of agricultural 
research
Volume 23, No. 3
Agricultural Experiment Station
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
Fall 1976
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
THlE \tSS ION of' the Alabatnia Agl yicltull Experimlenlt Stationl is
to conduli~ct alpplied z111( b~asic research'I. Thlis reseairchl is diirectedI
1111,1II ini i-me iiit of' tile Iun ho11 inu,
il 1(13 ll: lii ' iii ereasiliig thle ('01 dii) I
rov'~ing the xxelfaie of the people anld
tlle eiixir~oll-elnt in xx ijch tile\ lix,'
ill(i pr rllls piomtintig wold( peal( c
Legislation oIl 'htht statte aniim
tjlilnai lexeils specifies tha~t Iresearc (dI l
sIliall b,, co ndu(1ctedl nui- tile dIirec-
tionl ofl at esigilate(I dir ectori, an~d tllil
lhe shlall bet Iresponlsile for seeing~ til :ii
resu~lts (If sticil researc are1 o I mad
ax alilal e to pe'oplec tho 'I gil pid liit-
tillis and1( othier appiropriate illeals. R. DENNIS ROUSE
ToI I 1tiit er thle dlissemna ll.tioni of pill)
is
1
led research21, th e U~.S. Conlgiress authizes/ ' thle director to ti ails
In it Iresllt s of reseaic ti l thet mil s (If tile UnIitedl States (1i1(l(' tile
fedei a pelnitt inolicia.
Four tim es at xeai xxe use tilis pubIlica tin, "HiglIigilt s ofI Agri-
cul tural R~esearchl, i1s one II (icas tol Irepor11t reCsearIchi iii pingre s 5 IN
tile Alahalo II Agriciultinral Expeimlleint St ation11. Onie pa ge still) ii e Cs
(If 14 areas of iresearch iii pillgress (i- recenly comen pl et ed ale pi t
illtoI eatch issueI of ''TIi gili gi ts" ill copies aire Illilileli to appi llii
n1-iateix 10,t000~ selected Alahanai illdix idnals xx hose( nianes hax e
bleenl pla'edi on1 the 1 iiiinIg lijst ei th er alt their 1 requ iest olr tI ex' hi axe
b eei i des'i gilated lbx ('(111tx Exte IIsill II('latiri i 'I s leade l'S who1(
shold~( IrCceixvC it. Alth~ough xx e wouliid like toi exver\ peirsoil ill Alat
ioit to havex tis pillliciltilon ild to knowx Ill tli( researchl of this
Statini xxe kinox tha~t tllis is lnot po~ssile. ForI tllis reaIsonl it is iil
JportinlIt th11at agriiul toilal l eadlers who doCI get t I is pubilic(ation Ihaxve
all IppriCiatiol IofI thle bllread(th Iof t iiis extens5ixe e sealrchI progrirnil
iII d thlat tleS v iiifolill olther'is. W\e do ask th a t x\,oil rexviexx eaIch
issue wxithi txx oIbjectixves: ( 1) tol look foi IrCporits (If research (of
spec'ific iilteie-'t to x \,,oil or tol tonse s itll xxhumn xo (11ilx colntac't;
(2) toI gain i1 bettei appre11cliation Ilf til(' breadth (If thle proglaill
of x'\out-' AgIiiculltllrIl Lxslerilicoit St.Itioi anld wh at results (If tllis
esearli mneall toI theI peolple oIf AIl ill a. tiS is i olt ilt eind(ed tol
1e IC IIsubstituite for molre (leta~j il icesearc Itlrepohrts xxich ellre ilx'ai I
emloyINed til (oigli tile Coonperatixve Extenlsion Serxvice. It is si.i11
1
ly
oI ie add(i tionll I illeani Iof ill 1(11111 i fexw leadIers ill Al abainaI of
thle sco(pe of tilis re'searichl p11'lgi'ail. It is im~por tant that till lead-
Ci'5hip ill Alalalila lbe awaxx oI '(f tile research ilf thle Alailina Agri-
uted to lillai es alild linlited mnailiig list (1(11illg tile peiod~ 
jiil I 1
1975 1 ne :3t0, 1976, iI toltal ofI 54 Stiitilli publlic'ationls. Also, our]
scien Itists hIald 27 1 sci'elltific Ipapelrs
1
i 1 pbi shed ill tile xvarioutis pill
1
e('
sionial jOU-l illS, Z11ITII ou r'seai ('I Informlationi staff r('ele(i 112
articles and 2.3:3 li~Ii(ti'e .111Cililes to jiexx splapC'rs, inaiga/ines,
radio and telexvislin st.tillils. repor'ting neswoxxr1thy iresearichI dcx el
Oprets. A list (If all avalIale Agiriculturiial Exp eimeni tIt S tat io(ll
publllica.tionis illaN he obtainled 111111 Ireqfuest. If yo0( have aiiy sig-
gcstioils enileeriig thlis 01 other publlic'ationis (If this Statin, xxe
woul w(11xxilole S otIF cIlillunts.
D). Ronalld 1L. 1litladi alssistanlt pro-
fessor in the Departmnt of Agroiioinv
andI Soils, reports oji olie Illiast, of ils
researchi oil forage gi'asscs at Auburlln o)11
plag'' :. A lllcillb'r' tile r'eseaic :ii111d1
lehilog staff, he' dealls
N2dllx aoinls studies of-
breeig forage grasses ti-(I
-sistall(-e to1 ii ('ilatnles
Mid disease.
A iiiltixe of HlavrIe, _\loii-
tajia.ila, tllaol (.itiC to the
Plimit Hireedleril Br 11ookston, Indriana.
Ilis pior \% xx Ik record ~ inc( ludesx e peijen~ce
ats i (filt('t assistaint at bloth \lltanit
State L-nix ei sitxN id N ew Nl(",xi(-oI Stalte
Uivxersit x alld ats t ]iall) and ( fild tech-
Ili('ll at Nlotillat State.
flitlalld ('.1 ite( aB.S. (degree in Ag-
icultura~l Scienlce and an) M.S. in Agi on-
ollox from \Nlotlaila State unlixersitx. HeI
compnfletedl is (1Oc-t01i aor ix 0 10T93 at
Nexw Nlexieo State lUliSerstiv.
A m~embler of the Crop Science Societx
(If Amlerica lil 1( tile Ainericim S~cie'ty 
(If
Agi ,rolnix , litaald is tile 
itilhol (If
IIIIVl(Il Jlklic.atiolls 1oi1 fertilitx lirecdi
log. andl~ repi Odiul(tilll of xvarious foiae
gra.sses.
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
FALL 1976 VOL. 23, NO. 3
A qoarterly report of research published
by the Agricultural Experiment Station
of Auburn University. Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNIS ROUSE ----- ------ Director
STANLEY P. WILSON- -Associate Director
CHAS. F. SIMNIOs--- Assistant Director
T. E. CORLEY 
--------
Assistant 
Director
E., L. McGRAW ---------------- Editor
R. E. STEVENSON ------- Associate Editor
Roy ROBEnsoN ---------Assistant Editor
Editorial AdvLisory Committee: STANLEY
P. WILSON; 0. L. CIIAxsnLlss, Associate
Professor of Horticulture; WALTER D.
KELLEY, Assistant Pro fessor of Botany
and( Microbiology; EARL 
L. WIGGINS,
Professor of Animal and 
Dairy Sciences,
AND E. L. McGIIAW.
Auburn University is an equal opportunity
employer.
ON THE COVER. Intercrossing nematode
resistant toll fescue in the greenhouse.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEMATODE RESISTANT FORAGES
R. L. HAALAND, G. R. SMITH, and C. S. HOVELAND
Deportment of Agronomy and Soils
R. RODRIGUEZ-KABANA
Department of Botany and Microbiology
NEM ATODES Call cause setrious prob~lemis inl cool-seasont
fot ages. such as poor- seedlimi ges'talishxment, growxlt, drought
toler ance, atnd persistence ' Fig. I) T1 ese pr oblemns ate pr
tictihoix exvident ont sattdx o~r siltvsxoils. WVork at thle Atthttt
Utitsetsit - Agr icultur al E\pet intent Stationi has xliu i
root Primtin tg twinato des reducce foragle x ic ds of plial atis i
I N 78%' and tall fexstie bys 5 1%.
P'resettiy. the ex\pensxe of appliittg tienaticidex tto lltax m
pastuire land is proltibitiv e. A pra ~ctical alterntivex', \x tI Imo-,
term effectx, \vxl b111le nietmatode rcesixtant foragne v arites.
Th e A gt nitt tanatd( Soils IDepatrtmetnt ot Aub1urtn is screeittl(_
xsveral fortage xpcecicx fot ttc'matode tresistanice.
N ematode infiexted soil x ax othtained fromti fields anid placed
itt the greenhouse. Some of the samne soil wxas treated fti
FIG. 2. Nemotode
damage to arrow-
leaf Clever root
(left) healthy root
(right).
FIG. 1 . Nemotode infested plots of toll tescue, phalaris aind or-
chardgross at the Sand Mountain Substation. Plots treated with
nemoaticide have a good stand.
It c ON i1- (Toi-Sc ISON GRAcSSES A'Ni LEcGUMES -10 NF xTxiOt S
Species
T all fescute ---------- --- --
Otchairdrtss ------------
Phalaris -------------
Ilt-r ass - ---------
\V heat -- - ----- --
li v e ----- -------
Ladinuo clciver - ---------
lRed cliover ---- ------ ----
A lfalfa ---------
C rim sn -- -- - ----- ---
Arross lc lf - - ---------
Root score' 
Plnt hilit~tr
-+Neit' Neta'
-Nciii
6i1
:33
3
92
till
117
41
5:3
40)
46
54
' Root score: 9 pottrest tat t ss stem, 1 best roott system.
2 scm. -xsiii ititesteci 1xith netaimt les, all planits showed 
neat
atodce damage.
, 'Nelm. -sil xx ithotit nt odiices, no plants shoxxe nelmaclltodcl
dlamaige.
tteiaattodc cotitt ol. Seeds of xev eral fotrage spetcies (tle table)
xxete p'llanted iii both stoils. Aftet 7-8 xx\reeks of growxxth, seed-
lit tgx xx ere duog, planit heighits measuired, and their rots
xxash ed atntd ex amne tic ot t ietaat ode dton age. \\ e it com-
patred to tile seccllit gx groxx n iii tiematicide treated soil, suts-
cepItile seedllinigs hadt~ xtmttted top grothoxi atnd stun ted orI
(lamageci roots (thle tabl~e atj F1lig.2)
All species cxvaluated, xx\len gi oxxn inl tiemaitode itifested
soil, shioxwed a tedietititi iii plattt height anid att iict ease itt
root damtage. \\ heat shoxx cd tite least trott daclivge amlong
the grasses, xx lie at roxxleaf clover had less noot data age tii lt
tither clovts . Flialat is grass xx as datra(tecf totre tatt other
species is indictedua hx tite rouot sctre atiid lanttt height re-
ducetion i te tabile)I. .Atitctl species, sutch its I- vc, rx egritss,
xx heat, ct inusti cltvex mt.t id art oxxletf cloxver, teticleA to be
inotre tolet ttid of tnIeta itod e clanmage tI at i such p t cin ial s ats
tall fescue, o reb atci gtass, phial tis, I adi it clover , ted clov er,
Mtid aI~lfalfa.
