Of agricultural research Volume 23, No. 2 Summer 1976 Agricultural Experiment Station Auburn University R. Dennis Rouse, Director Auburn, Alabama DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS M~t'iil IXIM f r frIT , 11 1 ), 1) istIIIItaI IIIII Iotf.c Im "X t I i ll Aff)Ibiilliil'S b tXit' fotentialf is fa fiiit n boX r i -li zd umllou 1)11)]liie exs lot- in i 0 t)" i (If) liiII fiX (' the' plop . Aeol gIelt (If utilal icliti. ll 1, &f~I fiiolooareis all ile1ill('5x, II1 tNIOII illlit l tviofliries lltlpral tun1t1e (Io. io titoes lfives1ogkoli(1 duceio os tc suhif broiiile O ll (11, AlliiX seg ent of l ti a illlgteit hi dtiS r\X li faiii'' tagibusianleort to ; 1 ) R.D NI1O S dusill" lI i t ~11ttiofl agicul ptu l Ir sources.il I 'li sucs of allX gX(,tei i -olX Ol X0101 tIpldX X till e dependti(s t ll Ill cIlal eili ldte ii isfow X't '-l lI ~itiiIX Dccfiioas to i f fll g o llaione clll- Xa 'tiht'la 14 i Iliolitie to iiadt' i n- etai lgtIr Ifltois t il'ttl X 1(1 'o- XI/e ile till-i s io ai or je to st op Rtile. DE NI Rii O SE o 101115 If l~ili p . 110111 ilifX it illiCL oIho'ltiiX X l~ fofiX 3.) Ilo fx'as, 15a.l eggX 14:3.0: fol ilrespons 125o) fiogX.i 124n1)tioeef For example, ctil i' o(f ot li Ntreatr ill Alaam inc esXed i d14ol a ii dt its 1(1 rle t of,1 ( li e ie (I oii il a bo e(11 1 O tha ~i es, clt Xil e 15. fl('(' ifl le's ti975 Xgros'sfin llff(tt(( twits esotieateil S1.4 t btl i- (lionbt he Ail abamai/'l (:lill il tlit c(1 ftullioll Ifc fomeltt I Ie colo IoIIIXXtiis 1 t this (im ortan c11 loft li i o tlis t th I t'Sll M h(111p X hm- 51111( the i ers('it of1 i a'gIrIIict' u Iiral . Sloruitis progra m eXX i i ((ilt' alots of dilirlj frntjli illX i tdi iua Xl i o moit(iXs \\as: brotillrs l)Ieelil SlOXX'IwimX sisX 5.0 ieggs 13.0; porllftaiX 125.l hogsX 12tateef C t'X, f 11.0 to mis 10tlf~ 5 .0; relfi tto 105;ortrag' i c lturgalgt fcros t89('0; goalsv . 0 If e d op raiXl t' l iatelildl Serlee 6 X ilX. I i.g al k i l oc rtll thelri (iie opporn y toI gr(1 tl X 111k' srincra ie p dch Ioll) t'X 11 esrodu111i n efe ncy of1 all thei ilt'l It if Xt 1111111) f ties1 , 1111k i ko e stilt' thow itill loritireo 11ao p1(1irolaly troduce alve 10 d A grow l hmlo w~e eaa!'w ... )1 \\ liffi 1 ). 1)li,\ X.X,,, A s i it Pill Aflitti .Aflialletlies, re'ports eaiXIN fiiid- 11)45 11f his Xtlif\(I of ellilligilig fishi fllfliflit tillX ill till iltXX\\ \Vst Piniit liescivXoir ill till stlS ol fpige . IThis fplojc (11(l'I (ilts 11oc1 phailse (If ll'5ta1i t ib fI])11- X it'5 XXo fil pec'tialize's ill XXorIk elt'iiig XXithi fpof)O I atilli I tfv i 111Its (If I eser- X\orl fisheIts. itilsi of fish- l'r statistics, iliit sfport fish iiilige'lll'l t. tfid fhis ultergradtlleil studv at Purtdue( UtiX 'I itX, v,'t'e'eived thie \l.S. frontl Oflio Stalte Ui IXel sitX a1n1d (fill Ihis doctora1li sitv. Du111 lu 1966-(67, ill wasI a researell blilo~gist flor thll U.S. lilreal (If Coln- 111 ierial I ishi Is ill ltleifolt, North burn11 faculty sitce 1971), st'iiog ill bo~thl teaeflig 11nd1 researchi roles for till Schiool oIf Agriclltlie and1( Agricltul~l fEll AlfillllltlSil .st f 11 illosvs X'iktt ii f ifi l 1 l ill i II ( It l ,,iIl l i t fi our tii ( (116cr HIGHLIGHTS of Agricural Research SUMMER t1976' VOL 23, NO. 2 A (tuarterly report of research published by the Agricultural Experiment Station of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. R. DENNIS ROUSE -- ---- -- Director STANLEY P. WILSON- Associate Director CiHAS. F. SIMMONS---- Assistant Director T. E. CORLEY -------- Assistant Director E. L. r1cGIA Wv ----------------Editor R. E. STEVENSON ------ Associate Editor Roy RBRSON --------Assistant Editor Editorial Advisory Conu nittcc: STIANLEY 1'. WIL SON; 0. L. ClIANIBLiss, Associate Prolfessor oIf Holrticlulture; \VALTEI( D. Ki,:i ro, Assistant Professor (If Boatanyu and Alicrobioliogi/ EMIL. L. WIGIN.s'S, Professor of Anllial and( D~airy 1 Sciences, AND) E. L. McG I tAXV. AubUrn University is anl equal opportunity emplfoyer. ON THE COVER. Electrofishing techniques are used to gather fish population samples in the West Point Reservoir. Largemouth Bass Growing Fast in West Point Reservoir W. D. DAVIES, Deporirnent of Fisheries and Allied Aquacutw-es W. L. SHELTON, Atoo:,rria Cooperoivre Fisheries Research Unit I X 1. ll l'I III: re(ser-voir-s proxidc ('\I'Cftllli fising, especially for cadl IlivX ol Spec 5)I(ies5 such1 its tile 131-getliolitli baiss. W\itin a relatively few year-s, 11o\%- eve r, ea1se of (catehinig fish appears to de- e'xpailldiilg fish poltlatiolI'. Tile filling of at iiexx lesnirX pI )I('1' ts i1 X .st It,\ CXV area of, iiiot'eilpied Space'. Ill- utile d C t rees and( stinp 110pr )ovide cox (,I, 311(1 fhoiolg of rh ilottoin lands con- tites to fetiility of tbe 1body of xX atei. Thes 1co( ('111it Iol s of inc reased s pace atndl (cove id all( 31 ii ldinie of' f1)od are ideal for rapid poptilationl ex1)atiion. For ex- amlelll' 3 large lillili)r of bass5 are usti- ailly ha~tcheit( II i('X new t' r servir. A lairge perc('(iltage of' tile fora ige fish p isetisI yeat hug baiss, So) groXth tl 31( slirX iX al areC adultit fish iiAk( if) it greaiter 1)11 (s'lt4gl' pre ssll o)1 rep) lductioll of bo0th b)ass inld lot .ge fish. Thiis coti(Iitioll tx ClitllialX is I (Ilcu(tt( ill 3t (fc(lille ill caitchi per1 uIlit of' Ilix t to form1 West I'oitit 11('Xi'l oilers all excellenit 011ortlitiitx to (111('llticllt ('iltiges that tlke place1 XX ttiiii t 3 l' impJouninlolt. Aubilnin i 'tII tv' Agri- 'llltltiia Ft\1)CI-illielit Statioll is tdkiiig ad- X alltioge of tis 0 1 )J0'tlil itX, w Xithi I-(, Sech, l.1 n d11((1 X 3 to gathier ilotinlatioti tiatiolial fititefits (If rCXCI Xoil's. Iligiti hung inl July 1975, fish populationls iii West Po intt ReserirIIX ' wer samledllC~ Ceh XX eek byX (leCtIofisiig to dtei'iiiti pop- A liirge Iinlbicr (If bass5 wer ('C it('iiCel duiiing Api -ii me 1975. Those thait XwerIe fiat i ied early ( April) grew latpi d I to~ :3 to -1 in. and( titilitCel the, large ituiers of tlit '3(fili and( gil/ald shad13 that had b)eci 1)'el Sp1n 1d f ioi lijif Mat ('i throughl Apil. It was it d ifferenlt stoi v for biass sfpiXX111(1 Littt ( iiie), lil)XX(X ,('I, silie liX.\ XXIII XIialltI' thli thie 11)1i1 itX of' lol age fish ritaullilig ill the popu)tlatiotn and( lilaflC to feed onl thein. hts, the 1975 (cat ('135 of bass shlows it 3XXide X,;a 'lllniI' by U.S. Ait Cn (orps oIf Etuii_- FIG. 1. There is wide varia- tion in the 1975 year-class of largemouth boss in West Point Reservoir, as evidenced by these three collected from the lake. Size ranged from the top one, which meas- ured about 1 5 in. and weighed 3.6 lb., down ta the 4-in, one at bottom. riltionl it) size - ill to 15 ill. longo (3.6i i). ) for1 till eal-iX haitchi 3111 as smoall is 1 ill. foi tihe later oll('s. Figure 1. Fish largel tiii T ill. are ill Ie Aiti iX Thoese inl the 4 to) 5 ilI. raiiL~e areC 5CXereX\ stiunIted. Tie to inty of bass5 less tilt 7 in. that sulrXvXiv the( XX int(r an~d earlXv spritng shold~l grows I i)Xlt once the iiCX Cearlas 135 shad 5i an d otiler fora ge spe- ('115 are p~roducl(ed ill I 976i. tFishiiog inl W\est Point Rieserv5oir Xwas relatiXveIX ligilt dlultitg 1975. At that tillil, the in int s of bass ill the pIoptl atiI)I FIG. 2. Posters are used to request fishermen to report tagged bass caught, along with in- formation about size and dote and location of the catch. lliI,151 I'l less iiii tim ll' I'-o ill ( I')gili le'gal liitiit. Batnk fishlIIlici frlilnti ('ilgilt fish less than It) ili. Boat fisliei- il)l'll oftteti locaited Schoos1 (,, hiss rltouo 0 r f romt it) to 14 ill. lolign (r Iid 'frequll Bass fislilg ill 1976 shou1ld1win hiigilx Soi'' 4- tio 5-11). 