offsetting inadequate rainfall during 
the growing
season. This reservoir is dry and the 1977 crops 
will depend on
the rainfall during the growing season just 
as Alabama farmers have
to do every year. Thus, one important 
insurance against a short
crop does not exist for 1977.
I cite these situations because they 
provide an opportunity
to again make a point that so many 
and so much depend on each
American farmer; the difference between a surplus 
and a shortage
of food is very small. Every farmer knows 
only too well the impact
of a surplus or shortage on price 
in the marketplace.
Agricultural research came into 
being in an effort to overcome
shortages, improve preservation and 
distribution, and to thus mini-
mize the uncertainty in supply. Agricultural 
research should be
everyone's concern because in 
this century it has been a major
contributor to increasing agricultural 
productivity. Worldwide,
there is still a food shortage and many countries do not have pur-
chasing power and transportation to provide imported food for the
masses of people. Therefore, in the marketplace, the cycles move
from surplus to shortage. Farmers must find still more positive
ways to ensure against problems associated with these cycles, such
as diversification of crops and cropping systems, diversification of
animal enterprises and production systems, on-farm storage, mar-
keting cooperatives, use of marketing systems, and more effective
use of science and technology.
The Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station is dedicated to
advancing agricultural science and technology in this changing
world. It is the publicly-supported agricultural research organ-
ization upon which every person in Alabama must depend to carry
on the kind of research program that will assist the 70,000 Alabama
producers of food and fiber. It costs money to carry on a program
of research but studies show that every dollar invested in publicly-
supported agricultural research in recent years has returned $36:
Surely this is a good investment.
It is a necessary investment if we expect to maintain a high
standard of living as a State and Nation. Your Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station is inadequately funded to support the
research program needed. Our scientists are giving an excellent
account of what is provided them. However, they cannot do all
that the consumers need for them to do without additional support.
maev ae 
eidace 
.&
Dr. Kirby L. Hays, head, department
of Zoology-Entomology. Following the
retirement of Dr. F. S. Arant in June
1975, Dr. Hays took over the leadership
role in the Department.
Born in Cullman Coun-
ty, Dr. Hays graduated
from Arab High School.
He earned a B.S. degree
from Auburn in 1948. Fol-
lowing a stint with the
.. army during 
the Korean
conflict and two years
working for the USDA, Dr. Hays returned
to Auburn to earn an M.S. degree 
in
1954. After working his way through
the University of Michigan, serving as
a graduate research assistant, Dr. Hays
was awarded the Ph.D. in 1958.
Since returning to Auburn in February
1957 as an assistant professor in the De-
partment of Zoology-Entomology, Dr.
Hays has taught 14 different courses and
has been major professor for 15 doctoral
students and 31 masters students. He has
worked on 12 research projects at Au-
burn and has authored or co-authored 68
research publications and numerous pro-
fessional papers.
Among his many honors are member-
ships in Phi Kappa Phi, Gamma Sigma
Delta, Phi Sigma, and Sigma Xi honor-
aries and is a former Chairman on the
Auburn University Faculty and Senate.
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
SPRING 1977 VOL. 24, NO. 1
A quarterly report of research published
by the Agricultural Experiment Station
of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNIS ROUSE .... Director
STANLEY P. WILSON -- Associate Director
CHAs. F. SIMMONS --- Assistant Director
T. E. CORLEY ...-------- Assistant Director
E. L. McGRAw --------------- Editor
R. E. STEVENSON ---- _Associate Editor
Roy ROBERSON--------Assistant Editor
Editorial Advisory Committee: STANLEY
P. WILSON; J. D. HARPER, Associate
Professor of Entomology; WALTER D.
KELLEY, Assistant Professor of Botany
and Microbiology; EARL L. WIGGINS,
Professor of Animal and Dairy Sciences,
AND E. L. McGRAW.
Auburn University is an equal opportunity
employer.
ON THE COVER. Application of foliar
Wiregrass Subst 
ation, see 
related story
page 4.
ura
* "4 'j
Alabama atrc itumrigriat ts fromt other pa.rts
of the worlId. Not a single crop no\\X
cliltited here is itiatiX e to the State.
The American Indiant first hirought cont,
a ntativ e of Metxico, to Alabama. Since
then, priXvate itndiv iduals, the U.S. De-
par-tinet of AgrieUlturlC, anid state agri-
cultuial experiment statiotns haXve brtought
ini itew planits fromn abroad.
lit the late 1940's a coofperative fed-
eral-state programi XXas lautnchied for iii-
tr-oduICtiOts and ev aluationi of plantts fot
aIgriCultu-ral uses anid for the pir'sei'x'atioii
of valuahle gerrmplttsm. Trained plit
expltorers5 aie senst to Xvatrious pairts tof the
Xworld to collect poteintially p~roinising
plants. Seedf or XvegetatiXve matriatl is
brought to the Uniterd StalteS f'or I urthl
incease. Four r'egiotnal plantt imitrodttc
tioti stationis Gem xa. Newx Yo'k Am,tn
IoXwat; Pulhin at i. \\IaSllii i tot t an Eic Lxperi-
miet, Gerorgia) gi-m o~Xid inait taut theise
p~laints. Seerd or V'egetativ cmiateials ate
avatilablle to researchers itt each state.
Some platnt inti odtictiot s catn be used
Xvithtmut niodificatioi. Othecrs mayt re-
quiire further b~reedin g to obtain adapted
vaieities useful for food, forage, fiber, or
lanidsctpig. ltuu eXer. itiost of thei iii-
ti odttctioits arte uised iill t bre'ritig fpro-
grtI's as" Sources of' va.l ual e clharact ers.
FretjtetCitl Vaii imitioclcceh plant is futiticf
wXothsless ecerp t for ott eIcsiradblet ch ar-
acter, such its resistan ce to diseases, item-
atolcs, or itnsects. Thiousatndcs of 
1
plattts
inav be screteed by tih' plant btreede'r tt
findo] at desiredl characteristic, TFile plat it
brte'ee inist th en tramnsfer t itis c(sit al 1
clhatracter to ant oth er x arir'tv. TIhis m ftc i
is at Itonig tecdiotus uiitcertatkitll bitt it
cali pay good div ide'nds.
'itialls -v ll oif ther tI('\\ ,ittc jitip ox rd
crop iOl irt tt'iainet ital v arieties grown itlli
Alabama~l aret c' lrix ed. part ialk or en-ci
tire]\, front planmts imtttoduc'ec thrnaih tltc
ecfcrah-state progranii. flieX haxe c' et
c'le'asedf by state cx letriinii statictits,
tiSlA, Soil Cotiset X mtioti Setrvicc'. or
commer~t'tc'ial hieccclii .
S'eeral hield Miidcfl or i co Itt l i Cop
varieties utilizing platnt iiitr tor' t i otIS
haXve beren released bx Albamta rc'sc'.rcl-
crs ( Atirirn Uitiversitx Arirutitral Ex-
perinmeit Station, Soil Conservation Ser-
vice', mmcl Notrtliro-Kit g Co.). Thecse
iticlcide Y'tchli atr\ le5 I'afI cloy cr. ball
cloXver, NoX'm vetch,. MIilhex-2
3 
1
searlil
let, Atkinson t()ln ato, G reetnile'af t a]umsci)
4.5 '5'
~'1
I
Y ucki arrowleaf clover (left) and Gulfcoast
cantaloupe (right) are Auburn releases that
utilized plant introductions.
pepper, aiicl Gultcoaist and C'hilton caiita-
lt ltpe v arieties.
lHai t intr oductions are conttrib~utinig a
gTreat deal to inmprov ed pr oduictioni 
of to-
11hitOe', CtlCtiLE11bers, ('oXX eas, pep~pers,
XXateriehtns, catntaloupfes, dud plunis ini
Alab d a. F'orage im pirovemn t p1 ograis
aie uitiliiiig planit initroductiotts to die-
velop b~etter ada~pted vatrieties of tall fes-
cote, plitalaris, hit ds foot trefotil, orch ardc-
(r-ss, verhi alfalfa, senecea, and( atinn iai
clovecrs. NewX varieties are exp)ectedf to
be irele'asedi in the near future fromn sex -
era] of these5( breeding programs.
Recent plant explorers in] Petru, south-
cin Brazil, southierni Atirica, New'X Gunta,
and e(as terni an id southIiernt Aftrica htave
broughlt hack niativ e plants th~at ate al-
readi 'iyteitig ttsedl in tredhliig programs.
Other collecting expditiouns are planned
for SOLuti etil- t Rus sia, cen tral America,
southeast Asia, and the eastetn it editet-
rat eat area. It is in pet atix e to cotllect
iltiixe or local cirop plaittts ill these ar'eas
ats Soo1n as possible. I llmiati populatints
.arce1 e~atdiitg r apidly in imn of thcse
ar~eas, c'au singt in ott m arai i al land to 1be
puit itnto foo~d p~roduction . As a reslt,
valtHal l n atiX c plan ts are bein g lost.
Mlany of these should lbe added to) onr-
Stoic itt platit iitttodttctiotis as at Source
tof mnaterial for platnt hibreders to use iii
itmproXving crop plants. Futuire imptroxve-
tuletit that call proxvide plaidts wXith cdis-
case, inematodec, antd in sect resistanice antd
other desirable traits miay depenid onl
chiaracter istics present in these natixve
pl atnt iIittrodutction s. Foriii pl atnt im -
mnigrants are the lifeblood of fuiture va-
riety breeding programus.