Itt all species exained the tiin et of tresistan t plttnts wxas
veiy loxs, iii dica tin g tha~tt ttoctsatt cl of ind~iv i duial seedi it s
muI(st he (''siiite to fill(d tile morte resistaiit plaiis. If' plants
th at are t cxix)stit its seed lit gs ntafiwtaini thcit r esistatn cc ats thiev
gi nx)V olcder,(lie t esistattit seecdlinigs call be utsed as pateti ial
stcicks fcor ie~ cxvarietiex. About I O,t0t0 seecinitgs each of tall
fexcute atd ( 11 ial atis Itaxve 1 eet setreeined fott ii etia tode resis
tanice. Sexvetral selectiots of bothi forage species, xx iti ap-
pat cit iwtnatucle resistaitce, lhisec heei estaiblishted itt [lie field
to ititet ci o~s Oi xxiii llt proue seed that siouli ret c iiii mote
Nemtodtcce rexistait fitrages shoulld iincrease s ielc, persis-
tentce. dirocughit atnd heat tohet hicc'. ,cuc perhaps exteiid tile
range of adaiptatioti of soiae of these fora(cs ito regnions
xxher e they prexvioutsly could aot be gt tlss . These improve-
maents xx old lead to til inctreatsed1 sup)Ilx tf xx inter foratge for
liv estock.
Ammonia in Broiler House Air Increases Disease Problems
ROBERT N. BREvvER, Dipartment of Poufury Scien
J. L. KOON, Departmeni of Agiucitlo Enirneering
ccidi.U lit11d'tixcix hl duir tii tiiiil.
XXli.] Iu laX hei hillin!fu toi gri (l iiic ikils.
OwII piohlcill xx ith t liu aniidc tiile ce'd iir c\ iliilgct~
pX ilX t n IX \\ it! '] of ailu in lo1 t ix .11 tlc r cii Uii lillilli gassesi
jiodlices stiess inll \oliiT4 cliCkCIIS iLUiii tHIiIII to i c nioli
susxcept ibl to iirse x pos~ure, espetI)~~allX tlisc( e XxixIlltil Ig
tilt' rXspIriltoi tr act. Sincei tlI(lt hiniU Alit L ld x i iti x \Cliit
tiol U iitti(liil lto dIi!), \\ar XA lite ai sipei ill h r.al
(3ii cut reseaich in) the Aubluirn U.liiuritv Aurliciiltiiia Fa
1)
T 
ilICIiit Stdtiiiiii IX Xikillg to ilcteri mine effect of shli tcilll
ligli) lCve eI xposurei to duliiiiiiid gai oii iailitv oft x 0111 chiicks
toi XXitllstalli et\o)iixii to licil UA aliii lsi. I)ist'AXes iii\ ilxvitI
i t \Mi tk's, iliectioix biiolnchitis, dilti N\,iXcdtle. L\Jpouiri
rates i U lxici! of tliiixe i tiltiiig whe ail Ajuilti\ hiousie is
lic ti I 4 tx c i loi tillt.
Illiti e f-~irstl teisit. lX ii bird 'lle xcic \I0lxcl tlc o co-
gTix iig 1(tN to 201( yp-ii. dliiinotidU Ao it cilt of 24 ironi x.
Iollinig thic 2 4-hour cxpoxi c. Iresxi viii ise( I~l itil I
peli iit XXcr ter (cik laii~icd it (6 wee"IX.
Ab~out Imlt! of( the MiiiUx i(tick iltulae hirdtI hil MIiekx
jiSUZIxc lU~ioiix li\ 6 \x UelX. I iixX UX ii tis \\Ait ru ltlt
ltiigx) re UX Ud diidgU A all lievels of iltliiii to wX!hi
I ititir 1. Ei ii-i or iii XmxiIxix 0ii x .\1 NiiiK' DLx I ,kixX
DEL d)IXIN I I iix\ Xii1M iXCINI I-1 Xii) (il\1 I Fi lXlI'il
icilt tlcli ili ificl lii iIX' ill the X \ill]X oi! xilia ihi ) lixs to the
lx l IitiX e old f xi~Mill ' disitlse mi itit iii be ! rep lii ltii. le
t Ill bird's booulx
l liAkX iilic ill th xco cic xoii c\pvl l ttx XXct iii ,liliix
itix X (it X iil ~lCisAcdi~t( diiiscill.i i tw 6 XX Utlic U! ii1v(
'111111 l ( i li c~ fo r tdn xti'.X \ii ililieii. llXI tll! A Xil
T111 c.' I~i Ile i o.11 i i ii oll of imi li a ii igii s it ressii til Ni :iii-
Xiiail ii ii i lll Ii lx ibitid d p i t ti ke c ris 1l feed Xo x-
l id 23 pt7. i l is ii \X udiiX X Xt, i, iiiiixls ltiiicxli lillx
ixiu toxiii l eix X Iri\ U , traiiict \\iiii~i be ix Xyetiit
Control
F ,ii 1wifliiit I
tx"piiir t 2
I ital ori ,ix ii ,i .
\iuiuek x inociulted~
EXpJiinilu I
Elili t 3
litill or I i
\ Iarekxs inocula~ted -- a i 11
F~wiitit' Iiixi
(i upict C\Ihxptil
L\pci liclit I
Utiieiimccut I
Fxpeiiuiiii 2
iit)it iiill :X3i c
lii clo. Percnt Periccdt
:30
:310
3(6
i
iii
301
3o1
:36
9 6)
10t0t
96.57
1t)
99.0t
5(6
50.t
11.5
5it.0
165.7T
50.0t
:38.1
14.8
5:).."
90.10
6 1.1
(67.7
5 6.7
66. 7
58.3
(60A
I ivatili l t
t17ut 2
.- A\iIu11iiuuia gax llI
17 iit (i-
lit T
U. it 9
U hit 10)
U cut t I
17iii 12
Ax ii i c
4- (:trol
17 it Ii,
17 nit 141
U7iiit t5
17 9i 165
A\ ii 1 0
XX~ ~ iii X ic t t I'ci
6( v ckx, ,,ior ilui i iiiX ioxiui
S :3.65
SI15.5
9( 17.10
S42.5
831.01
Sti
6:37.1
6(1.2
909.()6
5 i<5~
"55
SICKLEPOD: NEMESIS OF PEANUT FARMERS
GALE A. BUCHANAN, Department of Agronomy and Soits
ELLIS W. HAUSER, Georgia Coastal Plains Experiment Station-USDA, ARS
S IKL F P( Ii) ( somnetitmes c alledc col ccxxeed ) is a compe itit ive
Weedcc th at is we ll ad aptedc to soils of tbe Southecasten (Coast al
Plains. Selectixe e mov al of sicklepod frot pcnlts wxithi
liericicles is dificult.
Btecausex of tile difficult\ of( cotrtol liii sick I epoil. it miight
b e mor)ei logical toi cot xi dcr in att agi iig rather than cout rolling
the we ed lin peat tts. Thberefore, a better ut derstandcitta is
neceded ahic it liclx titese plats tx t Iect each otiher, ait hat
nee \\l xas the bsis foItr re se arch nowx itO (et xxax
Comipetition experitments \\lx'(c looducteci oxver a 3- \ vear
petriod b IAuburn it 1 UiiS cr i tx Agtri cutltral Experimen t St a-
tittit andtl e ;c'igiui Expetritnt Statioln. Tcsts xx etc located
iit thec \\ itegrass Substatioti, Ilcaclatid1 atlil tIt(e Geoigia
Biratnch Statiotii at Plaitis, (Geor~tgia. Ohtcc(tix es wxere to deter-
inice ( I ) ]io\\ clitleicot petriodls of' xx ed-Itee inaitiiattce ort
(filet co petriocds of' xxccc comipetitiont affected peit 'i t \ iclcis;
and ( 2) cemcrgece' dates of sicklcpod platnts that towxerlx c~i
feaictots at fiatrvext timc.
Whein sicklepocf emerged xxitfi lcaits and xwerc nt (,(It t
trotllced thereafter, Jieaiit x ieldis xxetc rednied 4:3-70%~ hcloxx
tfte xx cccl ree x vield. ScirprisioglY . peatnut x icild xxere not
educed it peanuits xwerc kept lice of sick lepod A least 4 to
6 xxeeks. This is xx(,]I illustrated bv the folloxx itg data, wxhilch
reporit x icIc ftrIom ciffcrc it petriods o
t
' xx cc-free min ten ian ce
as at percentage of procioctiotii ott plots kept xx ed-lice all
sedxoti:
Wc'ks of! iccccfillc
II('idlliIdlP airn
Al though sicklepoci seecdlings I reqitettlN ieticrgecl after tite
cliuit h xxeck. fess broke thrtottgh tI i thick catniopix of pieanu t
foliage thlat later coxveredc the groundli.
liit n s e.iluitilt i f Il arls casma wexxcc coin fetiti(lit, hiillu(t
x icld vvlx noC'' ~At ieu ct'i if sic'klc'poc xxr creiovexd to Ilatet
that S wxeekx after filaittit. Bitt itt to 14 xx ceks of' clttlieti
till xirtohiatfx recd'cc xx\eight oif bars esteli iti-slic~lf p)iaoiits.
Lx~ti'lt oIf the xjl redut 'clctiont is illulsttratecd h) datai il tfhe'
(Iollixi itg taflfc xx Iicli r eport siefld xxitfi .illus xx tiks ott
xx cdi coinpet ito it s at percet itage of prod netiotii macde o(l
scasoti lot, ig xed frce plots:
Wec'iks if iLcc
I J 1
6 ----------------------9 3 8 9
8 ------------------------ -- 8 8 8 6
4 54 40
18 42 42
Giecil xxeight of xxed wcl xax fixverselx related to x icic of
peat its, xxhichi indcicates howx eflectiselx sicklefillc colifetes
wxitht tite crop if tnot renioxe ci ciii tog the first 8-1 wt seeks.
ITles e rexit]ts eniiz e the ito 
1
itatiw octf cot itrillliiig eat l
flushles of sicklepoci. Eat lx seaxel i ciatlo is llftet Idciffiult.
1 ott ex tra effolrt xxil bIe requioredi to cl eatn out the( cirop it xxececl
ar'e alloxxedc to growxx earlv. And tbce earlx season efforts tces-
sary fot- good cl cntrol x\'ill pay off in) higher x'iclci and greater
ptrofitx.
