HIGHLIGHTS
of agricultural research
VO 18, NO 2 SUMMER 1971
Agricultural Experiment Station
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
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DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
L( ~ ~ % l oOl(; x i oI'(f illx' f% I Ii iti' xiIbeets
xxieii I taugiht (uiiig tile 1930t's ind 1940)'s.
Ax (:oigi ('NX ij Blili N lihls ix liI i fexx of
his con1 temorary aI g giradiuaites wxill relllelillbel.
howexver, few studeIniits x x rt ilitc rexted il
eciligY.
it itr an til(' ill'('1(01 l((i!ri 'loovl axci
I \ sunjitli
Alibama xx\its stiii at riurai stalte (fi fg tile (ieplexxiol xyears 
(It
tile thirtiex. Aoimixl pro\l ihii'h powcr I1)or LiI II lli. l 
il iii'i
n i el'i exxe nsxx ivire toxx 1(5 hllgti sexx dt. 01ilic 
estaxiides
hai ot be ( l er fl li ed xxi atial ix 'x io(x corx hiclli111 lixc or1
Tilcc tweirgi'\ lxx(T o is an ewo cities. STherixwalixttle
iounaixiili orfa ig( '(lll(('llt and tcil lpax ofeoeigx i ll dllildl fll
e'lleti x power ('hlrx 01(11 (iisei ti vel iiekx. ad 
prblb ' i
xxll lil fox littl 'lli fl'(ll((lI ~l (I lilll'l~ ~lil
il'itx oIg liger o\n till' ('(lx e 
cIf ti es.xil'( fitx i't iclxl IY la-l
bacx, isx
1
)i te (iIIll llil ol 
1
)il t, fxt'io x of illllellth nlll i'('inil l-i
itrlix e'Ixist.e d illl dillh l'ii ile teleti e l et i hill 
t el b'r i ltl
lorne Blih Funs vewinsltredinAlbaa.
Old t Weedinii~ a pitoi New-( Home T at's d C ogAs 4 a c
Howicde Farc oHose Flie ansDerts Flises, 
ly d 5ed.I
Srghumd Sriol in Gowgh tis 
6 otpiesuee o
Wat islc~ Rur ial velo et v '7 hipfrilzr1irg
Lr onLirngpa Feriizes or OrmndputrVil( 10* mtathal
Fies rt ezatln l Cro Roaio, Nleatdbef pouations.
PrecrcalTni ng]( clsfof Natucrl Pi elvio tands 
0l plilil
Beefili Cow( Cal9Gazgs. Iti tsdCoinfiemen\tt ytesoil 
11
R~ilc isrcural AlabamianstMove tWhere 
12c cure l u
Teoninggfori(es Setriious Wteedslt of' 
ton 1 3i-one
incomerias Rlated to Cvrone sm Iter e ikPhses 
14 h flu
GoodeManage n volls. arek'is, c Diase 
cit 1ec i ar
Doroghtm Siaets Growhg ofaCttonstm1 
6
Dr. hoei (i((t'F. ox (1idmLs initor o
thel)~l ride il page Ijix (is i ii elb f
the Irsel c ('I lld (iieach('x of~ t*vo h
Hisioii oT il o\ c011(1 otieil)Io th
light g illil (((l rep rt o f illdi (ll (dextx
f~orts irected Iviixd 6 lxix
,lilxlx 
to 1 11 
toe A( i 
fO iis I i * 
lix e 
I
1eI 96f foil\\ thg ti
1
t
1
o ltll( x It A
cox- iia x ligh xh of deiiox
bar(13l I1( P is lso ill 199.icdi
1(1 1( (Itil e eeac oil 
il lctIo i'(lt 1 
ti e s l('its N~ixlll (iIs f' poiu olcl.i
Ailgic tuirahl of rthrchess
A q-iuarly reor of re Iiseac ulise
A~ ithe Agrictrlowl Expeillent Staion
ofAuburn Unvesty Abrn, Alabama. i
\Isi o lini.H did ROUS Asscrdiate rco
Cs.~ l F.as Su lix1os Sitant Dicrctor
T.ckc M.S COnL d Assistan Dir-ctsflor
R. me to STEVENaON AssoaessErior
1ousE MORn I p hErofessor ofl Ag-) icis
111ile Axitatrof c('sridt of Pultv ndci
('0 c('; ac. C KINl and, Asthe Prof ecs-t
Nuer f Aioom 0(1 oni/s;c Mel) F. L
ONi THE COVER.li Soutern Dcorn lafd bightl
deveope a-on plsuscepile latflown
infecion itprstat oesweredhi
plqantrdu reeor on pesageh puli.e
CORN BLIGHT FUNGUS
Overwintered in Alabama
ROBERT T -GUDAUSKAS, THOMAS L. WHIATLEY, and WAI NAM TO
Department of Botany and Microbiotogy
DAVID t. TEEM, Departmnt of Agronomy and Sodts
C ()oI I I Fll N Ii Is I),( ) I I e Ix I(i i~ , Iio"t ; L
ill
1  
outbraik iof Soi t lii (.ol1 I leit 1)11i.(1 it.
p i it liii fi Ioi st 
1 
il ig~ slithix ( i idlixa
re lix a n exx ve' iitua' o 111 i x the M id-
It)x'{ai ,i Lose were a l il iiK llaol\% 14. lb
illiiii of~it ilgeltssto ,ittle (0111 lix \%('I('
ilixlo the~i~ 1 it iii lx the Natxion. i i tl
11111 ii elii (,o l le\ ) ( t i ri I is -ll li' l b\ (1
ax IllI te lIx /uII ilthi oi/(/i i l 11aiN' . i
Piiiii N to 90it %\asi (01 si xxi 4 (xiitio
if)?))v bit 7))w tie of 9t' fiii helix %Ii hi
prhil it iv iiAl blli Iii iiis at I(1m S(o
t1 i Iie~ iild \'u ii al \uii iinlw iii i 'I.111
(IN iii is Nbili toi atack I-oin liv rid
Sll il
'11111
ttpi'r
\tuuti ,
019.
Mii \itu' 8
ii,, IDle
Ex~pernct fieldsi
Ii c\\ [oil 18
spil (5 'I li
ott \ liii'
1,120
2640t
100t
2,0801
5,1tit
,9 60
tttt1
(16)'
:32))
1,280)
176)t
:32u
1,44))
:1,)04))
6, "88)
24)
8))
6))
6 10)
ii iiiix lix ii4, I( ,ii or ('x li' l iiei it oii ill
1111141 ix" ii i tlw ii' (lx' ixi llit
1  
fl.i [,I
the ('rii bligt eI iiio/x ofx x W aOl.
