of agricultural research Volume 23, No. I Agricultural Experiment Station R. Dennis Rouse, Director Spring 1976 Auburn University Auburn, Alabama DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS ONCI;, th\l le Legislature anti h le people of Alilximtia, limouigli elected officials anld clix idmialix in x otfiig booths, Lix e deinoii atited Support of agricuiltuire b)\ passill( o\ i)5\ (lheltoit i oni) uarx' 13, 1976. Amendm ent No. 1. '1 li. onelii iot, xxi iiI .li xxmdvith ilx for mental health and fprisoni failtities, 1 iroxides $2 milbioii to conistruclt a x italkx needed Seed Nte"Ii oolo gx (eniiter aindc fond(a t ion seed I' cilities in)itk ii po, 1 issible in prox eiczit ini plaiitii ig seedl, ineliiding( pi oeissiiig of highi quiality foiiiicatiioi Seed. Th'lis xxiii eiisiiie \laiirnii seed pii)(liters ~ Seed of high1 x iailitx and ic ior amli ol pirx en grelietic litritx that iiiax be us ed to pi or ci bittei cerit ified sei ii this fuiiding required [Le mitiiiig et lots of inanx iiidix idals aiid or-ai ii ziltiotis. Flo [lis, let Inc sax [hliti xini on biehialf of Alabamiia agricuilture R. DENNIS ROUSE andic all ci tizens oxfi Alaibam a. As at piog, ress report oil out ness\ facilities, lit mle i ipolt t[hat: On l January 8, construictioii began ontt le illx Forest Prcclucts Laboratoryx Thix $50000)t( faicilitx xxv\\iii gi eatx\ inprox e tbe eapa- biility of [lie Agricultural Expei iniit Statioii to serxve forest land- owni ers aid ich[e foirext it aii strx of Alabama. Onl Jamiuarx 20,C ( Harris, Chaimaim of tlie Alabama Piiik Pirodceris Dixisiiii, aiid J. 1). 1 ax s, President of [the \labaiiia Farim Buireau Fi1eideratiiit . hic., priesen ited at kex to sx ii 1olize [lie presen itatiomn of atn $80t,000tt sxx ii i produl ctioi i iesearcli f acility xt[o this Station, aiid I xx as alble to atimlominci that this had bemil muatciel bx $120,000 fromn Statioi funmds fori- eicompletioin of this Uiiit. I also, aiinouncedi th at planis are b einig (lixeloped for onei acdcitioni al uiiit to tLix facilitx . bis addlitioi xxill niake it an ioutstatldlii Sxxwinie 1)roductioin research i aCi lit\x. Th is W xill mm a il m11Iiitl ito [the po rk pi o- ducers and Comisiimeis iif this State. lin accepting this tacilitx .- I stated [bat there ai e three major fie- [(irs reiquii d fur xuccessfuli researchb: ('1) acdeiquate f acilities, 2) xxelI-ti ainied scieinitis ts, atnd (3) uisers of inforniati on xxorkiinig ili paritinersh iip xxithI tbe scieiitists. W\e mniiiist ei iitin ire out effots to) enisure that all [tinee ate at at lx el neceded ti ox e \lahamna agor- eulture forwvard. Wie noxx, haxve the estimated farmn sales for 197.5. 1 lie figures shtoxx mice again ti[le great n(in etamj ties it faniniig. Tll, gtross re- turns from some commodities ii cieasedl, o~thers did not; Uiiit p e for soziie in cireaxed, oth ersx did iit: and actreage aind yieild per acre also shoxxed xx ide xvariatLions . It is obx ho is thiat ciost of pirodclntioi Mnid problems of mnarketiiig x ariecl xxideixy This variabilitv is at characteristic of t agriclturne xx Idei tioii agriculturists cain't Conceixve. We in ig ri cuLlt ute accept it as at fact of life, but also as oiie of' [tie greatest challeniges of I ii ners atndi scieintists. For a ioliogical pro- cess that irequmires such inixestiiemnt of time, capiital, traiiiig, aind coimmitment, xx e must exver strixve to reiduce tie iicettaitities of pro iduction iand [thusi thei econ oii s of pirioduction i. Tbhis is a i major inmision of [1e Agricultura :l Expem imetit Staitioii to carry Onl at pio gtramn of research for the imp~tiix eniei t of I i umat icondit ioins, toir the reduction of uncertaini tiies. atd fiIIor at bitter life. Our irecorcd foir tlie past It0It veains has in uch liii U s to be tI ink l for. Liut it leaves much tii lie dexiredl. Much oif' [lie land in Alabamna is piroduintg filr less than curret]\x km iixxi pioteiitials. The oxverridinig reason is that uncer taiiities are still so great. Thierefor e, the missiiin of [lie Agiricultural Expeimnent S tatioin is farl from 1in ig accompl ishedc. WXe canl sueceedh if xx e coiitinue stiiiig xxith il our abilities itich resoiirces to[ furthI ei our i ce is tani iiig iof iiati ii. may~ we -adc . . I)r.( hat lix I). BiischI. isociate pro- Iessor iii till l31epait tnit of A\gt iculturial L1i giei g.(r ii lprts oili one 1)lsie of his lItbUi ii resear-ch i thell' aticle oin page m, lili fte researcel and teacing [.af[ Dr. Busch is partiei- pltilig ill eseai l stililits or irrigiatin sceculitigl itici aeiatioii of caitfishi ponids. :\ natixe ot Nexx Ytork th 1ubun I :ieiltv iii In- I inkcv \\lierc lie xxas a ojeet iiiagei for at major iri gatioi iex'elopmtiii. IfIc also lois wor)1kedl as an alsSOeia t p rof essor of agricuiltotral cii gi- ((iii ig at the 1. ix ersitx of Ariiona and Ifoi the Agency for Initerntatiional Dexvel- opimenit. WXhile at Arizoiia, Ir. l31isci liii mcii a girll ofi~i coiistlt iligy et(inieeis to prox 1(11 assistancee to the fliiets iof Snit M .\exico. Bunschi ciriiei a bachelors degree froiii (Cornell Unix ersitx- andiil m lasters degree ii ai iii1 ftura]1 eI(illeeril ig Ii 001 Utah .State tiix ersits'. He tlieni retuiiiecd toi (.olI to eal-i it P11.). Thle auithior of sex emal researeci andl deiiicitistrt ioll puiblicatiins Oii xx ater sxx\s tins anid it gTAtion. Buisch is also at memo- letof 1)1 minerlis piolessionl 1 soeieties. ii HIGHLIGHTS of AgricultUral Research SPRING 1976 VOL. 23, NO, A quarterly report of research published Ly the Agiricultural Experiment Station of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 11. DENNIS ROUSE -- ------ Director STANLEY P. WVILSON _ Associate Director CHLAS. F. SIMMONS ----- Assistant Director Tr. E. CORLEY ---------Assistant Director E. L. MEc RAw ---------------- Editor 11. E. STEVENSON ------- Associate Editor Roy ROBERSON ---------Assistant Editor I iituiio Adr ixii Ciiiiiuitti i: Sr AlA iS% P. \isis0. 1'. (ii 5S1iAss, Axsot'iotc iiif(.xSiil iif Iliiiliffillu WATE 1Xx ii ). Kiii . txsi~timii l'rofc xsir iif IBitia I1 iof .sin of Xi iii l andi I)o in, S eieo 1s \\ii E. V Li ;~x Auburn University is an equal opportunity employer. ON THE COVER. Dr. Charles Busch is shown checking the drip rate and moisture content of the soil on a drip irrigation system used in pecan research plots at the Gulf Coast Substation in Fairhope. WATERING A DROP AT A TIME: DRIP IRRIGATION FOR ORCHARDS CHARLES D. BUSCH, Doportirin of Agricultural Engineerini HARRY J. AMLING and KAREN A. MARCUS, Department of Horticuture Pressure Filter Regulator FIG. 1. Diagram of a drip-irrigation system. II.dXIll mIil XX ,,liiill tIll offsal~ llicX. Thie sXXN'teri's sliXX ad stead_\ flowX iate creates a piocket ofi miiIti ic XXitini tie tree's r oot zone'. The mo1 isture is stiffl- cielit eveni throuighi dlry per1iods ill the groiniig seasiill The Drip System Most drip XXXtcniX coislt of a filter, pressure regla~tor, plas~tic pipe' distribul- tionl IXXstem, an(d (ripipers or emitter s that (discharge Xwater ioear tile tree. \\']tieii XXater enI ters iI drip1 irrigat Iin svstei~' it motst ie( filtered'(. '[ie tillS out- let passages lif tihe eiiitter cali I he plugged or paifiahix toppedh by seXveral Xl paIrticles or at flatke of riust. The oiut- let passages 01(Ist lie SIIhlll to cult flOXX I ltl 5 doXXni to adbout 1 gal. per hour-1 aiiout it drop at a time. Filteirs cani b repla'eable cartridges its used ill auto- ill10iileX, or at selicX of screens, or a Xdlidl filled tank thr oughl XXhich tile XXater flows iTe operatinlg pressure f most (ip \\'Xtei~is is about 15~ psi. Tis ahhiisx till- list- of loXXer presiure andII1 less costX plalstic pipe. HowXXeveri, tll keep the sup- ply piressure from X IarX il i pr essure re- tilator tistahll vtollXX s the filter iii the XXater supllin he. Lateral pipes. calrrying the XX ater along the tree rowX, are seldoim more than 12 il). ill dliameter. This is an adequate di- aumeter for laterals tip toi 8t00 ft. long XX c(1e thiti t is little oii 111 (11,11i~ L il I(,-ll \atll Itidl trees are spce Plt( 31) to 10 I t. ill Iliallicter o1 11eXs. Thieir XSpecific size iX e'lemenllts ill till' oi l-c Iar irigatjilill XX stlll. Illiistilr' fori tile tic('X Iroot hull'. Of tcl two oi ii til ('I' Ilittirs ale' ilX('(l fori ('.1 t ivc. FIG. 2. Tree spacings and drip line in pe- can research plot at Gulf Coast Substation. Water Supply Contrast A coilipis15)ol o Xji jokler 311(1 drip ii-- ig~rltili XlIo\X s thie (ootI astX ill thes~e XX 3 t(1 ap1plication ideasi'. A spinkler sx stem oiclmrid ,flre \\ hif' tic dr ip s' - teml emlit- te(s keep) ollsma)11 ll'ac XX .ltcred. The ats MT~ are uilllv :3-4 ft. iii diameter for .35-It. X.3))ft. tre sp'Xacing, all applicit titi of I iii. ofi XX dt(r 1)v at Trlinikler sX higctli('r (liXciII~r 16' (rigal. to) XspplX alt 11(11 ofi XXatel to thel tXX( pocke'ts of lis- tone'. Sinicei- a iiiall p01 boo of the trecXs toot XX Xteinis IXaili to ii ov(Xide mo~isture loti all pairts of til' tive. the p)ockets of iloistilre assoirtll' iip ve w 11) I i Xater su11- Drip Irigation for Pecans ItiXill (I is lii derXt aX',t the Giilf ( iilst Subs~tationi toi el'Xaiate 1it dip) SysX kIn)'i l liiit newXX ])('('31 p~laltiilg and to (1n1patre driip Iii c spri ukl 1 ci i rigatioi I ticeable differecie (c doe to tile tp of~(i ill igatioilI. Boith X Xti'ill' ale IlIOX iig ,ilple wXater. iI tiXX(Xc(. thecre are Xtiii t.Ilitl (hifieci 'I(' iii ft'e amonts ii 1) (iX ILe 0.9) ili, per1 XX i'k i cqiies 580 a.of XXaIter pei ti cc: the drip XX stem sct toi drip 8) ]ir. pe)(r (Iv uses onX'(lly 60) gal. per tre