Fiiitcltgx Of thle stIchV also cXpflaiit the "late seaxo'li' broadl-
leaf xxecccl thlat seemI tol sttciilx appear inl patiitx. Actitalls
these xxed dclxcotn't come opl iii late scasoti- they etic ige
xx itfiiit a fexxx weeks after Iflaittitig hot ate iiot noticed utntil
lies rise abov e the cato i o\1 of peon cit Ileaxves. Those thtat
c merge in iddlilex cali he ircmosved hx' cultixvationl. Sicklepoci
pl ats inl tle row5 iii a go un Inoticed un t if tflex appiear tol
fiipfp up" thircough the catiofix, 
\\xxll actlialls they xxerc 
xxelf
extabflishedc eatrly inl tI i seasonil. Ohbservxatilloxs aofuit oigitl of
late seasiti xx cclx xx\crc cotifitne itclv taggin g ioii ilial xxcedl
o d till i ng thieirtdc cleeoinit ci t thltouhIou t thle scasoti
Oxveilooki ng of xi ekl epuic secllini s int eat lx seasoni I ecain C
Oosx itt thle rexea~rchi. Ese ciwxith carefunl h and ciexein tg of
test plots it is extretmely cdiffictult tiloIdate atci remosve all the
xxeedc seedlin~gs.
Al though mioxt sicklepocl filants emerged cot lx sonic genii
ittatecl cdiritig iniui xeasoti bit tieser grews lotrge etiotigll tio
Ibrieak throulitgh the ca o opx\ of peue nt tfolliage'. TIile\, reina itt cc
stitll ,iitc (ii -colilfetitix e unitil fiatvst. Filt tile ficatict fof-
iaetto slipiffi('x tfic'e late etnc't gitg xx cccs lx.foxxcxci. cot cii-
tillis muisit beI lao Iiable tflt cropf gi l\sstl. Defolititionl 1)x ill-
sects. iixaxes. ort fofiat itijiii frill lotrbicicdes dcreat'.ses tile
cotificetitix coess oIt tith e nut platit aitil allxx s xx cclx to
D-1/(Wr lit cru',c Ochl, pri.
Economic
Comparisons of
Singled Cropped
and
Multiple Cropped
Catfish Production
Systems
K. W. CRAWFORD
Department of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology
SINCE BORROWEDcapital in farming has
become increasingly important, farmers
and lenders have begun looking beyond
biological feasibility in the decision mak-
ing process regarding involvement in in-
novative enterprises such as commercial
catfish production. It is necessary for
them to estimate costs and returns before
production is initiated.
In a study by the Department of Agri-
cultural Economics and Rural Sociology,
budgets were calculated for two catfish
cultures based on data from commercial
producers in west-central Alabama. The
general procedure for budgeting follows.
First, costs for capital investments are
determined for both non-depreciable and
depreciable items. Subsequently, fixed
expenses are calculated. These costs re-
main even if production stops. Included
in these are land tax, depreciation, and
opportunity costs on average capital in-
vestment or foregone interest payments
had the money been deposited in savings.
Average capital investment is commonly
used when the budget is not for any spe-
cific year, that is, not for the start-up
period or other years when actual interest
and principal payments must be made to
lending institutions.
Variable costs include outlays for fin-
gerlings, feed, transportation, mainte-
nance, aeration, seasonal labor, miscellan-
eous items, interest on operating capital,
operator's labor, and control of diseases,
parasites, weeds, and algae.
Total production is calculated based
on biological growth rates. The price of
liveweight fish in the examples is based
on sales to a processor who provides cus-
tom harvest service. The sum of fixed
and variable costs is deducted from total
returns to yield net returns to land, man-
agement, and capital.
Next, rental value of land and a man-
agement charge, 7% of net returns in the
example, are deducted. The residual is
returns to capital investment above op-
portunity costs.
Finally, percentage return on average
capital is computed by dividing returns
to capital by average capital investment.
This figure can be used to compare al-
ternative investment opportunities.
The most common method of commer-
cial catfish farming in Alabama is single
cropping. Fingerlings are usually stocked
in the spring and reach harvestable size
by fall. Using collected data, the first
budget computed was for two 5-acre
ponds. The average pond size for com-
mercial producers in west-central Ala-
bama was 5.6 acres in 1973-74.
If year-round rather than seasonal op-
cration is practiced, returns can often be
improved. Fixed costs can be reduced
if distributed among more than one crop.
A second budget, also for two 5-acre
ponds, was computed for a year-round
system of catfish production in ponds.
In this system, three crops of catfish
would be harvested in 2 years. The only
change in capital investments is a drilled
well. The well is necessary for pond re-
filling after each harvest. The total in-
creased capital cost is $6,000, which in-
cludes construction, pipe, and pump.
Most variable cost items are simply three
times the amount for the single cropped
system.
Two catfish crops are overwintered.
Thus, at harvest the size of these fish
averages about 0.75 lb. However, har-
vesting is during the months when proc-
essors pay $0.50 per lb., liveweight. The
other crop, averaging 1 lb. each, is sold
for $0.45 per lb., as in the single cropped
system.
Under the specified conditions, the
costs of adding a drilled well to the cap-
ital investment items out-weighs the ef-
fect of spreading the fixed costs over
more than a single crop. Possibly, the
need for a well could be eliminated if
harvest procedures circumventing pond
draining could be used. Until then, single
cropped commercial catfish should pro-
vide higher returns than a multiple
cropped system for small ponds. For
larger ponds, other budgets would be
needed to estimate the economic feasi-
bilitv.
BIENNIAL COSTS AND RETURNS FOR TEN
ACRES OF CATFISH PRODUCTION IN
WEST-CENTRAL ALABAMA, 1975
Item Single Double
cropped' cropped'
Dollars Dollars
Costs
Fixed 2,987.20 4,092.00
Variable ....... 15,911.92 22,165.06
Total 18,899.12 26,257.0,6
Per acre ....... 1,889.91 2,625.71
Per lb.......... 0.38 0.42
Returns
Total .......... 22,500.0.0 30,000.00
Net per acre
2 
3.. 60.08 374.29
Net per lb .... 0.07 0.06
Annual on
average
capital
investment ... 11.20 % 7.92 %
' Involves a 2-year time period.
-To land, mnanagement, and capital.
5k
'0~' 'ii N
7
TWO HUNDRED
YEARS
OF
AGRICULTURE
J.- 
H. 
YEAGER
Department of Agricutural
Economics and Rural Sociology
77IFi 8 4tI,000f iRcs~i w ithbair-cni
x\ias made fpossi Ie fIX- tile pro(gi ess of
Wou 1111(1 oii l11 ike tll go flack to fof-
loiNS it~ a Illil.'? Guiding tile Gee Whli,
loe Ilarow~IX, (It Olixvet (; turntiing 
pilo\N
woul be1(111 tolili x ork. Awlt 55 lrkil~g ll
vear, iiax it]g to pill f oldet tol inlke feed
tat llllits s1 t' 1211 Iositler-al15.
A tartl] xwife 1211 tforget tol brinlg il
gtrox m~arigolds itl her No. :3 XSasitilis
ii lst('ld (It d'axxilmg them 11 f lt o X water fo~r
55asii. A \ 01111 g 1bridie Illatri t\ill t
atv b1 (X lllxie carried oxvet thei t 11re~s
hold c tol atlt air c'oniiitiolnIer, wsasiher, (11 xet,
car1pfeted houlise, tifled ba~thl, illter-t'nl],
stereos \icittli t'lcle, electric stovxe,
tmixer, iietliet antdt otiher wxizards of gad-
geti x at xx 1 iici I I cer grealt- gratnd111(1tiler
55 Oitil fainit.
Tile xxolndels o(f' scienlce antd tecillolop,
flax. elieased xwoirkers ftr(om thle fat il
f reeitng 11Imm tol pIroduice tIIt Iflatil goo(ds
atnd setrvices. Ill 197t0, (Iid 5i % (If Ala-
tiItI lst xxitih the
2 
89% oft 1 870.
Ye2t we1 artc1 still tile best fed naltion ill
supp~ilied lit it reilitiv eiy loxw 
1
]ecelltlge
oft dis posale~ ill 101]]e. Tb 't '- is no( wxork-
lare I tile ''tilaitlstic Age" (If aIgri citure.
187:3 li \\ ilitilex iIXelltedciiotton gill
8:3:3 Mfc((Irmlick reapier ipatenlted
1849 MIixed t('rtilizer's fitrst manllufac12
turted( cllltnlrtilli
1862 Mioriii Lalld Grant C'oliege Act
1892 Sutccessfu iii asiliile tralctor ibiiilt
191i6 Fedetral ['at il LoainI Act
1926 1lxid cil otrn seed t'otlllet 
(illx
avalilablie
19:35 Buirai lietric Admn] tistraltii
SinI ce Ala111bama betame 112iI staite 1 57
\eatrs ago, its [ilj(r cr ops havixe dt lIti-
(Ilfix changed. Recoirds iI ceturx ol
It's cli tfic dixci sitx (Iv f AlabamaI's crpA
Aiilmost 22:3 ,t0 )Iil. oif rice wxere1 groxwnI itlI
1 870. Tobacco ' ho1 lps, lat] bu ~ckwhfeat
ALABAMAXI 187(0
Bade\i---- Btt. 5,174
Bltcksxiiheat Bit. 144
Oat's Bit. 770),866i
tRs C 13t. 18,977
\Xheitt ------ Bit, 1,055,068
1. poltatoes ------ l11. 162,J 512
Cottill -------- Batles 429,482
I fit.x ----- Too I0t 6 1:3
fop's ------- L . 3
Rlicet -------- LbI, 222,W45'
Toba1cco 0------ Lb.1 1 52,742)
S. polta~toes -------. Bilt. 1,871,361)
s 0\1- 2 mill ionl poitl (s pt iodlit 
ill 1850)
wxere aliso gi (X Ifi5ttti, plscon'ottll, pota-
til lt 6,600) litres oIt it xx 115a reported iii
t88(1, .lod tie p]rouctionl (If 795,199 galf.
(If mlallsses.
Mules, asses,. mid( (xii w Xetre txypical
fa111] xxoikstock (If Vestt ' X ('r, aIs XXl iis
hlorses, Milk cowsXX iiniI('ee 170,64)) ill
187(1 com~pared xwithl 91 ,00t0 hlead tocialx
Sh~ep. m11leS. 11 (l\(' I IIX t'V Xil tUllx
d15isappearedi fro ' i nlderii I Iatitns, ilit
sw5 ile inimbliers have 1 iiicI eistli froml 719,-
757 hieadl ill 1870) to 820,000) itt 1975.
But tter prodi iction Olt th e I armi lias dis-
i~ppeat ed, but chiickens, iIce scarce,
haxve skyriocketed wxitih tile lex ebopien
of Al abll a's ri at t ul try ilndiustry after
the 19 50's. 7
iDiainatie clailges liaxe occurr ed inl tile
nulmiber, axverage size, and ii vestment inl
itni rea '.l estate ov er the y ears. There
xx ere 55,000 tarms, in Alabama inl 1860.
The nuIltmberCI illcireasedi toii all II time
iflii (of 27,000( tfarmls ill 19:35, and th-in
declii ed to ahl ot 10,0)00.
Axverage size (of' A labam a fana in l 1861
\\-its :316 acres. sshich dcrieasced to M'
,acres per far m ill 1 9:3(0 all hfIas1 illcrealsed
itnee tliei I to ahout 188 acr es ats repor ted
ill the 1969 Census of Agr icultuire. To-
das , tell lnt t arming( is at small I 0% Celni
piared toI 65/, ill 19:30.