4 ;~ Ii
d's
it
) 
115
S
5' :4 ~
'5'
~51~t
'5.5'
FOREIGN PLANT IMMIGRANTS
MAKE GOOD ALABAMA CITIZENS
C. S. HOVELAND, Department of Agronomy and Soils
PEANUT FOLIAR FUNGICIDES:
Relationships Between Leafspot
Control and Kernel Quality
JM. HAMMOND, P. A. BACKMAN, J. A. LYLE
Departsments of Botany and Microbiology
TI EFF L( iNEt:s oxixf tolfar- funlgicides for c'onitrol of pea-
nut leafspot caused bys (ccospora aracliidicola 1 hun and
G rtcosporidill li ;s'l-s'onatu i(nBetik. & Curt.) IDeigit, xxas
ev'aliated frtoi 1971-1974 at the Aubutrin I nixersitx Agri-
cultuual Experiment Station.
lciflate. Blrav o. luter. aiid Koicide 404-S wser e applied
ait recomimeniiced rates I)x- cons enitional gTround 51si ra( at
14-dax interv als. Leafspot sex erity xx vas rated by dleter miii
ing pecrceiit defoliation aind iiifectioii All fuiigicidle tieatetl
plots lItad less clef 1)1iatio ii andI us ectioi thiain thle uiiitieatedl
cointirol plots. Table 1. Kenel uialitx wyas deteirmined using
Fedtcial-State Iiispectioi i Ser'sice procedures. Plots spa ax vei
xwithi Braxvo had slightlx better quaitst keiriels than ithose
fromi any oxith et liigicice trieatmn e t. HossexvCr, kerntel s hil
vestedl fri ii the mitieated ctontrol pllts had signuificaintly
better tqu al ity thain t host f in th ie lBtax treat mtent. Kernels
liars tstecl hi ont it e ilaitt sand Kocicle 4t04-S tresitmceits
xwere xli glit l intf eioir in quialitx coinpared to the c Braxo trieat-
m-ett alti ough not signiieattx. Kerniels from the fluter
treated plots xee Significatlty in feirioi ill quality to those
frin piilots tireated xxith osthetr funigicides, Table 2.
iTese dlata indicated tss c possible mechamnisiis for kernel
cqualitv effects: (I I) iiiaintt'iaiDCe of a comiiplte Iolisir cauiop\
ai d ( .2 ) a direct toixi c actiioii effect iof tlie fuinigicidte tii soil
TABLE. 1. DEFOLIAION Lix cc'E OF Aracliis hyupo-aea L
CAUSED B)Ya Cercospora sp. ix LEAFsm'Or CONTOL TEFST, 1971-197-1
Treatmtent - -1971 1972 -197:3 1974
Control 7 9.9 a 53.0 it -44. i)i. 64.4 s. 5f.3 a
Braxo 5-11" 4:3.4 c 6.4 d .5.8 lie 1.5.0 d 22.7 c
Benihate 50) WP- 24.8dt 5.3 t1 6.1 ibe 55.11I) 17.5 dI
Diiter 47 WPI 30.2 b)c 18.5 ii 12.41Vs 33.1dt :30.3 b
Koeide 404-S
(27 +r 15) F 36.3 1) 12.1(- 2.6 e 1S.7d 20).7 (,d
\',isses xxtil io eninis fsollsowxed b\s tbt' Same ists (.I noit sig-
nifitcantls dilsf enti Lit the 5'; Its(, ti usin Dunsscain's Musltiple' Hiangs'
Test.
*\Wefght't iiicaii.
IsisiL 2. KEisxi Qc AI us VALt E'S (jlii D OLA VAi1-F. 'lox
Diii I'NEl) I 10\ PEix ANU.s 5T (Araeliis Ii spogaca L.)
LL sisit)r COxNTRiOL IES. 1971-1974
Treatimenit Rite/ 1971 
1972 1973 1974 7*
atcre
Control 0.00t :304.90 296.73 298.60 409.43 .327.03
Braxo 54 I" 1.5 pt. 301.10 2.i92 277.21 '398.45 316.56 is
Beutlatt' 5t0%VP 6.t) oz. 297.32 28 1.66 268.35 8' 95.68 :310.64 1)
Duter 47W I' 6.11 oz. 298.87 284.79 2:39.68 .367.85 298.33 U
Kocide 404-S
(27 + 15) F 21) (it. 3t01.15 299.27 291.63 386.38 312.94 1)
Values wi'thin columnis follsowsed by the same lt'tter are iiot siip
nifiecint sit the 5,1 lexvel of probslabsility uising Dunican's \Ittltipu'
Ramngt Test.
1' iABLE 3. ii i, I hi. \( 555 s xi X11II ! ') Iss's), AND VALUE PER
AcRiE ( Dot LLA) t0MI SNi I W 10\1 1'iN xI iArachis hy~pogaea L.)
LEAFSPOT CONTROOL TESTS, 1971-1974
Tfreatment 
Rate! Yield! Value! 
Value!
acre acre ton acre
Lb. Dol. Dol.
Control --------- 0.00 2,558 d 327.03 a 418.27 d
l~rixo 54 1, --- 1,5 pt. 3,889 a :316.56 1) 615.55 a
Beislatt, 50NV I' 6.0 oz. 3,286 c 310.641is 510.38 c
Diits'r 47 \\ PI ---- 6.0 oz. 3,433 bc 298.33 c 512.08 1)
Kocidls 40-4- ' 27 + 15) F 2.0 (It. :3,592 i) 312.941) 561.88 b
V alues within columns followed by tie saint letter ar e not sig-
nisficaLnt at the 5' les sl of probability using Donecin's New
IMultiple Range is'st.
borne fungi. The maintenance of a relatively comlelte foliai
canopy- made at least three major changes in tile ecolog~ 'v o
soil borne fungi: (1) lexver leave Nv ere lost to the soil
surface to serv e as anl oirganic food source; (2) p)esticide's
swerie filtered fromn the soil sunrface by ain "ninhbrella effect-
of tile cano~py; andI (:3) an alteredi subcanopy environmen t
wxas created wh lichi ay lbe StimulatoryV to certain patiiogreii
soil borne fungi.
If a direc't toxic action of the fungicide onl soil-borne fungi
w~as respoinsible f or tlie cdeterhiorat ion of keniel quality, on
Wxould expect kecrnels of superior q~uality from plots xvhe(i- C
the fungficide exhibited toxicitv to the p~athogeniic fungi, bilt
little or lit effect onl the natural antagonists. Inferior quality
kt'riiels wvould be found in plots where fungicides exhibitetd
toxicity to the antagonists, but with little or no effect oil
thle quiality deteriorating pathogens. Sexveral observ atins
support this hyp
1
othesis. First, similar levels of defoliation
xWerie Obtained xwhien Benlatte, fluter, aiid Kocide 404-S wxeic
usedt to c'ontrcol leafspot, Table 1. Hlowve'r, use (if Dutes
resulted in sigiiificantly inferior keirntis wvhen compared to)
tile otheri txxo f uingicitles griviiig siiiilar leafspot control.
'Table 2. Seeoiidlx, xx len \-lnes for kernet dfuaitv xvere
examiined, the cuntrul had is sigiiiflcantly higher dohllar valute
prton taa\,otefugicide treatments.
If peanuts from the control plots are of bectter quality antt
at true iiixeirse relatiosipi exists betxxeeii leaf muaitiiteiiite
aiit keneil quality , tihan Betilate oi Kocide-ti eated pilots
x(wiich had the least tdefoliaition) shiouldl 
have the most
in fe'riosr kenel quality nf the fungicide-treateti plots. Peaniuts
from Beuilate and Kocicle-treated plots xvere iiot significantly
inferior in quaility to peanuts f rum Bravo-treated plots.
A third indication that a toxic action of the fitugicitli's
alteied tile geocau puspliere xx as obseix ed xwitli the funigicide
llciiate. hlenlate wxas extremeix effective as a leafspot co]i-
tm
1
l fungic.icde iii 1971 and 19)72. Hloxvxer, during 197:3
the pathitgeii dexveloped resistanee to this fungicide and
t(sirtig the 1974 season disease sexverity in Benlate-treated
p)lots xxas iieau l\ qua
1 
toi that tof thet control, Table 1. Coin)-
fpiiiison s o1 quaility data for leutlatt'-u eated plots oxver tile
I -.\cai period shiosse no ii improv'emenit in kernel quality -is
detoliatin lexvels increased, Table 2. WVhile not con clusiv e,
thes'e observatins inidicate that a direct toxic effect tof a
fiiicidte on at usatural ainItagonist (or pallhogeni) is inoire
uipo't aint ti) kcu ie qt
1
suadi tx th an the degiree of leaf mini-
tenainiie aiid the citiopy , aithotigh11 they are interirelated.
It is important to realize that eveii though regular fuiigi-
cicle treatments for control of lealspot result in inferioi
quality peanut kernels, the tremendous xyield inicrease re-
sulting fi oin the use of these fungicides dictates tiieir ,onl-
tiiised use in the southeast, Table .3.
Alfalfa for the Deep South: Shortcomings and Potentials
Rr L HAALAND and C. S. HOVELAND Oepo t,ent . A
9
- mund Soil,
D ON'T GIVE, up on alfalfa. Ev en though it currently" con-
tributes little to the forage economy of the loswer Southeast-
ern1 United States, it still hias potential for production ini the
lDeep South.
'Fhe y ield potential of alfalfa in Alabama is good for a
short period. First-y ear production amounted to about 5
tons of dIry matter per acre i tests at the three Auburn
t'nix ersity Agricultur al Experiment Station locations listed in
the table.* But the problem is in persistence. Whlereas alfalfa
stands last for 4 to 6 %-ears iii thle nor thern Uinitedl States.
only' 2 years of prodiuction can bp~ expected in Alabama,
Figure 1. Other alfalfa p)rob~lems in tile South include patiho-
gens, Management, and seed supply
ALFALFA FORAGE DliS MATT ER YIELDS AT THREE ALAB AMA
LOCATIONS, PERi ACRE YlIELD, By YE-ARk OF PRsODUCTION
Tallassee PBU Brewton Field Wiregrass Subl.
V'ariety First Second First Second First Second
y-ear year year year 
__ year y ear
Lb Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
[ 'lorida 66 9,500) 5,000 9,500 7,500 11,500 8,000
Buffalo 7M000 ___0 7,00t0 5,500 0 ()
The wansi, humid env ironment of tile Southieast favor1s a
severe plant and soil pathogen complex that includes leaf
and stem fungi, parasitic niematodes, and root rotting I Iingi.
This multiple pest complex w~eakens stands, wxhich results ini
severe weed infestation and poor forage yield in the third
Tons / cre
Year of production
FIG. 1. Rapid decrease of alfalfa forage production illustrates
short life of this crop in Alabama.
a
FIG. 2. Alfalfa selection nursery at Plant Breeding Unit, Tallassee.
.tar of 
1
a odiictioii. Althouigh the allalla 
xx ccxii is a comn
mon pest, theret are sevecral labeled clieiiiicals that canl c-oil-
tol it. Other pathogen s are 1bein g battled thiroug gI reedi iig
pr ogiramis developing resistant varie'ties.