Splxea n of 1 llnldii 14e i t ill Fiii
dlix itil xx ax xi ililtl\a- xiix)eligti-i
oit xx e 111( liii l x Iii xix i.tiii'xxi to aa
live il inerl liiiioliii Ti as i the t'l
tia iiiti- eatiix olextx xx iie o1(14the lix
xx it el)t19lt looi((' 1 diiif oxcx thi i
ted Stte. )tl( \lI e i bill~
dbii It \its stllgl gs I9ett, xhil
xit wol liiltus'i atv xehlel Ahiliia illAa-
tiliix blse ofi tiii' tali ) . taiil' xlIe.
lllal tue ilit utse "( lilleetilli coat udli
over\\ai ile14 ilii Iii Nui i'iiiie o il th
1,1lix o Stue~ xhiiip ts were~i iiatl I x i
liii. iil xiiii thsithi xpiii lx aii Exrie
,Illn titiill i~to ( ahriiit to liee )to
Niiiii'i extel xlxlliiiii xx did p\( ilrill
liii Sa it. i xae iiilx i~ix i
Af xpi x a litiixel earsx ianid sta
t4iini t i l itxe ,x )d i e t. ( Ax ia l Is N\ p11.(,
lii i'iei il I\ xxe-ies liaeh iitil14e
Ihwilx- theiipii 1 tof iiiic ittio xx il iiii s u
Sill iix the iisiit iii ii liixtiii( lcaii l (I(
I
(
4
Typicat appearance of blighted corn leaf
from inocutated susceptible seedling is illus-
trated here, N'onsusceptible leaf at left
shows no blight lesions.
l ci tilld iiii'iixit keii il iii 11111it 11
ii cs I)11 m~ lixil l~ ito ix.d c lltii
xoi cx x lai 4'ioIlil liii o ioiii i.
jAiiitlvxii i hi'lit beii cometedx for
xx viil11111iiN It arch ii leliti x iitll ' i i il
I iii iix ts x N inh r toial 1 n i' i ableii
sporets'l xaii xix m i i lo h toi iii litixliI iii l(lii
liciltill' to iticitio,i lbut thi e fil(il ca i
pel iox (it xx ap il iiiiix xx itiitlax iAi
slo \ iil bY tiii ill the iiuitii xliI' v iabl ieox
\oi ii ii foliliil it xxl l ixu iiti i,itll th atd
I llxt ii a l itiil toe 1971 (-lli lii) xx lix
lrillleil xx il -tiox i''~iii ' Ixto
119 \
F
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411
Typical isolated infestation of cogongrass
along a roadside near Mobile (tap) crowded
out all other plant species. Reasons for fast
spread of the grass is illustrated by close
up of a rhizome (bottom right) with its
closely spaced nodes and 8-week-old plan~t
(bottom left) with two daughter plants show-
ing emerging rhizomes (arrows).
(41 xxS~ ill tlit xiiLti IA 19J45. Ax cark iX sI
194,', people fhiiia xx itli tihl (41 dxx
IAii mid ioxx, dccoi dii i to on e liida
'I (Itl' (I \\orkIii, x X th i Ii aw ilted
('golg
1
1of coigraX o~i ert the c'XtIile(
hlilnl (IX111r Ililt~ s i a majo pestI ill eca
IX ild,ltx (I i X x. O ((111.11 iICs dt, li
C1( tihlllgit to) be ill tile ual I li a ax
a
OLD WEED IN
A NEW HOME-
That's Cogongrass
RAY DICKENS arid GALE A. BUCHANAN
Dept. of Agronomy and Soits
asx it iXs ,Iili II"14 i) N 1ri,
wi/rh )I . ) A Itkllx.i x xxll( jo f Ilixt iisit
1 1
(o gl siI'. \i I I' Iva 'l tix i iIX.lI
H IIIX 1(4ills NII'I XX re 'i Xev I IX 11( v it i\ a dx
4
itjalla ix \1 1970 t'heiI dgll
1
ra XiI('lx 1
1
il
till'wil 9atit'x receive iattx It XX x Ilfl-ll t
I Io IIX. al Id1(1 Stoils I XIIIile itixll re-I I II h
III~~~~Ie~ll till (',Ii Ix 
1 4
(X X 1( I it 
1
I't )1
1,11~~o ill laIg i/I'llies lollt promis(tiniIg I It
it as "Llhow
11
of- I)v its solith-
+i A
Iluiti iol lis lix ''toi'k. Attacks (if tihem,
I" cts oO a tle a xgl ilIciIt thbl (TrIio,
tor is i c i lwti) il. h se tlali
iiil , a \ he i tlii'ii of li x. lii'ss iii tlxt ltv
ikicephi) linxliii egx.l Akioxl'ctjlg(i
tiii , ito tilix, louc i x fcx xoike
f Ma st( io(Jii il i l flix to ifpitt f ilidiiull
tii fprt o ici l . lxe.il Thii xl('x di -Nlio'
fisl illx iiirix if baax ftii iax S ilil iii)t
plta to i~t\ lx iii flu' . Aiiiiiii ko \liiuiiu of
po i'ii iLt iil bo t fii'(,. xii flidxe d iils t '.
HI thu ( o'xx tu,i (o \ ciry xx i, \Ioueoi
xx it% ei a xtil ti i f 1 1ixis itect o1 f xiilid
iii i ki'l xit Iit a x o it liie i iifcited th t i lii
I ilmii' Ilxi v Iits i il- t 8ff iuuiikiout
i'to s i fiut .Il A r i l i et ilovexf .itii if xxihe
d c lIft) uitix illitig ( l l ~ Li l~ iiii'L. I..5
I licolix ix S f) Hoi,xx iii'Lb' 1(1 i t.iiiee
Di'x eii xtFiiy i ( ahiiip sp. )iui M o'xxents~
Du il'Tth s lilie (ce lis Ilo.~
xxerie madeii oiu I1ii IS, 'I iie 24, li 2,
1.piii ii'li,i ft'e riaikid deieir fluxs
ffi'x uulx ipil toiixxd tiii fiii i't cio p iy.