'Ilii' anlilt (If farmiland in Alablama
has dectined sittce tile 1950's. So lias
('((Ili a 1( 1 harvested(, 1but [lie v alute oIf
Satno rclal estate 1has goIllie from an laver-
age of 84 per acre ill 187T) tol S-383 per
acre ill 1975. At tilis vlulie, tile toltal
Valu e oIf Ai a Ian] a tat real cestalte is Ill (It
thlatn 85 blliotn. toi 1870, it wa~s oix]
868ttliiillI ftgoes xxitliolit sax itlg, of
c(our1se, thalt tile valdue ef today's dlllar
is less.
Pl 111 fp
t
rodultct sales flax e risct I sill ct'
1 880 wshetn their valuie ssas $56.9 mifillil.
ti I 1974 thieii v alttc was1 $1,190 liililtol.
Tile otil]\ tIit( ceirtain i ll thle fitur o1 2(f
agricutltuir1 is that 2001 Xeats liaxe llro lit
cllatlge antd tile tiext 2003 xxiiill bing more.
TABIL' 2. LI\ES51(11K ANDl IPiOttUiI I ll
o\ FARIi~s, A
1
LAIIXXIx 1870
Kind
1Ii os
NhIe and' a1(1lsses
\\li kill, oixen
Miilk cowxxs
Othcattl
tiell'
801,770
76,675
59,176
17(1,64))
257,:347
241,934
719,757
:381,253 1i).
:3,2913,75:3 11).
2, 732 lb).
Hay Feeding Questionable
on Cool-Season Pastures
R. R. HARRIS, Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences
C. S. HOVELAND, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
J. K. BOSECK end W. B. WEBSTER, Tennessee Valley Substation
C EREAL XiI i IN I LOx~ cii it'11-plk ix IMille Iic( basois fl anl
c Ncrlhruot iiicthiol ot gi oxxiiig stock-i- beef cix I' ili Alabloii.
But dlllt couinit oliccx e -cla gii a. Titilgal xd] vintel. cxpcccialix ill
icirthici i Aclbniia. Good inamiagillciit lixilxilreqires re-
ii1ilal 1o1 cix cx fioill the c111)1seaxill pxstiirxs frii 11) to61
c1lxx duii g xxitel iii that atrea.
I'lie poiscilitN ofi ineicleanmig the plodllctixIx\ iii pirofht-
ibiltx (11f these (11111seasll almilll pixstoims ixN i eguilamlic ix
leeclii xxax iiixestigateh ii aft Ixpe iuneot at fte Tentnessee
V allex Suistatiiiui. feche \liit. Specificatix the stiicd xx v ix tol
Iheti mule xxheuthiei cailx loax teedimig thiotiglinut the xca soii
either oiii text pasturie of- coil anidjaiceiit sod area) woifld
rclwie the c tim Ie cattle xxerc off1 paxture cduriing xxinmter or- iii]
prove allilial giil
Test Procedure
Six 2 acre paddocks of it
1 
xx i ct i cgi ox x arroxx leaf cl ox ('
xxere estahbiliecd aoitix (lig 1971-75. These pstiures
xxere giae i.'clxliiieex ciohaagc xnpplx anid xx catliei cioiiuitiiiii
pcrisittecl dkiiig the Octibem lone perioid.
Yearing beet steeirs ax ci agilog ahnnlt 47.5 lb). each xx cii
(lixi dcl inctoI thrIiee gi ci d1
1
s tol cim pare thIirie ina iiageciueut x
tern s oIi c gaz'iiig. r\xo pastuiries xxerc gfrci.ei iii ech of III,
iici1gin l elot xxxtems:
Group I -Steers had ctisiui l access tol text xxx ii clx ilm
xxere fedl a cia o waoci ce ofi lix 3.3 11l). per 
steer-).
Grouip 2 -Stccrs xx\lie gYi a/Id 5 to 6 hosii x ciii ciii tli~ Ii
cissiix cc tio ai ii acc i it soii icr 'grass Slid xxwi Ir tisex' xx Ii
fed hlax (2.8 lb) per dax I anic kept ovxeirflighit.
Group :3 -Stcers gra/ed xx lic it flurage xx\,its 
ix\ ciilible, fbit
xxitholiiut h ax beii loge d, iid xxere removxecit aiilx ix 
lien
foraige xxasi iouiufficieuot duiiiiig Jiilarx auocl Fehrucimx
OeccliSC ot xxeathier condcitionsx steeirs iii grounps I aud 
2
aiso liii to be rmexcd firomc test pclxtimrex chuur-iug 
id xx- iltl[().
All xxere fed fi the luaun iciii iog thle timle 11ff gucozilog. 
Groiipi
I and 2 gfot liax\ iiid cottioiieedl nciditas thieir- xxi1min
(i i'u ir jixlu s aci 1 1c
Dit\ ( ra i ugtd
I iiiip I-
4 11
-5
( ioll 2-
OfI .1/ iit15 llt
N,511
I 1
( .uiip 31-
palilic. offi
Ill
5N1
I ntol feed stecr
(itnilc l iiiil lb 11. 7 -is 
99
I Ii- I illi i li if ( co I 1, 
2)
Coriti 1).
These steers were on the pasture management system 
that included
5 to 6 hours of grazing on cereal grain-clover pasture and feeding
of hay on adjoining grasslot when not grazing.
lion. xx ifile Giroup .3 stecis wxeire fed col i silage xi fpicicliel 
ted
w ith iroflled coirn an 1d Icot1tonseed icii.
Asxcc ax cvrre, ri azinu bc gal Oc tob er 1 7 an d 
1lasted iin t i
on 2. W\heait aind ix cgraxx pioxvidecd most of the forage
sinced cloxe iticf xx cre gciic'ralx oliX fajir 
to poor.
Pastuires xwerie stocked xx ithi 2 to .3 steers pcri acre, 1)Ut
xx eAtici coodjtiji pi cx cted illaiiitinling tis rate. Thie
in cixt ac curiate mei asuire of pax tine car ry ing calpaci t \\'it ax ci
ii ci gira/illg citax per ace., and( th is m eax ore 
\%ias used iil
cx aliiaticig xx telms.
Hay Boosted Carrying Capacity
F eelilig ha\i iii CliXsil the cari lg capatcitx of ft(e text
pastures c, axs shoxx1 1i bx vfittil ill the table. floxxe 
r ox t( I.textra
gaifit per acre because oft ft(e 
higher xtockiit i g ctc xxas less
thau expectedf. ( 'arrx iiog copacitx xwax iiici 
eased 29-632% byv
laxy feediiig, but per acre gain xxas iiica~sclf 
oilx 10-15%.
Ra~te of[ gailii pci steer- xxaxi lxicfcbi dx lexx 
oi tliexe pas-
tures tbal cciia o biii xotaildi iiii icer simsil ar condcitios 
. Typical
giins iii the past flaxvc been aitotit 
1.6 1f). fidlx wfxiireas
these tinuuiiitecl to 1 .0 to) 1.4 11h.
Ii ax feeciiifg al so ircdiucecf thle oii o r c of' davxs 
ti at xteers
hill toi spen offI )1 the pasituirex. 1Io\I\xcx cr, ax 
iii clica tecc earl icr,
th is did ci ot ieul cxiii i thle priediictedi imi nal gain pfe r acire 
of
laud. fii tlie caxc o lim iiited girazing (Gioiip 2), extira 
labuor
wxax lecesxai x fol inacoaginig the cattle.
flINx coimiixcuption told i aoit 1,000)11b. per( 
steel- for tile
xx ioter peiioci. Thoix iiicludes that fedl is at xxicterilig 
riotioii
ph1 ix thiat f ccl i paxsturiei.
Steer Performance Disappointing
I iclix clial Steel puculfouiilai ce xxas (lixsijpoilitliig 
ill this texSt.
Altiioili cccil(i liiitedi aiilliiillts oif haox tio Steers ol 
the
xx ccit- xc i xxiiI xxI atclovixer fpasti III ii (ilse iecarrx iiig cai
picitx ' op to 60t%, it biioostedl pcr ire gain oiiii 10-15%. 
Thuis,
pol, steer- p~eifourmnce muist he x igloed igaiixt iiicrecixccl
can xiiwo capacitv iii (lete rmiiolg x alile of tile practie. 
Ill
the case oif limited gi auilig extra ahur for miia cgeiict 
also
niiiit he takeii inito ,Iccoiit.
11
v,
F0a
SAFER OPERATION
OF
A FARM TRACTOR
ELMO RENOLL, Department of Agricultural 
Engineering
T r acto- overturn protection w'ill save ltu and re'duce injuries
during tractor upsets.
TIE
1 
xtODII \F \1tx\1 i1(11t i'eatl\ Imjpi\edo\Ci' older
involv'ed inl fat in ai ti ts 1becauise it still requtires 
at hutiatl
opera tor.
1Tract ors altd cil-l a i it nadii s accotunlt for ior Otthlan 501% 
of'
all farm in ccidienits. T11he farmi tractoir atndc fatalt 
accidents atre
closeix asstc'iatcd, wxithi tractor s inivolv ed ill twxo out of excix
fixve Jfilt ii aintc'c'idlitx.
Sexveral tin Is can lie done to belp r educe tr actor 
acecidet its
at id the resnlting fatal in juries. OtIl( wax to reduce 
these ac-
cidetits is to iixc each tractor Opel ator- saletv traininig. 
H ope-
I till thi s \611l en able hitm to operate thle tract or inl it 
Safe linallt
Tier aic hielpt him rec(ninle potetitialls cli ertius sitl ,a titot 
S.
ii tilt fottiltg sil-'estioiis ate ildhered to Ix% the 
tr actor
opera tot'. lialtx Setrious a 1(1 cost lx tract or 
acciden ts catl beI
Oiidedl
Be i thlt ti elt tfocr diitchecs, blanks, iid holes to axvoic 
i ll-
set s.
Opceratte at at Sale spcdu xx\licit itoitlit g, cirossitng slopes, 
ott
duritig acdxerse field cotiditiot i.
Do noit opet ate a traictuor ii Ctremc'ls- sloping land.
Don't al los cildre 't Iohi or nieat thle tracetor.
Attacht pill]I loads ottlx' toi tlte dl i1tt' and add frot txxeights
to tile tractor.
Start heavyx loads smoothlx alitd sloxxlx to axvoid 
backxwarcd
t ttunovers.
Kcep PTO( shtieldi iii place.
Wh len operting at tratc'tor equ~iipped it ita ft ottt-c'il 
lnoacei
kc't'p tite lioacd loss atnd speced slo\\s. Acid wseighlt 
to tilt reari
fotr bltlillcc.
ltttcttilte tricx dc' tractor s te less stale ttati 
xxicic-xxltcel
ft itnt-e t d ottc's.
Aniothecr xxa ,y to heclp reduce dc'atlis ft'ott 
tiractor ttccidlt 
is tit pi oxide itpset prtetcctiotn for the ope 
ratotr.