ec achl XX ck. App lig XXt it( a ii at a time ilcar lic base~ oIf it tie ('I' i d ies ineedled mois- tor w'XXithiouit XXat('rilg anl ciltile orchardl~ Ii ('a. This cani liicai 1 i lXXwer c'lst XX sten Ilecaie pipes aiid pumips can be smaller. It alXso meansI that it lowe r discharge well cm11 providie the mollltiit oif xvater re- Ilired. Trickle System Diagram YOUNG- PFCAN "TPFES HARRY J.AMLING, Opt. of Hortcceliwe A LL \1Nil 55 iSr l lsiiL i)u~ pecanl tee,(S re(qulire tmainimig duiiing early gross ti ear-s. \Vithoiit rper~' Shaping, thle tree b\- euttinl desvelop narrows crotch angle scaffol 011 point sxle binbs that split oif sshen subjected to To pert xx md and crop load. The w5orst coiidition y 1)11(1d is xs-hems dominant losser scaffolds are ithtie toj p~oorly trained because splitting of these niicelo al hias the effect Of cu~tting the tree in hiall. dther bi Of ten this occurs xs hen trees reaich 142N 2(1 and \carss hand.e cams of a g elle aer is ITechniiques for tirainiiig pecan trees treex, or xx Ci C desveloped as part of a long-ran ge seasono esearch Jrogi am onl cultur al technudmxeis arre for high deiisity plantings by Auburii Birds Unmivxersity Agricultural Experimeiit Sta. leiders (11 tioll. It \\'its observ ed that the branch angle is directly related to the position of the hod originatin g the braiich. At each iiode, pecans max' have uip to six bud1(s lin ed opl one abox e the othei, Figure 1. A characteristic branch angle arises firom each bud. Figure 2. The primary bud uppernmost one) generalls produces the most v'igorouis branch wh len all buds at a node aie allowved to dev elop. The priar bud often is suibteiided by a1 Short stemn, raiigiiig fromt I to :300) mmi iii length. The term "neck bud" has beeii coied to desciribe this. The loingest b~uds are often fouiid in axils of leases of last growving niursery trees. M'vost lateral branches on nut sei x trees arise from pri- mnary buds. Pirimary buds may hasve iieks, hut none have been observed onl secondary or lowser order buds. In the Auburn system of training. il- lustrated in Figure 3, primary buds are used solely to perpetuate at ceiitral leader. If allossed to dlevelop iiito braiich- cx, these primary buds alwsay s produce the narrosw crotch angles wvhich, iii later years, lead to limb splitting. As grossth of the central leader slos late in the grossing season, distances be- twe en nodes decrease sharply. If this section of the central leader is allowved to remain oii the Young tree, a profusion (if braiiches arise itc close proximity the followsing year. This phenomenon, re- ferred to as "crosss foot," is eliminated FIG. 1 (left). Up to six buds are tound at cach node, lind up one above the other. FIG. 2 (right). Each pecan bud produces a characteristic branch angle. 01Ofl thc cutrciit leader A a remodes aire sufficieintly spaced. ?etuate thle (clitiral leader, pri- S ale allowsedi to des (hip only pthree niodes remainling after fthat potioni that 55001(1 pro- cross sfoot" b)1audi pattern. Is at these nodes are flicked oil Later iii the season xxli ci the established oiln lewx planted duiring, the folloss nig donrmant oldier trees, thie alternate lead- perching onl grossinig ccliii al irirng first and( Second growxing Early in Season Cut terminal section allow leaders to develop Remove remaininq primary buds Seasonsi has e caused losses of oip to 16% of these leaders oni tres in resear ch plantings. A soitable central leader canl- not rcaijl be r establishied withi a branch ai sin g from a seco ndariy or teritiary bud, so loss of the leader means a poorly shaped tree. Placing it bamboo roost at (x cry fourth tree, higher than the trees, solves the pr obleim because birds perch on the tallest point iii a voting Sclectiv e creation of wvide angle scaf- foid brmanches and the central leader by 1)11( selection is coiitinuedl into the fourith and fifth years alter plantin g. Late in Season When k-. leader is established remove alternate '~ ~/leader B ranches from secondary Nj buds Branch from ~tertiary bud FIG.- 3. In training young pecan trees, primary buds are used solely to perpetuate the tree's central leader. Secondary buds produce branches. MEASURING FARM INCOME J H. YEAGER, Deporamern of Agricultural Economcs and Rural Sociology SARMI INCOME is generally accepted as an indicator of success in farming for a given period of time. It may be calcu- lated for a farm, a group of farms, or for all farms in a state or the nation. It is important to know the components of farm income and how they are measured since they provide a better understand- ing of farm income and changes that occur. Realized Gross Income Cash receipts from farm marketings normally account for the major part of realized gross farmnn income. Cash re- ceipts are derived from marketings of crops, livestock, and livestock products. Value of these marketings is influenced by quantity marketed and price received per unit. Production of a commodity may decline from one year to the next, vet cash receipts may increase because of a higher price received per unit sold. As a long-time trend, cash receipts from farm marketings have increased in Alabama. In 1973 and 1974, Alabama's cash farm receipts were about tsvice the amount of the mid 1960's. However, cash receipts by Alabama farmers were more than $100 million less in 1974 than in 1973, see table. This resulted pri- marily from lower prices received for farm products in 1974 than in 1973. REALIZED GnOSS AND NET FARM INCOME, ALABAMA Item Cash receipts from farm marketings Government payments Non-money income Other farm income Realized gross farm income Farm production expenses Realized net farm income . Net change in farm inventories Total net farm income Source: State Farm ERS, tUSI)A, 1975. 1973 1974 Mil. Dol. Mil. Dol. 1,302.0 51.5 110.3 11.0 1,190.:3 9.2 141.0 12.0 1,474.9 1,352.5 994.6 1,165.7 480.3 186.8 44.0 77.5 524.3 264.4 Income Statistics, 66 4-1601 . The second component of realized gross farm income is government pay- ments. Except for one year, government payments to Alabama farmers have de- clined since 1967. The decline from 1973 to 1974 was more than $42 million. In 1973, a major part of government payments to Alabama farmers was as- sociated with cotton. However, in 1974 payments in connection with conserva- tion rather than cotton or feed grains accounted for the biggest part. A third item in realized gross farm in- come is non-money income. Value of family-used products produced on the farm, such as vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs, and nmeats were at one time more important than today. In addition, a reasonable rental value for farm dwel- lings is included in non-money income. From the early 1950's into the 1960's, non-money income of Alabama farmnners declined. Each vear since 1970, how- ever, non-monev income has increased. The 1974 figure of $141 million in non- money income was approximately equal to that of 1952. There is increased in- terest in food production on the part of farm, as well as non-farm, people. As a result of including non-money income in calculating realized gross farm income. greater comparability among farms is ob- tained. Also, a part of production ex- penses may be used in producing the non-monev income. Thus it is logical to include non-monev income in the gross figure. Other farm income includes such things as income from custom work and sales of miscellarneous items. The sum of the above-mentioned four items gives realized eross farm income - an overall measure of income without anv consideration to expenses or inventory changes. Net Farm Income Net farm income is classified as real- ized net and total net farm income. Real- ized net farm income results from sub- tracting farm production expenses from realized gross farm income. Farm production expenses include many items such as feed, livestock, seed, fertilizer, supplies, repairs, hired labor, depreciation, taxes on farm property, in- terest, and net rent to non-farm landlords. Increased concern exists about the growing costs of farm production. In 1974, total farm production expenses by Alabama farmers were approximately twice what they were in the late 1960's. Certain farm production expenses in- creased dramatically from 1973 to 1974. For example, total amount spent on fer- tilizer and lime increased almost 75%, seed 283%, repairs 27%, depreciation 21%, and interest on the farm mortgage debt 20%. Generally, farm production expenses as a percentage of realized gross farm income have increased since 1950. At that date expenses by Alabama fannrmers were 48% of realized gross farm income. In 1974, they were 86% of realized gross farm income. Expenses relative to in- come varied from 64 to 79% of realized gross farm income in the 1960's. II 1973, expenses relative to gross income were 67%. This lower ratio resulted in a large measure from the increase in orices received by farmers in 1973. The long-time outlook is for expenses to con- tinue to take a major part of the value of farm products produced. Such squeezes on income will call for the best in farm organization, planning, and management in the vears ahead. Total Net Form Income Still another ineasure of income is total net farmnn income which considers inven- tory changes. Since many farmers do not sell everything produced during the year, and since assets of various kinds are used in production and may vary from be- ginning to end of the year, net inventory change should be considered in accur- atelv reflecting net income. Net income would be understated if expenses to pro- duce cattle were included but the value of cattle on hand at the end of the year compared to the beginning of the year were not included. Therefore, total net farm income is the most comprehensive measure of farm income. The next time you hear, read, or quote a farm income figure, give some thought as to what is included. ARE tile TOMATOES-* frorn your GARD)EN SA E for CANNING? K. S. RYMAL and J. L. TURNER Depadrmeni of Horiiculiure SMU '1M Mix x\i sBItu IFS *.goxx it ini -\it hitili mnax not lie sutitale for catlinitig. lxxi catses of deadix b~otulism, front eat- t itirt nccaitned toniatoes xx ere repor ted ill 197 t.' It is tttt knowxn exactlv ]to\\- these tai(s OCtt1iti ted, since' timatoes nloal vndl have enc ougah acid (bheloiwx pl11 4.5) to prevenct gYernonlatioli of thei spores of thle btilixinl proiduing bacteriau. Iltxx eec' it witsab io ns frot the east hiistories that the prtoper r tecommetned procedures f or cat itiig xx etc rot fttlloxxoeti ii it is as- stiiict thiatt thei tonmat oes used xx ei erh ib 1 x b n i intal Iv lowx in tottal at iti atd high ill pH axs xxelI. S omie tom inatoes samnpled ill tl e 1 tibtra- tory att Aubiurn Ut iversitx .