Alfalfa is a high qualityv forage if proper ly mal ia-ced. If not
harvested at tile propqer timie, Ilowc r, forage quiality de-
teriorates iapi dlx' v.. Alal anla's 111111id cliironi nent iiiakes it
difficult to harve (st alfIal fa for best q uali tv 1f)1age. Pro ducer('s
\\ith silos can oxercoie par1t of this problem. For age can
1wc cut at the proper time and stored ini the silo if too wxet
to Ibale or cure in the( field.
Short supply of \xN(']] adapted varieties has been a ph obleil
of alfalfa, producers throughout tie Sioitheast. This mreflects,
in pat the lack of hreedinig pr ograms in the Deep South.
The x arm('tx Florida 66~ is the best adapted xvariety for thue
De~ep South, but it is not1 av ailabhle set. This 5 ariet 'V is he(iiig
screened in Arizona for resistance to tile spoltted aphid so
adequate sup)plies of seed can lie prodluced in the good sced
pi oduciiig areas of thle Wuest.
Ani alfalfa breedinig progr am has been initiated at the
Agricultural Experiment Station. Oxver 20,000~t plants rep-
resenlting 100 dliffere'nt genetic lines are lii tested ifor
pathiogens resistaince aind v arious qualits' attributes, Figur 2.
Newv varieties fr om commercial and public sources are being
cx aluiated at sexveral Alabama locations to determine if ain\
Ire ardapterd to this legion.
Alfalfa should not be xwritten off in tile Deep South. Ther e
is a good possibility that More persistent xvarieties can h~e
Ireni, vatrieties that wvill minmtaiii good for age yields foi at
least 3 years. Once the potential for alfalfa foirage production
i., dlemonstrated, commercial interest will increase and seed~
'.uipplies wvill become more plentiful. In the meantime, such
kinmercial varieties as (;ladiator. We('vlcheck, and Apollo
I(,' available and xvill produce quiality forage for at least 2
s tarfs.
limited it the mtajor cottoii-groxxiig re-
gion (If Alabaina in recent years. Thtere
are iindicatioits thtat x felds iaxe reachedl
it plateau or htaxe actriallx, decreaIsed in
some cotton prodlucing ar1eas itt tihe
[Tilitetl States.
Althoug1( ih thtere ha 1 bee1n(t' speculii on0i
regal diiig the general treind of loxx cied
vieluls, there is no simple explanahtioin for
the r(duced pi otlietion in these Years.
Sexveial factors hiaxe been suggested that
coultd account fo~r lowxered prodution.
fit aidditioin to lowxer-tllaii-Ilrinal tein
peratures and1 plainting late-mnaturingy a
rieties, the factors most oftenit mentioned
include, (1) late plauttiing, (2) plant
bugs, (3) herbticides, amid (4) nitrogen
fertilize'r. To studyv titese factors andt
thteir interactions ()in co~tin. ii experi-
mnett xxas initiatedi at thte Tennessee \ al-
ley Subistation ini 1976 thtat inclided at
hterb~icidle treatmteni t. itirogen it xati aile.
plant b~ug (00tr01. and( time Of plilltitl~.
The experiment wxas p~ut oili a Decatur
clay loam. xwhich is typical of miain soils
useti fori cotton pirodiiction in nor th[erni
Alablii. Each of the treatmrentts xx ats itt-
eludetd alone anl( in all posxsib~le combiina-
tions. Thle entire cxperintiint x\,its culti-
xvatetd ailihandl x eetl to eitsiure that
weeds xwould not iitterfeire xwithi the
growtht (If cotton. .Adxers xcowi~itionls.
itlililg at cold, xx ut spin TO!, ~it suln
iner dliought, limited top xieldls to about
1 ,700)fIl. oIf seed (ottonl per acre.
Date of Planting
Plantimig~ (late has a i major effect onl
ivaiix- axpects of cotton production. Ad-
x(Ilxe groin(x mg condlitions in tlte earlx\
spriniig tain tauise poor germ illation liid
Sloxx groxxth1, Ithaimpein g thle estal ish -
irici it of it xigot (kIls standi. Later 
1
)llilt-
illis are (Iftell ino(II easilx estabtlished bt
al-e lislial lx later ini f ru itin g aiit i n aturi tx
and thert ('lv in ore suisceptible to freeze
iiijui , lttefo(lit all blollx are' opceed. lIn
this sttlx. txxo planting (Imetts xx crc
cholsein. 'aml"plailtillg i cpre('s'Itt't tlt(
cliust possible plaiitiing (April 6, 1976)
isl SOOll as fear of1 fir(st xxas past -antt
"late" pIlalit iiig. xwhithlits :3 wxeeks laiter.
i tonitra.st to xxhiat hias Uual]lx been oh-
x(iet)e xxitli regaird tol plaittin-g date aind
x ildt of clottoii, thitre xxeie iin ali(Ircs
xx itlI earlx plaintjig inl 1976.
Control of Plant Bugs
Plaint in'is I Lijui-x spf. ) havixe llcen
su~ggestedI as tconttribtuting to loxxer cot-
toil jelds iii reen'it xears. Difficulty in
e'arly recoIginiit ioi ianidt iii extatbl isitg
th resxhold levIels thIiat cause tconiciu
losses htaxve tctmplicated the problem with
these pests. To evahluiate the rol(, oif
WHAT HAS HAPPENED
TO COTTON YIELDS?
GALE A. BUCHANAN, J. T. COPE, JR., and WILEY JOHNSON
Department of Agronomy and Soils
FLOYD GILLILAND, Departmentf of Zoology-Entomology
itloijt buIg tojitrol onl cottonl \ icltlx. three
tretatifl (1tx Nverie hicluded. Th ese in-
cluded nio con trol, anid initiation of plant
b~ug contirol at :3 or 6 weeks after cottoni
squarig. Mustard was plantetd around
the experiment to build up the popula-
tioin (If plant btugs. At cotton squaring,
tihe mistarti wxas tclt, thiiereby' drixving the
buigs to the cotto(n.
All plots veire treatetd in eailx' June
for an extremely heavyx infestation of
thrips. Additional applications in early
and mid-jux for plant hug contirol did
niot affect maturitv oi increase vieltis of
ca! ly planted cotton. Multiple applica-
ionis of insecticidles for plant htug con-
iol o00 late plan1 Ite'd cotto haIst 15t eed in a-
ttit i itid incre (asedi ielils albout 2t0t)11).
itr ll of wed c11 ottoiii.
Nitrogen
\it roge I1 cal (tlV iifltCi)iCes CllttOil
41ilxx h, development. aind rate (If mna-
turitx . Excessixve nitrilgeil may produce
excessive vegetativ e grothtl, delav fruit-
ing, and increase difficulty ofcotlin
insects and diseases. \Vltile the effect on
maturity does not alxxavs redluce vield.
delaxyed maturity may lower yield in Case
of ant early frost. Nitrogen was included
in tile p)reseint study at 60t, 90, and 120)
11) per acre. Thie 90)1lb. irate increased
vel d al out ] 00 lb. (If seed cot tonI oxver
(0it) l. iate. The 12ff lb. rate prodtucedI
the' sille ats thlet 90 lit.
Herbicides
Oil(c series itf treatmnits included ito
hbicides andl a second series xvas
treated wxithi commton herbicide pro-
gramn. Iii this series, t rifliiralii ( Tieflai I
xx as applied ats at preplant iincorpor ated
treatment at 0.75 lit, per acre, lluite-
turon ( Cotran) as at 
1
)r(emrergeilce tircat-
mien) at 2.t0 lb., fluoinet iiion + \iNI.\
at 1.5 + I. 1) . ats directed p(Istemaer-
gemice treatment aind at final application
of fluoineturon at t. 1) l. per acre as
directed treatment at iavhv. This "total"
herbticide pirogram iinclud~ed only, herbi-
cides and rates that are preseily labeled
and recommueiited for weed contirol iii
coltton. The herbicide treatment signifi-
cantix' delax ed matuiritxy xwhen compared
to iioni lerlticiile treated cotton.
Ani Unexpected result xwas a decrease
in tottal cotton yieldls (In lt treated
xxith hterb~icidfes as comparied to cottoni
growi on c(Imfarahle plots in whlich n
herbicides xxere used. While titese re-
suilts are obvxiously p~reliinahry,. the ef-
fects of heirbicidles ii cotton shtouild be
carefullx assessetd.
Giant Blackeye variety (left) and Auburn
breeding line Ala. 562.3-1-2 (right) vary
widely in growth habits and plant maturity
characteristics.
I i)t rjIj PEASi ii aid i't re'stritedt to tile'
Southern tUiijtecl States. Iliex ire ('ateil
v aluable soutrce of' protejin
Be(caunse of their potenitial lIm siip)lx
itig nieeed world it pintoii aiit thieiri no
portai ce aLs a crop in thle So nil cast.
Si tl cr1 pea .s lim.xe i ece x ed d cet ailed
stiilx\ ix- Aubun iiUixersitx Agricuilturial
Expeimnt Staion. Itiroduictioiis of
Southei~'rin pe as or cowxpe as, V ig uia nii
agiiilta, h'orn fivec contiinents' and se-
lectedi cultix ars (v arieties)I and Atili-n
br1eeinig lines xx crc ev aluiated.
Chiaracterist ic's of tilie cuiii xais thIiat ill-
flueiice their qunality as a food crop wxeirc
ev aluiated. \leasinred xvere yield. pilaiit
con fonrmationi , In i otin itx iif 
hai x est, d]is_
ease andi~ insect resistance, protein i 1iia
1
it "v. and antinuti itional coimponds pres-
ent in the seed.
The protein contents of mnoic than 60()
samples (if coxvpeas ranged fromn 17 to
:3:3%7 crodC proteiis( aimbient inoistnrii .
Most samples ranged b~etxxeccn 22 and
267% protein. Complete amnino acid aiiaix
ses of sexer al ciiltix ,rs shoxwedc that cx's
tine andc metliioiiine xxere p)resenit inl liixx
TABLEni 1. "YIELDS cOi SLILLC 1 i
Snc'un[li-, PEAS
Cnltix'ar and type
Oncec-ov er liarvs t
MIiss. Silxver ( c'rosx'er)
Ala. 96:3.8 (ladyl
Ala. 562.3-1-2 1 uca
Giaint Blaceye lilackt'y e
Multi-liarvs t
Miss. Silver (crowder)
Ala. 963.8 (lady)
AL~I. 562.3-1-2 (rem it
Ala. 562.9-'3--2 (cream)
Giant Blackeyc' ( Hackex e)
y
4t
CUL uox ABS OF
icld per acre'
Pods Shelled
Lb. Lb.