Ax xooiiit ti ill] thii fliex hld left thei hioldlilg
ffii'sx \\ i i isect i ict. Atleaixt oil(' itl
teilipt tii Ciftiiii' lil)iti fluxs xx\it, illiafi
itt th I ii' i ti i pii it I fiii i i tc it' I-,
iumauiiiI' of thiC' liax . lIt 2-5 11 i i i i it ex
[)fill kid flxs hiaii Ciiixxi'Cl thei Cicl C 5 0f
liii tlii'x hadl croxxed tloc liixxax iil
lout loomixs'C 'f)L iu't' xccs i li xxke fiC it
piiliot itol piiitx 200tf:300f nii'ti'i x ioxx .
filiai kiCi ifel' ffiesi'x at i''ate i'i CliiiCeC'
CaJptiii i'd. Thei gri'ati'xt uuiiioleof' t dix
fta iii ked Ifi xx axi ki itixx ii to li\ C
a~t f ic lti' il t]ol CilliCtiiil xx\ ixs I8.
Horse Fly I'oliouionx xsp.) Movements
Hlmxi fluxi') i'r coilli'iced ililii'xx .cit
u'i'l' xxx amop ii ll iii'e tr apx. liixi
ffixxli's \ al ke ti xx itl i aspiot of' miodel
.' I
FIG. 1. Two of the sticky traps used to recapture morked horse flies. The trap a
made from an empty oil drum and the trap at right is a commercially produced m.
tlli ahes, ofii l-lied iii 2 .. The cooli ii x
flies' frount fli iii4 li diluiiigu i thfeIir
xxiiill(ix ii) itioct xx iti th lii tl . 'Ilii
czolu1d flii'x xx i'ii transp
1
'or tid tii thii Pii'd
uiiiiot Sit xtitiii ( tiiup I I ill, Alabami,ua
auld i ileaile fh lu'dix- iof iillc'tiuu.
'lii' piiit ioi -I e s i'i'i i t' ,i ill flit C'i'iii'
iif xix ii ajl xS'iiii iii lix, iif stick tias
F~ig. I . Ili 1969, 14 ioi thit'e traipxsxi
SO' illi'ii SliCiili'x A 'S '4, 2 aiil '2
ieii from the i uilitsxi poiLit. Ili 1970,.
29) Lii lxi)S i'itiliz i'ii too tli' i tjpiu ig
rangeC xx\its ili(Ci,xeld ill .2 mil'ei Clicir
Clix tio I iii iii'ii 'ii th lii' ililxi' pitit.
A\ to~tal oft 1,063i horsexi fluxs xxitx mairkeud
and i'li'axed ill 1969 iOd 2,9311 \\ (Ii'
iin ki'i aiotl 'liixi'ill 1970. 1dxi
rld ff2xi') i'er irecolleciedfiil 196f
'totilxs of 12,555 tool I 7,919 horsext
flicx xxc (i'coille'ted't oii thii stickx' traips
i C)169) iaid 190 C rff iwixfi't ix i\x. ( in
111i iiiil i i'l iii lil i i x iiiti' I o e ili t i ll- i
licia l i ha xx ix l s fiii e i flie iir fulux d isi
Six speiesi' ofi inioiki fluxs xxii' re-
upaltitn-ed: thii'xi xxi') ' .II'li fiilli'/ox,
I.lilieii/O, I. fl1iiloio'uili x I. luigli /o ,
L2' fliex it illiv tio. Sex('l pei r flil i t iif thii
i'aiftille \\l ixxi') i d \ii' itliiii '2 nlil' iif
it left is xxii' recaCtptiiicii ixlui. i 
x 21o ilts x,: am file
Howl Far do Horse Flies
and Deer Flies Fly?
A. R. THORNHILL, JEANNINE P. GILBERT, and KIRBY L. HAYS
Department of ZooLogy-Entomofogy
Sorghum Silage in
Growing Rations
for Yearling
Beef Steers
R. R. HARRIS, Department of
Animal and Dairy Sciences
V. L. BROWN, Lower Coastal Plain Sub.
W. B. ANTHONY, Department of
Animal and Dairy Sciences
ACCEPTING SORGHUM as a silage crop
is a little like saying "I do" at a marriage
ceremony-you take it for better and
for worse. And it is both.
On the minus side, sorghum silage
gives consistently poorer gain of yearling
cattle as compared with corn silage, ac-
cording to results of Auburn studies. But
there are advantages, too. Sorghum is
more drought tolerant than corn, it is
not susceptible to Southern leaf blight,
it is adapted to a wide range of soil
types, and its yields are comparable to
corn.
The big need, then, is to find better
ways to utilize the nutrients in sorghum
silage when fed to young cattle. This
is the aim of a project that was begun
in 1964 at the Lower Coastal Plain Sub-
station.
An intermediate type hybrid forage
sorghum (NK-300) was used in all ex-
periments. Various additives were used
at ensiling in efforts to improve animal
utilization and performance. The forage
as ensiled averaged 33% dry matter and
43% grain, dry matter basis. Yields
ranged from 12 to 24 tons per acre,
and averaged 15.5 tons.
Adding 100 lb. ground shelled corn
per ton of green material at ensiling has
consistently increased rate of gain by
yearling steers fed silage rations (1.67
vs. 1.43 lb.), see table. Feed required
per unit of gain and feed cost of gain
were similar for steers on growing ra-
tions consisting primarily of either un-
treated or corn-enriched sorghum silage.
Digestible dry matter content of silage
was increased 19'% by adding the corn.
This apparently was a result of corn's
high digestibility, rather than to an im-
proved utilization of silage. Digestibil-
ity of cellulose increased slightly when
corn was added. Crude protein content
of silage was the same with or without
corn - 7.78%, dry matter basis. There
were no acidity differences.
Non-protein nitrogen compounds like
urea can be utilized by rumen microbes
to synthesize protein. Such protein is
often cheaper than common supple-
ments, so urea was included in the silage
(10 lb. per ton) and less protein sup-
plement was fed.
Steers fed sorghum silage without
additive gained an average of 1.46 lb.
daily, not significantly different from
1.39 lb. daily by those on silage con-
taining urea. Steers on urea silage con-
sumed 7% less than those on silage with-
out additive. Untreated silage had pH
of 4.4 and the urea silage 5.4, 
so acidity
is not a likely reason for intake differ-
ences. Feed conversion, digestible dry
matter content, and feed cost per unit
of gain were similar between treatments.
Crude protein (dry matter basis)
averaged 8.2% for silage without addi-.
tive and 9.2% with urea added. How-
ever, analyzed protein content of the
urea silage was only 75% of calculated
content. No explanation for this discrep-
ancy was found.
