I,
Al
DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
AT THIS WIITIN, Alabama nintters are clgagcd 
il perhaps
the most bounteous harvest in history. Peanut yields are excep-
tional. Soybean yields are average but 
acreage beini harvested,
just under 1 million, is the largest on record. Sos h\li prices are
inconceivable when compared to those
of a couple of years ago. Corn yields.
are also high and price per bushel is
good. The picture of the cotton fariner
is not so bright. Yields are not high
and prices are low compared to last
year. Beef cattle producers have little
to rejoice about. Cattle numbers and r
feed prices are at an all time higli
but beef prices are unbelievably low\\-
Inputs in poultry, dairy, swine, and ,
catfish production are high and mot i
than offset prices being received. A
reflection on these changes bring
amazement at the changing outlook
of agriculture. 
R. DENNIS ROUSE
On October 1, I attended a brief-
ing by Secretary of Agriculture Earl Butz. 11 c told us tilhe Nation's
agricultural policy is to promote all-out production and to support
a policy of unrestricted exports of agricultural products - let sup-
ply and demand determine price. The same weekend, President
Ford asked that two large sales of grain to Russia 
be stopped.
This was certain to have a depressing effect on price of feed
grain. One can argue the pros and cons of President Ford's action
but it emphasizes one of the dilemmas facing the farmer. 
This
Government or other governments can with a word make 
decisions
that override the normal law of supply and demand 
when months
of decisions and investments are required to produce the supply
and create the demand. This combined with the uncertainties 
of
weather and pests certainly seem to be a sufficient 
challenge for
the farmer.
I am told that Japan's national policy is to have 
a 3-week food
reserve on their land for their 100 million people with 
another
3 weeks afloat on the way. Any mention of export 
restrictions by
the United States causes great concern among 
other countries and
to provide a hedge against export restrictions is perhaps the pri-
mary reason Japanese businessmen are acquiring 
land and begin-
ning farming operations in both North 
and South America. Most
nations that depend on United States grain expect the U.S. to
maintain a reserve to meet their need. People of other 
nations
should expect to share costs and responsibilities of this reserve in
such a way that the United States producer can 
realize a more
reasonable return on his investment.
Our national leaders should know that agricultural products
are a symbol of national strength. Whether we, a democratic 
gov-
ernment with a compassion for our fellow man, can use it at 
the
bargaining table is questionable. We do know that other 
nations
could and perhaps will 
when the opportunity arises. 
Therefore,
we as a Nation have to be concerned about how other countries
use grain we sell to them.
This Nation is fortunate with its vast acreage of good agricul-
tural land and a climate favorable for production of crops 
and
livestock. However, we can never be an island unto ourselves nor
should the world depend on us to provide an ever increasing per-
centage of its food needs. The world cannot support unlimited
population growth. It can, however, provide for many more than
currently if we are willing to pay the cost and can afford the cost.
As we develop a national agricultural policy of all-out production
and unrestricted exports, we must do so as stewards of the soil
and ensure that the fertility of our soil is not decreased nor our
national resources exploited unnecessarily.
ray ce introdce 
..
Dr. Kennotlh C. S handerson, associate
professor of lioniculturme, reports 
(on one
phase of his Aulburn rIsealrcll ill the ar-
ticle on page 3. A member of Itil re-
searchlt and teaclcilg stlaf
of the Department of
Ilorticulture, lihe deals
witli various phases of
propagating and growi I
orllnamental plants for,
pleasure and 
profit.
A native of Wtoodtlbllr. '
New Jersey, Sanderson
came to the Auburn faculty 
in 1965 11roi)
Louisialna State University 
x wher lie swas
assistant professor. lie also 
had worked
ais greenhouse manager at University 
of
Maryland and mmaagcd a retail florist
shol for 2 years in his lhome to\\n.
Sanderson graduated from Cornell 
Uli-
versity, receiving the B.S. 
degree in
1955. Ile holds both M.S. 
and P'h.D). de-
grees fronm iUniversity of IMarylald, 
where
he specialized ill floricultur aodi 
plant
patllologvs. His major was horticulture.
A meiniber of Pi Alpha 
Xi, natioial
ornalnmellal horticulture societv, 
as an
t)dergraduate, D)r. 
Sanderson was in-
strumental ill estabilishing 
a chapter at
Auburn University earlier 
this year. lie
nosw serses as fitcult 
advisor to to that
chapter. IHe holds millberslip ill Sigma
Xi ailId Ganuna 
Sigma I)elta at 
Aitbutrn,
and is active ill the 
American Society
for Horticultural Science.
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
WINTER 1974 
VOL. 21, NO. 4
A quarterly report of research published
by the Agricultural Experiment 
Station
of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNIS ROUSE
InRVIN T. OMTVEDT
CHAS. F. SIIONS
T. E. CORLEY ....
E. L. McGRAWw
R. E. STEVENSON
RoY ROBERSON __
Director
Associate Director
Assistant Director
Assistant Director
S Editor
Associate Editor
Assistant Editor
Editorial Advisory Committee: IRVIN T.
OSITVEDT; JOHN LA 
RENCE, Professor of
Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures; 0. L.
CHAMBLISS, Associate Professor of Horti-
culture; H. S. LAnSEN, Associate Pro-
fessor of Forestry; AND E. L. McGRAw.
Auburn University is 
an equal opportunity
employer.
ON THE COVER. Plants rooted in individual
synthetic media units can be transplanted
without damage or loss in growing time.
Solid State, Synthelic Growing Media
Show Advantages in Auburn Tests
KENNETH C. SANDERSON ond WILLIS C. MARTIN, JR., Dept. of Horticulture
SOLID STATE synthetic growing media
can take the drudgery out of starting
new plants. These products eliminate
soil storage, measuring, mixing, fertiliz-
ing, disinfesting or "sterilizing," and pot-
ting. Seed or cuttings are sown directly
by hand or machines into a 
clean, sterile,
uniform unit which serves both as a
medium and a container.
Units are lightweight, easy to handle,
compact to store, economical to ship, and
suitable for mechanical transplanting.
Transplanting is done directly into the
field with no wilting, damage, transplant-
ing shock, or loss in growing time. Seeds
and cuttings of all plants that are usually
started in peat, clay, or plastic pots ina
be started in solid state swynthetic media.
Commercial Products Tested
Trademark products that were satis-
factory in Auburn University Agricultural
Experiment Station tests 
were BR-8,
Jiffy 7, Kys-Kube, Oasis 902, and Quikee
Sure Start. These were compared with
peat pots filled with 
a loose synthetic
medium of peat moss and vermiculite
(Jiffy Mix) for rooting and subsequent
growth of azaleas and poinsettias.
BR-8's are made from soft kraft, wood
pulp stabilized with an acrylonitril resin.
A new BR-8 now available is light brown
in color with the wood fibers arranged
in a hairpin design to prevent fractur-
ing. The original BR-8, which was oflf-
white, fractured easily because the wood
fibers were laid down in a single hori-
zontal plane. BR-8 blocks are available
in cakes of 12 or 18 units with five hole
sizes to accommodate different size seeds,
Media
Original BR-8
Jiffy-7 No. 700 ......
Jiffy-Mix
Kys-Kube
Oasis 0-902
Quickee Sure Start ...
cuttings, and plant 
species. Limestone,
trace elements, 
and enough 
nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium 
to sustain a
cutting for 3 weeks are added to the
block.
Jiffy 7's are highly compressed pellets
of sphagnum peat moss encased in a
plastic net. Compact to 
store, the pellets
must be expanded by saturating with
water prior to use. While only one size
is available, Jiffy 7's are amended with
various amounts of limestone, trace ele-
ments, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas-
sium to produce three types of pellets:
No. 700 for seeds and seedlings, No.
703 for flower cuttings, and No. 705 for
nursery cuttings.
Kys-Kubes are individually compressed
cubes of peat moss and vermiculite which
resemble an inverted square peat pot.
Almost any size cutting or seed can be
wedged into the cube since it has a large
diameter, shallow hole, with a wedge
shaped slit at the bottom. Initially, Kys-
Kubes are difficult to wet.
Oasis 0-902 loafs are made of a cellu-
lar phenolic foam similar to the material
used to hold flowers in flower arrange-
iments. Molded into pre-punched units
of 8 blocks, 0-902 loafs are lightweight,
pathogen free, fragile, non-splitting, and
water absorbent.
Essentially Quickee Sure Start looks
and has the same characteristics as Oasis
0-902. Expanded phenol-fofrmaldehyde
plastic foam is used to form Quickee Sure
Start into 8, 18, 36, or 72 units ranging
in size from 1 to 21/2 in. The units are
not prepunched, but the soft texture of
the foam facilitates seed or cutting in-
sertion.
Soluble salts
pH (1:5 dilution)
5.5 40
6.0 45
4.5 28
25
25
2
Element (p.p.nm.)
0O:, P K
5 25-30 20-40
-50 10-15 20-40
5 5 5
2 5-10 10-20
Ca
100
100
100o
100
0 0-2 5-10 0 0
40 10 0-1 0 0-40
Different types of soijd state, synthetic
growing media were evaluated at Auburn.
The pH, total soluble salts and Spur-
way analysis of nitrates, 
phosphorous,
potassium, and 
calcium of the 
media
tested were determined, see table.
Cuttings Rooted Satisfactorily
On September 16, cuttings of the poin-
settia cultivar Rochford were propagated
tinder mist in the various solid state
media. All cuttings rooted satisfactorily
and were potted in a medium of equal
volumes soil, peat moss, and perlite to
determine any subsequent effects on
growth. Data taken at flowering revealed
that cuttings propagated in Kys-Kubes
produced the tallest plants with the larg-
est flower bracts, as shown here:
Media
Original BR-8
jiffy 7 ..