~,595 3,100
,027 2,561
428 1,660
,004 1,895
i,999 3,319
,Ooo)' Z.,ky I
5,108 2,471
5,170 2,071
6,081 2,874
Ax cragc's froim 3-5 crops.
Iii leeliiig tests xwithi rats, grossth xxas
poor xxhen iaxx' c'oxxpea meal xx'as fe'd.
(;r-oxs tli xwas iarl'.edlx impiox ed 1), cook-
ing (atolaxviiig) andi sippleineii hug
wxith mnetliioumine anid cx stimme. Acinti
c'xstine amid netiioime to rawx c'oxxpeas
boostedi growsth lx almost 401%. Cookinig
and siupplemniniig wxi thI inecthion ii i alnie
or smnaller anonints oif inethionine and
cx stint' gaxve results equal to using casein
(a good cpialitY protein).
M Naintained at the Southern Regional
Plant Introductin Station. E x pccimi't,
G{'orgi.
~i ~ "ti ~'
I:'
~~'
S
~ A'~V~i>eN
to, "~
Skc ~
St.
I
11
Protein Content, Protein Qualityj, and Yield of
Selected Cultivars of Southern Peas
D. R. STRENGTH, Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences
0. L. CHAMBLISS, Depart ment of Horticulture
( 'iltix dis and bileediiig hl es iaix tt't
1
xxeire irepr eseiitatixve of the differen t types
of xvarieties axvailable, Tailc 1. Wiithi the
excepitioni of Ciant lflaiekc'x e niatiiritx,
conicenitratioiin l 17 d patit lo iii aie acl
ceptalile for coinici cia1 pi odltitioii anid
macline hiarvestinig. \lississippi Silxer is
igrown s extci sixel ci olii c'olimeii'icial piii
cluctionl alit
1 
is coiisistc'titlx hi.rh x ioltiiig.
It is resistaiit to F"isai'ni Oiild root kim)t
imnatocles, aiid toleraiit to xvirus (lis
cases.
TIhe "ladxy" ty pe ( Ala. 96:3.8) aiid the
creaon" ty pes (Ala. 562.3-1-2 andil a.
562.9-:3-1-2) are geiieralls, loswe(r x elcl
ig. Howevcxer, their exceilei it ecitiiig
quialityx aind flaxvor iiiae th em pireferrecd
O(ix .: cIRMx der" t ' ypts inl somne cases. He-
sistan ce to Cerci slpi ra lea) Spot andc
co\\ pea ccii cI io ai c a d dc d ads ai It a ises
for Ala. 96:3.8. Giant lilackeve pi oclces
a high x ield wxhleu hand harv estedl oxver
the seasoni, hut it i~s iiot satisl'actorv br
rnliclu ic iau xestiiig
Ali i nlat Pii oif sexveral selected colti
xai's. Tabile 2. proxvicdeci (data tin the pin-
tein efficiejiex ratio (PER) . Th'lis is incas-
tired as gFramls of g'ainl bv rxa)ts per grain
of prtini eaten . Atitocla iiig impiroxved
gaiis oii all c'i iltix ais fix cestio iiig aniti-
witritiouiai faictoirs. FEoir exaimplce. Giant
131 ac'kexe con t ains ligIic's) leivel if alii
tr psim and gTixes iiiost iinprox eliiit oii
cooking. After cooking. Mississippi Silveri
mid icla. 96:3.8 grave relatix clx bettc'r
giroxwthi than other varieties. Trhis ii
Cates a 1better laaic(' of .iiiiio aicids
aiii this xwas cot flu ed lbx aiialvsis.
T uiLL 2. Es'LA- SiON Oi io 11i0I1FiIN Oi CowPA BY55a PiiiTEPiN EFFIC IENCY s-1 (iiPER)
i-, You'.e. RA'i.s
1
Cuihtixar
Ma. 96:3.8
Ala. 562.3-1-2
Ala. 562.3-1-2 (A)
Ala. 562.9-3-1-2___
AL~I. 562.9-3-1-2 (A)
Miss. Silxvir
Mliss. Silxver (A)
Giant Blackeyce
Giait Blackeyc (A)
Casein (controls)-_
Protein Pi oteiii Weight
cntemnt consiie icd ain
Pct. Grioct Groins
26.7 12)01 :31.9
12.3:3 .33.0)
2.3.1 1(0.91 2:3.9
1:3.56 33.9
25.3 12.08 24.5
11.55 27.4
2(0.7 12.97 .35.4
13.86 47.4
27.5 12.31 17.6
12.66 29.5
Appare'nt \d iilsted
PE R PE R
2.66
2.68
2.25
2.51
2.01
2.34
2.66
3.41
1 .43
2.33
(3.6-3.8)
'Values represent two trials with 4 rats fed each it, for total of 8 rats per treatiient.
2Pea mneal from dry peas, ambient moisture.
'Aiitoclaved 20 minuites at 15-lb). stream pressiiii'
INS(ECTICILDE TEST FOR CONTIOL OF SOUTLERN CoxN
Roo1wvowti, GULF COAST SUBSTATION, 1976
Insecticide and rate, Damaged Per acre
active/acre plants' yield
Pct. Bu.
Vydate, 2 lb. - - 4.0 a 151
Vydate, 1 lb. 2.3 a 136
BAY 92114, 1 lb. 2.1 a 154
Furadan, 1 lb. 1.5 a 154
Untreated check 11.8 b 142
Means followed ly the same ]lcir ;tr :t ,lijrifn.t at the
5 Ix heel (Duncan's lTest).
Granular pesticide applicator attached to corn planter can be
used to apply granular insecticide into the furrow at planting.
Soil Insect Pests of Corn
P. M. ESTES, Department of Zoology-Entomology
CORN IS INCtEASINGt i imporltance as a cash crop on Ala-
bIuna farms. Therefore, insects that damage the 
crop are
receiving emphasis in research by Auburn University Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.
Soil inhabiting insects are among the most 
damaging corn
pests. These insects do much of their damage unnoticed
because they attack the corn plant from below. Four of
the important soil insects are shoxwn in the photographs.
The sugarcane beetle, wireworms, and hillbugs occasion-
ally cause severe damnage to corn in Alabama. All three
species feed on the roots and 
crown of the corn plant and
cause stunting, excessive 
tillering, and lodging.
The southern corn rootwonn is the most conunon soil in-
sect pest of corn in the State. Damage is done bv the larva
feeding on the roots and stems of young seedlings. Iligh
population levels can reduce stands 
by 50% or more.
Control of soil insects to prevent damage is best achieved
by cultural methods, such as rotation with non-host crops
and early plowing of green manure crops. Chemical methods
are also effective, as established bv data in the table showing
results of a test comparing insecticidal treatments on control
of southern corn rootworin. The materials were applied as
granules in the furrow at planting with equipment similar
to that shown in the title photograph. It is noted that in-
secticides reduced the incidence of rootworm damage, but
did not result in an increase in xield.
The data in the table reflect a perplexing situation: At
what level of infestation are insecticide applications neteded?
Current research suggests that infestation levels greater than
10% of the stand are necessary before chemical application
is warranted.
Four of the bothersome soil insect pests of corn, top to bottom,
are: sugarcane beetle adult, wireworm larva in the soil, billbug
adult on corn stalk, and southern corn rootworm adult.
rA
F' r -
BECAUSE OF a widespread desire 
to preserve the produc
-
tivity of land and to protect environmental 
quality, reclama-
tion of surface mined lands has received much 
attention
over the last few vears.
The Alabama Surface Mining Reclamation Act, which
became law in 1975, requires that lands surface 
mined for
coal be regraded, that the outer slopes be seeded 
with
grasses and legumes to prevent erosion, and that 
the interior
of the mine he returned to productive 
use. In 1974, the
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment 
Station estab-
lished experimental forage plots on three regraded 
surface
mines in Blibb, (ullmnan, and Jefferson 
counties.
Spoil material at mines in Bibb and Cullman counties was
composed mostly of sandstone, while the majority of spoil
at the Jefferson County Imine was shale. Soil 
tests, made by
the Auburn University Soil Testing Laboratory, indicated 
the
need for lime and fertilizer on all areas. These recom-
mendations were followed when establishing 
fertilized plots,
which were also limed according to recommendation. The
pII of spoil materials was 3.8 for the Bibb Countv area, 4.8
for the Cullman County area, and 3.1 for the Jefferson
County area. These pH values are typical for many of the
mines in Alabama.
Fertilized and unfertilized (control) plots of three grasses
and three legumes were seeded on each surface mine. The
grasses were lovegrass, bermudagrass, and bahiagrass, for
all mines. On mines in Bibb and Jefferson counties legumes
seeded were Interstate sericea, Serala sericea, and Kobe
lespedeza, while on the Cullman County mine Caricea sericea
was substituted for Kobe. The plots were sampled after two
growing seasons. Cover percentage was determined; and
the forage harvested, oven-dried, and weighed. Yields in
pounds per acre of seeded species 
were determined from
the oven-dried samples; results are presented in the table.
Average grass production on the three mines was greatest
with lovegrass, on both fertilized and control plots; bermuda,
then bahiagrass, followed. For the two legume species
planted on all three mines, production was greatest for Serala
on both fertilized and control plots. Except on the Jefferson
County area, where all legumes failed, Serala yields com-
pared favorably with those reported by Donnelly' in his
variety trials.
Analysis of the combined data from Bibb and Jefferson
counties indicated that fertilization increased forage produc-
' Donnelly, E. D. 1963. Serala-A New Sericea Varietv. Leaf-
let 70, Auburn Unix. (Ala.) Agr. Exp. Sta.
tion of each species. This relationship 
was also found to
hold for the Cullman County data. The 
combined analysis
also showed that where a species performed 
better on one
area it did so irrespective of treatment (fertilized 
or control),
as shown in the table. Bahiagrass, Interstate, Serala, and
Kobe all produced greater yields on the Bibb County 
mine
than on the Jefferson County mine, while lovegrass and 
ber-
FORAGE YIELDS OF
REGRADED SURFACE MINES
D. H. WEINGARTNER and E. S. LYLE, Department of Forestry
inudagrass produced greater yields on the Jefferson County
mine.