11,15 ilf till 1975 X ('iI clas irii\ he tiggllTh fier (ill th lIX fsll Bas hilit i tikiti t~is labo.lal bl oidli'' finabl I) l- ~ll''i heI X'(l 'irc' ilii 19,5ilet thlit [(calles ron I t X'll os tl '1Ifil 5111 XXr of( bstO greaterl tiall1 10IX iig are leak bii agd e Fungicides Used For Control Of Peach Scab May Affect Bacterial Wilt A. J. LATHAM, Department of Botany ond Microbiology C. C. CARLTON, Chilton Area Horticulture Substation O NE OF~ riuL. importantt unresolved problems to Alabama peach production is bacterial spot Caused by Xanthomnonas prllni (see figure). During 197:3 and 1974 (lamage bx' this bacterium witas so extensiv e that ev aluation of' fungicide con- tr ol cf seal) on Elberta peaches wx as impossilble. Selected fungicide treatments wvere applied xwith ali air - b~last sprayer to fix c-tree plots and wxere replicated four times in a randomized block design. Treatments wxere applied oil Red Globe and Elberta cultixars during 1975 ait the Chiltoin Area Holrticulture Substatioin. Linie-sulfur (1I gal. per 1 00 gal. of xvater) wxas applied at 3-day intervals during b~loonm. Beginning wvith petal fall, the folloxving fungicides xwere ap- plied at 10-14 dax inuterxvals as coxver sprays either singly or in combination: benomyl (Benlate 50NN ), captani (Captan 50)V), dodine (Cvprex 65W), mnethx ,1 2- henziidazolecarba - mnate (DPX 10), henomyl + captan ( DPX 1 1511). cupric hy- droxide ( Kocide 101 3) and thiuphianate mnethyl (Top- sinj-NI 70\') . Unsprax'ed check plots xxere included for treat- miet comparisons. Recommended insecticides xxere used xxith the fungicides. Fruit disease counts xvere made from txwo boxes of peasches (450-500 peaches) harvested randoml\ per replicate. l(INCIDNC OF BACTERIAL SPOT AND SCAB 115051 BLi) GLOBE, PEACHES SP1EiD WL5ITH FUNGCI DES, CHlLTON\ AREA HIwsCULTURE SUSTATION, t975 Treatments and rate per 100 gallons Bcnlate 50W -- - Kocide 101 8:3W- lBcnlate 50W- Captan 5OW---- Captan 50W -- - Cyprex 65W------- Captan 50W ---- Kocide 101 83W --- IDPX 10 ------- DPX 115B -------- TIopsin-M 70W--- Check (unsprayed)- Percent fruit affected at App-ha rvest cations Cen ca)Bacterial Clean Scab spot 84.91) t a 14.9a 80.61) 0 it 19.Oa 92.11) 0.2at 6.7a 71 .3b 79.81) '39.:3a 68.01) 16.7a 15.6a 0) a 0.1a 0).2a 71.81) I1I. la 19.6a 56.6b 31.Oa 9.4a 'F -full season application, 2c =2 coxver spray applications. The small letters indicate Dinican's miultiple groupings of treat- mients which do not differ significantly at the five percent lexel. AUl fungicides gaxve excellent control of scab) except the Captan 50OW Kocide 101 coin ]in atioi i. The high incidence of scab) in the unsprayed p)lots apparently masked bacterial Ipot Symptoms. Control of bacterial spot was best xvith the highest number of clean fruit found in the Captan 50W plus (x prex 65W treatment. The next best control of spot oc- curred when Captan 5OW or Benlate 50W xvas used xvith Kocide 101. A comparison of the Benlate 50WV-Captan 50OW combination xvith DPX 1 15B shoxvedl nearly three times bet- ter bacterial spot control occurred xvith 2.5 lb). as xwith 0.5 lb. Thus, these fungicides demonstr ated some bacterial activity at these rates (see table). Kocide 101. a formulation of cupric hydroxide, is an excel- lent b~actericide, hoxwever, it can cause phytotoxicity. These tests shoxved that, xwhen used with Benlate 5OW or Captanj 5OW, phytotoxic effects were prevented. In other tests on Elberta peaches, combinations of Kocide 101 xwith sulfur and IBenlate 50NV caused extensive leaf shot-holing and defolia- tion, and fruit maturity reduction. F'urther evaluations oi Copper compounds must be made to determine their effi- cacy for control of X. pruni. Kocide 101 is not recomn- mien~ded for use on peaches at tile p~resen~t time in Alabama, except during the dormant stage. MONENSIN TRIED AS FEED ADDITIVE FOR STEERS R. R. HARRIS and W. B. ANTHONY, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences J. A. LITTLE, Lower Coastal Plain Substation V. L. BROWN, Department of Research Operations M ONENSsN IS A NE\V TERM to most cattlemen, but one that is being heard frequently in animal science research circles. Reason for this interest is that monensin (sold by Eli Lilly and Co. as "Rumensin") reportedly improves feed efficiency of finishing cattle. A bacterial fermentation product, mnonensin was used suc- cessfully by the poultry industry to control coccidiosis before its effect on cattle was discovered. As an additive in beef finishing rations, mouensin later was found to decrease feed intake and improve feed conversion of finishing cattle. It is theorized that this effect on cattle is due to an increased proportion of propionic acid in the rumen. To assess the value of monensin to cattle under Alabama conditions, the product was studied by Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station. It was tried as an ingre- dient of a supplement fed to grazing cattle and as an additive in a finishing ration. Effect on grazing cattle was determined for both summer (Coastal bermudagrass) and winter (oats-ryegrass-clover) grazing at the Lower Coastal Plain Substation. Monensin was incorporated into cottonseed meal (CSM) or corn and fed daily to steers on continuous grazing. Steers were brought TABLE 1. EFFECT r OF COTTONSEED \lEAL AND \IONENSIN ON( RATE OF (AIN OF SiTEES CnHAZING COASTAL BERMU)DAG(IASS, JUNE 1-SEPTEMBER 20, 1975 Result, by daily supplement/steer' Item 1 lb. 1 lb. CSNM + monensin None C 5mg 50mg 100mg 200mg Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Initial weight 570 573 572 570 572 572 Total gain 155 159 161 166 169 173 Average daily gain 1.:38 1.42 1.44 1.48 1.52 1.55 Averages of 20 steers per treatment group. TABLE 2. EFFECT OF ColH i AND iONENSIN ON RATE OF (AIN OI STEERS (HAZING 0ATS-HiYECHASS-CLOVEnR, DECEMBER 9, 1974-MAY 1, 1975 Result, by daily supplement/steer' Item None corn 2 lb. corn + monensin 2 lb. 50mg 100mg 2 0 0mu Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Initial weight 469 467 468 468 469 Total gain --- .. 265 299 289 .308 315 Average daily gain 1.88 2.12 2.05 2.18 2.23 ' Averages of 16 steers per treatment group. Different ear tag colors were used to identify steers getting each rate of monensin in the experiment. into a corral daily where they w\ere fed the prescribed rate of monensin on an individual basis. Feed consumption was recorded daily and steels were weighed every 28 days. For the 112-day summer test, Coastal pastures were stocked at the rate of 2 steers per acre. Twenty yearling beef steers were assigned to each of the following six feeding treatments: grazing only, and grazing plus 1 lb. of CSM with 0, 25, 50, 100, or 200 mg of monensin per animal daily. The winter grazing trial lasted 141 days, with 16 steers per treatment. Feeding treatments were the same as with Coastal grazing, except the monensin was incorporated into corn and there was no 25-mg monensin feeding rate. Performance data show that steers grazing Coastal benmuda gained at about the same rate whether supplemented with CSM or not (1.42 vs. 1.38 lb. per day). Monensin had little effect on rate of gain except at the higher feeding rates, Table 1. Animal response to monensin on the oats-ryegrass-clover pasture was similar to that on bermuda. The major difference noted was higher daily gain on winter than on summer graz- ing (2.1 vs. 1.5 lb., respectively). Most gain increase from supplement feeding was from the corn instead of the monen- sin, Table 2. At the end of the 141-day winter grazing period, steers were finished on a ration of 64% shelled corn, 10% CSM, 15% grass hay, 10% cane molasses, and 0.5% each trace min- eralized salt and dicalcium phosphate. All ingredients were ground and blended, and the mixture was self-fed. Two groups of 20 steers each were fed the basal ration and two comparable groups of 20 each were fed the ration containing monensin. The monensin was added at the rate of 10 mg per pound of feed. Carcass quality and yield grade data were col- lected at the end of the 84-day finishing period. Monensin showed a positive effect in the finishing ration. Steers gained 2.64 lb. daily, as compared with 2.35 lb. for those getting the basal ration alone. Daily feed conversion also was improved by adding monensin, with feed per cwt. gain dropping from 1,017 lb. to 827 lb. Results also indicate that adding monensin reduced amount of feed eaten by the steers. The material was removed from the ration 3 days preceding slaughter, and feed consumption increased by 15%. Carcasses graded Good or Choice regardless of ration treat- ment. Monensin had no significant effect on carcass char- acteristics, such as quality or yield grade, or on moisture, fat, and protein content as estimated by a prediction equation. Results from the Auburn tests, as well as other research reported in the literature, indicate that monensin will have little effect on performance of grazed cattle. However, adding monensin to finishing mixtures will improve feed conversion and may improve rate of gain. SBreeding Pickling Cucumbers for Resistance to Cucumber Beetles OYETTE L. CHAMBLISS, Department of Horticulture B ITTE IS BETTEH,. At least that is the taste preference of the pesky cucumber beetle. And this fact is the basis for current efforts toward developing cucumber varieties that are resistant to that destructive insect. Plants of the cucurbit family are char- acteristicallv bitter, and it is this bitter- ness that attracts the cucumber beetle. In fact, the insect does not like to feed on cucumber plants lacking that hitter- iess. Spotted