Tractotr acciden'tts ate ' sttalls classificec ixv tx pe of 
ac'cidc't i
or1) tx t ractor usce at th tc'ttime of thite accicdet. 
As itndIicated
ill tilet table at i lit tite mlo st coti mott tx 
pt of tra~c'torti' (t
citlett invo tlxves ali tupset.
Th iese U pse'ts it l t lc' ti rt l l iiig xer bitckxs arldS 
artd toi t ftc
side. mu itt ig tltc tratc'tor oxver sicdewxaxys itiatix 
times is its-
sociatecl xxith tditchets, t oatlhanks, andt excessiveC 
field speedis.
Tutrtting oxct ltatkxxai(ird ftett-tl \ recsutlts 
ft out ittipttifti
tirassIirl ltitch'liii or Cxcessix u di assiat loads. 
A\ lit'it(ctis
(,li tic frIC taiilo.td safe dx ttlts xx ill lotwxer tlie deatth 
rte ht'fti
tractiti upsets ilttd t-ccitc'c tielt' iitttbcr otf ittjtti('.
froin tract ot itpset s is ev idient fromi su'x iral rcenc'it 
reseatrcht
Stutdies. One sucht stctdx xxas c'ttttclttecl 
for 6 veat s. A stil
ii ig 40% otf these tI actor upsets resulted 
itt dthtl. Iii aclci-
titu, 5:3% protducecd setriotus intjury . All of 
tilt inijuiecs attcl
dteathts xx et'e ott " open"l' tractors, 'x itit no 
cabs otr frames.
Iii tlis sait' stitixv tbotit 5% otf tlie 
tlccicleilts itivolxvedi
tractors eqiplpedl xxith it vetutrn protectittni 
Al thtiiugh th ex\
]tMlte ill) onl tit smnall part otf tte studyv, 
tltese accidlents prit-
ducedt't ot fatalities, and to intjuriies 
iii htalf otf them't.
" -it~ Itactor andI match iner c' x cct it 
its occur iltitle farm11.
OfIf fat in accid etnts atre in ci ets iiig 
Abouit oneIt'th irdl of the
tractotr aiccidlen ts take place otit iiighxwaxys 
atd rtiutral roilcis.
l-a1 m tra~ctors andIt macines travxelinig 
il ltigtxax's presett
tl1tistill sal ct x probl etims. lThe sC slowx 
illox itt in itc'l i c art'
at hazard to litstel tra~ffic iind atre ill effec't 
at stittttiitg ixitittiittt
lot ait rear end citllisioni. Vartitt is sill 
'tx\ dex ices htaxve 1 eetl
dlesignetd foti use til tilt' teat otf 
thtesie tri tc'tors authd ilaciites
ahlead.
Otie stich safets tiesicc' is it untiqufe 
refltctix'e trianigle' 14
itt. lighi. Tti s SN IVs emblhiiem is 
recomend ited bxv tlie Na~tional~
Saletx\ Council. Ex \ e'r- tractor atnd faint 
machtine xxhiicht is
ope~rattedt ott tile roa,l (W itfot xvery 
shiort fei odsx of' timeuc,
Beseat-cit studciecs hiaxve shiowsn tha 
xxhenl the S NiVs embtlemn
xx'its re cirteci Iby lass itt one' statceII the 
iimbet of Iigliss ' \ rc'tl r
ittl citilisioits betw ent Last nmxitig velticles 
aiin l oss nitsitig
tI actiis xxas reduitced 201% itt ltc 
fit'st x ear.
Salfe otperattoit of tI e far~in t ractotr 
sitotttld beu a xx'iix oif lift'
dedicated tot redluc'ing tractor tccic't 
Is.
Tltd'l (1 101 t tt Siti't (I fttt'tt ''i it
C)lcaitl- al
It a 'a tls t
N~~~Ttc oft Il-so at 1Ii'dllI st
Tlitts 1)S
lu
REUL Nt
-LN~tR.GY N
ADU.ALULTURt
E. W. McCOY, J. L. BOUTWELL,
C. M. JOLLY
Department of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology
returns, based on the consumer's willing-
ness to purchase the outputs, more than
compensated for the added input costs.
Thus, existing production systems have
resulted from least cost attempts to sat-
isfy market demand.
Due to increased cost 
and long run
scarcity, it may be appropriate to ex-
amine the efficiency of fossil fuels in ag-
ricultural production. One efficiency
measure is the ratio of food produced
(food energy) to the energy used in pro-
duction (cultural energy). While both
measures can be converted to calorie
units, the fossil fuel energy is not directly
consumable as food by humans. Two
types of aquacultural production can be
used to illustrate bow cultural energy in-
put requirements may be reduced with-
out decreasing the level of food energy
produced.
Fish, as with terrestrial animals, en-
compass numerous species with diverse
feeding habits. Many that normally feed
upon natural foods will accept formu-
lated feed. An aquacultural production
system can be a feedlot or a pasture.
Trout, salmon, and catfish, for exam-
ple, are produced under intensive feed-
lot-type conditions. Although the feed
ingredients are grown with a net energy
gain most of the energy gain is lost when
the ingredients, are formulated into feed
and consumed by fed fish. A portion of
the loss is due to cultural energy require-
ments of the feed mill, but the major loss
comes from the intermediate consumer -
the fed fish. Fed fish convert no more
than 15% of the feed energy into edible
food energy. In addition to feed, fed fish
production 'also requires other energy in-
puts. While the energy efficiency ratio
is higher for fed fish than for most ter-
restrial animals, the overall result is a
net energy loss in production.
Alternative types of fish production
exist however. Just as grass fattening of
cattle has become increasingly feasible,
so has production of "grazing" types of
fish. In the aquatic pasture, fish feed
upon water vegetation much as cattle or
sheep graze on grass.
An aquacultural enterprise utilizing
grazing type fish can be combined with
livestock feedlots to increase the energy
efficiency ratio for the overall operation.
The feedlot waste materials would repre-
sent the feed input for the aquacultural
enterprise. Two crops could be grown
from the feed fed to livestock. Cultural
energy requirements in production of the
fish would be relatively low. The major
energy inputs would involve collection
and transportation of waste materials to
the pond. With a properly engineered
system, much of the movement could be
done by gravity. Food energy output
from this type of fish production would
be comparable to the amount produced
per unit in intensive fish cultures.
If feed for grazing fish is produced
using inorganic fertilizers, the net energy
ratio still exceeds the ratio for fed fish
culture. In fed fish culture, fertilizer
is applied to crop land to produce feed
grains. After the grain is harvested and
processed, it is fed to the fish. For graz-
ing fish, the feed produced is directly
consumed as illustrated in the figure. No
cultivating, harvesting, marketing, or pro-
cessing energy for the feed input is re-
quired.
When consumers go to the market-
place, few directly consider the energy
content of foods they buy or the energy
that was expended in producing that
food. As long as the price is acceptable,
they purchase products that fit estab-
lished taste and preference patterns. Al-
though several energy efficient fish pro-
duction systems are now available, con-
sumer demand for the output is low.
With increasing scarcity and high costs
for fossil fuels these or similar systems
will become more competitive. Consum-
ers may find "Florida Perch" at $0.69
per pound a very acceptable alternative
to trout filets at $2.69 per pound.
A MERICAN AGRICULTURE has become
highly dependent upon fossil fuels. Pro-
duction processes utilizing large amounts
of fossil fuel have been acceptable be-
cause this type energy source was rela-
tively abundant. Many types of produc-
tion initially were efficient users of re-
newable energy sources, but production
per unit was low.
With increased population and income,
however, more intensive production
methods were developed. Although en-
ergy efficiency was reduced, economic
efficiency was increased. The economic
10
Flow of Culturol Energy for Feed Used in Fish Production
Schemicals
tillage
seeding
fedfish .-- feed fertiliztion feed w grazing fish
harvesting
marketing
formulation
LEFT: Increased branching of ozolcas result-
ing from Atrinal (5,000 p.p.m.) is obvious
on plant at right, as compared with un-
treated control at left. RIGHT: Sheared
Red Ruffles azalea treated with 4,000
p.p.m. Atrinal 
(center) shows 
normal bloo 
m-
ing. Check is at left and Oiffshoot-O treated
plant '4,000 p.p.m.) is ait right.
liiiena plnsaeue y inayi
dix iduasadcrus ;roxvers, ariorists.
highwxay muaintenance xx oikers, and land-
scape contractors use these chemicals to
control 'groxxthi and help miaintain a de-
siredt plant shape.
Two tyhpes of chemicals are axvailable:
dIestruIctiv e and iniblitive. Both t ' pes
( 1Vu apical (lominance, stimutlate
gYroxx tli of lateral sh oots, an d reduce plant
highflt. Ijntoitunaitelv, plant damnage i
Available pineig chiem icals xhaxve
beein testedi for eff ectiveinesx and satetx
of use since 1968 lbx Auburn hi iiversitv
Agr icultuiral Experiment Station. A mia-
terial sold under tlie namie Oflslioot-Ok
(a combination of muetlix loctonate and
deconate ) has been the most effectixe
one, especiallv oil azaleas. It kills the
top xwhile causing little or no0 damiage to
the rest of the plant.
Groxxth iniihitors laxve piroxved effec-
tixe for piilliilg certainl plants. but plant
(lixtortiol i, floxxer al ortioi i or di sruptioi i.
adl ret ardedt groxxth haxe Ibeen und(eCsir-
able sidle effects. Miaterials triedl xx\cre
Ethi el (an e tlivi'ei. com pounid), M \Iaio-
taili ('F I'5 ( clorofltrenol mieth v1 es-
ter s), and N IA 106:37 1 etlix 1-lixdrogei
p' opx'lplosplioiate).
Begriniiiir in 1975, a new chemrical
sold uinder the trademiark niame Atrinad
(conimoni namne, tlikegiilac ) has been
evaluated. Clieiicallx , it is sodiumn 2,3:4,
6 (Ii-o-iosprI~iop)N Iidenie-"iketo-L guilonate.
The nexw agent, applied as a foliar,
spr ay, turinedl the ininature top leaves of
azale'as xelloxx for 7 to 14 (laxs. hut xxith-
out affecting mature foliage. Terinal
bud groxwth xxas inhibited and, sinmultan-
eouslxy, axillarv buds began to groxx.
The first experiment in the greenhouse
x\,ias (lone ill)janiiai x oil small, x nungf
New Chemical Pinching Agent
Shows Promise for Controlling
Growth of 'Woody Ornamentals
KENNETH C. SANDERSON and WILLIS C. MARTIN, JR. Department of Horticulture
plaits of the Kingfisher variety of ever-
green azalea. Atrii ial indiiced lateral
shoot dexvelopment as folloxxs
Treotoent
Shleared
1.0(00 pP.111. 'di iitl
2,000)) ppm. Atrinal
:3,000) i.n. Ati a
1
Slioots/plait,
inumbher
41.8
65.4
42.0
48.4
501.4
51.8
Plants ouf the Red Ruffles and Red Gishi
aizalea x arieties xxere sprayed xvitli Ati
lial in Jul x in at secondt experim eint. All
p1lan ts xxere approxiloatelx' 10) X 10) ini.
iii size and xxeire sh~eared I xxeek befoire
spraviing. A 42,))))) ppm. Ollsbioot-0
spia wi xas al xi inct
1
i led.