Grass cover on the mines ranged from 35% to 100% and
legume cover from 12% to 100%. Percent cover was based
upon all vegetation within the sample plots, whether sown
or volunteer. Control plots of the two sericeas at the Jeffer-
son County area had zero yield, but volunteer vegetation
covered an average of 12% and 41% of the areas. As yield
of seeded species increased, percent of cover by volunteer
vegetation decreased.
Combined analysis of data from Bibb and Jefferson coun-
ties indicated that the Bibb County area produced more
cover and that fertilization increased cover at both locations.
Percent cover varied by species. On the Cullmnan County
mine, bahiagrass produced more cover when fertilized.
The effectiveness of vegetation in preventing erosion is
dependent on more than combined cover percentage and
amount of vegetation produced. Growth habit of the plant
is also important, particularly for the grasses. A solid canopy
of lovegrass, which is a bunch grass, breaks up raindrops
preventing splash erosion, 
but much of soil surface 
under-
neath is barren of vegetation and open to erosion by moving
surface water. Sod forming grasses, such as bermuda, have
more rooted stems per unit area, and provide more protection
for the soil surface.
lFollowing two growing seasons, overall grass and legnnume
production were greatest for lovegrass and Serala sericea.
Hlowever, maximum production varied by species on each
mine. Application of lime and fertilizer was needed to maxi-
mize yield and cover. Percent cover varied by species on
two of the mines, but not on the third. Sod forming grasses
provide better erosion 
control than bunch 
type grasses.
Dny FORAGE YIELD, IN POUNDS PER ACRE, BY AREA
AND TiHElATIEN'r
Per acre yield by mine location
Species Bibb Co.
F' C
Lb. Lb.
Bahiagrass 2,009 200
Bermudagrass 603 200
Lovegrass -- . 560 288
Interstate sericea 1,996 413
Serala sericea 5,285 2,687
Kohe lespedeza 3,056 640
Caricea sericea -----
' F-fertilized, C--control.
Jefferson Co. Cullman Co.
F
Lb.
413
2,766
2,214
2
187
80
C
Lb.
107
1,768
360
0
0
1
F?
Lb.
4,030
6,097
10,007
10,865
9,134
11,426
C
Lb.
1,094
1,465
3,618
8,148
7,174
5,683
EXPORTS of MAJOR
AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES
MORRIS WHITE, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
AGRICULTURE in the United States af-
fects everyone within the country and
millions in foreign nations. Never have
so many depended on so few producers
for food and fiber.
Approximately 4.3 million workers on
U.S. farms in 1975 were producing for
213 million people in this country and
for increasing numbers elsewhere. A
vast majority of people in the United
States ate well in 1975 when nearly I
out of 3 acres of cropland was devoted
to production for export. During the
past 5 years more than 90% of the in-
crease in world trade of grain was ac-
counted for by grain grown in this coun-
try. Also, approximately 20% of the
dollars earned by the U.S. in trade with
foreign countries in 1975 came from
farm exports, which resulted in a trade
surplus rather than a trade deficit.
Among the major farm commodities
exported were cotton, food and feed
grains, and soybeans. The commodity
for which the volume of exports in-
creased most in recent years was corn,
Table 1. Comparatively, exports of cot-
ton and wheat were greater than for corn
and soybeans during years prior to 1966,
which partly accounts for the greater
relative increases shown for corn and
soybeans after 1966. Provisions of the
Food and Agricultural Act, which be-
came effective in 1966, lowered the do-
mestic support prices for these commodi-
ties to a level that made them competi-
tive on the world market, and gave to
farmers the opportunity to grow the
crops of their choice.
The degree to which U.S. farmers and
domestic users of farm commodities are
affected by exports varies among com-
modities according to the proportion of
annual production that is exported. In
1975, the proportion exported amounted
to about 60% for wheat, 50% for soy-
beans, 32% for cotton, and 24% for corn.
Through 1975, export markets were
much more variable and uncertain than
domestic markets - particularly those in
countries that had centrally-planned eco-
nomies. Market uncertainty adds to risks
and creates problems in planning opera-
10
tions for producers, handlers, and proc-
essors. With a level of exports equal to
that in 1975, some means will have to
be devised to bring about more stability
in the export markets for these commodi-
ties. Otherwise, serious disruptions and
imbalances that will be difficult to con-
trol will occur in domestic markets at
both the farm and retail levels.
Government-Financed Exports
Under provisions of the Agricultural
Trade Development and Assistance Act
(better known as Public Law 480)
passed in 1954, Federal funds were used
to aid in exporting farm commodities.
Authority was provided for the sale of
surplus agricultural commodities for for-
TABLE 1. INDEX NUMBERS OF EXPORTS OF
COTTON, WHEAT, CORN AND SOYBEANS,
UNITED STATES, 1966-1975 (Av. OF
1960-65= 100)
YIndex, by commodity
Ihe comodty Year
Cotton Wheat Corn Soybeans
1966 ---- 100 99 101 140
1967 --- 90 100 131 143
1968 --- 59 73 111 153
1969 -------- 59 82 127 232
1970 --- 80 98 107 232
1971 ---- 69 84 165 223
1972 -------- 107 157 260 257
1973 ---- 123 154 257 289
1974 -------- 84 140 238 225
1975 -------- 75 162 331 281
eign currency, shipments for emergency
relief, barter for strategic material, and
later, for long-term credit sales.
Commodities for which government
financing has aided exports most were
cotton and wheat, Table 2. Most aid
prior to 1970 was in sales for foreign
currency, but after 1970 major assistance
was for long-term credit sales. Provi-
sions for government-to-government do-
nations and for donations through volun-
tary agencies were used most extensively
for wheat and wheat products. Relatively
less governmental assistance has been
used for corn exports and none has been
used for soybean exports since 1962.
The greatly increased foreign demand
for U.S. produced commodities was due
to several developments. Some countries
shifted priorities and devoted more re-
sources to improving diets of people
within the country; the U.S. Government
took action to move surpluses that had
accumulated over a number of years;
and the dollar was devalued and allowed
to seek a level compatible with other
currencies. As a result of these develop-
ments, earlier surpluses had virtually dis-
appeared by 1973.
Foreign demand continued strong and
provisions of the Agriculture and Con-
sumer Protection Act of 1973 brought a
change of emphasis in U.S. agriculture.
The design was toward increasing pro-
duction, not restricting it. U.S. farmers
responded and exports increased. It is
significant that a decreasing proportion
of these commodities is exported under
government-financed programs. Volumes
for both domestic use and export must
come from current production because
the huge inventories that were stored for
many years no longer exist. While ex-
panded exports of these commodities
will serve many desired purposes, it
should be understood that as the propor-
tion of production going to export mar-
kets increases, productions will become
more dependent on a volatile, unpredict-
able market, and prices to U.S. consum-
ers probably will be higher than they
otherwise would be.
TABLE 2. PROPORTION OF THE TOTAL VALUE
OF EXPORTS UNDER GOVERNMENT-FINANCED
PROGRAMS, Fouit COMMODITIES, UNITED
STATES, 1960-74
Year Commodity
Cotton Wheat Corn Soybeans
Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct.
1960 --- 24 73 20 5
1961 -------- 26 68 26 3
1962 ---- 33 77 12 2
1963 -.. 21 59 12 0
1964 --- 27 81 7 0
1965 -------- 28 81 8 0
1966 -------- 32 66 5 0
1967 -------- 31 49 9 0
1968 -------- 37 59 7 0
1969 -------- 25 48 3 0
1970 -------- 38 36 4 0
1971 -------- 21 27 4 0
1972 -------- 18 32 5 0
1973 -------- 15 11 3 0
1974 ........ 3 4 1 0
FOLIAR FERTILIZATION
of SOYBEANS in ALABAMA
FRED ADAMS, Department of Agronomy and Soils
Soybean leaves damaged by foliar-applied
fertilizer at left and foliar fertilizer being
applied at right.
WHEN IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY agron-
omist Dr. John Hanway reported an in-
crease of up to 23 bu. per acre of soy-
beans by using foliar fertilizer, farmers
throughout the nation looked forward to
increasing their soybean production.
Further experiments by the Auburn
Agricultural Experiment Station and
other universities across the country, how-
ever, show no significant differences
in yield with foliar fertilization. In fact,
the amount of rainfall during the pod-
set and fill stage was the most influential
factor at any given location.
Foliar Fertilization Does Not Replace
Soil Applied
Foliar fertilization was not intended
to replace, but was to be supplementary
to soil-applied phosphorus and potassium
fertilizers before planting. As the pods
began to fill, foliar fertilizer was applied
at 10 to 14-day intervals until beans
were mature. It was hand sprayed at
per acre rates of 25 lb. of nitrogen (N),
6 lb. of phosphorus (P
2
0s), 10 lb. of po-
tassium (K20), and 1.5 lb. sulfur (S) at
each application.
In cooperation with the Agricultural
Experiment Station project, the Tennes-
see Valley Authority provided the ex-
perimental foliar fertilizer. The fertilizer,
10-2-4-4.0-0.6, was manufactured by the
TVA's National Fertilizer Development
Center at Muscle Shoals, Alabama.
Experiments Conducted
Six of the experiments were conducted
in farmers' fields in north Alabama, one
at the E. V. Smith Research Center, two
at the Plant Breeding Unit in Tallassee,
and two at the Wiregrass Substation.
Two experiments suffered from an ex-
tended drought and yielded only 18 bu.
per acre. Two that did not suffer from
drought yielded 50 bu per acre; the
others yielded between 25 and 40 bu.
Foliar fertilization did not increase yield
in any of these cases.
Sites with the lowest average yield
had less than 9 in. of rain from the time
the plants started blooming until ma-
turity. Sites with the highest yields had
more evenly distributed rainfall averag-
ing 20 in.
Immature leaves were scorched by
foliar fertilizing, especially on sites under
moisture stress. Since spraying usually
occurred when leaves were fully grown,
and fully grown leaves did not burn, this
did not present a great problem.
In one of the experiments a similar
grade fertilizer derived from ammonium
polyphosphate (10-34-0), potassium sul-
fate, urea, and potassium chloride was
compared to the urea-potassium poly-
phosphate material.