Kys-Kube
Oasis 0-902
Peat pot with Jiffy Mix
Quickee Sure Start
Height, 
Bract
ln. iameter,
inin.
iin.
Cuttings of 'Kingfisher' azaleas were
propagated under mist on November 11
using the various media. Approximately
8 weeks later rooting and plant appear-
ance were rated on 0 (poor) to 5 (ex-
cellent) scale and the cuttings were
potted into sphagnum peat moss. At
potting and 3 months later, the number
of plants surviving was recorded. All
media blocks were potted at the soil sur-
face level. Quickee Sure Start propa-
gated cuttings had the highest scores for
rooting, appearance, and plant survival,
as shown here:
Rooti Plant Plant
lMedia Rootin appear- survi-
score once 
val, pet.
Original BR-8
Jiffy-7 No. 700
Kys-Kube .
Oasis 0-902
Peat pot with
Jiffy Mix
Quickee Sure
Start - -
3.5 1.6 68
3.8 2.3 80
I I
Na
N'
AcIDITY AND CHEMICAL CONTENT OF TEST MEDIA
COLD TOLERANCE
IN CENTIPEDEGRASS
W. J. JOHNSTON and RAY DICKENS
Deportment of Agronomy and Soi/S
7
LHOSE xx AHII WINTER DAYiS that xwe all eunjoy mnat be kill-
ing your' iitpdgrs ~ . Atog welafdapteti to
iiucli of thle ]owxer South, the lisc of ceiitipedlegi ass hias tie-
(ifei l lbeeni fimited bx its lack of xxin ter hairdiniesx. Re-
sefircli onl this problemn deteiminetd the relativ e cold toleraince
ainig ceiitipedegrass selectioins aid the ab iio ceintipedle-
gralss to ficquire or- lose coild hafrdliincss.
Field Evaluation
A field test for xvinter surx ix ,l xxas citiducted 
fit Aubil I
wxith si\ selections. At estaiblislhment ii Juine, 1972, each
plot wxas f ertilized xx ith the ailniiit of poitaissiun fertilizer
ilecessart to produce fa highi soil test K x-,filui, aind 1 li). per
1,000 sq. ft. of N falpllied as finflfliiiiil nitrfate. Oine half1
of fcilh plot receixved 1 11). of IN per 1000 s1q. ft. per iiiil 1(1
iii callx zkugust. Septenmei, faind Octollec.. The] i l'iIfiill1 ig
oiie-hff of each plot ieccixved no N. Diii-iiig t973, N \%afi
applied mnonthly fri ii June through October using the an
N so~urce and1( rfate. Winter dfimage was evcxalufated ii lfate
April, 197.3 aind 1974, wxhen all selections had iinitiated spring
groxvth. but hffd isot produced stifficielft growxth to mffsk the
effects of wxinter kill.
There xxerie only inior diffierences fi cold toleira0nce amioilg
the ceilti
1
)edegifiss sclcctionis. P1 IA sihowxed tile Ifist fili t
of winter kill, \iississippi 11 the most, (ait Iemiting 111 silec-
tiuns wvere iintermediate wxhen. data we re avxeraged m cc the
2-Yefr period, see table. Nitrogen fertilization hfad ilo effect
oii xxinter kill, hoxxexver, results fromt faiother expeimlint t(f
Aiuburn indicate thfft N apJplied on a nifitire ccnti
1
)cdcgrfs
sod during September aind October siginificffitly increfasedl
wxinter kill.
Environmental Chamber Investigations
ciintipcdcgrass spi- 45 r growni oxill liit SffIld cfiltilif. cold1
har0denjed, ailnd exposetl I~iiI( y (4-bot peiod) to silib
frecezing tclinlei aties. Planit', werie tlhei plac'
1 
illifi gil-,Il
lhfiont' (111 top-kill of Wcaxes anti stolotis xx ax rated alel I
xx cclk al1(1 plal ft sLix (ivl wxas olbscivxed afItei 3 weecks.
These i eniroiinmeintal ci ari ici studies iniicated] t1 iat 110
selectioin had a supeior aibility to surxvixe a low-tciflperftuie
exposuic, see tablle. Although of less importance tfliI over
fill surxvixal xvalue, am ouiit of to
1
)-kill (lid vary fil mg sci'c-
tioi is. Selections could be placed in txxo geiniral gi mips.
Thiese slmoiwvig the ]cast top-kill wxerie Mississippi 1, Tenes
.ee Hariidx, ()fklaxxn aifod FC-2 fanld tifose shloxwilg thi most
top)-kill xwecie P11 A, \Mississippi 11, fold FC-8.
(COLD Toi L xiix.cii i if OFi CVlPD('If x' Si iii I inxs"
SI littill
Tcili. Harfdy
t ),klaix i
P~tI Lki
M iss. I -- --
Miss. 1I
I'll 2
1"(-8
U6-lit xxilitci sill\ xial,
197:3 19)74 
2 y'eai
ax.
ftiix iflfiifiiiitfl
chambeii~r
Siii~a xi f tocp-kill
P0i. Pet.
6:3 53
66 52
64 58
67 48
6 1 58
6 () 51
59 6 9
W. ilter siliix i~l falte't I tirlofi M 10 It tic.t s ini i I.
( A ft ipetfegrass exposed daiily' to ft 12'-i iofr Ii gut-d flik re
gime xx tm a 60)'F (lit fiynd at 4(1'F night was ffloiiid to fit
(joreillxilitllcoltd haordiiiess if a peiriod of 101 days, Figii
1. (,old hafrdeninug per iods loiiger tihfai 10 day s did iiot iini
provixe hafrdiiiess. Also, unlhike somec grfiss('s, a loug ilighit
aflonie does iiot appefir to iinduce coltd hardinless iii ceiltilcle-
grass. Only a combinaftioin of ft long, cold K 4W1F) ilight, slit-I
ff5s ocCUi s duriuig late fall fandt wxinter, ti can ieniur ini imilfl~
l(oxx teipci fitre resistanice iii ceilti
1
)cdegrfss.
Altlotigli ceiitipedcguas ha lfs the ablilitxy to ibecome cold
ifardx iii 10 days un de' favoi'able ilfiideiiing conditiolns, tilIt
brief 2-dav period of suitable growxing condlitionis cansiuig 10ot11
iloss of hardliincss is possibly of greatei sigifiicaince, Figure 2.
This rapid loss of cold hafrtdiiness is thought to be ani imi-
fotltf t cause of xxiniter iinurs tom ce iti pedlegrass ii tile Soul i
cfast wherie xxiinteis ar(le (oftenl iiterrliptedl by brief periods of
miltd xweather.
Survival,%
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
30
20
10
C) L I I
0 10 20
Days of hardening
30 40
Surviv
100-
90-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
50[
20
10
'ol 7,
urhordened tontrols
0' 1I-
02 4 6
Days of favorable growing conditions afier hardening
FIG. 1. Length of cold period needed to develop cold hardiness. FIG. 2. Effect of favorable growing period on loss of cold hard-.
iness.
CORN-UREA PREMIXES FOR DAIRY COWS
GEORGE E. HAWKINS
Departmentf of Animial and Dairy Sciences
Silt isi ac-t on ad i LIosa tiSxlaCtot x e ICtiftS. (1 CNCi itt a t's colitaill
log more tihan 2%, urea haxve been unipal at aile to dlair cx at tic
Reduced feed intake because (If lowx palaitaility posxilv (tx
iplins some uiisatisfactorx results from lei'ii(ti I ii Tlinet
cot 'teltrates to lactatitig COSs
Urea Use Studied
Possible use ofi urea stlp)lemeii ittit %vsx itixestigated ill
at Studsv at Auburn U'nix ci itx . UTi ta-c olinpeis inl bo)l
meal ito i eiletecl fltn mx r( xxre exvaluated Itas the oi x' v) pott'ill
sup pleint lit inbasic bixs-p roteit ])]iietidedi ration s for I acta tit i
dlairy' cattle.
Eighteen dairy cows in miid to bite, lalctation and~t piroducing
26 to 62 lb). (axverage -- 38.4) of milk calau xs \ ere used iii
tile experiment. Axverage body wxeight of the coxws xvas 1,184
lb). These eoxx
t
s had been conisuminlg urea in tileir feed for
seeaNveeks and xwere stantdcardlizecl 1 wseek on a biencdeti
ratioti consisting of 2 parts con silage' and 1 part 18% c'rudii
proteini conceiitrate mix tint included 2% urea.
After standardization) the c'owxs xwecre assigned to test raticaix
to compare tbese protein siipplemett: (I ) a I-,7% urea-8'
coin premix (55% crutde proteiin) as meal ( UC\I); (2) tbe(
same urea-nitn ro ix, i)lilt peltetetl (UC ) ; aiid (3) c'nttotiseeci
meal (CSMt) . The stippicmciits wsere c'oInbiilcd xsitli gr0Ioic
xyellows corn, citrus puilp, dicalciuin phosphate. 
atnc trace
miineradizedl salt to form the thre'e concemitrates. Tbhe cot-
centrate mixtures (33 parts) auic corni siiage (67 parts)
wxere iiiendied and fed free-choice duirinig at 41)cay experi-
ment. The biiendedc rations xxere designated UC(I\I T PP
iiit CSNI toi identifx the kind oIf suipplement.