cucumber beetles refuse to eat plants that do not have the bitter principle. Striped cucumber beetles pre- fer bitter plants, but will eat non-bitter types if no bitter ones are available. Thus, resistance due to plant bitterness is less effllective against the striped beetle. The bitter principles are especially concentrated in young seedlings, so the beetles are stimulated to begin feeding as soon as cucuimber plants emerge. This makes beetle attacks of particular con- cern with pickling cucumbers, which are normally field seeded in commercial pro- duction. Severe stand losses often result when insect populations are high at time of plant emergence. Non-bitter varieties of fresh market, or slicer, type cucumbers have already been developed to avoid the erratic occurrence of bitter fruit from varieties with bitter plants. Cucumber beetle resistance in these varieties was coincidental with lack of bitterness. A bitter taste is not as noticeable in pickled cucumbers and does not pose a serious problem, so non-bitter pickling varieties have not beel devel- oped. Therefore, pickling varieties in use are susceptible to cucumber beetles. Research Seeks Resistance (;tting cucumber beetle resistance into improved pickling type breeding lines is a major objective of the breeding program at Auburn University Agricul- tural Experiment Station. Eversweet, one of the earliest non-bitter slicer varieties, is the source of cucumber beetle resis- tance iii the breeding program. Since Eversweet lacks the dominant gene for bitterness, its genetic make-up (homozy- gous recessive) prevents the develop- ment of bitter principles in any part of the plant. Progenies were developed from crosses - ar Plants containing the bitter principles (left) show characteristic (center) that were not damaged. Single plants sometimes segregate cucumber beetle damage, as contrasted with non-bitter plants for resistance in otherwise susceptible populations (right). 6 between El erswe cet and commercial types with bitter plants. These progenies seg- regate for cucumnber beetle resistance in a ratio of :3 susceptible to 1 resistant, which is typical of a character controlled by a single dominant gene. Other hort- icultural characteristics, such as plant and fruit type, also segregate. Selections for cucumber beetle resis- lance were made from among plants that had already been screened for suitable horticultural characteristics. This speeded Iup progress since any resistant plant se- lected would also have desirable horti- cultural characteristics. These selections and the original segregating populations were compared in caged screening tests for resistance to spotted cucumber beetle. Segregating populations are shown in the photographs. In some cases single plants were segregating for resistance from pop- ulations in which all other plants were susceptible. Most Segregate Resistant Plants Of the 14 selections tested for resis- tance, only 4 did not segregate resistant plants. This indicated that most of the plants selected for horticultural type car- ried genes for both resistance and sus- ceptibility to cucumber beetles (hetero- zygous for resistance). When self-pol- linated, the progeny therefore segregated for resistance. Resistant plants were selected, band pollinated for seed increase, and further selections were made for horticultural type in the field. Several of these selec- tions have fruit types with pickling char- acteristics (see title photograph). Selection will continue in each line for the improvement of fruit type, produc- tivity, disease resistance, adaptibility to Alabama growing conditions, and general commercial adaptibility. HIowever, resis- tance to cucumber beetles is the base from which selections will be made. Backcrosses to commercial types will contribute genetic factors from which im- proved types may be selected. I "r"ll FOR THE PAST 4 years, everyone has been faced with extremely large increases in food prices. The average rise of 7% in 1975 appeared relatively mild after a 14% increase in 1974, and a 17% jump during 1973. Unhappy consumers have wanted to know who is getting rich from these price increases and who they should blame for their expensive bag of groceries. The average retail cost of all foods, ex- cept eggs, was higher in 1975 than 1974. Livestock products and crop-related products shared the rise in retail prices during the year, a sharp contrast to 1974 when crop price increases contributed the most and 1973 when livestock prod- ucts contributed more than two-thirds of the food cost increase. Also during 1975, extreme price varia- tions were witnessed for almost all food groups. Early in the year beef prices were lower than they had been for 2 years, however, they climbed rapidly during the latter months and then leveled off. The availability of grain fed beef had a great influence on these prices. The average retail prices per pound of beef were $1.27 in March, $1.61 in July, and down to $1.51 in December. Dairy product prices showed similar trends, de- clining for the first half of the year and THE MARKET BASKET OF FARM FOODS: RETAIL COST, FARM VALUE, FARM- RETAIL SPREAD, AND FARMERS SHARE OF RETAIL COST Year Farm Farm- and Retail Farm retail ers quarter cost value spread share ---------Dollars Pct. 1967 1,080.64 419.07 661.57 39 1968 1,113.06 441.28 671.78 39 1969 1,178.98 481.09 697.89 41 1970 1971 1,250.30 479.42 770.88 38 1972 1,310.82 524.26 786.56 40 1973 1,537.75 700.88 836.87 46 1974 1,749.56 747.94 1,001.62 43 1975 1,875.99 782.41 1,093.58 42 1973 I 1,413.48 625.67 787.81 44 II 1,496.69 673.24 823.45 45 III 1,603.01 780.31 823.38 49 IV 1,635.01 723.73 911.28 44 1974 I 1,720.38 779.05 941.33 45 II 1,731.19 708.23 1,022.96 41 III 1,750.64 743.01 1,007.63 42 IV 1,797.10 760.19 1,036.91 42 1975 I 1,824.12 724.57 1,099.55 40 II 1,838.17 764.80 1,073.3,7 42 III 1,919.22 837.72 1,081.50 44 IV 1,922.46 803.78 1,118.68 42 turning up sharply during the last few months. In spite of price increases for most food items during 1975, the overall rise was less than the 9% for all consumer goods and services. Since 1967, the re- tail cost of the market basket of farm foods has risen 74%, while the Con- sumer Price Index for all goods and serv- ices excluding food has increased only 57%. This slow down in food price in- creases and its continuance into 1976 could play a large part in reducing the overall level of inflation. The farm food market basket is a gauge established by USDA to measure FACTORS behind RISING Food COSTS Should the FARMER be BLAMED? W. E. HARDY, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology average changes in retail food prices and indicate the relative returns to farmers and the processing and marketing pro- cess. The so-called market basket con- tains the average quantities of domestic farm-produced foods bought annually per household in 1960 and 1961 by families of urban wage earners and clerical work- ers and by single persons living alone. The retail cost of the market basket for a specific year is an estimate of what the foods in the 1960-61 food basket would cost in the current year. The cost does not represent all the money a typical urban family spends for food dur- ing the year. It does not include the cost of meals eaten away from home, nor does it contain the cost of seafoods or imported foods such as coffee or bananas. The table gives an idea of how the farmer has fared since 1967 as the price of the market basket of farm foods has increased. Quarterly information is given for the past 3 years. The retail cost of the market basket has shown a continued upward trend for the 9 years. Similar movement is found in data for earlier years. The relative amount that the farmer has received from the total increased slightly over these years with 1973 appearing to be the best year for the producer. During that year, the third quarter in particular, farmers were receiving all-time high prices for their goods. The farmer's share of the food dollar reached 46%, its highest peak in recent history. Also, these higher farm values accounted for an unusually high percentage of the total increase in food prices during 1973, 78%. The increase in farm value figures for the last 2 years reflects somewhat more of a normal situation. The increase in this value was responsible for only 22% of the overall gain in food prices from 1973 to 1974 and 24% of the increase from 1974 to 1975. Certainly a great reduction from the changes witnessed in 1973. The remainder of the cost in- creases for those years was caused by the advance in the farm-retail spread - the marketing margin. This