Foliar Fertilization Expensive
Foliar fertilization is an expensive un-
dertaking, with total cost of three treat-
ments coming to about $40 per acre at
current prices, not including application.
Even if the dramatic results of Iowa
State's experiment had been duplicated,
foliar fertilizing would barely pay for
itself.
Allied Chemical Corp. is the only com-
pany that is commercially interested in
foliar fertilization, having developed the
compound Folian. It is not known
whether Allied will introduce Folian on
the market after the disappointing test
results from across the country.
The difference between Iowa's inde-
terminate soybeans and Alabama's de-
terminant types may be one reason for
the disappointing results, but other ex-
periments with indeterminant types also
failed to produce the spectacular results
of the 1975 Iowa State tests.
Further Research Needed
With further research and innovations,
farmers may still be able to increase
soybean production someday. The dis-
appointing results of tests with foliar
fertilization indicate that soil application
is still the best method.
11
Effects of Animal Manure
on Soybeans and Soil
F. LESLIE LONG, Coop. USDA-Department of
Agronomy and Soils
E. M. EVANS, Department of Agronomy and Soils
T1F1 PRAC~TICE OF USING MANUBE at moderate rates to) in-
crease crop yields is manls % centuries old. Hlowever, little re-
search ha~s been done onl how high disposal rates of manure
affect a legume like soy beans. This question was add)ressed
in a USDA-Auburn University Agricultur al Expelrimenit Sta-
tion studs' that measured the effects of dairy cattle inanmie
01) soil properties and on soybean yield and compositioll.
Treatments wvere a high rate of manure ( 1t7 tolls per
acre), such as may he encountered in disposal, and a mineral
fertilizer check. The manure wvas spread onl the surface of
a Dothan loamy sanld alid rototilled into the top 8 in. TVie
check plots receivedl 0-14-14 fertilizer ait the rate of 1,000)
lb). per acre.
Test plots wvere pIlnted to Hlutton soybeans about 4 wseeks
after thme last mauallre application. Irr igation wyas ussed1 as
needed. Each plot had four rowvs 40 in. apart1. Seeding r ate
wyas 10 seed per ft.. and germination wxas about 80%. The
applied manure contained about 2% N, (0.7% P, alid I *6 K
and (Ca, wvhich supplied about 4,000 lb. N, 1,500) lb. P, an~d
:3,40(0 lb. each of K and Ca per acre. Mtost of the N wxas i1)
organlic form.
The manulre addition caused considerable chan ge in tI a
soil properties, Table 1. Soil pll wxas inicreased about 2 units
ill the 0- to 12 iii. depth, xx ith some iln)rease dowsni to 24 ill.
The young soy bean plants dev eloped sx mptoms of ironl dc-
ficiencV. unldoldtedllx a result of the high soil pfl. liii
iron deficiency was' later consfirmed by analysis. The dci
ficiencx decreased ss ith age of the plants, and v isual sx 101
tlis disappearedl Iss the time( the plants were 18 in. higli
Tlsis coincidled wxith a gradual loswering of soil plI. Appai_
ci)tls' there xxas ammonia production soon after thc inll ) 111
wxas applied. svhich caused the soil pll to inecase enough
to reduce the solubility of irn belowx the cr itical level for
soy beans. Later, perhaps as alnmrOnia p)rOdUction decreased
and its absorption increased, the resulltant decrease in l I
brought enough iron into solution to meet plant needs.
The amount of breakdowvn of the organic-N in the luanno
is indicated by the increase in nitrate-N in the manured plot,
Table 1. Other salts xvere also increased by the manli(
ats indicated by the increase in electrical conductivity of it
saturated soil solution. Although the salts decreased x th
dlepth, there xx'ere considerably more salts at the 24-in. depthI
iii manured plots than in the chiecks. Carbon also incereas))
to the 24-in, depth. Apparently some carbonaceous mattet
Nvas moving dowvn in solution form.
Analsysis of stalks, seed, and nodules showved some dii-
ferences among treatments, Table 2. Comparisons wvere maole
of plants from unfertilized areas outside plots, from fertilizi i
checks, and from manured plots.
Organic nitrogen wyas highest in stalks, seed, and noduhc
wvhen ulnfertilized, indicating high efficiency of N fixation alii
ultilization wxithout fertilization. In contrast, there wsere f\
nodules onl plants where manured, and those present xei(
small.
12
I,%faiure caused a four-fold increase in nitrate-N in stalks,
but had little effect on the njitrate-N content of seed. In
contrast, manure increasedi the P, K, and particularly the
boron content of the seed. Zinc content of stalks was g reatly
reduced by manure, but there wxas little effect on zinc con
tent of the seed.
Soybean yield was significantly increased by the manure
treatment: 49 bu. per acre as compared with 43 bu. onl the
fertilized checks. This increase resulted despite the iron
dleficiency that occurred in early growsth stages on manured
soybeans. Yields of inanured plots likely woumld have been
higher had lodging not occurred.
Reason for the yield incr1ease from mnanure is not kmoxx n.
One possible explanation is the carbhon dioxide enrichment
of the air from decomposing manure. This was not confirmed.
hioxever, since measurements showed no differences in car-
bon dlioxide ev olved from the soil surface of check and
mnanured plots. WVind turbulence probably wxiped 
out anyv
differences during early stage,, of growxth. B.x the time the
soybeans had sufficient growvth to provide a canopy and
reduce xx md turbulence, pr obably most of the carbon dioxide
had been evolved. Mleasurements showved less than I mg
difference in carbon (dioxide per dax betwxeen) manured and
check plots.
Results of this study slioss that sos 'bean y ield can be in-
creased by high rates of manure, hut soil pII goes high
ensough to cause tempor al-, iron deficiency. Hi1gh salt (0n-
centrations occur doswni to at least 24 in. and little nodulation
occurs.
TAL .11.. Ii 1,10r OF DIRYii CATI E1,1 MANURE~ ON
soil. OP l i' 11rw '.5
Soil Soil p1t 1 NitraItte N' Eleetical,
depth1 check Nfa- Check 
Ma (:heck \1,i
0)-6
6- 12
12-18
t8-24
\ teaii
.5.89 7.87
5.58 7.61
3.67 6.25
5:35 5.71
5.62 6.86
21 51
1:3 26
IS 26
14 25
10 32
1.54 :3.81
1.24 3.60
.T8 :3.52
.47 2.64
1.0)1 :3.39
Pct. Pct.
0.61 1.79
.12 .76
15 .36
.09 .20
.32 .78
1 
ii cait
6 
inol ralt ( "' as 1It)" tonls Pi r acre d (rv 
xci gist )
Soil saltiple -,vas taiken 2 iiioiais alter inanturi application.
la tin g" stated as il) ihos per en).
I5.52. Em EdT OF FIiiiIZiR AND .vs l.ii CAll LI 'MANuISE
Ox CWOiPOSsI To OF SOY1ii17ANS
Plant part Org.- 
NO,- p
N N
Stalks
Unfertilized
F'ci tilized
Seed
Un ifertilized
Feirtilized
Nodules
Unfertilized
Fetiizeds
1.95 141
1.84 148
1.5:3 609
5.10 164
4.93 17 1
4:32 183
Content
K Ca Mg B Zn
0.12 0.90 1.15 0.83 1
.12 1.10 1.52 .53 5
.65 2.75 1.0~3 A12 22
.tt 2.04 .45
.51 1.91 A13
.86 2.78 :3
.61 8 416
A38 8 36
A17 43 45
37 1.39 .08 .25 5
.4:3 1.52 .23 .25 7
-iisuffie'iint samnple for anllahsis-'
Pct. P.P.Ill. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. p.p.1n.p.p.m.
DICHLORVOS: Effective Against Ips Engraver Beetles
R. J, CIBULSKI and L. L. HYCHE. Department ot Zoology-Entomology
BAH1K BEETLES (Ips arid Dh'rrdroctoniis species) are re-
spot sible for one of thre most common and~ troulesome of
proliems encountered in growing and mnaintaining pine trees.
Thiese lbeetles tun~nelI and dev elop silently in the innei
bark (see figure) wvith their presence often rernaini . n
detected until needles of dying infested trees begin to turn
red or lbrowNv. Most species. particularly 1jps engraver beetles"
and the southern pine beetle, prefer to attack damaged and~
unhealth 'x trees or, ats wxith the Ips engraxvers, fresl lv cut
pine. P~opulations tend to build up in such situations thein
spread to nearby trees. Efforts to control and prevent spread
of these beetles often involve the use of toxic chemical in)
secticides for destrutctioni of beetles anrd beetle brood in in-
fested inatcrial. For inanN xears benzene lrcxaclor ide ( BIIC)
and Ii n damic. the g(ain na isomer of 11, hax e beer used1
for this purpose. Although still eO cctix e, these mnaterials are
chlorinated lhydrrocarbhon compoun ds and possess the un desir-
able ch iar acteris tic of persistin g in the erixironinlt -a clhar-
acter istic xwhlich mnax e ri restrict or cxven prohibit their
rise ini thc future. ( onsetjueritly, researchers are looking at
other less persistent in secticidles as possible alternatixves to
chlorinated livdrocarlaurs for use iii pine hark beetle control
programns.
At the Auburn Universitx Aar icriltural Experiment Station,
dieblorvos~~~ (\aon7)reai cxi
diclovo (Vpoa~),a reaieN ni-persistent organlo
phosphorus insecticide, has been tested anid compared xvithr
11-IC for effectiveness against Ips enigraxver beetles, L. uraiidi-
1)lis, 1. ca/ligrap/is, aiid 1. atisris. Diclilor xos coriceilr a
tions tested xvere 1/16, 1/8, 1/4. 1/2, and 1%. The 1111(7C
coneriation used xxas 1/4%, the standard rate usuialkx rec-
ommiended for Ips beetle control. The carrier for each mna
terial xwas No. 2 diesel fuel oil . A treatment consisting of
fuel oil alone xvas also includled. Materials xxerc applied as
coarse spray s, to point of ruroff. to the bark of Ip6 iii rstcl
loblolly pinie bolts. Sexventxy-txxo hours after treatment all
bolts xxere peeled arnd the miortality of Ips dletermnined.