IDrs' matter percentages inl blentledi rations as fed xxvere:
('S\I, 45.3; UC\II, 44.1; anid tT(P, 43.0). C2rude protciii iici]
sciifnr percentages (lrxT matte'r ibasis) , respectixvcly, of .t a
tio0l we re: (251\, 12.8 anti ).M 15 (IC , 12.8 tmd 0.14; andc
PUIP, 12 .5 anti 0.12. The sulfur iex'els xxere adequnate to
Pt liFilisi S,\i \'oti ixiiitA iii \ ll i tAI(AS
't~fo a 11111,,11( a Ii Ii'ilt
tI. lit1. p.
loit xN i I ( I it ( 11 iaw t (II Ii It.
lDt Iliatti I ilt ki dj\ I (11, 
hints] x t. 1.
SI I.t I tI
2.96 11 .7 I 2.6-2
2.tc' .2.17 2.:2$
mneet minimutri requirements of rumetn microorganisms ioi
xx i tbesis of protein froti turea nitroget I
Feed Intake Depressed
Dal l eech intake (clix haixs) per 10)0 lb. of body xxeighit
N\ its gieater by) coxxs fe the ('SM ration thtan bx 'cowss fed
thie PU-t or the PUCP ration, see table. lending of ttrea
into the compitte rations did not ovxerc'ome thle palatabilitN
pirobilin, butt peileting of the urca-etirn premix seemed toi
siighli improxve intake.
As siiowsni in the tale, ecsws fed the CS'I1 ration produced
sliglitlx- mote milk comitaittimig higher percentages of fat and
total soilidls tliain toss f Itd tlhe PPM amid P(:P rations. The
loss in body xx eight a~nd tbe loxv leeh intake indicate that
energy wxas the first nuitrient limiting milk prodctioin ly Coxxs
fed the PU \I ration. Since coxwx fed tbe PUPC ration gained
xx'eigiit, it seemrs that their depressed milk prcicuctioni xwas
cic to poor utiliation of urea ats a proteini stipplememit. Alsio,
the highl aimnonia levels inl the omnen fluid of coxs fe1cc
PUMN I d tCp rations suggest ait iniefficienit c'onxver'sio~n of
urea nitrogen to proteini bx\ rutmn microorganisms.
Problems and Potential
Resuilts of the Aumiunit trials ireportedi poiiit to definite
pi tblenis associated wxithl urea in claimrx rations. Illeittlitg tf
ure
t
a into the comle~dte' ration did iiot ovxercomne its dep)iessing
effec't on feed intake. hloxx cx ert combination of pelletimig
the lirea-clrii ptremix amid leic tig it wxith thle complete
rationi appeared to haxve at Slight benieficial effect on feed
initake. Milk piroduction it s loxx1)'c lv cows It'd the 
urea-
coi taim lug ritiont s tlhan bx tliose fed thle USMN suipplc'nictted
ratioti. Nevxerthieless, some feed pr ice situationis nun mnake
it pirofitable to mise urea to proxitde at limited por tioin tof a
ratioins proitein equixvadent,
A f (I I I ol I.
itit thc (,\( eption of I ,ht ( liall"IC. Ijl pfrfollll tlk
\ ihw, N( iv adiit tcd to t tki- into tc(omit illitial (t,\N aliatiolj,
Co\\ N\crc jlidj\idil 111% t'cd,
XA BURIN RESEIARCH clearly established
that growing out stocker cattle on cool-
season annual grazing crops can be an
excellent program. In recent years, soy-
beans have been in a favorale market
position because of world demand.
Therefore, growing winter grazing and
soybeans in sequence so that a given
land area would produce one crop of
each annually could offer opportunity for
increasing return per unit of land. Such
a double-cropping system looked good
during 1972 and 1973 testing at the Gulf
Coast Substation, 1Fairhope.
Cropping Procedure
Soybeans were planted in early June
and harvested during early October. Fol-
lowing soybean harvest, the land was
disked two or three times alnd a pasture
mixture of rye. ryegrass, and clovei
seeded as soon as practical. Grazing be-
gan 50 days after planting in 1972 and
20 days post-planting in 1973. After
pastures were stocked, cattle had con-
tinuous access to the test sward until
around May 1.
An early season variety of sovbeans
(Davis) was seeded at the rate of about
60 lb. per acre. Rye was seeded at 90
lb., ryegrass at 15 lb., and Yuchi arrow-
leaf clover (with inoculum) at 7 lb.
per acre.
Mineral fertilizer was applied accord-
ing to soil test recommendations. Ap-
proximately 30 lb. each of P and K were
applied prior to planting soybeans, with
60 lb. of each used before seeding the
ry egrass-clover. Commercial nitrogen was
not applied to soybeans, but the winter
pasture received about 90 lb. N per acre.
A pre-emergence herbicide (Treflan)
was used for soybean weed control and
the crop was sprayed with an insecticide
(Sevin) three times during the growing
season. An infestation of army worms
in one year required spraying with Sevin
to prevent damage to the rye-ryegrass-
clover.
Even though stocking rates differed
between years (1.06 and 1.57 steers per
acre), approximately the same total ani-
mal weight was initially placed on the
8.5-acre pasture area each year. Steers
averaging 600 lb. were 
stocked in 1972,
whereas those for the 1973 test averaged
44(1 lb. whien goinIg on pastiure.
Results Encouraging
Soybean yields averiaged slighitly over
36 bu. per acre diurinig the 2-year test -
PROMISING CROPPING SYSTEM:
small grain-clover grazing
double-cropped with soybeans
R. R. HARRIS, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
N. R. McDANIEL and J. E. BARRETT, JR., Gulf Coast Substation
Sdv
S' i "
S
If.i
SC , ~ --
.
~~": < 2k
.5 , ?s
39.3 bu. in 1972 and 33.5 bu. in 1973.
This is about average for early season
varieties at Fairhope. Late season beans
generally produce more (around 45 bu.
per acre), agronomic research reveals,
but such varieties mature too late to fit
into a double-cropping sequence with
small grain grazing.
Cattle grazed the test swards an aver-
age of 156 days per year. Their average
(laily gain was 1.66 lb. and gain per
acre averaged 355 lb. Steers with con-
tinuous access to rye-ryegrass-clover graz-
ing from November until May gained
261 lb. each.
Animal performance on grazing in the
double-cropping sequence was similar to
that obtained at the same location when
cool-season pasture was the only crop
grown for the ear. In addition, results
from a Black Belt Substation study indi-
cate that double-croppinlg production of
whleat-ryegrass grazing and soybeans on
the same land area is feasible. Since the
actual mechanics of this dual land use
Ssystem are practical, it appears that some
tlumers could increase their returns to
land and management by adopting this
intenisive progranm.
~_a~es
V*~s~
~F~~i~reP
*
A BIG QUESTION for farmers who wish
to maximize profits during 1975 is
whether to produce cotton or soybeans.
In the past cotton has generally been
more profitable than soybeans on most
farms. Also cotton acreage was 
restricted,
thus in many cases farmers planted all
their cotton allotment (in some cases
rented additional allotments) and planted
the balance of their row crop land in soy-
beans or corn.
There have been changes in this situa-
tion such as: (1) Increased price of
nitrogen, (2) decrease in cotton price,
and (3) increase in soybean prices.
These have made soybeans more com-
petitive with cotton.
Farmers with the problem of compar-
ing cotton and soybeans should make an
enterprise budget for each crop - cotton
and soybeans.'
The first major consideration is to de-
termine expected yield. In a cotton
budget, 700 lb. of lint cotton and 1,300
lb. of cotton seed were used. The next
step is to determine expected price. Forty
cents per lb. for lint and $54 per ton of
seed as long-run expected prices were
used.
COTTON or SOYBEANS for 1975
SIDNEY C. BELL
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
a rent for land, a charge for operator's
labor, and management.
Let us now take a look at an enter-
prise budget for soybeans, to see how,
under good management practices, they
compare with returns for cotton.
In the soybean budget, an estimated
yield of 30 bu. per acre with an expected
price of $6 per bu. are used, giving gross
receipts of $180 per acre. Cash expenses
were $61.37 and the non-cash expenses
were $11.40, leaving a net return to
land, operator's labor, and management
of $107.23.
When comparing the two enterprise
budgets, cotton has $31.26 higher return
TABLE 1. BREAK-EVEN YIELD OF COTTON WHEN COMPARED TO 30 BUSHELS OF SOYBEANS
Price of cotton (lint) 
Break-even lint yield at specified 
soybean price
enePrie f cott (lint) cop-coto n
$3.00 $4.00 $5.00 $6.00 $7.00 $8.00 $9.00
Cents Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
38 391 459 527 600 668 736 804
42 -- -- 356 419 482 549 612 674 737
46 -------.-.-.-----------.-.-.-.---------- 831 389 447 505 563 622 680
50 305 359 413 468 522 576 630
54 .........................-........... 286 336 387 438 486 536 587
58 265 '313 361 409 456 504 552
62 250 296 341 383 428 473 518
These enterprise budgets are based on
improved management practices. This
means following the latest recommenda-
tions as to seed, fertilizer, and insect con-
trol. The yield of 700 lb. per acre and
price of 400 per lb. give total receipts of
$315.10 (including value of seed).
The next item is cash expenses. When
preparing budgets, use estimated quanti-
ties and prices for these items. Cash ex-
penses in this budget total $140.97.
There are other important items to
consider, as non-cash expenses. These
are depreciation, housing, taxes, interest,
and insurance for machinery and equip-
ment. These total $35.64 in the cotton
budget, leaving a net return to land,
operator's labor, and management of
$138.49. All items are included except
'Enterprise budgets for cotton 
and soy-
beans are available through your local
County Extension Office.
than soybeans. However, there are other
items to consider before making a de-
cision to plant cotton or soybeans. One
of these is the availability of gins and
markets in your area. Another is storage
facilities if markets are not nearby. Also
an important factor is the risk of produc-
ing a fairly good crop each year.