Spraxs o(f 4,t000 ir 5.)000) 1)1)11 Atrinal
priodui cedl 110- shi xoots tliai I 0)fsl oot ()
treatedl plants, as shioxxn here:
Trel'in( ut aifteir
sll('0rinig
4.))))) p.pV~i. Atinail
(12,000) P p.iO. Off shoot-(
Sbeets 'plant
Rod Red
Gishi Ruffles
125.1 65.3
18)).0) 97.2
2)12.6 1 17.1
990 117.1
155.9 82.0
As xx\as trtie iii tlie first experiment,
Atrnal t reitetd azalleas flowxeredl nor'ial lx
Spraxys of Atriiial wxer e testedl on small
laiits (of clexera. Tcr itstro( 1100 .a 110011ll
tie to ill [ti11c. Plaiitx sprayed xx itli 3,0001
to -1,00 P l~l~ i. A triiial hiad inoi'e shootsx
thait sheare p ]laiits, as shuoxx byh the
folloxinga data:
Treatmient
Sheared
2.00)) ppm. Ati iiial
3.))0)0 ppm. \ triiial
.000)) pp.m. Atriiial
Slioots/ploit,
11.6
10:3
20).1
22.3
11.8
Pi elimuinarv testing ot Atrinal has also
beein doie itwxitli other plants ( Ilex cllriuta
'Dxxarf BurnifordI, ' Ph ix is h
1
, ll('joiO.
aod Rhlododctidio Cli/1nifoli ) . Although
shoot (lata are iiot \et axvailable', Atriial
appeairedl to be an eff ectixe C piocio~lg
agrent o~il Bhododcll'lu li olifolio. Iii's'
C l IIIIhI 'Dxxarf llu-frtoit plailts haxix e ot
cxlhibitedl thei tx incal. temnporary x ellox
in g iof inin ati re foliage associate~d xx Ith
Atiiiod treatmnit.
Ther e is still much to be hearniedi alout
this nexx chemical pmnclhing agent. Rle-
search rep)ortedl slioxx s thiiat A triiial is a
safe and( effective lpiuiitlig ageint. Re-
sults indicate that it cain he tise(] alone
or ill comhbi iiatiool xxith xl iarin g to inl-
rease xlhoouit ifftin) ers iii xxoodx oriua-
inei tad s such as azaleas.
7
1Tll-i FLdWO -Ui 5(,ir.5idTHI iSS is diStinlgli'Siite fromi the
northiern ii I gensothi in col oration anc l a rger isaximni size.
1Tle lateral clark stripe is usi ail br1oader and c dar key near the
til for the F lotridca sispectes; alsio anteiorly tile sitripe is
mttore i ntetropted lot- the Flor ia 1asa fotrmin g a ser ies of mor01e
o1 less distinct bilotchies (fia. 1)
T1 le larrre size attiied I)\ tilec pettitliolar lortida bass hais
(let sllx1v been at tibuiiteci to the loti(wet (rlIiowing season,.
Within its raie [lot ida iass C0ittat0IIsoo attainl wxeighsts of
14-1611l). and occasionallx xx ill exceed 201lb., wh ile tile tiorthb
c-ri subspecies selcdotm exeedcs 12 lb). It tet grades are reeng-
I izaltle tlirotit nor)1thsern Flotrida, socitievi i Alabatisit. cell-
tilsl Cent ils .tllatsi511 of' Solith Cin-liota
FLORIDA LARGEMIOUTHI BASN
IN ALABAMA WIATERIS
W. D. DAVIES, t Do,+re0 of Fish,-i ad Allid Aqua cltur-
FIG. 1. Note thie brcader and more interrupted lateral band of
the Florida subspecies (tep) compared to the northern subspecies
bottom).
D iff cici ces isetxs ccii tile txi subispiecies taltsio itisois e
difitetinces its feecliiga hiais xxhichi xx mld lie iceflected ill
csttchiatiitx. \'lei I tile twxoi siubspciess stre stcckccd togethser,
iss tise\ hsavx c eel iii ( tlifot ii, sigisificatitix fewser Flotrida
bsass iaxe sen c-aliht lix fishieiseit.
Prel itsit , v scFtooi stcics .1t tlie A cihill iUt n iverisity Agvi-
cuitirl Expser imenit Statiot wexe ciesigi cc toi text growsthi ii
catcisbilt cliffcetic-cs lsetxx ccii tile, sublsp~ecies.
Nitie I It) acre pis were xxc uiseci to cx stitate reposirted ciff
let cisces itt g oxxtis isctxxeels tile scilspiicsx. Fads pondici xxs
stocke wcit iti repsrodci g icitI picll iitiot o if fostage sisces, phiUs
12 fitrtlitig bass.
iiro psss eriocdic xciill g atd i i it sillits re icirds, it \xas cx mdciit
th at tise ithtievin sutissiecies grexx faistet ti ti the [Flotria
(Fig. 2). Sitice thle ens ircitilet ts xxerc siislsr, the cdiffirt
ensces its growxths ratte xwerie atttribu~tecd to getietic factosrs. The
first xetr's gil 155tis. theriefolye. is it ft ie facto \ittx tic-is cotl
tribuites to tisle l argcer si/c if ti e Floridcia lat emtitni. Il(
larger size attta itsd bvii tic Floida balsss is proviii ii i calIitseci
Its st fastetr rt t of girossti atftet sexul itatuit t o. h\x 'gieater,
llttexitxv
Fouor /4-steve ponds werxxcie iuseci ts coiipare cat chlsbi litv b c-
twxe ccit(,ic subsspcies, Put dx itt series wecre sx stctsaticallx
fissiec us a testit of fisiicvsstcti xxitht ciiffeent strificial hltre
1 A S
91
FIG. 2. Comparison of growth
lorgemouth boss.
Norher,
,n ,r ig Fc
between Florida and northern
itd a xvarietx tof liv e bit oxver at periodl of sex eral its otitis s.
Aui atial s is of the catch itndicatecd thtat i-loricia bass xx eve
lorte diffiellt to icat l i pom I ens iromnett thats the nor-th-
ci I stubspec ies ( Fig. :3). Since excessive harvxest of' bas," is
I be pt imars\ resisot for fatrm pot ci fish poptil titis int pro-
citliti (rood fishlttg stoc-kilg F loricda bsass ttsstx be al ilopot-
tat at iati agetoetitt tool iii pubt1l1ic xx aters. Also t be reduitced
(atcliabilitx ii-ax be anl imipoitat fac-tot ill the lotugcx its of
[1loridlsl bass.
li1t reen t txears [Ior iai 1bass h ave 1been i ntrodclted in to Ala-
lisasstls puisic itod pits ate xx aters for a variety of Rtssi is.
The 201lb. 14 oz. I ritinitl b ass caicght itt Cal iforia %itixsI
al itrtocduced linti clit ss; tliitici ous pcplsar atrticles are pie-
(ictittg that at tiesx world eco id bsass chttilc ibe cattght atix\ -
[itisc. File fact tht sucit fish wa s takeit iii (Califoi t ap-
pat ctttl as tesited ft tis ait o ltitatioit otf -xelleitt fotage,
laax x isltin ii. tessinlit fxot tble clitiae awld redutcecd catch-
itblslty -\fill]\ sottst ett gyo tipx s1tick Florid a bsass ittto thcit
faxvoritce fishiig s\es fc ii thse ltipe of prtodcfintg tlllix sized
basss. Also the Statt( of Alabamna lias stocked Floiica ba'ss into
xcii ie piihlic ftiig lakes ns itsl~ fbec altse fittgeintg bsass I visits
[loIdit d catl bie cobtainscc 1-2 iyon titis xearlieithIIsas tlse iithlitii
suibspecies.
Tise iscteiltial vescilts ftrotm stoc-kitsg Finvicla lsass its Ala-
fsstsss xwasters appleart to lbe: A dcci cased castchl rate foir ltvge-
tsIii ith biIass, .ollftiletease itl popid aticti den tsity oif hsrgcmlontli
bsass cdic to tise decc-reased catchi rate, ansc b~etter ittilizatititi
siti coniitrtol of forsige spsecie s as st resiuilt- of t be ittcreased
cletsitx.
N oth-rr
FIG. 3. Comparison of cotchobility between northern and Florida
largemouth bass.
R I. Si AI AB ' 51 1(1 ill t i x ju dog's ila
1 
the p Fohllis thiCV
c-reitte oi l Al aama liv estock far hin t ls 1been condciitted sinc e
1 968 ait Aubur 1_ii i ri niAgictil ral Experiment S tatijon
This 011 olioa g riojeet en oinp as sex t he ut'
1 
ax r, gen er al ecoi-
ogy,. aiid life Ilistors of feral dlogs, ais \\el cii , their jiitei actiotix
wxithi xxiltilife species, dolnestic lix extock. iid fieeri algil ig or
doiiicstic dlogs.
In assis t ini assessing tIe im npact of feral aoid( free i a igill,
(logs Oil lix estock, at (jueCStiOl illie \\it axCOInll~ittlid mailed
duiriiig August 1974 to Alabama Beef Cattle Improxveinit
Asxot'iatioiii minee x xitb opci atiols ixni 59 counltiex. A letter
xx ritteji 1)x Dr. R~icr hE. Deexe, Esxteiisioii Animal 11 iiband-
in an. xxits eol 'Iset
1 
to elicon rage ifi est ioOnaii e reclipieints toi
rexpoi 1(.
Responses Indicate Problems
Of tilt I qu~lextioi iiaiiex imailetd, .59 xxere retunied froml
lixvextock lifciatioi ix iin 41 tonties. Foirtx '-foni of these ie-
xpiildeiitx. xxo fin iied lix estoek in~ 3.5 conties, reported prob-
lemis xxithi clogs eithei litrasxing or killiing their lix estock xsithl
the :3-x car period pro to Auguist 1974. During this an
periotd, ineighboin g lix extoek owxners iin all butt 2 oif thexe :35
cmiititx fiat
1 
also texpeieinced do 'g problems, xxhfch implies
Iihat at xxidexpread piro1blecmi exists xxith ii Alab am a. Frtee
aiii ig dogsx seemn to haxe c atd at lalger iimei of comn
plaiiits (17) than cliti feral clogs (1I1) . lice riligilig tlogs
xxete also cited for1 lix estoc-k deaths by 1:3ox cix\r, x\,]bile 01 lx
.5 owni erx attr ifbuited imiuniaI cleathsi to feiril clogs.
Lixvestock losses attributed to dogs duniiig tile 3-y ear peiodit
pirioi to Auigust 197-1 totaled 1.12 aiinls antI iii e thit
821 )100) but sseie iiitiiiied fbx otii 29 ( 49/,,) of the re-
spolicelits. Calves atoomited foi 66%1 ot thle amnials lost i d
69'' ot the estimated monetarxv loss.