Te'st results are surmmarized in the table. Signrifican t Jps
rmorrtalitx occurred in each chemical treatuert. lin infested
mater ial sprax 'ed xwith fuel oil alone mortality raniged fromt
201 tio 54% amiong species, indicating the xvalue of il
1 
as the
carrier in insecticidal spray s for bark beetle control. Beetle
monrtality in bolts spiayed xvithr BHC, the standard recom-
mnended insecticide, ranged fromt 80% for I calligrapnusv to
100)% for 1. or u/sis xxith an average of 92% for all species.
In thre dichlorx us treatments significant fps moirtalitv xvas
obtained xvith each concentration tested. At the higher con-
cenitrations, 1, l,'2, and 1/4%, mnor tality approached 10)0% for
aill /nns species. B eetle kills i anll dihlo I rvs srieatrn ts xu en'
statistically equal to that ini thre 13HC( treatment.
F"ront these results, it appears tlrat dicliloixos may be h igly
effectixve in thre (lusti rctioni of Ips beetles dexveloping in the
ir iii 1bark of pinte, arnd mnay have proinise as an al terniative
to chlorinated lixdrocarbon insecticides for pine bark beetle
control. Hcixvex er, use of (liclilorvos against bark beetles is
still experimental; consequently, report of these results does
not constitute a recoinmendlationl.
MOiniAITY OFt lp)S LxtGnAxt BVETLES (ALL DEVELOPMIENTAL
STAGE~S COxMBNED) FOLLOWING TRSEATMENT OF INFESTED PINE
Bouis Wirto DI(HLOiRVOS AND BIIC SPRAYS'
Mean percent imortality 
by species2
Trieatment
Chleck-un treated
Furel oil only-
BIIC, 1/4%
Dkldon-vos, 1/16%,o
Drchilnrxos, 1/8%/,
Ijiclilorvos, 1/4%
Dichlors os, 1/2t/,
Dicfilorx os, 1%
L. I.
grandicollisi calligrapirrs
0.5 a 2 a
54.0Ob 27 b
96.0Oc 80 c
90.5 c 84 c
90.5 c 90C
99.5 c 100 c
99.5 c 97 c
98.5 c 100 C
I.
avulsus
Oa
20 b
100 C
100 C
100 C
100O e
100 c
100 c
Mean all
Ips species
0.83 a
33.7 b
92.0 c
91.3 c
93.5 c
99.8 e
98.8 c
9
9.5 c
1311IC and diclln os applied in No. 2 dresel fuel oil.
2 \eanIs folloss CCl bV the saine letter 
are not significantly dliffer-
cut ait the 0.05 level.
~t /
S
nels in inncr bark;,
engraver ,.i
and so,
be etleI
t
Ts,
13
This marketing project was concerned
with an exotic species of fish native to
the Amur River in China.
ESTAB3LISHING a MARKET for an
EXOTIC FISH SPECIES
E. W. McCOY and M. L. HOPKINS
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociolagy
CA'FS NINtALUR ha- iso ~c s.ls hec-omiti
relativ ely welI estalishied iii thme MIissis-
sippi Delta at d we (st cen tria1 Alabamtait.
Increased conistruction aid fue(l costs
have caused faiers andc researcers to
seek addition al mneans of increasim ig pro-
duction from existitng pondcs. H ighier
stockinig rates lead to increased feed (Ie-
(lil-Cirtelits id often result in oXs gell
problems duintg thle latter stages of thle
productions c~ cle. Excess feed and other
svaste miaterials enrich the pomnd, causing
an excessiv e buildup of aquatic plants.
U~nder adv erse coniditioins the plants comn-
pete ssvithi fish for the as ailable oxs get
in the w\ater.
A chemnical wveed killer, cleared for
use ill fish )oidls, canl be applied to thin
the platiktot i population . Great care
miust lie tak en ili applllication to asvoid
killitng all the plankton or adsversely af-
fectinig fish growsth. A mechanical aera-
tion desvice can he used in the pond
ss heit oxy geni levels dro~p below5 a safe
level. Biothi techniiqumes are relatively
cos tls at d tnieith er itil izes the rich nui-
trienits asvailable iii the p~ond.
Aublurtn reseatrc'lers hiave ben invsesti-
gatinig at third altertittis : An it(Jtatit-
orgaiim to use excess ntutrietnts cieated
iii catfi sht pon1ds. TI e aquatic organismn
should eithet allows tnore catfish to be
produced it the samie cost or- the same
ambouitt to he produced at at loswer cost.
The citgantism shiouldi not represen t af
potenitial pest if it escapes fromn tilt pondc.
Aublurn i'esearch has included aqutatic
plantts atnd ailials. Included aimon(,
these ss as .\risticlifliis niobilis, af filter
feecditng fish, tiatis e to the Arnur lRiser in
(Iitiia. that utilizes planoktoni.
Iii N os eniet 1976 at poly culture pond
ini~clinug catfish andc the filter feeder
Wsere liarsveste'c. Data ott hatsvest ss eighits
mid oither phtssical chatracter istics wsere
recorded atid tile catfish wsere sold. lDui
the. ') seats the fish \\,ere itt the pIond, the
filter fe'eders grews frIt n fitigerlitigs to
as erage wveighst of 8 lb). Approximnately
2totns of fish wsere asvailable for tile mar-
keting test.
A inarketitig studY ssas itnitiate'c to)
test cisitler acceptabl ility of' the filter
feeder. Because the I~
t
ocltct sup
1
ply ssas
litiited, tile studs sxs po [cstulatecd on
local sales bs an ii icis icical farmner. As
at adijun ct to tile study a limited supply
of dressed product ssas sold] through
local grocer-v stores.
Mlarketinig began the first sseek itt De-
'einlbcr \66iti direct sales itt thle super~-
tmarkets pllus pt dlnotiotial cdisttributioni of
eight fish to 1)1 )5
1
ec'tise buty ers. Otily
ssord- of-mouth advertis iiig swas con-
clucted cdurinig the illaiket period. Aftet
tI e iniitial Cont acts otlI sot e adldi tional
busyer wsas stolicited. Th'le sales cdatai by
wseeks ate shlo\ illii the table.
Sales steacdily iticireased for 3 s ec'ks,
theni declined esseuitiallv to zero dur(in tg
Chiristitius atic Ness Years. Grocers store
sales swere tiot r estutmecd followsiing the
holiday period to etisure at large supply
of product for market testing of live
sales. Followsing 
N ew Years, 
direct 'sale 
s
cof lIfse fish iinc'ieased steadily unitil the
e'td oIf Januar\s \vhlicthetl( studs\ wssu
reducedI to a reseive for I b roo( Istock.
A
5
ftert the initial cont~act ss it potential
1)115ers all sales \\,ere mtade on it delisvered
basis. Esseittialls all sales wsere made
to two fish mitt kets and~ four intdiv iduals.
mnore fish than the fish markets.
The nmajor adverse factor iii the study
was thle size of the fish. Ali 8-Il). fish
at $0.50 per lb. represents at major meat
pucrchaise. W\hen ordering fish the hoy-
esspecified a preference for .3, 4, or
5-1lb. fish. Lfimited data indicate at
sinaller fish could sell for a higher pice
per pound. One buyer marketed the
product per fish rather than onl a p)ound
b~asis. The 6-lb. fish at $3.50 sold mnore
readily than 8-1l). fish at $4.00t.
Januatl!ry 1977 was one of the coldest
months Auburn has experienced in mnany
years. No attemipts to establish ness
mnarkets were mnade during early Janu-
ary because the ponds were frozen and
the product could not lie liars ested.
Market saturation was not reached dur-
ing the test period. During the finial
wseek requests that could not be filled
aipproximted' the q~uantity sold.
Fews adsverse comiments regarding the
product ssere noted. The fish svas rela-
tively difficult to scale and miost buyxers
skinned the product. Flasvor, texture,
at urn a1, appearance, and (ithIer factotrs
swere highly acceptable. Thle meat is
wshite at c has at pleatsing taste. W\hen
taste tested ssith catfish the pr oduct Wyas
plreferred, wh'lile the catfish flavor wsas
With mnarket esvidence that the pr od-
uct is accep)tab~le at at fanit price equal-
inig catfish, additional production research
us necessary to determnine thle efficientcy
of the fish inl conjunction wsith catfish or'
as the primnary species i .n a culture ss s-
tern. Economnic analysis to determne the
1)roiduction costs of the fish if] pol1 tol-
tore is also necessary. Fish pi ocessor's
ailso nteed to study tile feasibility oh itt-
corpora tin g thle fish iii t heir product linie.
WEEKLY SALES OF EXOTIC FISH SPECIES
Sales, by market type
Date 
nd-Fish 
So-
ua-per 
Total
s id~tl l~~Mar- sould
kt 
ket
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
D~ecetmtber 2-4 100 154 254
December 9-11 100 242 342
December 16-18 172 200 118 490
Decembiher 21-2
January, 6- 8
January 10-15
Januarty 17-21
Jatnuary 27-29
To Ir Lu
2 122
200 107
186 296
571 107
64 8 208
1.8M9 1.118
122
307
482
678
856
514 :3,531
TEAi SC SLI ' , ioijtirii toV (decti. lIW
lowi been all iroportaiiit pest in the South-
ca.st. It is 55idelv distriburtedi ii Ala
bii na ( reported fromn 39 comities ) ai id
is coiisidered tlie moost destroetisve inisect
pest of catriellhis. It also inifests a fe\\
othI er sp~ecies of urniamerittal pl ants, pi-
In arlsv linrfo id a 1(1 rotoi (ida lI luies.
Tea scale riiius the appearance of
eamoellia phiants liy yelloss in g tire leaves.
Figur e 1. It also redueces plant vitalits
whilch is reflected in imtpaired flossei
prodnetion. preiatoire decfoliatjoii, arnd
Stootioig. 1Iifested eoittirigs often die be-
fore rooting, and c wxeakened plants ate
root e stisce
1
)tilile toi attack fix other pests.
Tea scales forrol colon ies \5 lielr are
eoriftoed to tirecr undersicde ofi the leases,
tjjirre 2. Coloiiies iicle bothi iomia-
torle arid adult stages of this insect.