The two budgets discussed were based
on one estimated yield and price for
cotton and soybeans. It might be these
yields and prices do not fit your circum-
stances, therefore, two tables are included
that should be helpful in making a de-
cision.
Table 1 indicates the yield of cotton
required under various prices of soybeans
and cotton to have the same net returns
as 700 lb. of lint cotton per acre.
To use this table, first estimate your
expected price of cotton and soybeans.
For example, estimate cotton prices at
50 per lb. and soybeans at $7 per bu.
Come down the left hand column under
price of cotton to 500, then locate col-
umn with $7 per bu. for soybeans. Draw
a line over from price of cotton and a
line down from price of soybeans and
where these lines meet will indicate the
yield of cotton, 522 lb., required to pro-
duce the same net return as 30 bu. of
soybeans.
Another way, Table 2, of comparing
these two crops, if soybean yield was 32
bu. per acre you would need to receive
$8 per bu. in order to equal 700 lb. of
cotton at 420 per lb. Both tables are
based on cotton and soybean budgets
discussed.
2
You interpret your answers of which
crop you should produce in terms of
whether you think your cotton or soy-
bean yield will be above the yield re-
quired to break even as indicated in the
table.
2 Detailed break-even production level ta-
bles for wide ranges, yields, and prices for
soybeans, cotton, and corn are available at
your local County Extension Office.
TABLE 2. BREAK-EVEN YIELD OF SOYBEAN WHEN COMPARED TO
700 POUNDS OF LINT COTTON
Price of soybeans Break-even soybean yield at specified cotton price
380 42? 46? 500 540 580 630
Dol. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu.
3.00 ------------------ 75 84 94 103 112 122 131
4.00 - - - 56 63 70 77 84 91 98
5.00 ------------- 45 51 56 62 67 73 79
6..00- 38 42 47 52 56 61 66
7.00 ----- ---------- 32 36 40 44 48 52 56
8.00 28 32 35 39 42 46 49
9.00 25 28 31 34 38 41 44
~xil.t
~
N *,
- ,-~ ,,.,
CULTIVATION OF YOUNG
PINE PLANTATIONS
L. E. DeBRUNNER, Deportment of Forestry
W. J. WATSON, Loeer Coastal Plain Subsfat;on
A OrInxIsON PROBLEMx associated xwithi the establishmnent
of pine plantations oil old agricultural fields is rapid en-
xelopment of these fields by various xweeds. Since xxeed ,onl
trot efforts in these fanned fields are usually eincecd befoie
thle trees are planted, the residnal fertilizer proxvides lax 0i--
ahle groxxth conditions for the many' xxced species anic en-
courages them toocuytsiecomplete ]x ', resultiiig in
difficult competitioln for pines. This extreme competition re-
stricts the groxxth of pines for several years. 
though it rarelx'
affects their survival rate to any exteiit.
Method of Study
lit order to allev iate this [prolblemi, a study
1 
xwas initiaited
in 1968 bxy the Loxxer Coastal Plain Substation and tihe lce
partmnt of Forestry to exvaluate mechanical cxdtivatioi andi
chemical xxeed control in at nexxly establishecd loblolkx pinei
Winlms to da) plan tation. The plantatioi site selected xwas
(In laind in Wilcox ( ocult txinder lease to \ ac~lillan-BIloeclel
from 11. 11. W ilkerson, wxho ai e cooperatiois iii thc' pirojcect.
The planting wxas carried out duiring the 1967 plainilg sea-
son, and treatments xxere begun iii the spring of 1968. Tr eat-
ments inclucded: Atrazine applied ii Apr il at a irate of :3 lb).
per acre ki-t. hand, sprax ct on ail ah ide of thle planltedi
ros;Sixniazine applied iii April at the same rate and inl
the sanme manner; 2,4-ID applied in \Iav as at foliai spray iii
similar bands, at a rate (of P lb. (aicidi uxaet e ce
iiskitig iii Apil it it 1.000-lb). bush anid hog disk arraniged
toiiultivate strlips approxim atelY .3-ft. xx ide oil each side of
the rows of plaiteci ties disking iii Max disking in June;
tad ilikilog I ilxuv Ill 399 bIa of eachl plot -,,ax retreated.
Research Results
\1 the coil ol si\ groxx'ing seasolis, suirxix al percentages
I i 11isiclered acceptable, xxith no seirions diffeirences
amon ig t reatmecots. Althou gh theire xxas fear thIat thei cini-
cal trea,,tinlciits xwould scriotislxv decrease surv ivail, 01) detri-
mnental effect wxas caused Inv the xx cccl cmonlI clleinicals or
the disking opeiration.
D~iaimetei groxxth responise to early xweecl coiitrol xxas thle
pirimary goal of this study. One( can see in the table that an
appireciable incirease inl diamneter is associated xxithi the
treatmenlts, particuclarlv the Atrazine spraying. The 14%
adv antage oxver no treatment exhibited by' the Atrazirie treated
trees is promising. W\hen one considers that xvoluiie in-
creases xxi th the squalore ofl diameter, the 14% di ametecr inl-
crecase translates to almost a '30% xvolome increase.
The height groxxth results xxere uinexpected, hult desirable.
\lost studies repoirted haxve in dicated that heighlt groxvth is
con trolled inore In ii\ iheren t site quility than by' density or
competition. H oxxevxer, the Atrazine treated stands shoxxed
i12 to 16%- height gr oxxth adxvantage over the check plots
no treatment).-
Al though there xvas a i elatixe clx, consistent adlsarntage inl
height showsn for 2 xyears of tireatment compared xx itli a
s ii igle-x ear tireatment, the differenes xwere not great. Coll
sidering the cost of treatieit. it is douibtful that the s'cInd-
\ecar treatment xxas xxoi-txxN1hile.
Conclusions
Ecoanomic cx aluatioi i is inot \ct possihle because tile
trees are onlx h 1 eginning to reach merchantable size. H oxw-
exver, these prelimiiiarx results c 'rtainlx iiidicate a laxvorable
ecoinomnic pteniiti al. Tb is promis isx ('ill Iai ed bxy tile fact
that all treatments xxere app)lied xxith lightxxeighit andI rela-
tix clv inexpensiv e fairm equipment.
SmnsIx xi, \iiuxAG DIAxIi n ' l t,\)\ EII. I t Ii Of.
LoBOLIAx PINE ils SEVx A in xi CIi I Io\ NlIP M I HODiS
5
traziiie, 1968 only
\trile n.1968-69
Si.iaiinei 1968 olv
Si:iaziic, 1968-(69
2, 4-1), 19(68 only
2,4-1), 1968-169
April dilinig, 19168 oils
April iikin'r, 1968-659
loNe iiskiiig, N9(8 onlxy
lne cliking, 1968-69
liie disNkin g, 1968 ((ils
Jun ildiuking, 1968-69
\o tri. tint 'at, 19658 ((idl).
\o tri(tmiet. 1968-69
pet.
7:3
79
,79
69
7:3
78
81
75
70
59
7:3
63"
7:3
\. 1)151I
Ini.
4.1
4.2
3.8
3.9
.36
:3.9
:3. 7
:3.6
3.9
3.6
3.8
:3.9
3.8
3.6
3,6
Ax. ht.
Ft.
19.3
21)1)
18.2
15.5
17.1
18.1
17.3
16.9
17.4
17.9
17.1.
18.1
17.9
17.9
16.7
17.2
applied for sping crops - without loss of efficiency -could
hav e considerable advantages. Both fertilizer decalers and
farmn producers could make better use, of time and macbin-
erx' if N could he applied other than iii tbe busy sprinig
season. Altboughi it is genteral]x believed that mot of fall
aplied N is lost, specific storEv of this qfuestiont xx as nieeded.
Ani Autburn unixersitx Agricultural Exper imcent Station
project wxas initiatedi to deter mine if a sloxx release N source
ap~pliedl in fall wxould compare fax oralv x' \with N applied in
spring. Sulfur-coated ur-ea ( SCU) . a dexelopinetit ot the
Tennessee \ allex Auttlorits w xas tbe sloxx release source
llse(l. ( ompose(l of ure a, it' has a coating of sulfur and xx ax.
the thickness of wh lich determines r ate of N release. The
thicker the coating the sioxx c the N is relascd. Scxveral SCU
forinulati ons h axving a wxide ran ge of N relecase ch aract eristies,
haxve been formulated. The one user
1 
ill the test contained 36(
IN with a coating xxeight of 22% and at dissolution rate inl
xvater of 21% for the fir st 5 claxys and 2t9% for the first 14 (laxs
Fall applied SC U xxas compared xwithi SCU and ammoniunn
nitr ate applied in spr ing. Rates xwere 0), 45, 90, 180, and :360
lb). of, N periace applied oilee( for. a rotatiotn of coin for 
(Tzraili.
(01 Year oFo
8c F
70'
M Foi Spr op
pp hed orod
A N
-yea, over gil
Crn il /o re,h
30i[
20 LO
Fl( THREE CR0PS AFTEP
80 LB N RATE
Foilp Sprin Fal F I Spring
apphed oppec ped lpied
LC Urea
FIG 2 -TIRE YEA-R Ai-TlEi
N APPRLIED
18036 i 14C 8 0 801360
N JNN N N N N
AN 50U NU
Spring applied Fall applied Sprin pp!ed
vcrope IG I FIRST YE0S F Aol R
J/n0 r b N 4Ai"P 
I
45 9 0036c
IN N N N I
AN
Sprin (" pplic
4 90 801360,
N N N1 N
Sprin p pplied
45 190 80 3601
j N N N
Fell op p1i
What About
FALL APPLICATION OF N
FOR SPRING CROPS?