margin is com- posed of charges made by the food in- dustry for assembly, processing, trans- porting, and distributing a market basket of farm produced foods, plus a certain amount for profit. Since the ending of wage and price controls in mid-1973, these marketing margins have risen about 36% with the bulk of this increase coming in late 1973 and early 1974. These wider margins have accounted for two-thirds of the rise in food costs. In spite of these great changes, an adjustment to the retail price controls, there was little increase in the margin during 1975. In fact, it even declined slightly during mid-year, giving the producer a larger share of the total dollar. Who is to blame for the higher food prices of the 1970s? The data seem to indicate that both the farmer and the middleman have gained during the pe- riod. The producer realized the greatest increase during late 1972 and early 1973, while those concerned with processing and marketing achieved the advantage during the closing months of 1973 and throughout 1974. Both segments shared in the gain during 1975 with farmers showing strength at mid-year but de- clining toward the end. This gradual decline has continued into 1976. POxDS IN Alabama are often fertilized to increase the production of microscopic plants (phytoplankton) that are the food of minute animals (zooplankton) and aquatic insects. Bream eat plankton and insects and bass feed largely on bream. Fertilization of bass-bream ponds usu- ally doubles or triples fish production, but five to six fold increases are occasion- ally achieved. An additional benefit of fertilization is that plankton turbidity in ponds restricts light penetration and helps control underwater weeds. The dense growths of tiny plants and animals in ponds discolor water, usuallh some shade of green, and are calledt "plankton blooms." Plankton blooms dense enough to restrict the visibility of underwater objects to depths of 18 to 24 in. should be maintained in bass- bream ponds. However, tests have shown that heavier plankton blooms are unde- sirable because they may suddenly die and decompose causing depletion of dis- solved oxygen and fish kills. Dense plankton blooms may also cause oxygen depletion during prolonged cloudy weather. Therefore, over-fertilization should be avoided since it encourages excessive plankton blooms and is waste- ful. A fertilization procedure that Auburn University Fisheries researchers have found productive is to begin in February and apply 40 lb. per acre of 20-20-5 grade fertilizer, or equivalent, at 2- week intervals for three applications; then at 3-week intervals for three ap- plications; then continue applications monthly or whenever visibility into the water exceeds 18 in. After plankton blooms develop in old ponds following two or three applications, satisfactory plankton turbidity may often be main- tained by applying only 18 lb. of triple superphosphate or 40 lb. of superphos- phate according to the schedule above.1 However, results of recent research may be used to improve pond fertilization procedures. Applications of agricultural limestone have improved conditions for fish growth in some ponds tested at Auburn. If ponds have acid bottom mud and water softer than 20 parts per million total hardness, fertilization often fails to cause good plankton blooms. The lime requirement procedure used in soil testing was modi- fied for use on pond muds. Application of agricultural limestone to ponds at rates determined by the lime requirement pro- cedure increased mud pH, water hard- ness, phosphorus concentration, phyto- plankton growth, and fish production. 2 Liming of bass-bream ponds with ex- tremely soft water may double fish pro- dluction. Furthermore, waters stained with humic substances (dark waters) can be cleared with agricultural lime- stone. Pond fertilization rates presently used resulted from experiments conducted in nunlimed, soft water ponds on wooded watersheds. Casual observations of un- fertilized ponds suggested that ponds in pastures almost invariably had better plankton blooms than ponds in woods. Therefore, a study was conducted to de- FERTILIZING Farml, Fish Ponds CLAUDE E. BOYD, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures WATER QuALITY IN FEILI'mAZED PONDS ANn IN UNIElnTILIZEn PoNos ON WOODED AND PASrTURE NVATERSHEI)S leasurellllent Water hardiness (parts per million) Soluble inorganic phosphorus (p.p.m.) Total phosphorus (p.p.m.) Nitrate (p.p.m.) Ammonia (p.p.m.) Potassium (p.p.m.) Transparency (ft.) . . Plankton (p.p.m.) I' n umber of ponds. Unfertilized ponds Wooded Pasture waterslhed watershed (n- 34) (n 53 18.9 29.0 0.01 0.02 0.09 0.13 0.33 0.43 0.06 0.13 1.5 2.9 4.1 2.2 5.3 11.9 Fertilized ponds 20.0 0.02 0.17 0.32 0.12 1.7 2.4 12.1 termine levels of primary nutrients (phos- phorus, nitrate, ammonia, and potas- sium), water hardness, and plankton pro- duction in unfertilized pasture ponds, unfertilized ponds in woods, and fertil- ized ponds. Results are summarized in the table. Two-thirds of the fertilized ponds had wooded watersheds; the rest were in pastures. Unfertilized ponds in pastures had higher concentrations of nutrients, harder water, higher plankton production, and less transparent water than unfertilized ponds in woods. In fact, the average plankton production in unfertilized pas- ture ponds equaled plankton production in fertilized ponds. Although little of the nitrogen and phosphorus applied to pas- tures is lost in runoff, high concentrations of nutrients in unfertilized pasture ponds were related to agricultural activities on the watersheds. For example, cattle grazing on pastures deposit considerable urine and manure in or near ponds, which serves as a source of nutrients. The amount of fertilizer applied to pastures and the number of cattle in pastures was not known. However, the unfertilized ponds with the best plankton blooms were in well managed pastures with high densities of cattle. Most ponds in pastures do not need as much fertilizer for good plankton pro- duction as is normally applied to bass- bream ponds and fertilizer should only he applied if plankton growth is poor. Ponds on wooded watersheds frequently have soft water and need lime. No re- duction of current fertilizer rates should be attempted for ponds on wooded wa- tersheds. BoYDo, C. E. An J. R. SNOW. 1975. Fcr- tilizing farm fish ponds. Auburn Universit Agricultural Experiment Station Leaflet 88. 41 Pp. BoY, C. E. 1974. Lime requirements of Alabama fish ponds. Auburn University Aricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 459. 20 p. TEN YEARS of research have eliminated enough of the biological problems con- nected with catfish farming that pro- ducers are now demanding research con- cerning the economics of their operations. Catfish producers want additional re- search about current prices, costs, man- agement techniques, and marketing prac- tices. In order to meet this demand, re- searchers collected data from commercial producers within the 10-county area cen- trally located around Greensboro in Hale County (see map). This area accounted for 71% of the 1974 commercial catfish production acreage in Alabama. In an attempt to isolate factors which affected variation in total pounds of cat- fish produced, data from ponds cultured in 1973 and 1974 were analyzed. Prior to the statistical analysis, the in- terrelationships between inputs and out- puts were hypothesized. Economic theory and biological growth theory were used as the basis for selection of the input variables needed in the catfish produc- tion process. The variables selected for the analysis were: (1) size of pond in surface acres, (2) pounds of fingerlings stocked, (3) tons of feed fed, (4) length of growing season in days, (5) season during which pond was stocked, (6) ponds managed under contract. These variables did not exhaust the list of factors that influence harvest weight per pond. Other factors were not in- FIG. 1. West-Central Alabama region with total acreage in catfish production and total commercial acreage in parentheses, 1974. eluded because clear distinctions could not be made on a pond basis. An equation representing the mathe- matical relationships among all variables explained 94% of the variation in total pounds of catfish harvested from the ponds studied. The statistically signifi- cant factors were as follows: (1) ponds managed under contract, (2) pond acre- age, (3) pounds of fingerlings stocked, (4) tons of feed fed. inaf rrMu 4-" FIG. 2. Typical West-Alabama pond. Of the 173 ponds. 