Starch is the ideal carbohydrate for
microbial synthesis of protein from non-
protein nitrogen. Thus, a combination
of 100 lb. of corn and 10 lb. of urea was
used in two experiments. Results were
disappointing in that no advantage was
shown over silage without additive. The
intake problem already noted did not
occur when the corn-urea combination
was used, 
but there 
was a discrepancy
in the protein content of urea containing
silage.
Again, animal performance favored
the silage containing ground shelled
corn. Small variations in digestible dry
matter, cellulose digestibility, crude pro-
tein, and pH did not account for dif-
ferences in performance of cattle on the
two silages.
Ground limestone (CaCO
3
) is some-
times used in combination with urea to
control fermentation during the ensiling
process. The usual rate, 20 lb. per ton
of green material, was used in the re-
search.
During a 1968-69 test, steers aver-
aged 1.65, 1.72, 1.64, and 1.40 lb. daily
gain on sorghum without additive, Ca-
CO
3  
additive, urea additive, and
CaCO
3 
plus urea, respectively. Calcium
carbonate in combination with urea re-
duced silage dry matter consumption
19%, whereas CaCO
3 
alone reduced it
only 7%. Urea alone had a strong ef-
fect on dry matter consumption, reduc-
ing it 20%.
Potential improved utilization of sor-
ghum silages by use of additives is re-
vealed in results reported. Adding
ground shelled corn improved perform-
ance of steers on silage, and proved
much more valuable as an additive than
urea or CaCO
3
. In fact, there was a re-
duction in dry matter intake of silage
containing urea and calcium carbonate.
Dry matter intake essentially ac-
counted for differences between pre-
dicted and observed animal response.
Level of silage intake appears to be
satisfactory for predicting animal per-
formance.
ANIMAL PERFORMANCE ON NK-300 SORGHUM SILAGE WITH THREE ADDITIVES, LOWER
COASTAL PLAIN SUBSTATION, 1965-70
Corn additive/ton Urea additive/ton Corn and urea additive/ton
Performance 100 lb.1b0l 0b
measure None 100 lb. None 10 lb None 100 lb. corn+10
?a corn, -}- 10Sac steiea abhdae
corn urea corn lb. urea
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
Initial weight - - 515 516 506 505 560 561 560
Final weight- 799 837 796 781 884 908 ... 866
Total gain 284 321 290 276 324 347 3 06
Av. daily gain 1.43 1.67 1.46 1.39 1.51 1.73 1.52
Feed/cwt. gain
Corn 240 201 259 269 232 200 225
Protein supplement ........... 108 90 107 85 100 86 66
Silage 2,410 2,007 2,294 2,265 2,692 2,241 2,320
Daily feed intake/steer
Corn --------------------- -------------- 3.3 3.3 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.5
Protein supplement ........... 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.0
Silage 32.1 33.5 33.1 30.7 35.5 38.8 35.0
Feed cost/cwt. gain
1 
......... $16.34 $16.70 $14.91 $15.10 $17.24 $17.56 $18.68
:'Cost of producing, harvesting, and storing sorghum silage ranged from $5.70 to $7.25
per ton; protein supplement averaged $85 per ton; and ground ear corn varied from $35 to
$45 per ton.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT is discussed al-
most as frequently as the weather. And
there is a reason - urban and rural de-
velopment now go together.
Some of the present problems of cities
possibly could have been avoided, or at
least not have become as serious, if
greater efforts and resources had been
placed on rural development.
Population Concentration
Historically, growth and develop-
ment of America has meant increased
concentration of people in cities. The
first U.S. census, in 1790, showed only
1 of 20 Americans lived in an urban
area. Today 14 of 20 Americans live
in urban centers-core cities or su-
burbia. These 70% of the people live
on 1% of the land.
When cities reach a size so that the
cost to provide services increases out of
proportion to the population increase,
then trouble ensues. Social and personal
problems may also result from imper-
sonal relationships of concentrating peo-
ple in cities.
Many people residing in cities came
originally from rural areas. In view of
migration and movement of people be-,
tween geographic areas, urban and rural
development cannot be divorced.
Rural development is associated with
a number of other terms. These include
rural community development, economic
resource development, natural resource
The above map shows the estimated per
capita income in Alabama by counties in
1969.
What Is RURAL DEVELOPMENT?
J. H. YEAGER, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
development, and human resource de-
velopment.
Per Capita Income
The degree of development is some-
times measured by the level of personal
income. When comparing population
relative to total income, per capita per-
sonal income is used. The map of Ala-
bama indicates 1969 estimated per capita
income by counties. Jefferson County
had the highest average per capita in-
come ($3,713) while Lowndes had the
lowest ($1,127). The State average was
$2,582 compared with the U.S. average
of $3,687 in 1969. If average per capita
income is accepted as an overall meas-
ure of development in terms of personal
income generated, it is obvious that most
rural counties were below the State aver-
age. Apparently they have not experi-
enced the degree of development as have
many other counties.
Although development can be consid-
ered from several standpoints, such as
level of income, all development involves
change. In economic development,
change may be in terms of increased em-
ployment opportunities and higher in-
comes. In community development,
change may involve a new water system
or other community facilities. Natural
resource development may include de-
velopment of a lake or stream for rec-
reational purposes. Human resource de-
velopment may come in the form of in-
stitutional developments for training or
retraining people in skills and arts de-
manded by society. In any of these
forms there may be a change in beliefs,
attitudes, and values of the people af-
fected.
Objectives
The ultimate objective of develop-
ment is that people benefit. Therefore,
one can define rural development as
anything that contributes to the eco-
nomic and social improvement of the
quality of life for rural people. Although
rural people benefit directly, urban resi-
dents also receive benefits.
From the report of The President's
Task Force on Rural Development titled,
"A New Life for the Country," the fol-
lowing statement gives a summary in-
sight to rural development:
"The purpose of rural development is
to create job opportunities, community
services, a better quality of living, and
an improved social and physical en-
vironment in the small cities, towns,
villages, and farm communities in rural
America."
Rural development concerns two
broad groups of people directly -farm
and rural nonfarm. Although total farm
population has declined in the U.S. in
the past several years, further develop-
ment of farms and all of American agri-
culture cannot be overlooked.
In some areas rural nonfarm popula-
tion has increased in recent years. Mod-
ern transportation, communication, and
service systems have made it possible
for people to live in less congested places
in rural areas while working in cities.
It is likely that this trend in place to
live relative to place of work may in-
crease in the future. Separation of resi-
dence and place of work poses addi-
tional challenges to development in rural
areas.
Although rural development can be
defined in several ways, the means of
achieving development are more varied.
Authorities do not agree on ways of ac-
complishing rural development. It is
not just a case of programs or funds.