C. E SCARSBROOK. Dept, of Agronomy and Soils
rotations -one each hegitittitg in 1970f, 197 1, coid 1972 -
ill] onl Lueedale sat i d loam. Utrea an d at tin (iu tn nii trate
also, xxr ec omparedl for fall and spintg applicationl at the
180o-lI1. tate.
\\'hiere 90) lb. or more IN from 5(1. xxere applied itt the
fall, yields of corn grain the first crop after N xxas aipplied
xxere sitmilatr to those ob tai ned xwith the samc rates of spin ig
applt d SCTl or t nnniiim nitrate, Figure 1. Wuhen applied
iii thle springl at the 45-Il). N rate, ainioint taitrate pto-
duoced mote gtrain thant SCUi. Appat ettlx thle delax cr1 re-
lease of N fromn sprinig applied SCII resulted iii a losse ci ield
A this rate of N.
The residual N from the 45- atnd 9f-1lb. rates fromn both
1,( anti amuounn ntrftate hadn to effect ott t xc xYields till-
liing the first crop) of corn. Plots gettin g these rates p)](-
I(cei 110 tmtore that 50 1t1) l. of dlry f orage per ace, ab 0out
ilit same as the 11(1 iitrtigen plots. WVitht the 180-1lb. N i-ate,
iclr juinperi to about 1,0(00 lb). of d~ry rve forage from SCU
fall or spring applied and ammonium' itrate spring appliedl.
There xxas a further forage yield increase fromt :360 lb. N
to 2,20ff l1).
It the third crop after N xxas applied,. the :30lb. N rate
litllied~ 1 8-22 months before Ihatrxest made Ictiits ideral iigher
it-Ids thtan loxx er rates, Figure 2. This xxas triue for bo1th
NUanti atmmonium nitrate. Wh ile N should lbe siupp
1
lied
to meet neetds of the c-urreitt crop, these data shoxw that somte
N appliedi itt excess of these nieeds 
tnax bet recoxveied bx
followxitng crops. This couldi occtur because of loxw crop yields
II at rio not rise all axvailable N oi because of N applied itt
t Oe55tf crop reqiremen)I ts.
Nitrogen recovery data from three sequences (If the rota-
tioni shioxv hoxw nitrogein from siofuble sounitcts is hiost xxhenl
les.,s nitr ogen xxas icoxeedc lionm fall applications thl ft oln
sprting app~lircationts of tile 18(1l. tate. Figure :3. It x\\as clif-
fecretit xx tit StU, ihoxxcxer, xxiih showxxed the sainte N re-
iixrxfrom fall and spring applications.
TIltese data shoxv the inefficiency of fall applied soilei
sources of N for spr1ing crops iundcer htighi moisture atnd twitl
pet atute condl~itjins of the Southeast. The retmtarkale r exult
is tie finding that so large a potrtiont (If applied solubtlle SOltrr-es
of N remained itt the root zonte thirought the xxitnter. A tolt
siderablle portion of the N containedr iii the sec-ondr andc thtird
crops after N xvas app
1
lierd pioball xxas recyclcd iii the cro~p
residue retturnecd to the soil.
lIi xsummarxy, it tail be stated that applx in g soluible sources
of N ii tilt fall for sptittg crops is iniefficien t. T'ue( slowxxly
soluble sulfur-coated urea xxais eqitalix efflective for spriilg
Ojrs xiiher 
applied iii spring 
or fall. W \hile 
N should he
,ipp
1
lierl to meet curre-nt crolp refuiiremenits, there is some-
irryxoxe civxhici amo(lltnts greater thI)atn citrrenit c-ropl needs are
IpPicc. This residual tnax lbe uitilizerd bv folloxwin~g cropls.
NoI
S -yeor -h
corn ye!
80-
60-
I,)-
-9--
CONTRACT MARKETING of COTTON
MORRIS WHITE and MICHAEL DAVIS
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
CONTRACTING between farmers and
first buyers of raw farm products has be-
come an established practice in many
areas and with several commodities.
Fruits and vegetables are good examples.
Only in recent years, however, has
this practice come into widespread use
with major commodities such as cotton,
wheat, and corn. Federal farm programs
represent one important reason for pro-
ducers and buyers not using contracts for
these commodities earlier. Provisions
were such that prices of cotton, wheat,
and corn were relatively stable, and were
supported at a level near or slightly
above the price in the open market. Re-
sults were that producers, particularly
those growing wheat and cotton, obtained
loans from the Commodity Credit Cor-
poration (CCC), and grain and cotton
were placed in government-rented ware-
houses from which large volumes were
never redeemed by growers. These ac-
cumulated stocks served as a dependable
source of supply for processing firms that
needed raw materials.
Provisions of the Food and Agriculture
Act passed in 1965, and continued in
amendments and in the Agricultural
Act of 1970, changed the method of sup-
plementing incomes of cotton producers.
The guaranteed price was lowered to a
level below the world market price and
growers were paid direct cash payments.
Those provisions that were intended to
bring about a decrease in production
and to reduce the volume being acquired
by the CCC have had the intended ef-
fects, see table. Annual average pro-
duction after 1965 was 44% less than
the annual average for the 4 years just
prior to 1965. Cotton acquired or pooled
by the CCC was reduced by 83%. How-
ever, producers found that they again
had to contend with fluctuating market
prices, and buyers discovered that there
was no longer a dependable reserve sup-
ply of raw cotton. Reduced total pro-
duction and increased exports added to
the problems associated with variable
prices and insecure supplies. Both pro-
ducers and buyers searched for a means
10
that would bring about great security in
their operations, and contracting was one
of the methods chosen.
Because of the increasing proportion
of cotton being marketed in this manner,
a study of contract operations was initi-
ated in seven Southern States. This was
an attempt to determine the different
types of sales contracts used, and the
effects contracting was having on pro-
ducers, cotton merchandising firms, and
the cotton marketing system.
In Alabama, 44 growers and repre-
sentatives of 9 buying firms (contractors)
cooperated in the study. For 43% of
the growers, 1973 was the first year
they had signed a marketing contract.
Thirty-two and 39% had contracted at
least part of their crop in 1972 and 1971,
respectively. Only one grower had used
this method prior to 1970.
Principal advantages of contracting to
growers were protection against price
drops and knowing early in the season
the price that would be received. A
knowledge of the price was a help to
some growers when seeking operating
loans, and in making decisions during
growing and harvesting seasons. Among
disadvantages, the fact that growers
could not share in price increases was
named by 75% of those interviewed.
Slightly more than a third of the grow-
ers felt that buyers were in a position
to make a better evaluation of anticipated
future prices than were growers because
of the more adequate market information
buyers had.
Growers desire a contract that speci-
fies acres because of variable yields re-
sulting primarily from changeable weath-
er conditions over which there is no con-
trol. However, those who bought from
growers had to sell to firms that were
interested only in bales. These buyers
reported that some modification of con-
tract provisions was needed because they
could not continue to "buy acres" and
"sell bales," as 
was the case 
in Alabama
in 1973. Only one grower was found
to have a contract that specified the num-
ber of bales to be delivered. This con-
tract was made in late August and well
after the crop had "made." Therefore,
the farmer did not have to worry about
a yield problem to supply the amount
of cotton contracted.
Most growers realized there was a
cost involved in carrying the risk of
price changes. The amounts they were
willing to pay ranged from 2
0 
to 250
per lb., and the average was 70. Half
the buyers reported that contracting had
resulted in increased cost to them. More
time was required, and interest and mar-
gin payments increased.
Only one grower had experienced dif-
ficulty with a contractor not wanting to
accept delivery of contracted cotton,
whereas two-thirds of the buyers had ex-
perienced problems in getting growers
to comply with contracts.
With respect to future use of forward
contracts with cotton, approximately
three-fifths of the growers reported that
they planned to continue the practice;
38'% did not plan to continue. Buyers
had varied opinions about the extent to
which forward contracting would be used
in the future. One-fifth felt that con-
tracting would continue, one-fifth thought
there would be an increase while an
equal proportion foresaw a decrease, and
the remainder said that future use would
depend on the type of government pro-
gram in effect for cotton.
TOTAL PRODUCTION AND QUANTITY OF COTTON ACQUIRED BY TH7 COMMODITY
CREDIT CORPORATION, UNITED STATES, 1962-63-1971-72
YaTtlrdto Acquired or pooled by CCC
Yea r otal production Quantity Proor
Quantity Pron ortion
1,000 bales 1,000 bales Pct.
1962-63 -.-. -------------- .........-- - -.---------- 14,864 4,744 32
1963-64 ... ------------------------------------------. 15,290 6,029 39
1 9 6 4 -6 5 ......... ................................... 1 5 , 1 4 9 4 , 8 5 3 3 2
1965-66 -- ----- - 14,933 5,344 36
1966-67 ------------------------ - ---------------------. 9,562 1,405 15
1 9 6 7 -6 8 .. ............................. -.... .. ..... 7 , 4 3 .9 5 3 1
1 9 6 8 -6 9 .. ........................ ...--- ............. 1 0 , 9 1 7 2 ,7 8 5 2 5
1 9 6 9 -7 0 .... ... .......... ......... ... ..... ...... .. 9 ,9 3 7 1 ,0 6 9 1 1
1970-7 1 ---------------------------------------------- 10,112 12 .1
1971-72 --------------------------------------------- 10,229 0 0
TO CONTROL NEMATODES, row crop
farmers in the Southeast routinely apply
nematicides as a separate operation at
planting time. In addition, peanut farm-
ers apply systemic insecticides in plant-
ing furrows for thrips control. The de-
velopment of a technique for the simul-
taneous application of nematicide, in-
secticide, and fungicide-treated seed
would reduce farm operations and re-
sultant soil compaction. This report will
already labeled for use on many row
crops and had low phytotoxicity. Rates
per cwt. of seed were calculated so that
the seeding rate (1 bu. per acre) would
deliver approximately % lb. Furadan 
per
acre. Seed were planted 1 week 
after
treatment with treatments replicated 
10
times. Emergence was evaluated 21
days later, Table 1. Soil samples were
taken 45 days after planting and nema-
tode populations determined 
using the
FUNGICIDE-NEMATICIDE SEED
TREATMENT COMBINATIONS:
Results and Potentials
P. A. BACKMAN and R. RODRIGUEZ-KABANA
Department of Botany and Microbiology
deal with efforts to consolidate these
operations by combining systemic ne-
maticide-insecticides with standard seed
fungicides. If such a treatment is de-
veloped it could provide a means of seed-
ling disease, early-season insect, and
nematode control that requires a mini-
mum of operations and chemical use.