14% were managed under legal contracts with one of the processing firms in west-central Alabama. These ponds yielded almost 2,470 lb. less than the total from ponds operated by independent producers, or 283 lb. less production per acre. Some contract producers indicated efficiency could have been increased had better quality finger- lings and feed been supplied by the proc- essor. The problems with vegetation, disease, and parasite control may have been lessened if the producer had more control over techniques used. It was possible that reduced output may have resulted from poor producer perform- ance due to sociological characteristics, such as motivations, personality, educa- tion, or management abilities. However, the answer may be unexplainable by either the contractor or producer. The pond acreage variable was statisti- cally significant and subsequently indi- cated that economies and diseconomies of scale existed. Further computations were performed to examine the nature of the relationship between total product using pond acreage as the input factor. The total poundage of catfish produced increased with increments in pond acre- age until a unit size of 25 acres was reached. Beyond this level total pound- age decreased. :rra~ \I~~Rrt A14~a I )E~Lr~QdrA A direct relationship existed between p)ounds of catfish harvested and pounds of fingerlings stocked. The variable was expressed as total pounds of fingerlings stocked which was a function of the size of the fish and the rate stocked. The average size of fingerlings stocked was nearly 5 in., which weighed about 32 lb. per thousand. Using the average price of I cent per inch, the cost per pound was $1.60. The mean number of pounds of fingerlings stocked per pond was abolut 628. Based on these figures rand the average size pond of 8.7 acres, the stocking rate per acre was about 2,300, and the cost of fingerlings to stock a pond of average acreage would be 31,005, or 8116 per acre. Based on the computed equation, the curve for the relationship between pounds of catfish harvested and the amount of feed fed turned upward in- stead of downward. The total average pounds of production estimated from the equation was 15,462 per pond, or 1,773 11b. per acre, with a feed conversion ratio of 1.74:1.0. Thus, producers in the sam- ple, because of inflated feed prices, may have been reluctant to feed the fish to the biological limits. Further, the qual- ity of the feed provided by the manu- facturers may not have been adequate to produce the best gains. Using an aver- age value of 8235 per ton for feed costs and $0.45 per pound liveweight, the re- turns above feed cost were $3,797, or $435 per acre. Total pounds of marketable catfish harvested from a farm pond are the product of a very complex ecosystem. However, the equation included variables that explained a large amount of the va- Iiation in total pounds of output among the ponds in the sample. K. W. CRAWFORD, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology IRRIGATION USAGE in ALABAMA JAMES L. STALLINGS, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology EUGENE ROCHESTER, Department of Agricultural Engineering JOHN A. McGUIRE, Research Data Analysis RESULTS of a survey conducted to de- termine the extent and characteristics of irrigation in Alabama reflect irrigation practices for 1975 of 42% of the esti- mated 310 irrigators in the State. In- cluded in the survey are crops being irrigated, systems used, water sources, and power utilized. TABLE 1. IRRHGATION IN ALABAMA BY SOURCE OF ,VATER, 1975 Source of water Well Lake or pond Riv er or stream Public and other systems Total Farms Acres reporting' irrigated Pet. Pet. 29.4 39.5 63.3 38.9 :35.8 20.6 6.4 1.0 100.o 'Will add to more than 100% because many farmers reported more than one source of water. An examination of water sources data as presented in Table I shows that wells and lakes each accounted for approxi- mately 39% of Alabama's irrigated acre- TABLE 2. CHIOPS IRIGATED IN ALABAMA, 1975 Farms reporting Rank Crop I Corn --- 2 Peanuts 3 Cotton 4 I. Potatoes 5 Tomatoes 6 Peppers (all) 7 Cabbage incl. plants) 8 Collards . -- - All other misc. Total Acres irrigated 1 Corn 2 Peanuts 3 Cotton . 4 I. Potatoes 5 Tomatoes 6 Soybeans .. . 7 Bermudagrass sod 8 Cabbage (incl. plants) All other misc. Total Percent 20.8 9.:3 7.6 6.4 6.4 3.8 3.0 2.1 40.6 100.0 35.7 13.6 10.7 8.6 3.6 3.3 2.9 1.8 19.8 100.0 age in 1975. Streams accounted for the remaining water usage except for 1% which is obtained from other sources such as public water systems. However, an examination of the number of farms reporting different water sources indi- cates that ponds are reported by more farmers as a source of irrigation water TABLE 3. ItRIGATION IN ALABAMA 1HY TYPE OF SYSTEM, 1975 Farms reporting' Rank 3 4 5 6 Total System Cable tow IHand portable Center pivot Solid set Stationary wolume guns Surface Acres irrigatedl Cable tow Center pivot Itand portable Solid set Stationary volume guns Surface Percent 45.9 38.5 12.8 10.1 5.5 2.8 51.3 22.5 18.8 5.0 1.8 .6 100.0 'Will add to more than 100% because some farms have more than one type of sys- tem. but account for smaller acreage irrigated than wells. About a third of the farms reporting reported more than one source of water. Location is a major consideration in the selection of the water source. Areas having abundant underground water and poor pond sites rely more on wells. An example is Baldwin County, a low lying area which has plenty of underground water. A high percentage of the State's irrigation wells are located in this county. An examination of crops by acreage irrigated indicates corn to be the major irrigated crop, 35.7%, Table 2, followed by peanuts, cotton, and Irish potatoes. The cable-tow is the predominant sys- tem accounting for over half of the irri- gated acreage, Table 3. This type sys- tem can be found in most of the State's agricultural areas and was the predomi- nant system being purchased 5 or more years ago. The center pivot accounts for 22.5% of the acreage with most of these systems located in Baldwin County and the Wiregrass area. These systems have become more popular in recent years. Hand portable systems are used on most of the remaining acreage. Engines are the predominant source of power, Table 4, including diesel with 58.1%, L.P. gas with 22.9%, and gaso- line with 4.4% of the irrigated acreage. Electric motors provide the power for 14.6% of all land irrigated. New systems are being installed yearly. For field crops, these systems are pre- dominantly center pivots and cable tow. Hlowever, the total irrigated acres is still small. One reason for the failure of Ala- bama irrigated acreage to increase greatly is the inabilitv of researchers, extension specialists, and farmers to demonstrate a clear potential for irrigation. The many complicating factors leave the irrigated potential of a land site in doubt. Hope- fully, the project now in progress, of which these data are a part, will provide answers to manyv of the questions about irrigation in Alahama. TABLE 4. POmVEI UTnZA11ON FillO In!cAT.rX1( S'STENIS IN AIIAHAMA, 1975 :3 4 5 Farms reporting Fuel or power Diesel L.P. gas Electricity Gasoline Public systems Acres irrigated Percent' 47.7 27.5 21.1 15.6 .9 1 Diesel - 58.1 2 L.P. gas .- 22.9 3 Electricity. 14.6 4 Gasoline 4.4 5 Public systems 10. Total .. . . .. . .. . 100.0 SLess than 0.1 %. 'Will add to more than 10% because some farms use more thll (lIe source of fuel or power. ~abg~~E~~l Herbicide x Insecticide Interaction Varies With Variety, Soil Type GALE A. BUCHANAN, Department of Agronomy and Soils ELLIS W. HAUSER, ARS-USDA, Georgia Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton, Georgia INTENSITY OF HERBICII)E use on peanuts has increased greatly in recent years. At the same time, new peanut varieties that can produce much higher yields have been introduced. Since sensitivity of crops to pesticides varies among varie- ties, there has been concern about the possibility of interaction between the new varieties and the pesticides used in pea- nut fields. Major concern centered around potential yield reductions that might oc- cur, although such interaction might either increase or decrease yields, or even have no effect on production. The potential interaction problem has been studied since 1973 in cooperative PEsiAcIDE TnuEA IIErNTS USED IN ALABAMA- GEORGA INTERACTION EXPERIUIENTS Treatment number and pesticide trade name ,' -' Herbicides''. I -Veinam 2--Vemam + Balan 3-Vernam + Balan Dyanap 4-Vernanm + Balan D)yanap Premerge (multiple) 5--Vemam + Balan Dyanap Premerge (multiple) Butyrac 6-no herbicide Systemic insecticides" A-I)isyston B--no insecticide Rate per flow acre, lb. applied" 2.5 2.5 + 1.5 2.5 + 1.5 4.5 2.5 + 1.5 4.5 .5 2.5 + 1.5 4.5 .5 .1 1.0 in drill xwith seed 'Common names are: Vernam verno- late: Balan - henefin; D)yanap naptalam + dinoseb; Premerge dinoseb: Butyrac 2,4-DB; and Disyston - disolfoton. 