One of the primary keys is the people
- their motivation, interest, organization,
and leadership.
Rural development will help create a
nation of expanded opportunities, deeper
satisfactions, and greater beauty. By de-
velopment of rural areas we can provide
a better life for country people and a
better society for all.
ROOTCONTACT
PAKEf
b.' . A,~ 1,1
Pa
LONG
LASTING
FERTILIZERS
FOR
ORNAMENTALS
KENNETH C. SANDERSON
Department of Horticulture
IIA\ I II V1(1 it(111o41') it'
111) tids is XII11' 11)1)1 iC. (,\\ lol('(114 la to! feitiizer 11111') no\\ S
po(1 tXs.
old I l tIlf S ('lot l l! of111 ioila I\l)1lc al f1(( Sttil re-
('lls ) IX c (' \1) ae1 111)114(1111 II X (11its\ l il tohl il ilIX XX ilill XIX1'io
XX Illss AgI111II (Id t l ('CXX (31(1 po i kt areg Til Abll ip ()sild c
be(tO applie 811 co ( i'll t thIot.le I'li l\ d
aliloi~sla h m osa d sltblllp
10 ) l_, .e - r packe1t,' 1 8 -16
11). / 111. 0i, II(botl'. I S t9I t
1 2.) 9 
:. 1
1 1.3 :3.5
t0.7 :3.5
12.0 :3.8
11.3 .3.7
9. 9 :3.7
p)oorest.
PottedI fillers of (II x lilA 'Ii 1) 13111 /0116, Thi/iaocc011 
iah1,
IlIcilts \\er app'~I~lied( AI pottilig iliid ill sprilig 19(69. IDatit
P'lant 1w1idIt, ill.
I'(ti) lll
28 ,,. Fioss (31)1 16-8-t6
lb./hiI. \tagXuip, 7- It)6
5
~lb. ib
11
.0 1IK (Ill' 8 9
1 1) j '} tI!. 8S-8-8
Agsloooolto 1.8 9e9 X O'IIIC i tll' ((t((llX 1I-9- pl181IeI ((-11iIX
Xl\I0X I( f('itfli/ll cii1 MgAll
1  
XXits the pooresl't treCat-
111(11 o)1 Tij( and1( 8-8-8 gave CpooreslCt resu)lts wXithi
Sill 111)1 II lld I ex
tililcI i11(1 lildsilX 1)1 jplailtlflgs i1)811 to la1st iI) t(o 2
Th IICc L'CX (- o pa
1
)cket iX it 1)11 hvit('(l p)1.Lti( ciX elope
for1 I to 5 XI'8!X.
tass~ill1 phoshalte. Las~ting !il) to 2 yearsI!, its I llslX is
(XIllocote is plastic c0(1t('(, grlII1
1
81, iI(0Igallic ferti-
li/erCl ilri 1115dalS Xl~c'. N') 8tcI plicIti (ItC theC coa~ting
and1( dissolves theC ICItil i/Cl A.li 111(1 l'8X ill osillotic pres-
Stit (;l'Cisk a 12-6-6 0 ogaiC 1'ertili/CI. \itro(gcI is
51lipli('1 1)11118ilXl 115' Ilei and11( III lit follialdellX, de. al-
polt chrIll X5ithll'Il lIII)s (1111ilig 1968-69. Oslnoleote 18-9-9
C.1dcl1 XX ot \\1C1 tile, mos flowers itI pI1'heigh
tvp )(' It II I I'IiItk XI I)ilII ('I of it L('ilits ii ill ' I I 
l l tzc ot
A (,(;~ tIlI t I iX ' .3- (,ill fid stutIi v ot) till subljec(t XX iXs
be(m itt XI hc I II l X ill i' 1 13 11 keis I Air]iX ltu(lX 
I Xe (dwit
Sc('It II 11111', 1 \\fitli ii e II I III witilil of a t I f(010 it](\ 
It';. I'l ll
oil il II III' XXlt I 'I I I le u i cit X Illlole it 
cI tciil
is (*CII till , iv L Itilic till' lil Io lisc 
olot'e blck
r l Itil( I II \ catIIi', '~fl t I ~ X X I t2 0 c l1lt II ', 
t soI t il it l f't
At it it I 56I'ttoII 'X XX I'F i pltsi't) I iti'lIII b l 1 
131i i)X tiiIll
(1111ivit IIX ('It i i )V ltitIllco I it l I ,IX II'll IXillt i('('l ('i 
I I I fo lt
ilcX' o (lll lt il'', a NII 1 ) 'l ll i K, .how ti 11! (1 cl t 
I!X llt )IIto
tIc ll l sI
1
t I de icic i( til t Ieo loot of ith t ill I lle lts XX i tct
plot Ia XJ el I \A I d Ill ssti lit i Itt l t XIII stil ' ft v111'Lt I' 
1) 1 co lt I'll-
ikl i o e XXitI tit ll tll' X)ilII II)ltl 
lI. b 1ilo LItily ft i l
Lesion nern0Iodes/pt sod
400
10 =
1 2 3 4 5 6
Treoaments
Spirol nemalodes/pl soil
H 
0,000
FL F
7 8 9 0
I~~~ I R 
%
I
R. J. COLLINS and R. RODRIGUEZ-KABANA
Dept. of Botany and Microbiaotogy
EM. EVANS
Dept. of Agronomy and Sols
l Ill ililit,1 i o 1 1 \i, M 69II I I 41
li Fre t 1 wIt
P 1 11)1 ~ccj11I
P k, litl'
\ I'K. lilmI ', 1.4 I'I'lI lItl
lii I' ii IllaII ll.
P It '111th 11t it'
13 i1. /,it
46t.7
9i. 1
1 .6
64.5
:')4.5
S'S.
12.1
52).1
ilI
,Si) Xli I,
13il A.,
.3
0
t.
41
11.8
.3 4A
1 It
4 tt)
11.2
1 1.7
44. Gt
1 75
.59
1 6i17
15i)
1, It)
1 1 11
Populations of lesion and spiral nematodes in soil receiving 
dif-
ferent fertilizer treatments. Treatments are fully identified 
in
the Table.