Seed Coating Hazards
The principle of coating seed with
nematicides and insecticides has several
hazards. Foremost among these is the
fact that the seeds are coated with toxic
products and must be treated as hazard-
ous. Also, most insecticides and nemati-
cides are somewhat phytotoxic, there-
fore, caution should be used in rates ap-
plied to seed, and the interval between
treatment and planting should be re-
duced.
Soybean and Peanut Tests
Initial tests were conducted with 'Lee'
and 'Hood' soybean varieties. Seeds of
each were treated with fungicides and
fungicide-nematicide combinations and
compared for field emergence. Furadan,
a systemic insecticide-nematicide, was
chosen for initial testing because it was
molasses flotation-sieve technique. Seed
treatment with Furadan in combination
with five standard seed fungicides re-
sulted in minor depression of seedling
emergence when compared with those
receiving fungicidal seed treatments
alone. However, nematodes were sig-
nificantly reduced, even after 45 days.
Similar tests were conducted on Flo-
runner peanuts in 1973 and 1974, Table
2, but were expanded to include several
new systemic nematicides or insecticides.
Again, treatment rates were adjusted to
deliver infurrow rates of approximately
1/2 lb. per acre using the seed as the
vehicle. Furadan and Nemacur de-
pressed emergence only slightly, and
peanuts in general, Table 3, showed 
less
phytotoxicity to Furadan than did soy-
beans. Although nematodes were not a
problem in the peanut test area, thrips
damage was assessed and found to be
sharply reduced in the presence 
of
Orthene or DS-15647, Table 3. For both
chemicals, however, higher 
levels of
phytotoxicity were observed 
than for
Furadan.
Conclusions
These data indicate 
that nematicides
can be coated on 
seed without excessive
damage to seed and 
seedling, and that
biologically active 
rates of nematicides
can be coated onto 
the seed and still 
be
compatible with seed 
treatment fungi-
cides. These studies have revealed 
treat-
ments that are 
good nematicides 
and
others that are good 
insecticides. As yet,
the combination 
effect has not been
achieved.
TABLE 2. EFFECT 
OF FUNGICIDE-NEMATI-
CIDE COMBINATIONS 
ON PEANUT
SEEDLING EMERGENCE
Nematicide used, 
Pet. emergence
rate/acre 1973 1974
Fungicide only --------- 
58.5 56.0
Furadan 75, 2
2
5 g...... 54.6 52.2
Nemacur 95% tech.,
250 ml. ---- 
53.3 52.5
DS-15647, 160 ml. 
47.3
Orthene 80 SD, 132 g. 
- 38.5
TABLE 3. EFFECT OF NEMATICIDES 
IN
COMBINATION WITH SEED 
FUNGICIDES
ON SEEDLING EMERGENCE, 
NEMATODE
POPULATIONS, AND THRIPS DAMAGE
IN FLORUNNER PEANUTS
Nematicide Pct. 
Total
used, 
emer- nema- 
Thrips2
rate / acre gence todes'
Fungicide only. 56.0 
187 4.3
Furadan 75,
225 g ----- 52.2 
131 3.8
Nemacur tech.,
250 ml.-.... 52.5 
86 3.2
Orthene 80 SD,
160 ml .SD.... 
38.5 147 
1.4
DS-15647,
132 g....... 47.3 
145 2.0
1 Total nematodes per pint of 
soil from
root region.
2 Severity rating from 1 = no damage to
5 severe leaf cupping and chlorosis.
TABLE 1. EFFECT OF FURADAN 
IN COMBINATION WITH SEED FUNGICIDES 
ON SEEDLING
EMERGENCE AND NEMfATODE 
POPULATIONS IN Two SOYBEAN 
VARIETIES
Hood Lee
Treatment Pet. Nematodes' 
Pct. Nematodes'
emergence Stubby Stunt emergence 
Stubby Stunt
Fungicide only ----------- 64.7a 
2.7a 2.5a 73.4a 2.4a 
2.6a
Furadan, 75-225g........ 48.0b 
1.6b 1.3b 58.0b 1.4b 
1.4b
SNematodes per pint of soil.
* Treatments in the same column followed 
by different letters are significantly different 
at
the 5% level using Duncan's Multiple 
Range Test.
11
Sodium Azide As
A Soil Bed Fumigjant
In Forest Nurseries
WALTER D. KELLEY and R. RDDRIGUEZ-KABANA
Department of Botany and Microbio/ogy
DUGHI ON 01 top qlllitx pitie' seetlligs ill ititeiisix'e~lx tilat
idge( d lolest i- serIil's , yair afte year ' di tepends l5 ipiiii te
oe xxi ax thait lias hii'i uisetd to tiudiite joiecei of these
pests is byx pre planlt hlinligaitiotl of iitii s(ers hed stil wxith
Ilet li 1 1bromnide ex erx t lii ccl or foilrthi grot in ileSea sI ii. Su(i'l
tl'('atin'i('ihas bett'i effetivex, butt little is kioifl i alott the
bug rtern) ecoloIgictal effec'tts oIil ii (i It arget soil (Irgaii Sils ill
genieral. Thlis study xxias tconduc'ted tio tdetermiiie t~n' elffetts
sil tiili ffllhl popufIlationt a dt tio c'iliial e thlese i'letcts xx itli
Research Methods
Soldiumv azith ( Na, it rates oIf 20, 60ff aiid 12011)il. 
p'l"
dtcii XX ilS IVt(11 i tcorporat t ito pl ~ots at till Aubui ForeiI Iit(st Nii
st\x xitli at tilli'i 'lT'ese pltts xxeit either'i sealedl Ifsx f\ jif
xx itt sealed ) (t)Is 't\ tIitg 5itfi poisli tli'j( Silel'tts
(plastic' sealed ) fi(I'1 (Lt) c s tillfi t aziche iii'li o roittiflt.
('oiitlols conisitedl iof iii1t eaite' pliots thaht wer l e (ithler p~lastic-
St'illed ior xa tl'r st'ided, aid Ito1ther( ploIts ftitli ii t e xxith Iiiil et 115
broidiii~e. Aztte iild tneth bxIlroiid xx ('e applietd durinig
Ilil' fit Stwxeek ilf Aptril.
1'iie, first soil samples wex c otilectedl 1(0 diays alfter appli-
('atiiilh otiher saimples xxr cr ol'(lec'ted' ait 2, 6, itt. 1S, 26, :38,
Miid~l x0 weeks hftithel iinitiaIl sitl~ilg. Soil sitl
1
)Ii's xx etc
p loc'sseci fori tlltil ill t' 5111hl oIf' I iiiii iiol baclteri ia Is i So~il
Test Results
Itt'ed pilots xxere ats lowi or' loss cc- than1 t Iio1se it iplits t cciv
iilg the' iliest rate' (If azicle.
xx tlt(t'scilec hplilts. IHighecst iitlitllif's of idctei'tIl xx i't re'-
Except for phlits xwith 1 0 1)Il. pei ac'te az,I t. oS lont ies of
Tiilioi'lna spp. xxere initially less inl a/itll-ti'vtctl plots
11,1 ill the1 ((flit il t I IS t is 1-(111 li o \N,1 Sf jroi -IttiitIl lo thel
alioiliii of i/jilt ildcI. HoI ~ l N6111 (I 5itI tilili till, sit Iili 111)1
ci'l dtl so tha if ter the foutiili samiplinig [li i' liiier of
11 hci/f/f1100( clitics il all alidli'trIeat ed plots wxas genell 'iv
hligher than ill conritol plots, see figure. Mlost dirastit' I ('iilttioii
ill nutmbers of Tric'A 011 110 coloie s occurred iii iet liv] lbro-
I it'treateti 
plots, andI althotugh 
a r c'overy 
iii iii no]ers 
wats
obse'rv ed atfter the seconldt 
sampin~r, Iiget 'iidli I 
tIlls for
aMIN' 0oil saltllplitlg wxas iiexer m~uch grea'ter tlimt tori (spolttl
T he t em festattii n pattern fir P(' ii lini ii sp p. dliffered'(
ili-keii fromh tihe iiiox e two giroups. Numibiers' ofl clliies
addedt'(. This padtte'rn was1 geiierallx true for all saiiiplittgs
Mii ll bo1th pl asticsealed antid wi tter-seal cd pliots. Lowe\ (st
Conclusions
' rhe e suilts stigg( st thldt i'('ill'st~itioii of aiti- v rated
rit1(5 atc-' xx tl kiooxx ii titgotilists lo Soil-holIlt plalt pittliigeiis.
lliteriill has it loiiilstiiig effect lIX fav'oriiig iiiildestilttoii
.illist soil-boo I'ill or~yIiltfs. (2) titifi'stiltioii Ih\ ba(tei iii
lmiis1l gl'dtin-positix es ) xwith it suhihi tl'it act iiililtilt of
fliwttei al 115 Jlodtlttt, ilut] .3) litili/atioli oIf thiesie 1)5 pi otitts
bvx last grossiiig aiitagotiiistic funigi. Ie fia euti
iou gtc'on an~tagoinIistitc shiteldc ti Iat pr'Ittcts a iga iii 5t iii t roi it
tiiiii of plant palthiogenls.