Coi itluttii ig freqt Ii il t least inni thix') ini i i ories hiad
Fttle dfeterreint effect oii dog clepi ecatioii., since 7:30/ of the
ownercis xxhi) reportedl harasxineit or lois., of lixvextock ixvei-
toiedt their herdi tlx ti end ,t \t. No$''h-ei Clio] -the disposal of
dead lix estock lx lburiia I r in~iiciineirat ioini. iathxei thfl I 1)v
clecomposiIi oil iin t11w pa st-ure is couriiage diog lepredlat iii.
Ot the i esponiitciits c'xpei ieritig piroblems wxithi clogs, ml.,
lproptil lvN disposed of thteir cleat! lix cst~'ck. The proitectioun of
c'o\x s tlcriic (~ig alxi sci ed to haxve o~xseiitiaillx ito elffect onl
lixvestock losses ittriblitaile to Ucxgs. Ainiig the o%\xxii s
losing- stock, 14 usedl 1)1oteetriv meicsnires for cosss dulii g
calviing and app11 iifiateix thle saite Oiniiei ( 12) did liit.
Various Control Methods Used
some formi of' clog c'oitrtd xx ax piwatiteti 1)v 37 (84%,) of'
the 44 owxneirs experiencing dog hamrassmentt of lixvextock, aid
lby 8 of 15 i c'sonclits xxlii did inot Laxve pioblems xxith
dlogs. The meothod used by most ( 36) ' 6 the lixvestock oss i crs
xaS shootin~g, xx lliitf x a eoiiSclem ec Imoderatelv effectixe 1)x
t1il' IliajonitV Of ci Sel-S. Poi solilii ig thle inext inos t xxi delv x'iiiilizecl
imethod, xx-iax also regairdedl as gix ing iieititatelX eftectix t
cointroil. I xi)ox Oners attempftedl to dix cit clogs fromt thuir
property xxith fencing, liii judlged its effects imess totb ftcir.
The mnost effective methods ot ctroldliiig dogs,,\xsere tell inig
tI e oxxneir cit the oft'icdiii g do gs (I se-d lbx oils oil(c lix Cs)oct
iAxs nc') itcf trappiiig, uisedi f) txxo iilt the respoiudiutg ossiiers.
13ccaust' of' thirm oieri for the seelli itx of their heirds, :30
of the owners'i experieliig clog problems and I1I oxxici s nt
explerie'nciing proilemns iitditcitecl at desilre for miore tonsecii
tiocis eiitoi emeitt of clog control lawxs, xxhethier existinig tir
suliselfceiitx enacted.
Out i tie of iniipi iibpa ouniidcaries, clog c-ol trol is Ilim ited
fix\ the lack of iresourctes ill most eonitiex, excii tboiumgl the
Feral anid Fi-ee-RangtngDogs
[h re-li to A LIbainu~ Livestock
LESLIE E. BROWN, CARL A. CUDE, and M. KEITH CAUSEY
Department of Zoology-Entomology
C ode of Alabiama~ (T itle :3, Sectioii I:3 U Pt'1 hts coiuiitie's to
hirie liuiniie ofl icc'i. lix ci in counties talpalile of c'iplli' vilg
ftutmanet officeirs, tlitex ai e lindeed' cc i in f iiiin iiiig th eii clitics
Y x n al irca lot iiiisdcli ti lii too I ir ge fori oiie, perx'ii ai d IL\
the Ilick of uci httecl stit('s ide iitiii il co ittrin lass s. Iltiun aite
officers are presien~tly supfportedl iilx lby Sc.tions 1, 4, 5, anld
1:3 of Title :3 of the ( odle of' Ala1baima iii proxvidin g assistan cce
to tfiose xxithi clog -oipliits. TIhest' stectionis, re5
1
)ttixely,
h~old thle oxx liji of al stock killiiig do ' liaihle 
ftiwlxice tlie x allit
of the lix estock lexv xt a eiiiilt ' of frim $5 to $.50 oiitlx owner
lit sheep killiiig docgs peimitte'c to I liii ait him ge: ilpse a fiiic'
tif tmnin $2 to .50) oii onsxiicis xxlni perillit ,tiix of' thir (lcogs
to om111it t larige. if' appioxe bylfi tilet tlliitS ciiiitinillii ll f
that ctoitsv; iil delegate to tfeo' tiiiit\ liiiac oiffieri tlhe
same tumtloiitv as that of ai cle
1
Iil sldwill. Tile linnillle oflitet
iJso bvmitfits froml ITitle 22., \x liitf requrslfI illiacsat~iii~l irabies
in in cliiiaticii antI tagr foi all dogTs, iposes it pet altv of fron
'~5 toi 8100 liioil os iier i efisiiig tci fillse his dogT atciiatel,
a
1  
pius ides tir thle dlispositioni of iiliigc'cl dotgs.
Legislation Needed
Addcitio id leItgislIat ion coci Id x ti cigth'i i the positioin oIf lull-
ida coiitrol lptrscii ii c and iti it lik tilt clog overpopulation
prolemti. It xx ocill lbe desirabie lto elnallct laxxs requfiin ig cut
teei it ial litciis feetccs flvix i 11l~e tll ster ilizedl ile to it ft'il ile
dogs, peinaltie's for tile m-c'icasc of iiiOlwlitc-d l iials, itl per-
11111) 31111 tia .i , tat c' xii or P1
11 
1Il (-th it\ ali iiinit shlt s m 5li t
reiicl'i iig ,xiies. IHissexvci, itil thle piiiliic midc gox c'ii-
iicItal iofficitils ;ite malde assate of tile miiititdc of, cxistiiigT
,Ainntii i)ilOit'iIS. IfiS t\]IIC (if lerisllitioil ililci its emtfcirec'nic'it
remin i 1(11 at a his priiciiits' levxel. Toi he lpl effect Ilegisl ativet
clini ie aoi o thier iiiprix ('mum its ini irural clog contrl lixvcstock
ins itcl's should iitili/c' tile sets icc's oii i r c'ii intx hliniic of-
ficeris, iii foci i thiri c.ouj tst coil)III i ssiom it' is of cxi xlii)g prolems'i
itol suiggest poss5ile sitolioix, aintd eiteocna lgcacitl judges
to e'infor ce cexisting legislitilt.
If' lix c'stoc'k 'Os\ Ilici, IlixC e1 itoice hblt tol conueicict their
il biiiiniic' eto tillnithtilcs aiii' 1I) iioilimg lcleiliars of
thir dlogs' mInisleells, (2) tiippluig. andt (:3) sliiiotiiig. Mlik-
ig dlog o155e i 'i5lxx sie iftthleii dotgs, insi totted presiliceii
voi li pcit shl ld fit' i first pi iiits. It mx iic'is dot tot
hieedc youi 55 i thug, it iiia\ lit poile t' t I roi 151tit ieiii te
hue Oi the abili liieiitiiii' sectionis of Title :3 OfI thie (Cocdc
of Ailtilinit. Tr appiing ciii tic pi ocieitis c it one11 uses at till)
kiiatiomi of lix c tiap and510( Ni. 2, steel' jaws oi ic'glolc tirlps.
xx iiici litiave had tilc' mxxx paicddecd xxitli auitomoiifle liitatei
fhose. (Cil iii l et tioii 1)1 lit t ii c luictit Iii of traips is li cc-
sips to mtike the tiltlp site tittiit'tis e pm iliai il tio clogs. III
ao high powered c i ff wi n
1
xith scope- i; iusedl.
Changes in Agricultural
Lending in Selected
Alabama Commerci al Banks
ROBERT J. BRADDOCK and SIDNEY C. BELL
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
A LABAMA FARMERS have demanded
more agricultural credit during the last
decade. This means that lending agen-
cies must play a larger role in order to
meet the farmers' needs.
The need for more credit stems from
increasing production costs, rising farm
real estate values, and a greater demand
for food and fiber in domestic and for-
eign markets. Added to this is inflation-
ary pressure exerted by the entire econ-
omy. As these increase, so will the farm-
er's need for more capital, which is vital
for production.
Most agricultural credit is currently
supplied by commercial banks, Federal
Land Bank Associations, Production
Credit Associations, Farmers Home Ad-
ministration, insurance companies, and
merchant dealers. The first three supply
the greatest proportion of credit.
Farm loans by Alabama commercial
banks are very important to the farm
borrower. However, most of Alabama's
commercial banks put little emphasis on
the agricultural loan area. The farm bor-
rower's concern is whether the decline
in commercial bank loans will continue.
In 1965 Alabama farmers borrowed
$253.4 million from these three major
agricultural credit agencies. In 1975
farmers borrowed $677 million from
them, a 167% increase.
14
Commercial banks have been leaders
in agricultural credit. In the past, Ala-
bama farmers have depended heavily on
them for operating and intermediate
credit, and for farm real estate loans to
a lesser degree.
In 1965 Alabama commercial banks
lent $137.3 million to farmers. This had
increased 138% by 1975, to $326.8 mil-
lion. Yet these banks were not maintain-
ing a constant proportion of the farm
credit market. Whereas they supplied
54% of the agricultural loan volume in
1965, they supplied only 48% in 1974.
The Alabama banking industry has
grown substantially in the last few years,
especially in assets, deposits, and loans.
A survey was taken in 1968 and again in
1975 of 12 commercial banks in com-
mercial agricultural areas of the State.
The object was to determine changes in
financial measures and agricultural lend-
ing of these banks. The table below
shows these changes for a 7-year period.
Average total assets increased from
$40.3 to $86.6 million or about 115%
during the period. Average total deposits
of these banks increased from $35.5 to
$72.8 million, a 105% increase. Total
loan volume increased, too, from $21.6
million in 1968 to $46.3 million 
in 1974,
a 114% increase.
Agricultural loans make up a vital part
of each agriculturally oriented bank's
portfolio. During the 7-year period, aver-
age agricultural loan volume increased
70%. Farm real estate loans increased
50%, while non real estate loans to farms
increased 76%. This rise in credit re-
sulted from higher farm real estate
value, and the increased expense of pro-
duction.
To see the extent of a commercial
bank's involvement in agricultural credit,
it is best to compare agricultural with
total loan volume. This ratio shows how
much of the total loan volume is com-
posed of agricultural loans.
In 1968, the sampled banks averaged
23% of their total loan volume for farm
loans. This dropped by 1975 to only
17%. In terms of total volume of loans
for these 12 banks, agricultural loans
made up 26% less of the total loan vol-
ume in 1975 than in 1968.
Bankers said the main reason for this
decline was alternative investments. In-
creased competition from other lenders,
lack of trained personnel to adequately
handle agricultural loans, and state usury
laws were cited as reasons for the decline
in agricultural loans.
It appears that the decline will con-
tinue. Agricultural loans will be less im-
portant to agriculturally oriented banks
in the future according to 1975 data
from such banks. Bankers said they
would put greatest emphasis on con-
sumer installment loans in the future.
Next in importance will be commercial
industrial loans, agricultural loans, and
residential mortgage loans, they said.
If Alabama's most agriculturally ori-
ented banks are going to place less em-
phasis on agricultural loans, then the rest
of Alabama's banks will probably put
even less emphasis on such loans in the
future.