8.5.7 4 6. 7 1 868
I ' I', I le Io lil til l'd XXc I ll Iit l ill so\'II IllI tI (ll 
t co tl
il1it plo' ' ts X I 'ili XXl I ajo t ellt' I i ((II jilliX. I'fll \\ilt,
li~i l w XXII I 1the I -c c s IIIas II ' t i l ll co~~iII' ll Ip lt ' I'I' X fot i( till
((IXlih \ \\~Iits tpied' fllet Icoll LXXtlici lIt3Itlei popu)la~tins
]otstiI',X iI NI floI IX. t l till'iItl /It, o Il 'ltha ' olsI('I'iI
1 \('t ,l 11111 X 'li i f ' t Icil Il~flit t th l plotsItX tl~lt 
i lli)ot
N iXt iil thisI(' llcoI(I' XX\it mo' I ii oci' t til plots1 wit I IIIIXXI'I
Ill til'Il t I I t II , 1)111wi of IIIXI))ode tt' I I'',I eii t 
l li lIXX X If ll(
O Tt i sIII i iti l ' ''l \ it l i i Ipil131111 \\ith) coitlI 
II I',Il
0
MANY PINE, SITES of the Upper Coastal
Plain of Alabama tend to be poor. Lob-
lolly pine quite frequently reseeds such
sites abundantly, resulting in semi-stag-
nated overcrowded stands. These dense
stands of pine (12,000 to 22,000
stems/A.) approaching age 20 have
trees only 1 to 2 in. in diameter. Little
diameter growth is possible under these
conditions. The result is that many nat-
ural stands can not be commercially
thinned for 8 to 15 years later than
plantations of the same age.
In April 1965, several overstocked 18-
year-old stands of natural loblolly pine
on ridge areas in the Fayette Experi-
ment Forest were selected to receive
thinning treatments. A randomized
block design consisting of 8 treatments
with 4 replications was used. Treat-
ments were 1) Check-no treatment; 2)
hand thinning to 800 stems/A.; 3)
Hand thinning as in "2" plus N at 50
lb./A.; 4) Hand thinning as in "2" plus
N at 100 lb./A.; 5) Only N at 50 lb./A.;
6) Only N at 100 lb./A.; 7) Spreading
a soil sterilant (Tordon) in narrow bands
12 ft. apart; and 8) Spreading a soil
sterilant in narrow bands 15 ft. apart.
THINNING EFFECTS OF TREATMENTS
AFTER 1 AND 5 YEARS
Original Reduction
Treatment stem
count 1 yr. 5 yr.
No. Pct. Pct.
1 --------- 11,200 4 42
2 ------- 13,720 78 79
3 --- 19,640 85 89
4 17,360 83 83
5 ------ ..--.. 22,200 15 49
6 - 21,860 17 59
71 19,160 64 73
81 14,040 46 54
SSoil sterilant used was Tordon 10K pel-
lets at 104 g. per 100 lineal ft.
10
As shown in the table, great variation
was observed in natural stocking prior to
the treatments. Because of this varia-
tion a comparison of the effects of treat-
ments was based on the per cent of re-
duction in number of living trees per
acre for each treatment. Data showed
that, 1 year after treatment, differences
in reduction percentage appeared among
treatments. The three hand thinnings
resulted in a comparatively satisfactory
condition of 800 stems/A. and thinning
ranged from 78 to 85% of the original.
The two Tordon treatments showed
strong thinning the first year but not to
the level desired. Even the fertilized
treatments resulted in a greater reduc-
tion in stocking than the check for the
first year after application.
The relative differences among these
thinning treatments were reduced by
the fifth year. Differences in the degree
of thinning were evident only between
the 3 hand thinnings and Tordon at 12
ft. and the check. Practically no mor-
tality occurred on the hand-thinned plots
after the first year. However, the killing
effect of the soil sterilant lasted for 2
years with very little mortality showing
after the second year. This treatment
killed trees of all sizes thereby reducing
the average diameter as compared to
other treatments. However, even the
residuals showed effects of Tordon dur-
ing the first 2 years with a yellowing and
shortening of needles plus a temporary
curling of the terminals. The thinning
effects of fertilizers continued through
the fifth year but were not significantly
greater than the check. The effect of
fertilization was assumed to be related
to the dominant trees making more com-
plete use of the nitrogen thereby causing
increased competition for the smaller
trees. The unthinned checks began
rapid self thinning at about age 21.
Average diameter growth per tree of
Precommercial Thinning
in Natural Pine Stands
S. D. WHIPPLE, Dept. of Forestry
65-67 67-69
Check .45 .50
Tordon/15 ft. .50 .53
50 Ib. N only .70 .50
Hand thin .55 .63
100 b. N only .75 .53
Tordon/12 ft. .5 .66
Hoand thin/50 lb. N .75 .56
Hand thin/ 100 lb. N .3 .63
0 0.5 1.0 .5 2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Inches
Diameter increase of dominant and codomi-
nant trees by treatment and 
years. Figures
within bars are average yearly growths.
dominant and codominant trees varied
by treatment and years after treatment.
During the first 2 years the check and
the Tordon plots had the least growth.
The limited growth of the hand-thinned-
only plots could not be explained. How-
ever, the plots that were fertilized had
greater growth the first 2 years than
those not fertilized. The hand thinning
plus 100 lb. N treatment showed greater
growth than the other fertilized plots.
No differences were obvious among the
other fertilized treatments.
Average diameter growth per tree
varied considerably from the end of the
second year to the fifth year. The yearly
average growth of all fertilized plots de-
creased after the second year but 
still
was as good or better than the check.
The hand thinning plus the 100 lb. 
N
produced the greatest 5 year growths,
averaging 3.8 in. The 100 lb. of 
ferti-
lizer rates consistently produced greater
increases in growth than the 50 lb. rates.
Trees on the Tordon plots that showed
yellowing and tip curl during the first 2
years had completely recovered by the
end of the third year and appeared
healthy. This was also indicated by 
the
increased growth after the second 
year.
Examination of individual stem cross
sections showed that average diameter
growth of trees in very dense stands
was rapid for the first 7 to 8 years. At
this time competition greatly reduced
growth rates. This competition appears
to keep growth rates reduced for 12 
to
15 years in these stands. In order to
continue good diameter growth rates
precommercial thinning should be ap-
plied before the effects of stagnation are
evident or before the stand is 
8 years
old.
HIGHEST YIELDING forage crops are
not utilized at maximum efficiency by
grazing. Thus, some system other than
grazing must be used to get maximum
benefits of improved crops by beef brood
herds.
A 5-year research project (1963-68)
comparing two confinement systems of
utilizing forages in producing beef calves
vs. a conventional grazing system was
conducted at the Lower Coastal Plain
Substation. A group of 45 cows was
divided into three comparable groups
and fed as follows:
Group I. Conventional system. Fifteen
cows were allowed to graze on 15 acres
of nitrated Coastal bermudagrass pasture
from April until November. From No-
vember 1 to March 31, they received
Coastal bermudagrass hay and protein
supplement. Calves did not receive any
creep feed.