\grict. iital spei iietit Station hit\-(, hadi p11 xi alies of 4.7 to 4.9, xx il is xx ell itixe the safe limit (1)11 4.4) for cantingr. The '[me ('ittr for Distase Control. ... Departmnitt of I letlth Education antI We.i- fitne, A tait a, ( ttrgi a. puit hdit txx ,o repiortts of botitlistit fritin totmato produtcts. \torhitlitx and NIortaltx N l. 2:10t, Vol. 23:27. One tictirniul iii Coitlanti, Alabma, in \treh totall acit.it\ is impoirtat i ilxiI, sinice it t'lpttseiits (lie, ability ofi thle li it toi xxitli Jtittid tiages in pH antI is imoixed iii flaxvor (stitgr to aicidi iatio). In line atid ft lx', 18 of (lie 1op01 r atxarieties l ot ]ionic grartling xx etc gr\i txi at txxv itotcationis Co(IhtCtt Flll In ICS A LI-75-1(F I lctti t Box N Ilo' itti \c iith Resitan I ionta ttd I lite I tnt' dt 241 --- I ltt[st------- I otitistitid 5001) --- Ii ritfic VN ----- 'II t\ x let --- ITroip ic - -- ------- -- ' lter ERttv Strain ------ AU-75- VlF, 13C ) Floift \111 I 4.37 1.46 26 2 9 (.1 L8 .18 .36 41 1.15 -1.18 47 29 1.1-1 (. 21 44 36 .4.20 4.25 39 39 1. 1 ) 1.2 39 :33 4.1 4.24 37 '32 4. 19 -12 : 38 30) 4.31 4.22 3.3 32 .(18 (.31 .37 29 (.1 4AI :35 28 4.25 t.2 :34 29 4.2 1.2 32 :30) 1.33 1.31 :30) 27 4.19 4.28 :31 29 Top left shows selection of only top quality fruit (sound fruit) for conning; top right preserving fresh vine ripe fruit with good flavor; bottom left shows Homestead 61 va- riety grown by two-leader system; and bot- tomn right is the Floradel variety grown by trellis binder-twine method. ill Alitainit andit. 1 r~i\ested. t a t. it frii 1 d xxti Wi'liiatedt. foir their atiaptaliilitxN andI p~otential lo mmeitrci eal and hloitit (far- ditpro~dutiton. Recommnde'td( fertilizer atc(' in)sect andtt tidissei otrols, ad tiri- iilatiol s )x ce folloxx ed. Varieties xx crc gfroxx~ il stakes and prinited to at two leader svstemn at Fairhiope and the b~inder Wxxine trellis Method at Ciiinaii. Seven- (cell h arve sts xxr tinade at Fa iii ipe andi I S at Culim-anl. Ail tihe I loinestead selectins per- formed xx eli at both loctatins antd wiere coinsistent]\, ioxx in pH and high in total aeiditXr see tablec. All v arietics tested x tie aee 1 tahie in regard to pfI, 1.s as e ll] the b~reeding lines except AU- 7 5-12 ( F8) xx lije wvas boirderinte at Culliman (p)11 -1.37)1 aiid high enough at Fairhiope (1)I1 4.46) to be rejected onl the basis of pm. Sonic tips for the homne gardener-can- ner arc: 1Choose a variety that has per- foimed xxell in x our area. "'. Ptecomiiieiited iinseet and disease ciotronl pratices shoul1d he carefulx' foi- loxx ed to pritodute stotund, high qnalilitx" tomatoes for eatiming. .3. Fruit should he harvested atl the fit iii rittipe stage. Overripe or dliseased fruit may lbe loxx in acids and ii gh in pH. 4. Although ttimatoes e-anl le ade- tqiatelix protcessed xx ithittt adidinig citric, aeid or lemitt injice, the addition tf ftiod acids proxvides ai extra mnargin of safety in hioiie-eaniiiiig operations. Ax'. frulit size 1L1. Lb. 41 37 4.3 46 :39. 35 40) 40 :39 .36 :36 32 :36 .3:3 :36 28 .39 42 4:3 :39 .34 31 4.3 44 :37 34 33 :3.3 38 3 8 .3.3 :35 Friit pltnt Cultl. Fair. Not. Noi. 24 1:3 19 12 18 15 21 16 21 11 21 It) 20 10 22 11 2)) 16 21 15 21 1f 18 13ll 1:3 12 22 19 24 15 17 11 N t eat.h lo cation xvaluies are totat is of 4 replictioOn,; 2 1'xt s 1 isa, piroctil itri it(il OF FREtSit NI WtKiX TO't'ttr tt.S (;1t10\\\ i\ CcULMAN~ AND IAIIOV Attiti N\iisxi x. N751 THE FACE FLY in ALABATMA KIRBY HAYS, Department of Zoology-Entomology J. K. BOSECK, Tennessee Valley Substation T IEFAC FLY,M~i sca anttii inis De 19.52, atd cI l 19-55, it hiad sprcacl to Ten- tiessec atndc Genorgia. lit all prill iil litvx it spreaci into thic oticl easterii cotrter oit Alabmna h_\ 1 960, hut it (lid iiot appear it large )ppulatinis unttil 1972 iii thle Tennt exsee \'all(,x,. It is tno\\- knii(lx i to be ats fill souith as Lee Counitx iii Ala- hia. lIt M \ississippi it has hceen reported ats far xxcs ('tas ( ).\ford, atic ias far socuth as Loutisv ille. It appeals that this pest \x\ill cnitintute to imovixe slituth a tic 1 xxest. The acdult fix locoks x erx' mucs like at lniiselx, aiic like a linusefix , its tnudtl- parts arc for suicking hut caninit Pielrcc the skiii aiic suck lhococ. Tints. the acdult, conigtregate nti thle faces oif farm animials. pritic'ipailx' cattle, horses, and muiles, xxhIere thex' feed on il ici substances arontici le exc's, nose, atic Mouth. Frc'sll vborti hbx calxves attract thouls- andis ni flies xxvhich feed oil the fluids as- soiciateci xxith hirth. This species nax' lie c'cnfcusced xxith the hiorn fix, licuisefl 'v, ailc stable fi' that also are foiuncd ott ailimals. Tile horn fix', and stalble fly max casilY lie separ ateci he- cause t ieir t~ niiith iparts ptrotrucie iii frot oif the head like at hiax ont frin a rife. Houtseflies max oilx liv e separated xx itli the aid of at microsccope. At tnighit orix \-tl atomials ctiter build- ings, these flies lease the aiimals aiic rest onl vegetaticini posts. builings, feces, or other obijects neau bx. The eggs are laid onl fresh conx\ maniure atic the larvae feed xx itlin this substance. Mature larx ae moixe ito the soil and pupate. A comuplete life cx 'cle requires ahocut 2 xweeks in stummer. The adult fix' enters liiliii gs oir oither pl aces to spendic then wxinter, but it mi-oxes outdoors ats soni as the weather xx armns upl in the spr ing. Studies in N\exx York state shoxx that this insect wxill fN, as itch ats 7 miles in 5 clays, and that manv flies xwill disper se I mile fromn their place of birth iii 2 days. lIn the Tenn essee \'allex' of Aiabaima, ats manyx as 100 flies miax ie seeni oil the lace of at single animail inl late sprilng and suil c. 11 mid-\ngi st, the popu~lations of this flx had diminished to almost nothing in both 1974 and 1975. Perhiaps this pheclnomenonil is dfie to liot xx catiet killinig the hiarvae iii the feces. Exven thoiugh tI e fix does not sock Mo1od(, it is a Seriou s ecoli ttmic. pest ats at nulisance to cattle. 1Lx e abnormialities and diseases ar e m ore com nil inl h erds of cattle inifesteci bx face flies. And( the ft e- qttcitcx of 'spaing uecessarx to control the fixy results in) a consideralie cash ot- lax-\ for lahor andi insecticides aliove that nrinalix' necessai x to cotntrol the honi fix'. Face flies ate xe cry difficult to control for sexveral reasns. One is that they atre coiistatlx unoi tu fromt one aniimal to amother. A second reason is that the teats produced hx' the ex es as a reaction to the feediiigr of the flies xx ashes axvx anyv inl secticidies put onl the imnials. A third reason is that in secticides are brutshed off the aiials lix ,rass and xx ecis ats ticx feed. Lastly is tihe difficultx- expelieiced ill jetting anl animal to ]told its head still xx ile the insecticide is applied. Research at the T1enitessee Vallex' Sttb- statini has 1)rnxicled somne itnsight to the control of these flies. The only effectixve insecticides xx'ere those xvitli a quick knock don. Sprax s cotntaining Dichlor- x os (Vapon? ) xwere the miost effectix'e. Thel( addition of cinciriti or Cardonia flahn ) added somle residld effectixe- less to sprax s. Other materials such ats Tt ichlo fnii gaxve a good itiitial kill. finxx- exvcr. migr ations Ihx flies xwere such that animals xx ere rapidx1 reinfested, and tireatments had to lie repeated at inter- als o~f 5 to 7 days. Smnears of petrcileumn jelly cotntaininug ati iisecticicde xvere placed oil the mid- line of the face atic iii that position xx etc relatix elx iiieffectixve. h)ut xxhell placed unde(Ir tI e eves an d arcootndc the inn ithi, thtex- reduced the fly poipuilation soimexx hit hut xxere lnt real effectixvc. Dust bags cntiin g :3% ciodt ii xxere relatixvclv effectixve iii limiting the size of' the fatc fix' poipullatin onl one herd of cattle xxhen conmparedl to an unttreatedi herd, b~ut the lexvels nf flies r emaiintg xxerie ton high to conisidler this inetiol oif' aipplicatioin to lie at formn of control vhen utsecd alone. Batits conitaininig sugar and./or blnood s'rtu attracted manym houseflies and at fecx face flies, bitt they did lnt kill enoiicgh face flies to he of any xvalue ill a cn trol priogtaml) Natural parasitcs, piredcators, and clix- eases of the face fix- are iuiknoxwn ill Ala- ham a. TFle high popuiltinis obserxvecl ticdicate that if such ciiemies are present. they-N are not exercisinig etnoughi pressure to cntro tin]pul at iis of this pest. Tlic