'This paper reports the results of research only. Mention of a pesticide does not con- stitute a recommendation by the USDA or Auburn University nor does it imply reg- istration tinder FIFRA. 'PPI - preplant incorporated; C cracking; and P a postemergence. 'Each of the herbicide treatments was ap- plied with both the A and B insecticide treatments. Alabama-Georgia experiments that meas- ured effects of several pesticides on dif- ferent peanut varieties. The first series of tests, covering a 2-year period, was on Dothan sandy loam, Greenville sandy clay loam, Ocilla sandy loam, and Tifton sandy loam soils. The experiment be- came a three-state project when Univer- sity of Florida (Wayne Currey, project leader) joined in 1974. Most of the data in this article came from the first series of tests. Three Varieties Tried Florunner, GK 3, and Tifspan varieties (runner, Virginia, and Spanish types, re- spectively) were tried with the pesticide treatments listed in the table. All pesti- cides were used at the standard or high- est registered rate. Recommended pro- duction practices were followed to as- sure top yields. The new variety, GK 3, was consis- tently the highest yielding one on Dothan soil, with Florunner second. The Span- ish variety Tifspan made the fewest pea- nuts on this soil type, when yields with all treatments were averaged. Florunner was the top yielder on Tif- ton and Ocilla soils in 1974. GK 3 made the highest yield on Tifton soil in 1973 and on Greenville soil in 1974. Insecticide x Variety Interaction An insecticide x variety interaction oc- curred at least once on all soil types ex- cept the Dothan. This showed up as consistent and significant increases in yield of Florunner peanuts treated with Disyston. Disyston increased yields of Tifspan twice but did not affect yields of GK 3. In the 14 interaction experiments to date in the Georgia-Florida-Alabama belt, yields of Florunner were increased 60% of the time, but never on Dothan soil. Past yield increases on the other soil types have varied from 50 to over 200 lb. per acre, with greatest differences on Greenville sandy clay loam. Effect of Herbicides Herbicides decreased average yields only when the treatment sequence term- inated with multiple applications of Pre- merge (treatments 4 and 5). An ex- ploratory experiment in 1975 suggested that yield reductions were not due to the Premnerge, but rather to the way in which the different herbicides applied in se- quence interacted on the peanut plant. There were only two cases of variety response to herbicides in the eight initial studies, one on Greenville sandy clay loam and one on Tifton sandy loam. GK( 3 showed more reaction to lerbicide se- (quences than did Florunner. The Span- ish variety Tifspan was least affected. The only herbicide x insecticide inter- action occurred on Dothan sandy loam when Disyston increased yields with either no herbicide or when Vernam- Balan was applied. Expanded studies underwav in 1976 will shed further light on how herbicides used singly or in se- quence (with and without Disyston) will affect specific peanut varieties in different parts of the three-state belt. All of the treatments included in these studies are presently labeled by EPA, with the exception of multiple applica- tions of Premerge for which petition has been submitted. In earlier studies, as many as four applications of Premerge did not reduce peanut yields when the only previous treatment was Balan in- corporated. Use of a systemic insecticide in peanut production has been somewhat contro- versial. Hopefully, the current studies will help settle this controversy. Results to date document vield increases from Disyston on several soil types. Other svstemic insecticides were not included in the test, however, so further research is needed to determine comparative yield effects bv the other systemics. DAIRY HEIFER FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT ~_6-~"~~~' ~ :r- :I~a : B I -- GEORGE E. HAWKINS Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences D A11Y HEIFER CALVES of the small breeds that gain an average of 1.25 lb. and of the large breeds that gain 1.7 lb. daily will be large enough to breed at 14 months of age. Crowth similar to these rates should be achieved by following the feeding and management program given in this report, which is based on recent research findings. Calves should be born in clean surroundings, the mucous removed from mouth and nostrils if needed, and the navel cord clipped to 3 in. and dipped with 7% tincture of iodine to assure a good start in life. The calf needs some of its dam's colostrumn shortly after birth, either by nursing or hand feeding. Milk, surplus colostrum, or a milk replacer (avail- able commercially) is recommended for the calf from 4 days to 5 weeks of age. Start with 6 to 12 lb. of milk or substi- tute daily, increase to 12 to 16 lb. at 3 weeks, then decrease the allowance by 0.7 to 1.0 lb. daily until weaned at 35 days of age. The preferred method of feeding is by nipple pail. Start feeding a good quality hay, preferably alfalfa, at 1 week of age. Add calf starter, Table 1, to the ration at 15 days of age. Feed intake should be increased during the weaning process that starts at 22 days. Initially the calves will eat only a limited amount of hay or starter, but each should be fed all it will eat. Refused starter needs to be re- moved from the feed box daily and replaced with fresh feeds. At 5 weeks of age the calves should eat about 2.7 lb. (large Ibreeds) and 1.8 lb. (small breeds) of dry feed (hay plus Ingredient Calf starter Lh. Soybean meal (44 % CP) .31.0 Yellow corn, ground 63.0 Alfalfa pellets' 5.0 Limestone (feed grade) .6 I)icalcium phosphate Iirace mineralized salt .4 'Added as a source of vitamins. vitamin A and 400 I.U. ot \ itamin stipllement, the alfalfa pellets can other feeds. Supplenients 6% CP 13% CP 10% CP' Lb. Lb. Lb. 19.5 13.0 3.0 7:3.5 80.0 90.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 .5 .5 .5 1.0 1.0 1.0 .5 .5 .5 By adding 2,000 IU. of 1) per poind of starter or bc rIplaced w ith corn or TABLE 2. D)IETAY E'CENTAi-GES OF TOTAL DICESTIBIL NUTBIENTSs AN) CloU I hTE IN EOMNILENDI) 11FO D)AIRY EINIEBS AT SIEHAL A(;SS ANDI) \ VEI(CIIS. leifer age and body weight Recommended dietary contents Months Large Small Crude old breeds broeds TDN re protein Lh. Lb. Pet. Pct. Under 1 90 55 100 22 1 120 75 80 18 2 170 105 72 15 3 22(1) 145 70 14 6 373 260 66 11 10 590 420 62 10 14 805 575 58 10 18 985 695 56 10 24 1,250 875 56 10 'The ration should contain 0.4% and 0.2% magnesium. : Basedl on NRDC data. calcium, 0.3% phosphorus, starter) daily. On this early weaning system, calves to 6 months of age are fed hay (or corn silage after 3 months) free-choice plus all the starter they will eat up to 4 lb. daily. I)ietary percentages of total digestible nutrients (TDN) and -rude protein (CP) that will support rapid growth in calves from birth to 24 months are given in Table 2. To attain e ights indicated at different ages, supplements are needed i,\ heifers when grazed on most pastures. Some supplement 'Iixes are given in Table 1. The quality of forage and age of he heifer will determine which of these supplements should v fed to supply the needed TDN and CP percentages given a Table 2. Permanent identification, individual records, dehorning, ,ild disease and parasite control are essentials of a good dairy heifer program. Just prior to moving heifers from individual to group pen housing at 3 months of age is a good time to give them any vaccinations recommended by your veterinar- ian. Blackleg and malignant edema, leptospira GHP, brucel- losis, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), and parain- fluenza (Pla ) are common diseases for which vaccines are available. Control of internal parasites is necessary for a good dairy heifer program. (Baymix, Thibenzole, Phenothiazine, and l'ramisol are effective anthelmintic drugs if used according to manufacturers instructions.) Keeping heifers off pasture intil they are 6 months old and rotation of pastures are man- agement practices that will aid in the control of internal parasites. Growth rate can be followed by using scales or a dairy cattle tape at monthly intervals and recording these weights , ani individual record card. I \BaIE 1. SIrIPLE CALF STATERS AND HEIFER