Group II. Confined silage. Fifteen
cows were confined to a 3-acre paddock
and were fed sorghum silage (NK-300
type) year-round, supplemented with 1
lb. per day per cow of 65% protein sup-
plement when the cows were dry and 1.5
lb. per day during lactation. Calves were
given a blended creep mixture.
FIVE-YEAR AVERAGE SUMMARY OF TOTAl
FEEDING SYSTEM, CONFINEDBEEI
PLAIN SUBSTATION, I
Item
Con
Receipts
C a lv e s -- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- -- 1 ,
E xcess forage -----------------------------
1/2 bull @ 1,600 lb....................
Average total receipts-1
Average cash expenses
Protein supplem ent -------------------------------
Forage purchased
Calf creep feed
Veterinary expense
Building & fence repair
Tractor operation expense ...................
Fertilizer, lime, and seed ......................
L a b o r -----------------------------------------------------
Interest on operating capital ...............
Marketing expense
Average noncash expenses
Noncash machinery cost
'/2 b u ll .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fixed expenses.......
Establishment cost ................
Average total cost of production....... 1
Average retumns to operator's
land, labor, & management
1 Noncash machinery cost was $7.94 per acre
2 Noncash machinery cost was $21.14 per a
for this group.
Noncash machinery cost was $15.89 per a(
this group.
SFixed expenses included interest, depreciati
and fencing.
Group III. Confined hay. Fifteen cows
were confined to a 3-acre paddock on a
year-round basis and were fed Coastal
bermudagrass hay daily. They also re-
ceived 1 lb. per day per cow of 65%
protein supplement during lactation.
These calves also received a blended
creep mixture.
Forage yields and animal input-out-
put data were determined from the ex-
perimental data. Prices of resources used
in production were obtained from ex-
perimental data, equipment dealers, and
previous publications. These prices were
used to develop costs and returns for
the three different feeding systems.
Actual sale value of calves was used.
The price per pound varied from year
to year and for each system, but was
approximately $0.25 per lb.
All feeding systems had a negative re-
turn to land, labor, and management, see
table. To determine how these systems
might compare in the next 5 to 10 years,
a set of projected prices was used to de-
termine net returns.
When projected prices (calf price of
$0.32 per lb.) were used, the conven-
tional system was the most profitable. Net
returns from projected prices for 1971
showed $270 returns for conventional
systems; $-21.55 for confined silage and
$-421.19 for confined hay.
BEEF COW-CALF GRAZING SYSTEM vs.
TWO CONFINEMENT SYSTEMS
SIDNEY C. BELL and ELLEN VAUGHN
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
L RECEIPTS AND EXPENSES BY TYPE OF Increasing land value 
increases total
Cow STUDY, LOWER COASTAL cost of producing calves 
considerably in
ALABAMA 1963-68 the conventional system. To determine
Iype of feeding'system (15 cows each) the effect of higher land values, the net
ventional Confined returns and land 
requirements of the
silage Confined hay respective feeding systems were com-
Dol. Dol. 
Dol. pared. Use of an 
estimated break-even
value of land indicated at present pro-
448.55 
duction, the price of land had to be ex-
72.53 1,712.35 
1,471.17 ceedingly high, 
$844 per acre, before
60.00 60.00 60.00 any consideration would be given to a
581.08 1,830.92 1,536.58 confinement feeding system. As the
yield of silage and Coastal bermuda hay
169.32 314.95 131.05 increased, the break-even value of land
53.68 46.21 75.07 decreased. With an increase in the yield
0 565.60 576.74 of silage from 20 to 30 tons per acre,
15.00 15.00 15.00 the break-even value of land decreased
16.50 16.50 16.50 from $844 to $473 per acre. One ton
159.30 167.88 170.00 frm r $84 to$7se r Cace 
Oeto
417.30 222.24 352.48 per acre increase in 
Coastal bermuda-
75.00 106.80 80.00 grass hay in the 
confined Coastal ber-
35.60 50.35 48.48 mudagrass hay system 
resulted in a de-
45.33 53.17 45.20 crease in the 
break-even value of land
from $1,418 to $1,276. This depicts
119.101 253.68' 127.12 the increased competitiveness 
of the
105.00 105.00 105.00 confinement system 
with the conven-
318.00 278.094 422.744
57.00 0 30.40 tional system as forage yields increase.
586.13 2,195.47 2,195.78 
Cows from both confinement systems
consistently weaned heavier calves than
-5.05 -364.55 -659.20 the conventional 
system. This extra
for 15 acres. weight was attributed to the use of calf
cre for 12 acres necessary to furnish silage creep, feed in the 
confinement system.
The silage system had an additional cost
ore for 8 acres necessary to furnish hay for of $0.44 per lb. and 
the confined hay
ion, taxes, and insurance on the cattle, barn, system an added cost of $0.88 per lb.
as a result of using calf creep feed.
11
CALVIN VANLANDINGHAM
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
Ho,1 ll about1 XXichll uitt( i s X kI'X I Al-
thIIXXIX('I ditill th l l~liltIllb s oii I i 11'iits
b\i ac sxili wear t\iX.lbc
I i14lk l l iti Li I (ini I lit, ti\cI 11s 
tlI C
till 11(li of11 o i i X'S (It Ifio lt For( 
11( Iilli c
TI I'XX i till' its1 lIt ilsill X f oo'X XX I Ii
oIt II thit'tl Im c i D I llilr tIX 1 96 
toII11(
llo\,XcIcI i IX IlIt, ilo l i f i rs til' illlicill
(IX III pti id ll e ((it 11111. lttol
12'l s o h silisir
iX tihe omidwr1 ofI l Alihii m11,1 11111lItlt~ X XX]Il
XXsid d il' thatl(' s tc i' eill'd Stlll('
I'\tlil196ll', il~li 2l' XI'll ' iiX (111 
il till
ti66 rI~lt' k s iiiclc, illostt~i 95{ XXII 
he1
Illiuilt \I 11 ,l(C ('11X, ~ XXiti i Al)]iIImiiIt Ai
t ll t 'il it' o h i(llltllI II (111(1 tll~I
\iesc 1 ill ' 111a141 III (IX (Iaitditha' till
StiltI' Xi')I ll till ' Sie o lotill I 
H('
14
i11
I )I4! I i t , XX, IIIi ,I I' (Xuiito -(li I, Iil i I ( Ip IiI
Stdlne A il imltXX sic(ll t .5 x 111(1 It \\ i'll
it brders (IlilI -Pi \\ici s oIo Pt\\ihit
IX 111101,t \('XX Cilliol iiii d MX ississippi
AcXls I 11 CX oiX11, Mihgll( (OXlo 1(14XXili
i Albixllli tI'IIIIC(I to XIIX ill 
till' I 11111
0l-is ('OX e thXs Ilii( 11llo\X 0) ((OX Ci 0it 
aii
(IloXI toll,ii \Xcot 1o i111)01 aOCOX. 