sudden decrease iii numbers of thec face fix' inii id August iiicicate that tlic larvae or cggs oif this specics mnay be offecteci l)x the high temperatures and clix conditins xwhiclh are caused by the still siiniui ig i feces piles iii the drx'er iparts of the suimmer. We already kinxw tliat these temperatures adversely affect thie immnature stages of the horn fly xxhile it is iii c'attle feces. It appears that this insect xx ill conl- timie its spiread south and xxest through Alabama. As it expandcs its railge, re- ,search xxill be continued on its biology aid ctoitrol. As nexwer controls are dis- coixeredh they\ wxill he mnaci public,. Pods Resist Insect Penetration in Curcuio Resistant Southern Peas THOMAS H. ENNIS ,nid OYETTE L. CHAMBLISS, Depjoitillelli of Hoitiutiure '4 AS 1 -f riir resist damiage 1)x thle covpea clii -culio mnav somiedav be axvailahle for Southern gardeiers. Certaini breedji g lilnes of sotitherit peas are known to be resistant to this itnsect that is a seriou s pest inl Alabama. Hi eeding efforts are ainieci at in corporia ting tis resist im cc inlto) varieties xwith iother cdesirable charl-- icteitics. Ilecetinxestigationis Lax c sliossii that oxverall resistancee is compiosedl of three sepatrate mid1( independeiit miechallismis 1) at notiprefereuci' factor, (2) anl at ti- btiotic factor, aiid (3) a pod fictor that prex ci ts tile aduilt inisect ft Ilit pei ctrt- iug the pod1( xxall and pietrcinig the s(cei. The pod factor inechaitisin of resis- tance xx as itix estigated at Aubur n Uiti x ersitx Agiricultur al Experiment Staitionl i cro1scop ic hiistological exam iii itioi it, iiiade of pods fiont eight x ai ties and bireecding lines, both Suisceptib~le anod ie- sistanit t\ pcs. This \\-ias (l i at f thu staiges of dcx elopntciai. Fis c lax c rs itt tissue mnake iii) till pocd xxall, 111(1 the tihiickni ess of1 each andc total xx all thickniex. xx ci measured at each grox tii Stage. No correl ation xs as fowid bi1etxxeen re-i sistanice anid tlticki ess of the po~d xxall (ot tiiktiess oIf' ix vt ix iin al tis soc lax ci Sexeral clifferences xs crc ob~csered be- xx ccii the resi stan t aid suiscept ibl~e liii cx miss exer, xx hiici ita be iixix ed inl till 1)0d factoi resistai ce miet liatsiri. Amiuitts of tanitn conitaiiied inl sacs, close to the fiber Liveri of ftic pod xx all siioxx cc differences hctxxee ccircsjstant al ii sutscep)tib~le'x arieties iii carlx stages of pod1( dex eiopmiitit. Tlie imiiie i cxstatiil lites Lad more tannin sacs, xx itli itti ii cdiate ate1] least resistan t lines cs oittaiii iug progressix clv fexwer. This soggests that the tannin sacs, miay at as at chemti cal barrier oi feed inig d etc trent that dis coot ages the aduhlt itisect fi loi compJletelx puutiettirig tile pod xxall. Antihtler (lifleret ce itoticedi itl flter stage s of pocd dexvelopmeit xx its at distilet x aiitini iii thickeninig of tile secoicat ccif xx ails of the fiber lax cer. Varieties xxithi the greatest degi cc of secon darx celi xx iill formation xxere the roost resistat it. Little or tno seconidary ccl xxall dexveiop- iticilt of filbers xx as founid ill thle iloi e susxceptiblec ones. Nsumnerocus punctures liy iii, aidlilt clii- ciii onl resistan t lilies itt latte Stages ait 1(1 to cott 1)1etclx pet it ttc the pod1( xx ill. Nliroscopic exaitinatiot texealed thtat rn1aix of' tile 1) tctiir's xx\cit cotix' as dleep as the fiber layer, but int thiroughi it. The filler laxyer, containitlg cells xxithi xx(,]I dcxveloped secondcary xx alls, maN iiict io ias~ a phyxsical barrier p)reventinig ie inisect fro tpt)~eiitrating tite pmod xwall. Fu 0rther invixestiga tioni is neceded to(ol - firmt p~reliminary fiotdings aboultt thle pod factor resistance mrccllatiusm. aind to pulsi- tixe \l coirrelate the tatititis and thick xx a] lcd fillet cells xx itli resistanlce. Better iiiidetstainliig of the niatutre of resistane xxiiia l 1 i breed ig (ffo rts toi comnihte all Ii tee resistaintce factoirs initol southlern pea airictics xxithia high (degree oIf resistance tol ci rclilio. Microscopic cross sections of young pods of southern peas reveal that pod walls of the curculjo resistant line, Ala. 963.8 fA), have more tannin sacs (arrows) than California Black- eye (B). Ala. 963.8 also has thickened fiber cell walls (C), whereas those of susceptible California Blackyeye (D) are not thickened. AA 4-~' Alaintainii Fescute Ski 1k/S in BabHa-Fescue imures C. S. HOVELAND and R. F. McCORMiCK, JR., Department of Agronomy and Soils E. L. CARDEN, Brewton Experiment Field I AlI .l EscLE 1'A.5'IuiuE iii central and Cutting in summenr wxas showin to redu southern Alabamia are almnost ceitain to tall fescue groxx li and~ allow blliagra he invaded by Peinsacola bahiagrass. But to dominate. iiianagemieit that comibines heavy n'litr'o- Area of the State affected result gen applications inl wxinter xwith high Stands lasted longer at the Plant Bree stubble miaitenance in summier helps ilig Unit, Tallassee, than I iirther soni inaintaji pr~1oductixe stands of fescue. at the Brewxton It'xperinfelit Fi(l1d. WXinter application of 200 lb3. N per acre resuiltedl in best fescue standl mnai- Management Practices Compared teliance ill the Aubuirn I nix ci itx Agri- cultural Experiment Station tests. Total Kenttickx :11 tall fescue was esta forage production bx' the fescue-bahia lislied inl October 1971 oil sandy lo a mixture wxas greater when anl adlditional soils at both test locations. Pensaco 200 lb). N xxas applied in summier, but bh bahia accounted for at lig percentage of les. the total. xe \laiiitaiiiing( stubble heighit at I in. re- Sc i stilted inl best stilml. ('lose 3langor xx (' TALEl 1. EFFECTI OF NirMOGLiN BAIES ANiD S OF TALI. Ii SCii OViElI)[l)DE W51111 N itirate, lb./acre Winiiter Siiiir 4-ill. stu111c hiigilt 2WX 2(H0 100 100 100 I~l 1'-u.Stule)I beight 2(h1) 1(K) -- 200 0 Not cut iii sutinler 100 0 -loi-ac-e 1m liri'xxtoii I '2 10 9.690 6,000(t 7,8t00 :3,84(0 1:3.110I 10.58(0 6,870) 8,93(1 1,451) 1, 1 -0( 2 27(0 '1' ii 2. EFiiC irOF \Vixi Fit NI) 1104N BAIxiuS cct ss -5. d1- h- in Forage wvas harvested from October to Mlax at a stubble height of 11' in. total forage yields xwere highest whben bahia domninated the fescue-bahia sxxard. Table 1. Highest average yield for the 3 years, 612 tons per acre, xvas at Brexw- ton xwith summer stible height of 1V/2 in. and 400 lb. N. Under this mnanage- mnent at both locations, fescue wxas x ir- tiiallv elimninated hx the seconid year, leaxving nearlx at solid stand of bahia. Location Differences Found iaarass seed x-wcre broadcast on the( Tall f'scia' stands in Apr il of the third lie sod inl March of the folloxxing xyear ind icate that pe'rsisteince xwas better r. Comrbinationis of txxo summner (NMax at Tallassee than at Brewton, Table 1. it('iiler) stuible heights and N rates Tbe loiiger xvaim season at Brexwton ax - cx .\loil ox er the( liext ') xeai 5. Ors balhiagrass. At Brexxton, fescue per'- sistedl best xxhlen fertilized in xxvinter xwith 2010 lb. per acre N and not cut fr-omMax xmii ii i i i. oN Fou.(i, Y1IELDlS through September. TFall fescule oii sand'v I)xii ii xs1972-75 A\x. soil at Birexw toi appiaiently xvill be t'x ent Fc('SC grun (i xr, Apri d1lx' do m iniatedi bx' bahia, ie gal dl ess of .1 I i' 3~ 4 c~ ) lana gtm iit. Nem atotite populat ion 15 all l'.llassee m~wol Tllisc iild to Ighl levels inl this soil aiid seni ttii'woii I.ilt. 15 i'i' usix daiiiage fescue. xx bile bahiaigrass is L~b. Pct. P,0. wlcat ix lv to~lerant. Fu irthe (r noirth at Tall assee, fesci per- 7,:360 19 89 'isted xxel xxith bablia xxhenl cut (hiling 7. 190 38. 901 immler at a stubb~le height of -1 iii. an~d 6.0801 40 8 crtili,'ed wxith 2t00 lb). pe ad c 'N oi- 5,10 ( i6 ire annually. At loxwer N rates, baira- ''rass (ncroached o1) the fescue re(garldC- I 421 Iliss of suimmner still])]( height. 9, 770. 4 Seasou ia] pi'oni lt ixitv x'duriing the( third _290 14 :39 season xxithia tall fescuie-baiia moixture 8,080) 5 11 xwas best xxith xxiiiter N r ate tof 200 11). 5,2-10 6 6 anld stuliuner stiubb1le heighit oif 4 in., Ta- hle 2. Close clipping inl summuer sbhirpx' 1,031) 62 t100 i cdiced stands and xxinter production of ).40) 45 58 .111l fescuie. Appxiing nitiogren 11) smoinmer a 'eeraited the shift fi i tall fesci ie tto AMi) Si. i iiiiCi (ii'11( Ni ScAO\l 55) x ahia. I'l 01C Disi iiimiioN or' T1ALLt Fi se(t i o)ILii-il i-i ii B.%~iii xiiss Tiunio SEASON (1974-73).,ux i'\\ fBi i mix. t xii S iiiii i i he r stbble~ lit. 2(00 lb. N iii \%inter .4 iii. 1 12 ill. 100 lb. N in winter -1 ill. I112 ill- 100 lb. N wvinter. 100 lb. 4 ill. 1 14-' ini. -- -- -- Difficult to Maintain Stands Results oIf tlhe expeimnt repiirt(,( cin- Fi iraCc 5 i'1 1 t .cl i'phasize the dib ('iltx' of mnain (.4iiii iig tall 2/18 IV/2 6 4/24 6/13 -7/15 -18/12 9/30 fescue stands ii) association xxitli baliia- L~b. L~b. Lb. Lb. Lb. 0.). LI1). grass 01) sauidx loamr soils of centiral Ala- llamna. 