SUPPLENIENTS Content of %i~ "~'~~ T E BLACK pecan aphid, Tinocallis caryaefoliae, is one of three common aphids found on pecans in Alabamna. The adult of this species is small (/s in. or less long), shiny black with minute white body spots, and clear unmarked wings. The immature stages or nymphs are smaller than the adult, wingless, and either brownish black or dark smoky green in color. Both adults and nymphs may be found whenever pecans are in leaf, but are most abundant in late July, August, and September. At this time black pecan aphids are capable of completely defoliating an orchard in as little as 30 days. Tinocallis catya(foliac has a typical aphid life history. Dur- ing the spring and summiner the populations consist entirely of winged female aphids that give birth to living young. Devel- optment from birth through the four nymphal instars requires 8-9 days. Each fenmale produces an average of 39 offspring during the 2 weeks of her life. In late fall male and wing- less female aphids are produced, they mate and the wingless females lay the overwintering eggs in cracks and crevices on pecan twigs. As many as 10 generations may occur during one season. Although population numbers of this species rarely exceed 10-15 individuals per leaflet, injection of a toxic substance during feeding causes extensive necrosis and leaf loss. Fig- tire 1 is a microphotograph showing the feeding apparatus or FIG. 2. Progressive development of pecan leaf necrosis caused by feeding of the black pecan aphid. A. 2.5 days; B. 3.0 days; C. 3.5 days; D. 4.0 days; E. 4.5 days; F. 5.0 days; G. 5.5 days; H. 6.0 days; I. 6.5 days. FEEDING DAMAGE OF THE BLACK PECAN APHID P. M. ESTES and K. R. LAKIN, Department of Zoology-Entomology ,1 K Iix FIG. 1. Microphotograph of a section of sertion of styli of the black pecan aphid. pecan leaf showing in- styli of this aphid inserted into the pecani leaf. The styli may follow a serpentine path t to the phloem cells where actu'al feeding occullrs. The first signs of leaf inecrosis are not evideit until :3-4 days after feedinig begins. The necrotic area grad- uallv increases during feediiig and continues to increase after feeding ceases. Figure 2 shows the progressive development of leaf necrosis during 612 days of feeding by a black pecant aphid. Leaf necrosis begins as a bright yellow and darkens to rusty red as feeding continues. In laboratory studies the leaf necrosis has been shown to be due mainly to nymphal feeding. Little necrosis is caused by adult feeding. One aphid can produce a necrotic area of about 0.27 in.2. Eight to ten spots such as this on one leaflet will cause it to drop. From these studies it is evident that chemical control can- not be effective when applied after leaf necrosis has devel- oped. Timing of insecticidal sprays must be related to ap- pearance of adult aphids during the critical period from late July through September. Insecticide trials conducted over the last 5 years have shown that all of the materials recom- mended for use on pecans except carbaryvl are effective for black pecan aphid control. HIowever proper timing is neces- sary to ensure a minimum of loss to this serious pecan pest. 13 COST and RETURNS of PRODUCING GRADE A MILK in ALABAMA SIDNEY C. BELL and JACK KIRKLAND Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology A SURVEY of 57 Alabama dairymen was conducted to determine operating costs, returns, and investments of pro- ducing Grade A milk and to analyze the effect of size of enterprise and efficiency on costs, returns, and investments. Results of the survey showed the aver- age total cost per cwt. of milk sold was $10.63. Feed cost averaged $5.47 of the total and was the largest cost item ac- counting for 51%. Non-feed variable cost averaged $1.90 per cwt. with ma- chinery and equipment operating ex- pense being the largest cost item in that category. Fixed costs were $1.49 per cwt. of milk sold and labor costs added $1.77. Average gross receipts per cwt. of milk sold were $10.84, with the average price of milk being $10.01 per cwt. Gross re- ceipts also included change in inventory and sales of cull cows, bulls, heifers, and calves. Average net returns to land, la- bor, and management were $1.98 per cwt. Average investment was $10.49 per cwt. (excluding land), with an average annual return to investment of 7.9%. Total labor utilized was 1.1 hours per cwt. with hired labor accounting for 0.5 hour and operator and family accounting for 0.6 hour. The 57 dairies had an aver- age total production of 1.16 million lb. of milk per farm. The average herd size was 116 cows with an average milk pro- duction of 9,989 lb. per cow. Four size groups were used to deter- mine if economies of size were present. The size groups were less than 75 cows, 75 to 107 cows, 108 to 170 cows, and over 170 cows, see table. The data re- vealed that no economies of size were present. The total cost of production decreased from $10.52 per cwt. for the first size group to $10.36 for the second size group, but then increased to $10.78 14 and $11.07 per cwt. for the third and fourth size groups, respectively. Gross receipts were $10.80, $10.84, $11.00, and $10.63 per cwt. for the less than 75-cow, 75 to 107-cow, 108 to 170, and over 170-cow size groups, respec- tively. The 75 to 107-cow size group had the highest returns to land and man- agement averaging $0.48 per cwt. The over 170-cow size group was the only group with a negative return to land and management, minus $0.44 per cwt. The less than 75-cow and the 108 to 170-cow size group had returns to land and man- agement of $0.28 and $0.22 per cwt., re- spectively. Labor utilization per hundredweight for the less than 75-cow size group was 1.39 hours, 1.06 hours for the 75 to 107- cow size group, 1.0 hour for the 108 to 170-cow size group, and .91 hour for the over 170-cow size group. Thus, an econ- omy of size for labor utilization was pres- ent. To determine why some producers were more efficient than others, the data were divided into three producer groups based on cost of production. The aver- age total cost for the low, middle, and high cost groups were $9.30, $10.61, and $11.99 per cwt., respectively, see table. Feed costs showed the largest decrease from the high to the low cost group. All aggregate cost items except fixed costs showed a continuing decrease from the high to the low cost group. Gross receipts for the low, middle, and high cost groups were $10.68, $11.00, and $10.84 per cwt., respectively. Net returns to land and management were $1.39 per cwt. for the low cost group, $0.39 for the middle group, and a nega- tive $1.15 for the high cost group. Another measure of greater efficiency by the low cost group was the hours of labor utilized per hundredweight of milk sold. The low cost group used only 0.85 hour of labor per cwt. of milk sold, while the middle cost group used 1.14 hours and the high cost group used 1.3 hours. The differences in feed and labor effi- ciency were the major factors that con- tributed to a higher net return for the low cost producers. Based on this study, improving these two factors should re- sult in improving net returns. AVERAGE COSTS AND RETURNS PER HUNDREDWEIGHT OF MILK SOLD, BY SIZE AND COST OF PRODUCTION, 57 DAIRY ENTERPRISES, ALABAMA, 1974 By no. of cows in herd By producer cost groups Item Below 75 to 108 to 170 & Low Middle High 75 107 170 over cost cost cost Dol. Dol. Dol. Dol. Dol. Dol. Dol. Gross receipts Milk sales -------------------------- 9.98 10.03 10.12 9.88 10.04 10.10 9.91 Livestock sales ---- ------- -- .54 .51 .48 .41 .43 .52 .52 Inventory change ........... 28 .30 .40 .34 .21 .38 .41 Total-------- 10.80 10.84 11.00 10.63 10.68 11.00 10.84 Cost Feed cost ----------------- 4.95 5.34 5.71 5.98 4.90 5.57 5.94 Non-feed variable....... 1.84 1.91 1.92 1.95 1.61 1.95 2.13 Fixed ........... -...... 1.56 1.41 1.42 1.68 1.30 1.24 1.93 Total ................-.---- ---------- 8.35 8.66 9.05 9.61 7.81 8.76 10.00 Returns Returns to land, labor, and management ........... 2.45 2.18 1.95 1.02 2.87 2.24 .84 Labor cost ------------------------. 2.17 1.70 1.73 1.46 1.49 1.85 1.99 Return to land' and management .28 .48 .22 -. 44 1.39 .39 -1.15 Av. investment?------------------ 10.99 9.49 10.47 11.27 9.51 8.90 13.02 Return to investment ........ .94 1.05 .85 .24 1.95 .92 -. 37 Percent return to investment 8.6 11.1 8.1 2.1 20.5 10.3 2.8 No. of producers -------------- 14 16 16 11 19 19 19 No. of cows ............ 58 85 123 222 124 99 132 Av. production per cow -- 9,G87 11,441 9,490 9,985 11,111 10,108 8,592 Av. cwt. of milk sold, lb.... 5,478 9,689 11,708 22,122 3,772 9,964 11,310 :'Return to land owned; charge for land rented included in expenses. 