V iewved froto a distane, these colonies
have a whlitishr appeararree cauised 1)
the profuise threads of whilte wsax pro-
drrced bV5 tile mnaleS. WVlerr ifestations
are heasy scottorrs masses of xx ax frlai
inits canl be seenr hanging fromn tire
Seas es . IT, icier close observ 
atijot in tidi-
siduatliniseets cani be (detectedl. Eaecr
irrcis icual is hiddeni bs a errser mnade oif
xx ax seeretecd its ti e gross inir irnseet. Tire
cov er of thre to ale is whIiit e and ft a gde
whIe rea s th iat iof thre fem ale is 1brotwsn iat 1(
brard, Figure 2 (righrt) . The itods iot tire
itnseet lies arder tis covet.
Aetisve in f estat iris cart lie founrtidc al-
tiost y ear-rorutdl although actix its slows
down uin r \\ itter. There are sexveral
osverlapping gin rtationls per \ear, lie-
calrse each femnale lay s eggs fuir sexveral
sweeks aud eggs hratcr ;rlmrtst eotititru-
hoils] v
conrtrol of tea scale has bteen firisesti-
graterd at the Auirrins er vcsitv Acyricil-
tirral Experirienit Station. Tests, iris til
iri( r ecotttir'rli'il arid e'Xper imlertal i
FIG. 1. Camelima leaf showing typical dis-
coloration caused by feeding tea scale.
V
FIG. 2. Heavy infestation of tea scale on underside of leaves tleft) and tea scales develop-
ing on butternut squash in the laboratory; M represents the male and F the female (rightt.
CONTROL OF TEA SCALE
ON CAMELLIAS
C. A. KOUSKOLEKAS and M. L. WILLIAMS, Dept. of Zoology-Entomology
R. L. SELF, Ornamental Horticulture Field Station
sect icides ats wu li ais mei thodis mrtidc thitirig
of' applicatiris. %\ere cotidctee under
inatural coricitioris iii catriellia gYat denis.
Scale infestationts inti tese grardeiis \ aied
ftrin inclderaite to hreavyx. Ore spra\
withi smit itler oil ( stccl as Flohrida \'olck
or ilicicle icr April xsvas foundic t o kill
(it'_ of tire insects, wh ile ore spras swithi
thre ss\ steiic inisecticide cli tet iioat e
Cx g:, on) gasve 75% c'ortr ol. ('ygori alsio
cotntrolled spidler mnites arid bud mnites
xxwhiclh calrse 1ul ]l 1 ead intg at r c flosset
bidc drop ). Oil thle othecr hiand, Cxgoli
is toxic tio seve(ral ot iienit ai plants
( patc lr I v ollies, sslicii tmayr be se-
verelv clefoliiatecd) andl siiitrlc be used
oniy atc~crig to label rlirectioris. .\l la-
thIion xsas largely' iieffectis e, becaurse it
kills onls sexsoctni inisects ( craswlers)
Soil applicatiitis of chistrlfiton (Di-
Ss ,stort) granules gasve trnsaitisfactorvtre-
stilts; this it secticicle, how55ever, proitectecd
triiriestecl plants froin iiifestatirir. Ex-
ccielit restults x\\ere obitain ed xsithr Soil
aIppli1caticiis otf aldcicarb ( Tetiik ) grail-
tiles. Ilmisscs er, tis c'oinprtticl is hightly
txic- sh otuld bei applied itt lY 1bt cert i-
fiecd persocrite, arid is trot registeredl for
use around tire hione.
In genrerail, tswo applicatiits oif art iit
secticide spaced 1 riothi apart ssere
roost effectisve. For exarriple, one appli-
cation of Cx goni itt April followsed by a
Spray ini May provided 95% control.
Whlen applyig sprays, thor ough c'os-
i'aeof leaf rrridersrrrfarces is essential
for efleetis e coritrut, because tea scale
is cotifine tit tire underside of tire leases
anld is ailso prtctedl 1) ' wax secretions.
The lpreserice iof tea Scale colonies fol-
ho~ising treatrireit does riot niecessaril "
titan that cotijtrth was not otiinecd. Tea
scailes are attachrecd to thre leases 55 ith
%ax sect etitiis arid tess itt thein drop
tf'i rnirieciatels cs\ eei wier tirey are
dead. (olor ics of dead scale itnsects mnay
remtaini onl the plant several tniritlrs.
Ani iriotrtant factor leadinig to tea
scale pi olleris is thre failure to locate
i estatioris btefore they spread. Initial
i itstatioris carr be rdetected 1w thorough
a tic f reruerit exarriin atiii iii tire planrrts.
Sitmple conttrolh riieastr s at this Stage
s\\ill presven t spr earl. Wh'iiri camiellias are
nieglected fir :3-4 sears.i,i sc~ irifesta-
tioris desvelop arid patience is iccessr s
In this csa2-s ear proga fitn
sivse c'are (Stichi as three treatierits Per
Y ear, appie'c in April, May, arid Septemn-
her), ias lie nerecdecd befr'ie tire aippear-
Mtic'e of tire planlts imtprosves aippreciails
Rc'search lhis also been condctecd oti
tcea scal e 1biulogy at Anbtiirrti Uti is ersit s'.
A m tethocd hais 1bceren dev elopred for inaiii
taiii it g actis e coilconies (if teca scale orl
1 ut tetruat squr ash u nrder l aboratoiry' con-
clititiis. Figcre 2. This techitii(pe has
allowsed r-esearchers to stuidy tea scale
life hiistor s' arid grosstbl inr more detail.
Surch studcies shoutrld prosvide tire biasis fur
tire desvelotpmen't of better tietirods for
coping ssritii this important pest proibieni.
PARTICLEBOARD
From Loblolly Pine 
Logging Residue
E. J. BIBLIS and GEORGE COLEMAN
Department of Forestry
W E ASSUME that removal of logging
residues, without needles, from Southern
forest would not deplete the forest land
of nutrients. Utilization of these residues
then will contribute to conservation of
our natural resources. The importance
of this residue as a potential source of
wood fiber has been reported in several
studies particularly for the west coast
and southern regions. Logging residue
after clear-cutting in southern forests
represents more than 25% of standing
tree volume; even larger proportions of
residue remain after partial cutting. This
study concerned the suitability of lob-
lolly pine tree tops and branches of
various diameter classes as material for
industrial grade particleboard that meet
commercial standards.
Logging residue of three diameter
class loblolly pine tree tops and 
branches
was collected from two 
logging sites in
Lee County, Alabama. The 
three classes
were designated A, B, and C 
with 4
in., 3 in., and 2 in. base diameter, re-
spectively. In addition 
a control class
D was included that consisted 
of the
upper 4 ft. log with 4 in. 
small end
diameter (last portion of merchantable
stein). Each group was separately
chipped, flaked, and dried 
to about 7%
moisture content. Three 
boards 24 in.
square, 5/8 in. thick with an average
density of 48 p.c.f. were made 
from fur-
nish of each class. Furnish was sprayed
with urea-formaldehyde 
resin at a rate
of 7% resin solids and wax emulsion 
at
1%. Hand formed mats were 
pre-pressed
for 10 seconds with 170 
p.s.i. betweel
steel cauls and hot-pressed 
at 3400 V1
for 5.3 minutes to the desired 
thickness.
After fabricating, each board was 
condi-
tioned at 720 F. and 65% R H and tlhen
cut into six flexural strips (3 in. x 20 in. ).
which were tested destructively 
accord-
ing to ASTM D 1037-72 to determine
modulus of elasticity (NIOE) and modu-
Ins of rupture (MOR). From 
the un-
damaged portion of each tested static
bending strip, the following specimens
were cut and tested: (a) one internal
bond (1B) block (2 in. x 2 in.); (b)
one fastening test specimen (2 in. x 6 in.)
to determine nail and screw holding; and
(c) one dimensional 
stability specimen
(3 in. x 9.5 in.) to determine linear ex-
pansion (LE), water 
absorbing (WA),
and thickness swelling (TS) from 50 to
90% RH.
Results of all tests for strength, stiff-
ness, internal bond, and fastening prop-
erties are shown in the table. From the
analysis of the results the following can
be concluded:
Tops and branches, 2 in. to 4 in. base
diameter, of loblolly pine trees can be
used to make commercially acceptable
particleboard when half of total needles
are removed. Inclusion of all attached
needles in boards significantly reduces all
strength and stiffness properties, particu-
larly internal bond strength.
Exclusion of twigs has no significant
effect on strength properties of boards
made from tops and branches with a 4-in.
base diameter.
Properties of boards are not signifi-
cantly affected by different base diame-
ters of tops and branches between 2 and
4 in.
Dimensional stability of boards made
from tops and branches is equivalent to
that of commercial boards of similar den-
sity and species. Dimensional changes
are not significantly affected by differ-
ent base diameters or by needles and
twigs.
SELECTED PHOPERTIES OF PARTICLEBOARDS FROM LOBLOLLY PINE LOGGING RESIDUE'
Residue
group
Description
(base
diameter)
4" with all
needles
4" with 2/3
needles
4" without
needles
3" with all
needles
3" with 2/3
needles
3" without
needles
2" with all
needles
2" with 2/3
needles
2" without
needles
Control with
bark'
Required by
CS 236-66
Each
speciens
Last I
AGRICU
AUBURI
AUBURI
R. Denn
PUBLIC!
Agricult
Penalty
Density MOE MOR
10, P.S.I.
346
(8)
396
(5)
401
(7)
356
(6)
391
(8)
403
(7)
349
(6)
404
(6)
413
(6)
516
(8)
400
P.S.I.
2145
(69)
2423
(47)
2884
(51)
2056
(53)
2205
(47)
2608
(46)
2099
(38)
2307
(46)
2799
(48)
3072
(73)
2400
Internal
strength
bond
P.S.I.
41
(5)
58
(6)
99
(5)
50
(6)
62
(4)
107
(8)
26
(3)
53
(4)
90
(6)
112
(3)
60
Nail
holding
(face)
Lb.
75
(4)
82
(4)
96
(5)
71
(3)
85
(2)
85
(4)
74
(5)
88
(3)
99
(4)
110
(6)
Screw
holding
(face)
Lb.
261
(9)
248
(7)
347
(7)
235
(7)
269
(8)
317
(7)
216
(6)
251
(7)
333
(6)
338
(7)
225
value is the average of 18 specimens, except density which is the average of 3
portion of merchantable stem.
ILTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
N UNIVERSITY
N, ALABAMA 36830 POSTAGE PAID
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF
tis Rouse, Director 
AGRICULTURE
ATION-Highlights of U.S.MAIL
ural Research 3/77 10M AGR 101
for Private Use, $300 BULK 
RATE