111x' -under high latex of' xwhiiter 700 1, 3201 2.17 7 1 I.220) :31110 5320 1~1510 i itrogren I ertilization ai i hi~r glsiuninel' 14) 441) 20 t ) 320) 960 1 ,32) 0 7511 ,tubb~le height is it poIssib~le to niaiitain tall fescue iii this mixture. Close clipping 12(0 2710 1.76)) 91(1 37(1 30 10011 or grazuig inl summer, together xwithi liixx 801 12)) 7)1) 2,141) 85(1 8.31 .5(01 ititrogen fertilization rates, leads toii Complete bahiagrass sxxaird. lIn south Ala- surnnk'r 1501 410I 1 ,500I 9 1I 2501 460( 2,(0410 harm a onl sand dxv soils, baiiiagrass can be 1.50 161 (151 98 276() 881) 1,1t810 1,4501 e'xpec.ted to dloinate the' Sxward ill a1 few vears i cgT id less of in aiiagcement A NEW METHOD OF IDENTIFYING PHOTOSYNTHESIS INHIBITING HERBICIDES BRYAN TRUELOVE and D. E. DAVIS Department of Botany and Microbiology MOST PERSONS involved in agriculture would insist that the continued use of pesticides is essential if an ever increas- ing world population is to be fed and clothed. There is a great deal of public concern, however, regarding the possible damaging effects of pesticides on man and other nontarget components of the environment. Until recently, the public was con- cerned mostly with what it considered the indiscriminate use of insecticides; but as the recent 2,4,5-T controversy has shown, certain very valuable herbicides are now coming under scrutiny also, and this trend is likely to continue. We are thus faced with the paradoxi- cal situation of the farmer needing pesti- cides to fulfill his obligation of increasing crop yields in order to meet public de- mand, and a section of that same public attempting to take away from him the very tools he needs to accomplish this. It is undeniably true that certain pesti- cides are toxic to man and wildlife and it is likely that a compromise will event- ually be reached that will limit the farm- er's pesticide armory to only the safest of the suitable compounds available. In a previous article (Highlights of Agricultural Research, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1971) it was described how certain herbi- cides, such as S-triazines, kill plants by blocking photosynthesis. In the process of photosynthesis a green plant in the light manufactures energy-rich carbohy- drates and oxygen from carbon dioxide (a low energy gas) and water. Because photosynthesis is unique to green plants, a chemical which affected only that pro- cess would not be injurious to animals. For that reason, photosynthesis-inhibiting herbicides, when used with discretion, are generally considered safe. Each year the manufacturers of agri- cultural chemicals screen many hundreds of compounds in their search for new herbicides. The techniques convention- ally used for determining whether or not a compound inhibits photosynthesis re- quire expensive equipment, highly skilled personnel, and a great deal of time. Consequently, such determinations are not routinely made at an early stage in the screening process and generally are considered only at a later stage in the development of a herbicide when its mechanism of action is being determined. The availability of a rapid method, which required no specialized apparatus and which could be carried out by relatively unskilled labor, for recognizing photo- synthesis-inhibiting chemicals would be a valuable technique in the search for safe new herbicides. We recently developed such a tech- nique from a chance observation that we made while conducting some quite un- related experiments. We were studying the effects of one of the S-triazines, prometryne, on cucumber tissue. We wished to treat cucumber tissue with either a phosphate solution alone or a phosphate solution containing prome- tryne. To do this we punched small discs of tissue out of the first leaves (cotyle- dons) of cucumber seedlings and added them to the phosphate and phosphate plus prometryne solutions in beakers placed under a bright light. To our sur- prise, we found that in those beakers which contained prometryne the discs sank to the bottom of the solution after a few hours. In the beakers that con- tained only phosphate solutions the discs continued to float. Since the best docu- mented effect of prometryne is the in- hibition of photosynthesis, it was postu- lated that the discs lost their buoyancy and sank when sufficient time had elapsed for the prometryne to penetrate the discs and inhibit their photosynthesis. The observation was investigated fur- ther using discs punched from cotyledons of pumpkin and various other tissues. It was discovered that sinking did not occur in all leaf tissues. It was further observed that with pumpkin cotyledon tissues sink- ing occurs more rapidly if semi-circular half-discs are used rather than complete discs, and the rate of sinking is increased by agitating the beakers and by including a trace amount of a surface active agent in the phosphate medium. Table 1 shows the rate of sinking of TABLE 1. EFFECT OF PROMETRYNE AND DARKNESS ON THE RATE OF SINKING OF PUMPKIN COTYLEDON HALF-DIscs Discs sunk at various times Treatment (hours) after treatment 0 2 4 6 8 Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pet. Light, no prometryne 0 0 0 0 0 Light, prometryne 0 0 71 89 93 prometryne 0 0 17 55 79 Dark, prometryne 0 0 47 79 88 TABLE 2. EFFECT OF EIGHT HERBICIDES ON THE RATE OF SINKING OF PUMPKIN COTYLEDONHALF-DiscS IN THE LIGHT Discs sunk at various times Chemical (hours) after treatment 0 2 4 6 8 Pct. Pct. None 0 0 Photosynthesis inhibitors Atrazine------ 0 0 Prometryne - - 0 0 Bromacil ........ 0 0 Fluometuron---- 0 0 Diuron 0 0 Pct. Pct. Pct. 0 0 0 15 29 25 7 34 Not photosynthesis inhibitors D SM A ................. 0 0 1 Potassium azide_ 0 0 0 2,4-D 0 0 0 57 79 79 53 82 1 1 0 95 96 96 91 95 3 7 3 half-discs floated on a phosphate medium with or without prometryne in the light or dark. In the light there was no sinking of discs in an 8-hour experimental period in the absence of prometryne, but sinking was rapid in the presence of prometryne. In the dark photosynthesis is not possi- ble, and sinking was rapid in both the presence and absence of the herbicide. Table 2 shows that the method is spe- cific for those herbicides that inhibit photosynthesis. Again, there was no sink- ing in the absence of herbicide, but in the presence of the five herbicides known to inhibit photosynthesis sinking was rapid. Discs continued to float on the three solutions containing herbicides that kill plants through effects on other, non- photosynthetic, processes. The method can also be used to meas- ure exceedingly low concentrations of such herbicides in solution because the rate at which the discs sink is directly proportional to herbicide concentration. Using the technique we have been able to detect prometryne in solution at con- centrations as low as 0.02 p.p.m. Buoyancy of the discs is due to gases present in the small spaces between the cells of the tissue. When photosyn- thesis ceases the composition of this gas mixture will change; carbon dioxide con- centration will increase to a high level and oxygen content will be reduced to a low level. Carbon dioxide is relatively soluble and it is believed that sinking probably results from the external liquid gradually infiltrating the tissue and re- placing the gas that gave the leaf buoy- ancy. Because this method is so simple to carry out it is receiving attention in a number of research and industrial labora- tories both in the United States and abroad. Hopefully, it will serve as an additional valuable tool in the search for better and safer agricultural chemicals. 10 ESTATE PLANNING is the continuous process of organizing the affairs of the estate owner to fulfill his objectives for his property at death. Inadequate estate planning can result in excessive estate taxes, uncertainty per- taining to future owner-operatorship of the farm business, unnecessary admini- strative and transfer costs, and liquida- tion losses. The estate plan should provide for the family's future needs and preserve a maximum amount of property for their welfare. To see how well this is being done by Alabama farmers, 10 actual cases were studied. 1 One example, Case A, is presented. Case A Mr. A owned 515 acres of land at his death. His main enterprises were beef cattle and cotton. Mr. A died between the age of 65 and 70 and his wife was in the same age range. He had only one son who was between 45 and 50 years old. In this case the grandchildren were also designated as heirs to the estate in a will. Mr. A started distributing his estate by gifts in 1950, and had reduced his taxable estate by $47,000 at the time of his death. Mr. A used lifetime gifts to transfer part of the farm business to his son. The first gift was 230 acres of land, which was valued at $23,000 at that time. This gift was divided into $6,000 as an annual gift, and $17,000 as a "life- time specific gift tax exemption." Again in 1966 Mr. and Mrs. A gave a split gift of the cotton gin to the son. This gift was valued at $13,000. That same year they gave their granddaughter a house and 5 acres of land which were valued at $11,000. These gifts totaled $24,000 for that year. Since the annual exclusion can be deducted for each person, $12,000 was deducted on this basis. The other $12,000 was transferred under the re- maining lifetime exemption. Mr. A established a trust for his grand- son in 1966. Included in this trust was land referred to as "The Old Homestead." This was 160 acres of land including the house in which Mr. and Mrs. A lived. Mr. A's son was appointed trustee. This trust as drawn, however, was revocable; Mr. A still retained some control, so that this property was included in Mr. A's es- tate. As mentioned above, Mr. A also drew up a will to complete his estate plan. Mr. 1 ar Estate Planning in Alabama, Prob- lems, Tools, and Case Studies, Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 466, is available upon request. A's objectives in his will were to: 1. Provide security for his wife during her lifetime. 2. Transfer the estate in a way that would reduce problems to the family and limit the estate taxes. 