1't( l 'e cttt oIf a/id cIt tra ittsts 5 'it] that (If int' I 1b1rom(ideI
iil that the Ilat te r dtpres ses ft i i partit'larly allItigonlist s,
or liong periodls f tiiilt' posslil\ leait tile soiil olpi'i to
of, hi/ide ire uised the a."itle liegiils tol blioxe ats does(' ili(0t1.0
li i'I.dk eadigrhfsainbyiltlolsi
Pcopagules
40
Cr
a 'c
"It NO %,/Cc re'
It i N? ncre
0 K, i2 5 H 2(1 C (f
Poy c 0' lr"' .Art 5t
I \( itii51) j\ ii rss iii forage legumes axs a result of risinig
nitr ogen prices has gr eatly fincrea sed denarid for seed of
suich crops as tire Aribri-dex eloped Ser ida sei icea. Urifor-
tiiriate lV, seed surpplies of ti ris v ariety are iniadequiate to ro ect
the (lemanrd. Thurs, there is a riee( for icreasing jproductiori
of Scrala seed.
13ecenit resear ch ini Alita an a establ i shed h ow cut tin g ii r-
rrgceit aff ects \ields of .sericea seed. Ais reported iii tie
last issuec of IGiAILIGLITS (Vol. 21, No. :3), thre sliort,
hriglr-t ar ii iiIrters tate xvariety sh ourld riot b~e cot fo0 r axt if
rnaxinuom seed i eld is expectedl. A Mxay hay cuttinig redoced
ciulibars ested interstate seed x ieids fyrm 645 lb). to :312
11). per acre oxver at 2-x ear period.
Sioce Initerstaite is grown ir raiiilY as at special gr ound (I ox (
fplirt, its Ilse ats a fatrm errop is matrilv \ for seedl ])rrrdctiorr.
Refraiiriirg from cutting hay' might not b~e a problern wxith
that x ar ietx , buit ft's at different story wi th Serrda. Farmers
wh Io groxx thix foraige xvrriety max need to cut hay oir their
serrcear burt wxourld still like to lrarx est some seedl. I frlerefore,
air exper ime(tlit[a Aubi urn rUIivxer sity Agricultural Exper uilei
Station xxas donre to invxestigate joint hay-seed produrction
h'on Serala.
Cutting Management Evaluated
Different cuttin g rrrar agerucit inethodls xxrc crmpared ill
at :3- xear exper irment or anri est al ish ed starrd of S ciala at th e
Plar t Br ('(dii rg uoit, ralrrsxce. F'oirrge xxas liarvxes'ted at :3,
6, or 9-xxeck iriteix aix xxitlr stubhhle hreighrts of' 112 or 4 irr.
Hlarv estinig bregani iii April anid xx ni termifiated inl Julie
Arugrrst to mecasure effect on root carlbohrx rate storaige arl
seed x ields the folloxxirig vear. Seed harxvestinig xxas doniire
iiiid October o sin g it si c-1l el ar rrroxx c arid at SIfl stati 01 r a
thIresh er.
Seed N ields xxere lar gehE deteriijed by cuttingnorar
muert, ixs shroxx by~ tire granph. \\'lren forarge liars estirig (coil
tinoe(1 to Arrgrst, seed x ields xxere onrlx one-foourthr to or
hlfl of' that mande xwhern cutting end~edl iii Junle each xYear. sinir
o~rl' aborut 70% of the' seed p~roduncedl are recox cred iii ('ri
liie harxvesting, yields genrallxy xwould bec too loxv to lox/ri\
hiarvxecstin g seriea that ha 1 id been ci t for Ii ,r onrn _,rac ii 'ml r
Airgrist.
June Cutting, 4-inch Stubble Best~
HIighrext xeed y'ields, about 60tlt) . per acre, xxi oiii ei i
by coitting xci icea one tiue per y ear in enirIv Julie to at linl
of 4 iii. More freqoent ('(Ittirigs redoced seed yields. 1111
indicates thrit grazing seriea during the spring probnilil
xwould redoce seed yields more than taking a single crittirl'
for hnay in Mtay or early Junie. This conclusion is supported lh\
re(Sults of ain eairlier sturdy shoxwing that, xx-lien forage liars r's
ing was terminaitedl in Julie, cuttiing frequently to aii hoo
xtrrHle hand monre effect on seed production than on foinl1
yields (reported ini HIGHLIGHITS, Vol. 20, No. 1).
(:ulttirrg forage to 1 '
2
-in. stubble height reduced seed x'ield
regairdless of cutting frequenecy. This xxas at result of redut ,
rroot carbhlydrate storaige xvith the 1 t in. as cormpared xx i/i
thre 4-iii. stubble height.
Results of thre project r eporitedl clearly estahlislr that crut-
tinig Serala seriea for hay' iii Mayi or- Junie xwill reduce seedl
syields. Hlowxever, 1'/2 to 2 tonls oif Serala has' canl be lharvsedri
ari(1 still permit at good seed yifeld if thre hay is cut to 4-iii
stubble height. Harxvesting seed xxill reduce totail arriirril
forage xyield by
5 
5t0%c. Freqjuent rind (close (defroliation it ii prirl,
ats wxith grazing, can be expiectedl to cut seed xyieldsx mu Ii
than mnaking at single hayi cotting iii Mayx rr ear ly June.
Hulled cleaned
seed/acre) lb.
604
H00
400-
300-
200-
100-
434432
17
[D: 4-in. stubble
E]1 1/2 -in. stubble
104 
119 
12
26 
45
9 6 3 9 6 3
Outting interval, weeks
Three-year overage seed yields cf Scralo serica cut at two
stubble heights and three intervals. Yields on left are when
cutting was terminated in early June and yields at right re-
sulted when cutting was continued until early August.
Sera Sericcea Seed
Prodiiciioii1 Affeled/ by
C. S. HOVtLAND andi R. F. McCORMiCK, JR.
Deportmenit of Agronomny and Soi/s
COST of OVERWINTERING
CATFISH in ALABAMA
E. W. McCOY and KENNETH CRAWFORD
Department of Agricultural Economics and 
Rural Sociology
stress. As a result, producers have 
at-
tempted to harvest ponds at a time in
least conflict with other farm enterprises.
Traditionally, winter has been 
a time
when labor was free from other produc-
tion activities. This possibly 
has encour-
aged spring stocking on many Alabama
farms.
Overwintering catfish thus incurs both
additional cost and additional 
risk for
open pond production. Data from 
two
producers stocking the same size 
finger-
lings but harvesting at different dates are
shown in the table. Both producers 
fed
floating feed, and the period 
between
stocking and harvest was 
approximately
Stocking date
C ONSUMER DEMAND for catfish exists
year round. The supply from producers,
however, has been highly seasonal.
Year-round production appears desir-
able because processors could utilize fa-
cilities more fully, and ensure a constant
supply. Year-round production could re-
sult in a lower consumer price, and thus
increase catfish sales. Before year-round
operation is attempted, producers should
give careful consideration to factors in-
volved in seasonality of production.
Due to biological factors, catfish dis-
continue feeding when water tempera-
ture falls below 60
0
F. Since most Ala-
bama producers raise catfish in open
ponds, control of water temperature can-
not be maintained. If catfish are kept
overwintered in ponds, those that have
not attained harvestable size at the be-
ginning of cooler weather will require a
holding period until the, water is warmer
and feeding resumes. Unless the fish are
fed a maintenance diet during this pe-
riod, a net loss in weight might ensue.
The loss in feed efficiency, the additional
labor, and the slower capital turnover
represent costs to the producer.
Four major factors influence catfish
production: feed, fingerlings, water, and
labor. Costs of overwintering would be
affected by each.
Catfish consume a relatively high pro-
tein diet. The price of feed during 1973
and 1974 increased with the shortage of
fish meal and the increase in price of
substitutes, especially soybean meal.
Therefore, feed conversion has become
crucial in catfish production. When feed
costs exceed 50% of the market value of
the fish, total returns may not cover total
costs of production. Limited data avail-
able indicate catfish attain the optimum
feed conversion ratios when water tem-
perature is between 600 and 80'F. Since
14
fish may lose weight during the winter
even though fed a maintenance ration,
feed costs are increased without corre-
sponding increases in the value of the
product.
Production of catfish fingerlings is
geared to the natural reproductive cycle
although spawning can be induced arti-
ficially at different times. The size of
fingerlings is controlled by stocking rates.
Under existing production techniques, 2
years are required to produce marketable
fish. Normally, after spawning and
hatching the fingerlings are overwintered
and stocked in food fish ponds the fol-
lowing spring. Year-round harvest of
food fish would require year-round sup-
plies of fingerlings. Fingerling costs for
year-round programs should not vary
greatly although summer and fall stocked
fingerlings may be slightly higher and
have a greater risk of death loss.
Water is the one indispensable factor
in fish production. With a natural water-
shed pond, draining and harvesting op-
erations are predetermined by the season.
If the pond is harvested in summer, re-
stocking cannot occur until the pond is
refilled by rainfall. With spring or well-
filled ponds, time of harvest may be less
crucial.
Harvest costs are increased during
summer months since fish are more sub-
ject to oxygen stress. Conversely, with
winter or cool weather harvest, less aera-
tion is required in transporting fish. Dur-
ing colder weather catfish can be trans-
ported without water or aeration.
Fish production requires limited
amounts of labor except at harvest.