CHANES IN FINANCIAL MEASURES OF SELECTED ALABAMA COMNMERCIAL BANKS, 1968-75
Item
Average value
1968
Mil. dol.
Total assets 40.3
Total deposits 35.5
Total loans 21.6
Total farm loans 2.3
Real estate --. 6
Non real estate 1.7
1975
Mil. dol.
86.6
72.8
46.3
3.9
.9
3.0
Change from
1968-1975
Percent
115
105
114
70
50
76
Avraevau
v \I
I I----- - --- ---- ----------------------------?
INSECTS are susceptible to many diseases
caused by microorganisms such as fungi,
bacteria, and viruses. The possibility of
using such disease agents or pathogens
to control insect pests has long been rec-
ognized, and research with this form of
biological control has been conducted for
several years by many institutions and
agencies, including Auburn University
Agricultural Experiment Station. Contro-
versy over chemical insecticides and the
stringent controls on their production and
use have focused greater attention on
pathogens as possible substitutes and as
a means of reducing use of chemicals.
Two pathogens that have been studied
extensively at Auburn and elsewhere are
the nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV)
and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
(BT), both of which infect various cater-
pillars including cabbage loopers. Many
of the biological, chemical, and physical
properties of these pathogens have been
determined in the laboratory, and their
efficacy as control agents has been estab-
lished by field tests. As an example of
the latter, some data from experiments
on the North Alabama Horticulture Sub-
station are summarized in Table 1. Con-
trol of cabbage loopers and imported
cabbage worms with BT was equal to
that with the chemical insecticide. Al-
though somewhat less effective, the NPV
also reduced damage caused by loopers.
Results from this and similar studies
prompted investigation into the possibil-
ity of combining BT and NPV to control
loopers. Conceivably, such a combination
could be advantageous when more than
one type of caterpillar occurred on the
same crop simultaneously. Also, the two
pathogens possibly might interact in a
synergistic manner, thereby giving a
much higher level of control but with
less pathogen than if each were used
separately. However, the pathogens pos-
sibly might interfere with the action of
each other making a combination less
TABLE 1. CONTROL OF LOOPERS AND
IMPORTED CABBAGEWORMS ON CABBAGE
AND COLLARDS, CULLMAN, 1971-1975
Treatment Rate/A. Damage
rating'
BT 0.5 2.7
BT 1.0 2.3
BT ? chiordimeform 0.5 + 0.5 2.1
NPV 50 L.E. 3.4
NPV 100 L.E. 5.0
Untreated - 6.7
1 1-10 scale, where 1 = no damage, 5
5-10% leaf loss, 10 = total leaf loss (a
rating of 5 is considered the limit of mar-
ketability).
2 L.E. - larval equivalent, or amount of
virus from no. of larvae indicated.
effective in control than either pathogen
alone. Answers to these and related ques-
tions were sought in laboratory experi-
ments using combinations of NPV and
BT on cabbage looper larvae.
Laboratory-reared larvae were fed on
a standard artificial diet-medium into
which desired concentrations of the path-
ogens had been incorporated. The dos-
age levels of the pathogens were in the
range expected to kill 10 to 40% of the
larvae treated. Such dosage levels are
lower than those used in mos
laboratory studies, but were
hopes of finding pathogen
that might be masked or ove
higher dosage levels.
Combinations of the two pa
sulted in higher larval mortalit
either pathogen alone, Table
TABLE 2. MORTALITY OF CABBA
FED ON DIET CONTAININ
NPV, OR BOTH
Treatment
Low BT
Low NPV
Low BT + low NPV ...
High BT
High NPV
High BT + high NPV
Among 50 larvae; larvae w
to feed on the indicated diet unt
or pupated.
TABLE 3. MORTALITY OF CABBA
FED ON DIET CONTAINING BT
PRIOR FEEDING ON DIET CONT
Prior treatment
Clean diet for 24 hr..........
NPV diet for 24 hr...........
Clean diet for 48 hr.
NPV diet for 48 hr.
Clean diet for 72 hr.
NPV diet for 72 hr...........
Clean diet for 96 hr..........
NPV diet for 96 hr.
SLarvae were fed on clean di
containing NPV for the time in
transferred to diet containing
lowed to feed until they died or
' Among 150-200 larvae.
ever, the increase was relatively small
and did not indicate any synergistic in-
teraction of the pathogens.
A second study was conducted to de-
termine if treatment with a low dose of
one pathogen followed later by a com-
paratively low dose of another would al-
ter the level of mortality expected from
either pathogen alone. Larvae were first
fed for varying periods of time on diets
containing a dose of NPV expected to
kill ultimately about 10% of the larvae.
t field and The largae were then transferred to diet
chosen in containing BT at a level previously shown
nteractions to kill about 20% of the larvae. Control
-rridden at larvae were fed for the same periods on
clean or non-virus-containing diets before
thogens re- transfer to diet 
containing BT.
ty than did Mortalities among larvae fed on NPV
S2. How- diet prior to feeding on BT diet were
consistently higher than those among lar-
GE LOOPERS vae fed for the same 
time on clean diet
G BT, before feeding on BT diet, Table 8.
Analysis of the data showed that all of
Mortality' 
the increases were 
within the range 
ex-
Pct. 
pected as 
additive 
effects and 
did not
22 indicate 
any synergistic 
interaction be-
22 
tween the 
pathogens.
33 Results of these experiments showed
29 that NPV and BT in combination pro-
39 duced greater mortality of cabbage 
loop-
43 ers than 
either pathogen 
alone. The level
ere allowed of increased mortality appeared to be due
il they died to the effect of 
one pathogen added to
that of another, and was not sufficiently
GE LOOPERS great 
to indicate synergism 
from the
FOLLOWING combination. However, 
there did not
AINING NPV appear to be any interference between
actions of the pathogens at the dosage
Mortality2 levels tested. Possibly, some 
interference
Pct. might occur with combinations at higher
44 dosages. Based on the level of increased
49 mortality seen in these tests, simultaneous
237 application of 
NPV and BT would not
26 seem 
practical for control 
of cabbage
35 loopers. However, the results did indi-
15 cate that control with BT might be en-
27 hanced if loopers 
were already infected
et or on diet with NPV. This is significant because
dicated then natural infection 
by NPV invariably oc-
BT and al-
pupated. curs in populations 
of cabbage looper in
the 
field.
15
USING PATHOGENS
to
CONTROL LOOPERS
J. R. McVAY and R. T. GUDAUSKAS, Department of Botany and Microbiology
J. D. HARPER and C. A. KOUSKOLEKAS, Department of Zoology-Entomology
Stancd Conversion From Law Quality Phi
In North Alalbama
GLENN GLOVER and DEAN GJERSTAD, Forestry Dnpartment
DinX ridge tof) sites stocked wsitliliow-
grade hardw~xoods colistittite at significalilt
poirtion of the' Forested ar ea inii tortheri i
Alabaf ).. \\ ien' 1 fully stocked wXitith lirci-
wXoodls thiese' sites plroduice nto more thi
100) bar(d Peet peit a cre per eai but itrie
capable of producinig :3001 to 500) boaird
feet pcr acre per . eat if' fully stocked
w~itli pit e. I loss CXer, most forest 055 er-
shipls il or0th Alalitio~it are less tlaim 50)
alcs. mlaikimg cotmXersi('i to pioc byX
ileaX X v lccial or i tree-injection mneti-
oited at tile rate of 0.7 11). A.
ros spae 8littt ft. apart.
Test Sites
TwXo atrcas iol (offert C'ount
loalmI sodl ( Area 1),. the other
claX' loam (Areat 1L), we rc ci
titt stuldy. Oaks tfolflflited the
of 1)oth aris wi th small iiickoi
daot iii .Ari 1, buot lealX ailset
11. 'Ehe mtajorit ft I OX ei 'irtrX
4 to 12 io. diameter brIeast hi
iof tile oX ei stolt X il XXIX ellilIX
ti eatmeiit.
STIOCKING, _%.m SIzbl 01, LoBOcci, PINE' SEDLINGS' F'OUR YEA- is AlIE I1)]
SciLlxi. ANo APICtATlION 01 BoXIACIL
A\ erilge numb~ler of Aver age scci
i-,r,,it tretmnt seedlings/acre highrt
Arcll I
L b. /A. a~.i.
Alca II
No.
1,588
2,36t)
817
1 316
.Area I
wXith fuli- Test Results
XO11 eatl' atet' sCdillg.T tl ettllitsl
appaledcc to hie effectiX e ill Arit I hut
vX, otne at oot fin Ateat 11. 'The table slioss numbitier
at saild (IV f pi lie stems peri acre a oc avXerage hei1gilt
losell fol, of tiC thre it u allest trees oil echC of six
OX eistot, 'iN rosws per p~lot.
-ic' ah tin- At t acceptahlc iin itim1( stockifng of
it in Areat 4001) 5001 trees per iacre XXa ,I accompit)1slicli
lees XX ete wXith all] treattmeots. Except f ior tie 2.(0
ill. Noociie 1. iaite, trealtmen'it dlid linit alffect brce
di before hecight inl Area 11. lIn Area I though, all]
flQe fn(*jde triltolelits r esulited il it a XIb)
stalitiA ll Icri c ini ti-ec hililt. The d111-
liiT (fet etlce ill I esfpollse ictetX'elI Al elts I iia
If lit lbe dflie toI higli iorgitlic ma~tter
ait
1
iliX 'iliitlit of1 Area 11s s1111 Xhichl
Allea II Test resulfts inidica 
te proml)ise l or tihec
ilse (of fpelfttcd itet iicdcs f'or still 1( oil-
ve. rsion1, but fuite i worX(Ik is ne~eded. Mod-
15.4 ified methods 
'luei as I enoX al of 
Ol('
17.6
16.7 ci 1 llal~e (IXerstot X to reiduice coot Ct 1-
34.2 tiol andl~ offset costs (If he(ricidie linid
seedin g operaltim(1IX shol 1111hI e coittdered.
Test Method
A less explensiXve inetlild ilf silOulta)-
voil II sI apl 'li vinig at fel feted ciherbic ' ie a od
p~ine see'd visilg light eiquiipmenlt\,I
testedh fIX Tenniessee \ltilleX Aiitlioiits
fpelfeted hierbficide 1) (Itilf (i as us,\sat
XP 10%Y itctiN e itilrrediei t) . 1tromacif XXaI
ictfX C inlgredientt (ali.) oi a 4 ft. X 4 ft.
Hieriiite application and seetinog
ss ire calre oeti its n 150ICofleratiol I iou
at 12 lIp. t atir sst ita scailer (li thii
troilt iltd ll [H-(' furlroXw seetdet il tilt
rear. At I tg! icifttrailt ihemical appflilcatior
XX drop)ii tc lthe req ie ICalon o lii 11cic
it Ispo(ts 2 feet ('itihir sitfe o~f the seeded't
fiurrows. Stratifiedi (1 hlliX plinet sceed
c'oaltid 55 il li i reellen't Xer iitiffrib-
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
PUBLICATION--Highlights of
Agricultural Research 9/76 10M
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