8. Retain the farm land within the family. By using a will Mr. A gave one-third of his estate to his wife, and one-third to each of two grandchildren. This was by- passing the middle generation, by re- quest of Mr. A's son. Through this method the estate is taxed only once be- tween the three generations, whereas, in most cases it would be taxed twice- at present and again at the son's death. The liquid assets or cash available for taxes, debts, and transfer cost amounted to $7,000 in the checking account, $12,- 200 in other bank deposits, and $5,000 in insurance at the time of Mr. A's death. This gave the executor excellent liquidity to handle financial matters. Mr. A had the following assets in- cluded in his estate: Gross Probate estate estate Real estate (including home) $ 96,500 $ 96,500 Real estate (in trusts) 32,000 Mortgages, notes and cash .....................- 200 Insurance on the decedent's life ........... 5,000 Jointly owned property -40,000 Other personal property --------------------- 13,700 13,700 Total $187,400 $129,200 Most of Mr. A's real estate was owned in sole ownership. Included in the jointly owned property were one small tract of land, livestock, machinery, and savings deposits. Mr. A did not have any debts other than the current bills for utilities and small debts, which amounted to $100. Mr. A's estate settlement is pre- sented below: Case A Estate Settlement Gross estate $187,400 Less: Indebtedness...... $ 100 Administrative cost 8,500 3,600 Adjusted gross estate $183,800 Less: Marital deduction ..........-$61,266 Specific exemption ---------- 60,000 $121,266 Taxable estate 62,534 Gross estate tax $ 10,210 Mr. A's estate plan lacked uniformity or any specific outline. The gifts were given at irregular times in irregular amounts. If the gifts had been spread over a number of years to take full ad- vantage of the annual exclusion, then more of the estate could have been trans- ferred in this manner, tax free. However, Mr. A's sole objective was not to mini- mize taxes, but to transfer his property for his son's use, which he did, and still saved over $8,000 in taxes to his estate. Tax summary Mr. A's estate plan (without gifts) Mr. A's estate plan (with gifts)---- Added cost of gifts Net savings Taxes paid $18,892 10,210 0 $ 8,772 Most Alabama farmers inherited or bought their farms many years ago, and some of them are not aware of how much their farms have increased in value. Therefore, many Alabama farm estates are going to be taxed quite heavily unless there has been adequate estate planning prior to the death of the farmer. Case A farm estate has been re-valued based on current prices of land to indi- cate the effect of estate planning. Case Estate A at Present Values Gross estate Less: Indebtedness- - Administration cost..... Adjusted gross estate Less: Marital deduction .......---.... Specific exemption ----- Taxable estate -- Gross estate tax paid in 1970 ......... Gross estate tax at present values- Gross estate tax with no estate planning...... - ------ Net savings from estate planning Mr. A's estate plan $238,657 $ 100 _ 3,50,0 3,600 $235,057 _ $ 77,685 60,000 137,685 $ 57,529 100,372 $ 10,210 $ 19,404 - $ 75,285 $ 75,285 No estate planning $379,057 $ 100 3,600 3,6,00 $375,457 $ 35,503 60,000 95,503. $279,954 11 FARM ESTATE PLANNING in ALABAMA SIDNEY C. BELL and WILLIAM C. HUGHES Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology IFFECTED BY HERBIIDE-BIIQT INTEIIIITIOIS G. L. BENSON and E. A. CURL Depar-Imen t of Bota ny and Microbiofogy LV ME im BL(i0AL projects are nowy de- voteci to investigations of rhizosphere ecology' an d its relation to the ov erall health and vigor of plants. The rhizo- sphere is that area of soil immediately adjacent to roots~ an influenced Lw sub - stances exuded or leaked fromn roots. N Iicrobiol ogi ea lly, this unique zone is \%-herec the action is." Aiiv stress upon plant growvth, whether hrougTht onl by climatic agents, pesticidal injurs . or other factors. max' alter the quianitity and chemnical nature of root (\UdC~ation. Since exuded substances are pI ilcipall ' sugars and amnino acids they affect the gr owxth and behav ior of path- ogrenic fuiiii in the rhizosphiere. Ilerbi- cides, thoughi for mulated to kill we eds, \\ ill also all cct "nonsusceptihic" crop plamnts to sonw degree. "Noii target" soil mincroorgan isms0 also mulst be aflfected'C, either lbv (direct contact wxith the herhi- cid oIc(I ind(irV(ctdv in) res ponse to root cnI- ii-onimeital chianges it is csselitial to knIioxx xx ltIicr sui effect s ar bclenIlefici al o1. pose pI t ciit ia] 11 a/zards to cl op plants. Root weight (g) 0.05- 0 04- 0.03- 0.02- 0.01 FIG. 1. weights Tref Ion 0 1 5 10 Tref Ion (equiv. Ib/ocre) Effects of Treflon on seedling of two cot-ton varieties. 1'usarium inxysporum0 f. sp. vasinfectnni is the pathogeinic agent causing wxilt of cotton in Alahamna and other cotton- cyrixVing states. It surv ives in soil hy re- sistant structurles ealledi cidamydospores, wh ichl also serxve as the primary source of in~fectionk. These spores lie dormant until a suitable stimuilus, such as root exudcates, induces their germination. Basic experimenlts ill the Department of Botanyv and Microbiology wverc con- ducted to test the influence of txxo cotton hierhicides on root exudhates and thie germinlationi of Flrsarittil chlamsydlospores. Fertile, nollsterilized sandy loamn ill small containers xxas treated wxithi rates ofI fllometuroll ( Cotoran ) or triflhIaliII (T1rellan) equivalenit toi 0, 1, 5, andl~ 10 11). per acre. Cotton seedi ligs of Aubu111rn NI ( Flcsritim resistant) and Stoneviile 2.31 I Iiiviim sus1 51 ccp /1)11 xx cre estah- lishied il hiotli treated and linitreated soil. A s11spensionl o f clilam x (11151)1 s oI' (Ifot- toii-ilft 1i-sarin xx\as iIIjectced into the rilizosphiele zone. After 121 hr..' spolles wer crIecovee ' ) -C hx special technIIique Is il stalinied, and the p)ercenItaIge gerinitiation ofi spore xxas calculated. Other factors mneasured xxere root xx eights. amnounts of slit ars anld amuindi acidls exulded into the rliizosphere s(oil, and extent of germn tuhe lx sis ( iisindlx' micirohial rdestrulctioln) fol- lowxing spoire germination. Root des elopmcint (if both cotton xa- ricties wvas severely inhibited ixv Treflan (Figure 1), xwhercas Cotoran appareiitlx' enihan~cedl gIroxxtli sligrlltlv. In contrast to rooit xx cits. the perdcntage spore germi- ilatioin in the rhizosohere inc rcase d sharpix, in presenie of Treflan (Figure 2) u1sed at rates equlix allit tol 5-10 11). per acr e. but Cotoral had little effect. roo(ts it) Ti el n-itreatd 'lsil is hlie e(d to be related to a critical chawi,! ilca )oo "nitrogen ax ailabilitx' created h~v rooit exudcation (If su~gars aild amnol acids in the riizospherc. Cotoran had one signlificant effect on Fuisaim folloxvinil spore genrination in the rhizoisplicre. lysis or disintegration of spore _erln tubles inicreased xwith in- ceasin~g lexvels of Cotoran in the soil (FitgIn e :1). TrefLuli did rilt promote this efect. Germ tubes lysed (%) Cotoron 0 1 5 10 Cotoron (equiv. l1b/ocre) FIG. 2. Effect of Treflon on spore germi- notion of cotton-wilt Fusorium in the root zone. Results of these tests suggest con~traIst- ing effects oif the txvo herhicides. WVhiile Trellan supipressedl root dexvelopmnt aod created a rh iiiiisplere envxironhmenit favor- abl e to spoiti(, geni llitioi (if I'usOIiii 0, Cotorall sllghtlx% enhaniced root dcxvelop- mient anld created coinditions1 for incireasedI lx xis or destruction of geriiiiated spoires. There appe ared ti b e IIo gr eat q nalit a- tix ( dillfcre'nces lietxx cei rlhitzisphleies of thec two I cottonl v arieties. 0 1 5 0 Tref Ian (equiv lb /ce FIG. 3. Effect of Cotoron on destruction of germinated Fusorium spores in the root zone of two cotton varieties. I5 nu1TLli ii i FEIENTS required b "N pLhiits in smnall aniou ts are called micro- uitrien ts. T hese elements in cii ie boron,' zinlc, copper, inmaigan ese, lilil, a11 nd mo IX )dcleini. ]ii most cases, Alabliama soils fuishiix the reijiiired airioiiitx of' these (11cii ets forI hi gh jeld, and1 good ul 0 it x of crops. Therei are exce)t iiis, b.low- cxci, for soine ci ops. Plants diffler in their cailxcitx' to oh- tajin inidooiti wiis fromn the soil. Ciottoin inax starc fo b11 oron onl a soil thI at pro ides enough to produce at 100-bu. corn crop. Coiix ci xcix corn ma) be deficient iii zinc onl a soil that is capable of pro- dlucing 2 bales of' cotton wxithi no zinc- ,idded. Deficiencies Identified liescareli b\ Aiibui i Uix cisity Agri- coltiii a] Expeimuent Station has estab- lishedt the nieed Ifi- ceirtaiiini icronutrients bI' specified cr ops. Boroii xxas found to lie deficieiit forn sexveral crops groxx n onl saiidy soils in Alabama. Additions of this elemenit aire iieeded for cotton, pea- iiits, wh ite aiid crimsoni clover, an(1 miaiiy vegetalbles. lDiiiing 3 x cai oft testiiig at tlhe Sand \Iooiitaiu Suibstationu, Crossxville, yields of seed cottonu xxtie iiicreased about 150 11).