2 Average investment does not include land value. GENETICALLY IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SOUTHERN PINES FOR USE IN ALABAMA JAMES F. GOGGANS and KEITH D. LYNCH Department of Forestry TIE ALABAMNiA Forestry Commission and Auburn University Agricultural Ex- periment Station are cooperating in a project that is designed to develop im- proved varieties of forest trees for use in Alabama. Currently, the major ob- jective of this project is to proluce suf- ficient seed of improved pine varieties to furnish all requirements of the Commis- sion's three forest tree nurseries. The Forestry Commission is responsible for performing the practical, developmental phases of the breeding program while the Agricultural Experiment Station is re- sponsible for providing technical aid, giv- ing guidance, and performing research to solve problems associated with the pro- grlanlm. The well known recurrent selection breeding system commonly called the se- lection and seed orchard method is used in this project to develop new, synthetic varieties of pines. (;enerally the pines are being improved for volume growth, bole straightness, tree form, wood spe- cific gravity, and fusiform rust resistance. Individual trees that are rated excep- tionally good for these characteristics are found in forest stands throughout Ala- bama and graded by comparing them to the best surrounding trees in the stand. \\Ihen a tree qualifies, it is selected as a parent tree. All parent trees selected for developing a specific variety are transferred to a seed orchard by grafting. \Vhen the grafted parents in a seed or- chard reach reproductive age they inter- breed naturally and produce wind- or open-pollinated seed. Each parent tree must be progeny tested to make sure that it is actually producing improved off- spring. Using the results of progeny tests, unsatisfactory parents are rogued from the seed orchard, and then seed of a tested, improved variety are produced Iby the orchard. Since the inception of this project 12 years ago, 634 parent trees have been graded and selected for use in seed orchards. Information concerning the five improved pine varieties currently being bred is presented in the table. One ad- ditional southern Alabama loblolly pine variety having 100 selected parents is beinlg established currently on 20 acres. This orchard will be expanded subse- quently to 60 acres. Though all of the seed orchards are generally young, trees in the oldest portions of the orchards are beginning to hear cones in fair quantities. Because varieties being developed in this project are intended for use in large areas of Alabama, progeny must be tested on several different sites in the area of use. Open-pollinated tests are relatively cheap and easy to establish; therefore they will be used for testing on different types of sites. Controlled-pol- Variety and species Northern Ala. Loblolly Pine Southern Alia. Loblolly Pine Southern \Ala. Loblolly Pine Alai. Slash Pine Ala. Slash Pine Northern Ala. Longleaf Pine Southern Ala. Longleaf Pine linated progeny tests, which are expen- sive and require much inore work and time, will be used to provide material for second generation selection and to gain a better understanding of genetic varia- tion in the breeding population. Seeds already have been collected for open- pollinated progeny tests of two loblolly pine seed orchards and controlled-crosses are being made in three seed orchards. Two southern Alabama loblolly pine seed orchards and one Alabama slash pine seed orchard have been examined by the Alabama Crop Improvement As- sociation and cleared to produce Certi- fied, non-tested Seed Orchard Seed be- ginning in 1977. The cooperators intend to meet ACIA certification standards on all varieties being developed. All seeds presently being produced by seed or- chards will be used to produce seedlings in the Forestry Commission's nurseries. To avoid losing selected parent trees they are grafted into a seed orchard and a clone bank as soon as possible follow- ing selection. The clone banks, located in Tallapoosa and Lee counties, contain not only those parent trees currently be- ing used in seed orchards, but also indi- vidual trees that were selected because of some outstanding single trait. Many selected shortleaf pine parents also are stored in the clone banks, although they are not being used in seed orchards. The cooperators will be glad to share selected material with any other organization in- volved in tree improvement. ESTABLISHED SEED OnCIIABD Location- No. of Average countt parenlts age Macon 42 7 Geneva 42 (i Escambia 20 9 Escambia 20 9 Genes a 42 6 Autauga 20 7 Geneva 42 5 Acreage 17 72 5 5 70 5 20 ~B*~ b ~ziaiJ I nm AL~~d twinling v ine into ant up- right potted plant is the result of chem- ical magic that is producing a new house- plant for Alabamians. Research at Aubuirii Un iversity's Ag '- icultural Experiment Station has shown that treatingt Southern B~leedinig Heart. pinched 01ne oi three times. ( hIericals tested iii an effort to retard growth were anes inidol (A-RestO ) and Chlormequat (Cycocel ! ). Both chemicals were tested ats drenches applied directly to the me- dium. Aiicymnidol was also applied to the lanctitas a spray. Ancymnidol dreniches or spiraxs w5ere most effective ill redumcing and sprays of anes uidol, Ariak TD- 6773NI0 (Tipiiipe"). Bayer 102613 ethephon (Ethrel ), and PBA (Accel@') were tested. Plants treated with aney- inidol had the most flower stalks, whereas ethephoii inhibited flowers ats showni iii the table. F~IA-i. i Diinm,iw CHMx.ICAS t0\ N\minR oIF FiLowLiS STALKS AND) PLANir HEIGHTr CLEBIBENDRON TIIOMASOMIAE SOUTIHERN BLEEDN TROPICAL VIIE TO POT KENNETH C. SANDERSON and WILLIS C. MARTIN, JR. H~o Cic rodi tidron thoi ottiacl ~ Ball., with certain chemicals retards the plant's vin- iiig habit and produces an attiractive up- right potted plant. For many years this tropical West African plant has been grown in hanging baskets, oii trellises, arbors, oi trained in tubs. European growers hav e restricted its giowthi habit by constantly pruing oi pininiig back growing shoots. The plant may climb to a height of 15 to 25 f t., if. its growkth isn't restricted. Dark green shiny leaves make it an attractive foliage planit. Clusters of flowvers are borne on stalks, wxith each flower consisting of a pure white, inflated, five-angled, outer floral structure (1/2-34 in. lung) aind a v elvetv, crimson red, slender inner circle of petals (1-in. long). Flow ers become piink to purple with age but last up to 6 weeks before being replaced within the cluster. Auburn research has been doiie wit it aclone selected foi p~rolific flowver- ing. Plaiits hav e beein reproduced from one- 1jode, double-eye cuttings. Cuttings have been rooted in 10-12 days by using soil. peait moss and sphagnum medium, a root- iinducing substance, mist propagation, light, shade, and 700F. Plants bloom in 10-12 wveeks after propagation if grown ini full suit, under high nitrogen fertiliza- tion and 70'F. Major production prob- lems are coiitrol of height and flowvering. Pinching has beeii recommended to cause compact growvth, induce branching and stimulate flowering. Auburn's research has shown that plants pinched twice pro- duce a better shaped plant than plants plait height habit than shown here: IT ntrmjimtedl aii cI lreatien N I I I h I eight stalks Oin.) t altieated ING HEART 2"redc l PLANT Spray 2 pp. Bayer 102613 4 ppm'i. id overcoming the Vining Bayer 102613 ilormequat drenches as 20010 p phin. ethephon 4000 lpp. Treatinent H-Ieight (in. etliephomi :34.3 200 ppa. PBA -- Drean 2 p.p.nm. ancymkloll 4 ppmn. ancymnidol :3000 ppmn. chlommequat- 2 ppmn. ancyiidol + .3000 ppmn. chlornieqmat Spiay 150 p1~)P i. aii yiiiidol 21.8 101.2 11.3 C;hemiaml iinduction of braniniig was studied because increased branching might yield additional flower stalks. Drenches of ancymidol and chlormequat AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830 R. Dennis Rouse, Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 6/76 I OM Penalty for Private Use, $300 7.2 25.7 8.3 10.2 7.7 15.9 8.2 11.0 0.8 15.8 6. 2 24.5 6.7 t 1.5 :3.8 Buids only 7.5 This research shows that aiicyiriidol is it most effectiv e chemical for retarding height. overcoming vining hahit and in- creasing flower ing fin ('hrodcridron, tint- moas'onitte Ball. The retardinig effect lasts aipproximately 2 months making Clero- (lendroil an attractive potted plant dur- ing that period. POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 BULK RATE