Whether ponds are drained or fish are
seined from ponds, labor requirements
at harvest are increased. With drained
ponds, labor availability is crucial to
prevent losses of fish due to oxygen
Pounds
stocked/1,000* ..
Harvest date .......
Pounds
harvested/ 1,0000
Production days ....
Net pounds
harvested/1,000
0
Feed efficiency .....
Winter
harvest
April
Summer
harvest
September
60 60
February July
1,087
300
1,027
1.5
800
300
740
1.9
* Pounds per 1,000 fingerlings stocked.
the same. The summer harvest producer
raised 287 lb. less fish than the winter
harvest producer. The winter harvest
producer had better feed efficiency and,
assuming a feed price of $0.15 per lb.
netted $0.225 per lb. over feed costs if
fish sold for $0.45 per lb. If the produc-
tion amounts were equal, summer har-
vest would require at least a $0.06 per
lb. price differential above the winter
market price to cover the difference in
feed conversion ratios. However, since
winter harvest also had a production dif-
ferential, at least an additional $0.08
price differential would be necessary to
equate returns for the summer harvest.
In effect, summer harvested fish would
require a sale price of $0.59 per lb. to
equate net returns to winter harvested
fish. Unless profit opportunities are in-
creased for summer harvest, producers
will continue the trend toward spring
stocking and fall or winter harvest.
Catfish producers, like other farm op-
erators, attempt to conduct their opera-
tions in the most efficient manner in or-
der to maximize profits. To increase
processing efficiency by year-round op-
eration, seasonal price differentials great
enough to overcome cost and risk differ-
entials must be instituted. Higher prices
for summer harvest catfish must be justi-
fied by higher consumer prices during
the summer months. If consumer demand
will not respond, then alternatives such
as seasonal processing and storage should
be considered.
HUMIDITY, temperature, 
gaseous ex-
change, and light are environmental 
fac-
tors that influence the 
development of
the chick embryo.
Stepped-up Hatch
Recent studies by the Poultry 
Science
Department show that eggs incubated
under light hatch approximately 1 day
earlier than those incubated in normal
dark conditions. Hatcherymen might 
con-
sider this 'stepped-up' hatch a 
disad-
vantage since they operate on 
a syste-
matic routine. However, there are some
advantages to the use of light during
incubation, such as reduced overall em-
bryonic mortality, larger chicks at hatch-
ing, and a possible increase in growth
rate of broilers.
Effects of Specific Gravity
Observation show that eggs incubated
under light have fewer early embryonic
deaths than those incubated in darkness.
This is especially true of eggs that have
poor shell texture. There is a definite
relationship between specific gravity and
embryonic mortality under light and
dark incubation.
At both high and low specific gravities
lighted incubation decreased embryonic
mortality, while at mean specific gravity
(1.074-1.080) there was no difference in
embryonic mortality between light and
dark conditions.
Death Rate in Light and Dark
The table shows the time of death dur-
ing embryonic development. It should be
noted that these values are percentages
and that there were fewer deaths in the
light group than in the dark group. There
was a higher percentage of deaths dur-
ing the first day of incubation in the dark
than in the light. The highest percentage
of deaths in the light group occurred be-
tween 2 and 3 days of embryonic age.
Embryonic Growth Rate
The graph shows growth rate of em-
bryos incubated in light and dark. Em-
ADVANTAGES of LIGHT
DURING INCUBATION
GAYNER McDANIEL and MARILYN A. COLEMAN
Department of Poultry Science
Embryonic
wt., g.
1.10 -
E .90 
I
40.00- 
% 70 
/
? 50 /
.30
30.00- 10 
/
Days
20.00 -Light ----
Doark /
10.00/
-0
I 3 5 7 9 II 13 15 17 19 21
Days of Incubation
Embryo weights by day in the light and dark. Inset is for first week of development.
15
bryo weights from eggs incubated in the
light were heavier than those incubated
in the dark. The weight difference is
noted as early as 8 days of incubation.
In addition 
to the 
accelerated 
growth
rate during incubation, the chicks hatched
from the lighted groups are larger than
the ones hatched from the dark groups.
Limited data indicate that this accele-
rated growth rate may have a carryover
effect during the 8-week growing period.
PERCENTAGE TYPES OF DEATHS FOUND AT
END OF THE FIRST WEEK OF INCUBATION
IN THE LIGHT AND DARK TREATMENTS
Blood ring
Specific 
Light 
Blood 
ring
gravity treat. 1 Before After
day 3 days 3 days
High Light 25 75 00
(1.082-
1.092) Dark 30 30 40
Medium Light 00 95 05
(1.074-
1.080) Dark 00 25 75
Low Light 40 40 20
(1.056-
1.072) Dark 64 22 14
Total Light 19 67 13
(1.056-
1.092) Dark 43 25 32
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
of PLANT DISEASE
J. A.- LYLE
L) paruinent of Botany and Microbiology
"In a larlge 
poplilatill 
of Nilc-tibicit 
liii-d
1dijC fxill NifCI eii lu ir ojj I ij til ill i'iiiiti t(jiiiti
sprieatio i a ii-u01( iiitiiiiii. Fitii
: itate\x 
xiil.i fatx 
(ratl 
coniiitions 
ilcili
riitlit r if ifequitix andii cliscaxe eiceim-
it'N iIt' latl ci rre.
Thle c-iuirse ofut 0piaint disease is de-
tc iInfi It'd bit a lv itt mu Interpilay ictxx ec'n
Ni(ix nill liliet, F'iguire 1.- In thiN fcll-
lxx ei agyent imii hiost is tilt kcv x' laitiii-
xiti[)p l1)11 frix a d itsrgglc i)'tetei till,
xii (lieitce of tilliOti tigeiit (11111 Lit' t'iIa.Ii
dx 'IIa\ o iiixo t toi resist. 'I lie p x lsclil(Ii tll
Nt iorli' Il'xx(it ti tihe liv I fthe
tt'ttx til lith Li) u gt it(ilt
1  
11(1t. 'ilie iiiost
c-litc ico the enironmenlltlt, eccttiaiix tIl
ticiitithieit x tii tile cro i})((eii.
Thiie ciit of' ]lost uipont enti iilnel t dif-
ferN from clop Lii c'lop adi liitxxt ii til
Nutc) Iactol as (I gI-lLi patteri I ( xprt ad
ill~ ~ ' oreec) fola i ixlsV alii t ittill
iiiit lii (INN.
Icli ptcitiii C (lilt
1  
iiiiiixtiiie C ilre Illlii-
faititrx il'ili-ig botit aget and( heist,
iid xo I ixt'thll i tilt de'xclopmen tofi i
17
V
FIG. 2. Equipment used in monitoring environmental parameters at the Wire
3
rass Sub-
station, Headland. Foreground: 1. air temperature sensors, 2. hydrothermograps in a
ground-level weather shelter, 3. rain gauge; background: 4. volumetric spore trap, 5.
aenometers.
olf 1)1 il disixea- 'vexCloillehit (iIC Coilo-
J'itilti iti tciiii Iroot ( F/ox'Iiodioplioial
P rt: xx hct') if crunifters, ibitlh ofi xxiil
airt'l xllo sti lli gi affcted libNih soil ini
tare. Sc-ab iN most v"' -aleilt aind NCevere
ill drx , ,ikaliiic NoilN, xx Ileleas clubi rooit
ii s ixeco Ci it aP
1 
il il vinx( t. aeid
To p i lout abettei iiidei xtiiig iol
if plimit isxaxex mid tile iprcixe iiifiii
eciie of' xvarcious eix roin ito tid fact ors,
the ix exti gao ll rel ies upon1 moclen fild
decxesC for olc-ra tt mywilsirlCinll it of
theseC factolrs, Fiiitie 2. Retc-(moielida
tulhi ioli p1 1101 timling till tpijitioii
of ctrot iilo INicsreN caIll thii be iadc,
the e'xpectan i , i I ('N ti bii g ill('crascti
ifIlititx' aMi! (I ciiil Of of' iaiit li-liltx
producilted.
POSTAGE PAID
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF
GR ICULTU REB
TOR 101USMI
THIRD CLASS
lilix-N tijxtdNC. (tic.slil aso oft~fxiL0
>)"ililtN I is il0(goodNuiiiiopit ill ii South.
Wheua ici io &ds0(1 iiit IN itia'i ill the
\velcttliixlt't diseasixc oi 01taco ii-ei'
xxhere temlirc fo11(Ntr pitlmgeii devxci
opmenct aire 0
1
)till.
Nctri adlol 10teetion N of aovexc-groo 0(
1)141 parts atre afflected bx miioistuore.
Spoi iihioii aid spo1rC geil~hliltioli ot
10mii fiinigal li l)geti N r a1sCsNoc1iateti
~thigh(i tiliOspjiCIki liiiiiiditx, iland
dlisseminion~~i of ii c x~0 Nof 1Oal1 Aspiecies
is aiehiexe cci ls piashing raiiidropx. Ex-
i10 DieN ale firte b)11glit and idiNa) (It apple
allil pcior, corii1 blighit, pil'Cl Ncll), a11(1
COIY liigi an (Ii ii te ibiigiht (If toitll.
Othen'iClxirloiniciltai i fiectx ol plioit iix
C4Nscs iolllie lighlt. soil 1 clitimll (I I
m~itrielot ox aiiahiiitx , an iiixxintl. Txx 0
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN, ALABAMA 36B30
R Dennis Rouse, Director
PUBLICATION Hiqhliahtx nf
Ag~riculturol Rteurch I12 74 10M
Penalty for Private U cI, $3~00
FIG. 1. A, the agent of disease (fungus or
other pathogen); B, the host; C, the physical
environment.
2