* per acre by addiiig boroii. These testx xwere onl both acid aiid limed soils. Other trials at 21 Alabania locatiois showed an average increase oit abont 50 lb). of seced coitton per acre. Some of these tests xx ci oii farmers' fieldx auud otheurx onl units of the A gri ultinral Experiment St ation i Syx- tein. Boron Needs hBoro n fo r co tton call ib e applied in fertilizcr tir prccmnerge herbicide solutiou, ior it can be spray ed on the plant foliage. Siuice oiily small amiounts of boron are iiieded, applicaition rates must be care ''lix controlled. Specific borooneiieds de- teliiiined in long term Auibuini researchi aegixven b~elowx for diffeirent application mei thbods. Fertilizer application: 0.3 tio 0.5 lb. of elemental litri i r acre froii fertilizer liwrate, FB13-6 (14.3% B) iir F13-65 S29 .2% B), are iised, eithier of xwhichu caml lie imcluded iii the fertilizer. Preemnerge ap)plicationi: Boirim itan be umiixed wxithi lieurbicidle aiid applied wxithi ireemierge herb ici de at la itin g. The same amount ot boron as ill tci tili.'cr ap- plication is siipplicl xxith Solubi (20.5% B3). Foliar application: A high]l wvater xululle matem ial. such as Soli iliii, is mn- chided wxith iiisuet icitle spr)i ap i]plication at the rate of' 0.1 11lb. boroni per acre foir tacli of 3 toi 5 ap~plications. For p~eaiiuts, t. t11l. per acre of boroii is used to p)reveiit "hollox', heart," aii iii tral detect iof' pt'antx thI at causes a liolloxx dai keuuiun t onl the iiiside iif the seetd halvecs. Since 1, o il iiire liiilloixx hieait causes a muaket pirice tpeialty' tui pu'alut growxers, iisiiig the siiall ummouuut uif horon is goodi~ iiisurance. Considerable research iii Ala1barna es- tahlished that boron ,xvill imurease sectd Y ields of crimson and wxhite cloxer s. Veg- etables such as tuirnips, cabibage, lbeets, and( cauliflowxx cuiied 1 lb. per acre oif boroi fii or best piroduction. Need for Zinc Ziiic tlfclien( cv of ciiior .~n ap rs as xxbt ti o x stieaks iii the leax es aiid xxhlte to x'elloix buds xxhlen plants aire 6 to 12 in. high. Research i exults showx consistent x ieid increases of 5 to 10 but. per acre fromn appilication of 3 lb). per acre tif zic in the starter teirtilizer. ZLin c dleficieiicy of pecaiis appears as a rosette aiild dieback of shooits in the top ofi the tree. This is prexvented by appli- cations of 1 lb). of zinc per tree per ycar. Thie Condition call lbe cor rected by Liit app~llicaition uof 0).1 to 0.3 lb). of zinc per tu-e for each year of the tree's age, np tio 2 to 3 lb. per tree. Other Micronutrienis For sovbeamus, it is important to growv the crop with a soil pfl of 5.6 or higher. Wheure the soil is more acid, at smnall amoulut of mnolx bdeiiuin added to the seed xwill precut a inolx bdenum de- ficienuex. Tluree-teuuths of an ounce of inolx bdeuu xwill treat a bushel of seed I oz. of sodinun Iolybtiate in 12 pt. Of xwater). Present Expeiriment Station reseairch indicates that Alabama soils usually sup- ply enough copper anid maiigaiiese for cro~ps. Iron deficiency is present onl some ornamental plants, such as shrubs and laxwn grasses, xwhere pH ori phiosphiorus, iir both, is ver y high. An ir on spray usually corrects these deficiencies. The iiicroniutrient problem is miore luan just xxhlethier the element is piresenut ini aderquate aiuiouiits in the souil. NMam i factoirs affect the axvailability to planits. Fur example, boron deficiency is mr prexvalent in tdry soils than in moist soils. Very high phosphorus slowvs zinc uptake in plants. An excess of one micronutrient iii the soil may reduce uptake of another, such as excess zinc reducing iron uptake. Micronutrients for Crops in Alabama JOHN 1. WEAR Deportment of Agronomy and SoitIs 4 WHAT DO ALABAMA CONSUMERS KNOW ABOUT FLAME RETARDANT SLEEPWEAR? KAREN E. ABNEY and IAN R. HARDIN Departmenf of Home Economics Research THE ISSUANCE Of federal flammability standards covering children's sleepwear in sizes 0-14 has caused a drastic change in the fabrics used in these garments, and in those fabrics available for home sewing. Whereas, previously most of this sleep- wear was cotton, now that fiber repre- sents only about 10-15% of the market. Fibers such as polyester, nylon, acetate, modacrylic, and matrix predominate, while cotton, in order to be used at all, must have a durable flame retardant (FR) finish. Almost all fibers, but especi- ally cotton, require special care to ensure maintenance of their flame retardant properties. A group of Alabama consumers was surveyed to determine their knowledge and interest in flame retardant sleepwear; their reactions to new products on the market and their practices in caring for these products; their main source of in- formation about flame retardant fabrics; and their opinions on the need to expand flammability standards into other areas. The sample was composed of mothers of children in nursery and elementary school. The survey was done in an urban area of the State. A total of 119 mothers was interviewed after an initial screening to assure a middle class background for the participants. The level of education of participants was relatively high, with 95% having completed high school and 46% having attended college for some length of time. The consumers were questioned about their awareness of federal rules on the flammability of childrens' sleepwear, car- pets and rugs, mattresses, and mattress pads. Seventy-five, 25, and 21% of the consumers, respectively, indicated they were aware of these standards. The much lower awareness of the regulations con- cerning carpets and mattresses is not sur- prising in light of the low turnover rate of such items in a home. Many of those 14 questioned may not have purchased one or both of these items since the federal regulations went into effect. The introduction of flame retardant sleepwear has caused a rise in prices of children's sleepwear. This has occurred because of higher costs of some of the new fibers and because of costs of apply- ing flame-retardant finishes. When con- sumers were asked about price changes in sleepwear, most of them (55%) be- lieved that there had been a change in the price of children's sleepwear, and the change was a rise in price. Interestingly, however, only one-third of the respon- dents believed that flame-retardancy was the cause of the price rise. Most answers gave inflation as the cause. When asked whether they would be willing to pay $1.00-$2.00 more for chil- dren's sleepwear that resists burning, 88% of the mothers answered yes, thus indicating strong support for the concept of flame-retardant sleepwear. Of the 119 consumers surveyed, 73 in- dicated that they had purchased or been given FR sleepwear. Of these, 68 were satisfied with the garments. The few complaints about the garments included comments that the garments wore out too soon, that they looked old and dirty, and that the material felt rough to the skin. The garments that consumers were dissatisfied with were made of polyester or modacrylic fiber. The sources of information about FR children's sleepwear available to consum- ers were of considerable interest. Those respondents who had indicated aware- ness of FR sleepwear were asked to indi- cate their sources of information about garments. The table shows responses given. The percentages are greater than 10.0% because often more than one source was cited. Other sources that were added by the respondents were labels and hang tags on garments, catalogs, and fabric shops. Less than one-third of those sub- jects who had knowledge of FR garments had received any information about them from salespeople, perhaps the very peo- ple who should be the most informative. The questionnaires for the survey were administered in two ways: one in which the form was filled out and mailed back, and the other in which a personal inter- view took place. The method of ad- ministration had an effect on the answers to some questions, in particular the ques- tion "have you heard about sleepwear made to resist burning?" and the question about willingness to pay extra for FR sleepwear. In both cases, more of those consumers that were interviewed an- swered yes than those who filled out the questionnaire in private. Evidently the presence of the interviewer had an effect on the answer given, with a positive an- swer perceived to be "correct." The consumers in the survey were asked about the need for expanding flam- mability standards into other areas. The responses varied from a high of 84.5% of the subjects choosing "all should be made to resist burning" for 0-6X chil- dren's sleepwear to a low of 44.8% choos- ing that response for girl's dresses. For both girl's dresses, and for boys' slacks and shirts, opinion was divided between mandatory FR garments and a choice for the consumer. The third response, none should be made to resist burning," was chosen rarely, probably because such a response was considered to imply that the respondent doesn't care about people who get burned. Sleepwear for the el- derly, an area where problems are known to exist, was the area of greatest concern, other than children's sleepwear. Unfortu- nately, it is an area in which specific solutions for the elderly are unlikely to come forth. There was substantially less support for mandatory standards on girls' dresses and boys' slacks and shirts. This com- parative lack of support is presumably indicative of an intuitive feeling that such garments represent less inherent risk than sleepwear. It seems clear that more opinions from average consumers con- cerning the type of standards and choices desired in the area of textile flammability are needed to help the Consumer Prod- uct Safety Commission make decisions in keeping with the wishes of its con- stituency. SOURCES Or INFORMATION ABOUT FLAME RETARiDANT SLEEPWEARt Pct. Friends of family - -36.7 Salespeople - -29.7 Newspapers or magazines ......... 72.3 Bulietins or leaflets .............. 11.1 Meetings or classes .............. 4.4 R adio ................ 15.2 Television -- 71.4 The Family Vegetable Garden An Enjoyable Way to Save E. W. McCOY, J. L. BOUTWELL, and K. J. LIKIS Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology A FAMILY VEGETABLE garden is not a new idea. To the contrary, supermarket purchase of fresh, frozen, and canned vegetables is a relatively recent phe- nomenon that accompanied urbanization. Most city dwellers opted for lawns and shrubbery over vegetable gardens and other leisure-time activities instead of gardening. In recent years, however, veg- etable gardening has gained in popu- larity. In 1975, for example, an estimated 50% of U.S. families had vegetable gar- dens. Many factors led to the upsurge of in- terest in home food production. Among these were inflationary pressures on food prices, increased fuel costs that decreased participation in activities away from home, and heightened interest in the en- vironment and nature. Although the rising price of food prob- ably has been a prime reason for many people taking up gardening, vegetable growing can hardly be justified strictly on an economic basis. The clearest indi- cation of this fact is that most people do not continue gardening unless they gain pleasure from the activity. A city family that raises a garden to cut food costs must consider expenses of such things as land preparation, fertil- izer, other chemicals, seed, and plants. Labor is a major input into a garden, but it is usually not included with expenses as in most economic considerations. As an example of costs involved, con- sider inputs into a 20- X 25-ft. garden plot. Land preparation, soil testing, lim- ing, and fertilizing-getting ready for planting-will cost about $12 for the plot. Labor will vary in the 2- to 20-hour range, depending on whether a power tiller is rented for breaking the ground. Seed and plant costs would amount to about $13, bringing total cost to about $25 for the 20- X 25-ft. garden area, as shown in the table. Estimated production and value of products from the garden are given in the table. Prices are based on those that might normally be expected during the garden season. Vegetables in the home garden usually mature at the same time as commercial crops, the season when supermarket prices are lowest. Cost and yield data in the table are based on spring, summer, and fall crops. In the case of single plantings, yields of radishes, lettuce, carrots, cabbage, turn- ips, and snap beans would be about halved, and total value would be reduced accordingly. Use of irrigation would in- crease yields, costs, and labor require- ments. Additional costs for other factors will be necessary. In the South, yields will not approach the levels in the table with- INPUTS AND OUTPUTS OF SMALL HOME GARDEN Veeabl Inputs Quni Outputs eQuantity Retail value Total egae Quantity Cost harvested per unit value Peas-early 1 packet $1.00 16 lb. $0.35 $5.60 Green onions ------- 120 sets .50 100 onions .03 3.00 Radish ......................- - 2 packets 1.00 24 bunches .25 6.00 Lettuce -------- -- - 2 packets 1.00 48 heads .45 21.60 Carrots - -- 2 packets 1.00 36 lb. .25 9.00 Cabbage - - 30 plants 1.50 25 heads .35 8.75 Turnips for greens .......... 2 packets 1.00 14 lb. .30 4.20 Cucumbers (trellis) 1--------I packet .50 60 .25 15.00 Tomatoes (staked) ........... 10 plants 1.50 115 lb. .20 25.00 Peppers--- -- - - 10plants 1.50 40lb. .30 12.00 Summer squash ----- 1 Ipacket .50 40 lb. .15 6.00 Snap beans ---------------------- 2 packets 2.00 30 lb. .30 9.00 Total seed and plant costs ---- ---- -----.. $13.00 Soil test, fertilizer, and chemicals ........ 12.00 TOTAL $25.00 $125.15 out weed and insect control. Weed con- trol can be done entirely by hand labor, or labor saving practices can be used. Mulching, for example, retards weed de- velopment and conserves moisture, but may lead to increased damage from slugs. Insects and plant diseases can be controlled by various techniques, depend- ing on the problem, but usually require a small sprayer or duster. The combination of preparing land, fertilizing, planting, weeding, controlling diseases and insects, harvesting, dispos- ing of crop residue, and setting up and removing crop supports can require as little as 50 hours of labor during a 250- day growing period. This brings total seasonal labor to about 70 hours for a small garden. Variable costs would amount to $25 for fertilizer, seed, and soil test. Capital investment could be figured at about $30 -for a shovel, hoe, sprayer, and lime. As shown by production data in the table, vegetables with retail value of more than $125 can be grown with the costs and investments described. Net re- turn over variable costs would be about $100, or $1.40 per hour for the labor in- volved in gardening. From a strictly monetary standpoint, the gardener would be better off with a part-time job. However, there are num- erous intangible gains to the home gar- dener that do not show up in economic analyses. Vegetables such as sweet corn simply cannot be purchased fresh in a store, so it is misleading to price such products at retail store value. And a surplus of vegetables need not go en- tirely to waste. Friends and relatives gen- erally receive them with appreciation. Moreover, the decision is usually not be- tween gardening and part-time work, but between gardening and boating or watch- ing television. Many new gardeners have discovered that caring for plants is a worthy substitute for leisure activities they once preferred. 15 ,~ Ef~ f. ~ A TENT N' F ~ r~r H A ~RA f EIA~I~V~THA AOINISB 1< ~l .~ WTN ~ lEFT fiN MIS~IN, lE~$L H THE FISH TO MR 0 M ~ Mliii. IN NOESSION S AN Fishermen are encouraged to return marked or tagged fish. The rate that tagged fish are recaptured is a measure af the effect of fishing an a fish population. MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS WITH CRAPPIE IN FARM PONDS AND SMALL IMPOUNDMENTS W. D. DAVItS, Depatment o~f Fisheries and Allied Aqacultes C BA PPtI ate tnt ltsuallv recotinmended for Stock ing its farm pitnds or sinall ito- poutidioctits because tle)- tend~ to lie- come oxvercro(xxded or stuntted xx hich re- sults iii poor- fishing. Cr appie also coin- pete xwithi other species xwhich can resuilt in sloxw groxx tl and smnall average size of other important sport fish. W\ell mneatitg fishermen often stock crappie on their 0owni. Usuailly only a fews adutlts are adlded1. Hloxx Cx r, these fe\\ iti(lix iduals are capable of produlcing a trientdous niumber of voiga. \Vhe Ii tl Iis, happens, the detnse population suppr t esses its 0ow1 reproduction for sexveral veals itil natural toortahtx\ atid fishitig re~duce their nsumber s to a level xxhere atiother large outober of young are p)rodutced. Thie itet r esult is a cx die pattern in the qfuality of fishinig. lin the Southeast t li appear s to be a .5-year oxel do ti~ltim' it. otilx, I to 2 vears of good fisltitig. lin Lee County p)ublic fishingla black crappie xvere introduced someltit t ii) 1968. These fish spaxwned hieaxvilxy ill 1969; individuals of the 1969 " vear-ciass," finally reached a harx estable size in 197. Duiringa 1973 and 1974 inerrbers of tbi year-class" still xwere present in large enonghi numbers to suppress their oxvn rC 1 )rodu( cti()it. Thle atnual rate of too r talitv for the 1969 "x car-class" is esti- miated to he (i5/,. This meanis that onlx 35a of (f tle fish presenit at the stat t f tte x ar xxill lie presen t 1 2 tiotths later. The p~ortioni of this tnottalit - cautsed by fishingr is beinig determined ftonm the tiiber oIf taggedl fish heinig caught. I~ur- in~g 1974, ipfptoxitoatelx 10% of the 335 tagg. edl fish xx ore recox eted. \X'len these AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830 R. Dennis Rouse, Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Aqriculturol Research 3 76 I GM Penalty for Private Use, $300 datu \%(11 adljtsted for tatgiiig inolalit\ and tag loss, dleaths doe to fishinig ac- (111itedl for 15% of the total tnoitalits. N atral mnortality is obiviouisly at sign ifi- canlt clause of deaths. The reduction i ii numbers of crappie I as alloss ed the i e- a at liil g fishI to grow t api dlx\ 'lativelv ]lt gi 5Car-class" wxas agait I pi odied( ilk the spilig of 1975. 'What might tie done to reguate the popul iiatin to lessen the chanice of atii ext eics large "Neat class" bhitig Lro- duced? Whlere deaths thue to fishing rep- r-eset ita sign ificat t cause of' mortali t theni regolatitng the iier of (rafppie caught by fisheienl would1( help regualate itibers of ci appic Iem aiiiiiig lin the pop- mlatioii. thus miiO jl vingu the rate of re- produliction. Also, stocking large n umbers of fingerlinig bass just b~efore a lar ge 1 ear-class' of crapplie is expected Nvould li clp reduce fry to a level wxhere there is stifficietit food to allovss the remaining crapphie to reach a liarx estalble size. lit fati ni s wh I x ere era ppie hiaxve be- conic a pirioblem, the Iest p~rocedlure fo1und~ to restore goiod fishing is to eitliei fpoisonf xwithi rutenune or draini the ponid atMid start again . lit dtaitiii g a pondi~, all fish should be renmoxed anid all pot holes atnid stat im wi xater shout ld 1 ) treated xx ith cube f)o\vd~er or a liquid formnula- tioti that containis 5"( roteiotie. If thle en t ire pond1( is to be poiso11ned, b est re- suilts haxve heets attainied lix usxing 10 lb. oif Chle powxxder or- 10 pt. of liqutid rote- I ntie per acre ft. oif water. Tests have slonxxi that thlis xvork shu1d lie (d01ne ii October or later in the fall so that thiere wxill lie no repi (cioijti if xwild fish should gret itnto the pond,1( The 1)1111( canl then be re-stocked with bass, bluegill, mil id caitfish) at the reeoinieitied rtes. Aii a~p 1 )ical ioni for fish ina l)Cb obtait ed fromt the Al 01111))a IJel arttit oit(f' Ciii 5Crva- tioti and( N ahiral lies uices iii N liitgoin POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF~ AGR IC ULTU RE AGR 101 BULK RATE IT C/)