\1i-
MM 11 il*01 c oo X th li Xa110 111 l those XX 
ill i
iIIX CX\ ('Ier theC d( rli c \\((C eXI 
c' Xlii t.
\ i 14e1 (I i'l'XIci0114 ill Aihoisc livil XX(' Cutide
thet StatC. Tis filldillag togTetiIC 
wXitih
theX factli that I X itiherI X)1-ctd' 
of tir
ti) I itilitsl the11)1 (' l lt i Xo ercI iii i)' 
~~i'.
wt hil ,l li S i il (IXl(i('X tha ('X 
ilI(11 ill-
dIl till 1dil tX XXlo Ic l \ itX 14ill til l' it 
1,111'.s
step toI iXll(llon o ti' o 111( th tItl I, 
I o\\l.
1111011111 i oo.te pcir 
s l
Location of migrants from Alabama households 
contacted in this study, The tap figure
in each state was determined by the 1960 
study and the bottom by the 1966 restudy.
The Morningglories- Serious Weeds of Cotton
GALE A. BUCHANAN and EARL R. BURNS' Departmnent of Agronomy and Soils
N Jil(1 li\ Ii I' II (il XX (IXc ofi il ]
l tIi s I I ts ii' i I I c c\1 cl ~ It ca .
p ('XX ias o\ ls u Ht~ t I. /ill also
;I fIX l Ii"t I IcX I' Iii os Ii it iX ust ill (Iii'ol
t lt '' h(X iii I iiioi Xoo (ii .(liti
StatusI Xl lic il)iio I il ii Iiii IX ('I il Ai -
otloil itto till] ( Ipolll i'' hum Xii (Liii
(a Il Il li I ii /a Ill' of Li o -Ii m'i
141 ) ((XX i I le 11it II If ((I I ii' 1.X ( il il Ic
1'.) illsoi ocutl iiii] liii ii iii iierIX (li~l il
lIt I' II it li]i k f i er I b ) tis Ilt \i
tolllwimlts, a ld so Pr\ w I I.
A60 o a l r t it (lti~ I(, t
30l ,c c d s . Ths c-.s ~il t
0iito 2o ito 4 ) 6 6 1 1 4 it 18 2
FWeedsIlI rlott of 1)'1lro do is i
IMorind th~s prto idedorew severel( cm-k
ptetion inctthnat maresthlem than at
Aurnt hibt yild" atbthe lpeatn dppeds
as olatc ion o)l\fmorningglries increased.i
ill To .31) licri\ AillIticiil FXXXXye11((tilll
XS tX a hi t o I. At tis e pi ilottel it \\o 'il t I no
Ai I ul (-1 ii. ill ((. P] t t I i XX I I ((1(1(1'c II
li0 t oi if 0iiic I I c rt I t. oi I) Ii I I e11cot IX I
it.,,planed. A tci otto an otih
-o
Smallflower mcrningglory i nt a true morn-
ingglory, but it has similar grcwth char-
acteristics and is a major weed pest i.i
cotton and other crops in Alabama.
Tall1 morningglory
cies of this pest
to provide serious
\\ (lii
lclls(IX
iii ft.I
It Io\\
Xlcc fiI t.
of to\X\
XX ilit It.
of To\\X
\X ict 6i iii
ofto\\(X
is one of the ma~or spe-
that occurs in Alabamaa
competition for crops.
AX Xi)\iXX b\ fI Iiti1 ill thet aII ll (Xcl
ixt Ai li i nitll 53 \\er 75, i iItX (,-
ii iItilsiii al Ii \ ' d li\ill 1 969 IX dIXi
Xth \ itl illi e o ii ii (( 14411 \ OX lll ft. ~of l )(X
ili t ii Xilt i X XX \\ I' it liol (L i as (3) i 74
I I f To )Ii t il(
tt 2t1 1.5 0I 5'3) 7
1fT -2 1 :)- It (65 7
585 It 6.3 II 0 771 1
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ftA
INCOME as Related
to Consumer
MILK PURCHASES
RUTH A. HAMMETT, Department of
Agricltural Economics and Rural Sociology
S URVEYS OF DAILY FOOD INTAKE by
Americans have shown that diets at all
income levels may be deficient in certain
essential nutrients. Some of these de-
ficiencies, such as calcium and the B
vitamins, could be supplied by increased
use of milk products.
A total of 925 urban families from
three Alabama cities sampled by a re-
searcher in the Department of Agricul-
tural Economics and Rural Sociology
provided an opportunity to study effects
of income on weekly food costs and use
of milk products. White families in the
sample had average incomes of $10,000,
and per capita incomes of $3,000. Negro
families had average incomes of $4,300,
and per capita income of $1,342.
In both races, with each increase in
income range, a smaller proportion of
the total budget was spent for food.
The average white family spent 17% of
income for food, and the average Negro
family spent 22%. The proportions in
an individual family would depend on
many factors, such as size of family,
age and sex of family members, pur-
chased and guest meals, or tastes and
preferences.
Data showed that decreasing amounts
were spent for food per person as family
size increased. Larger amounts were
spent for food per person with increases
in age of the homemaker, age of the
youngest family member, per capita in-
come, or per capita meal cost. With
greater food costs per person, larger
amounts were spent for dairy products,
but these products accounted for a
smaller proportion of food expenditures.
In each race, 15% of the average food
dollar went for dairy products.
These facts indicated that more was
spent for food per person in families of
two or three adults, usually in the ages
when all children are grown, or beyond
the age of 45 years. The same or greater
14
income is divided among fewer persons,
which allows more freedom in food
choices. Because of package sizes, dis-
like of monotony, or spoilage bccause of
overbuying, food costs in small families
are 10 to 15% higher than for families
of 3 or 4 persons.
To evaluate milk use from a nutri-
tional standpoint, dairy products by
each family were reduced to calcium
content in terms of fresh whole milk and
grouped into six equivalent classes:
Sweetmilk, buttermilk, cheese, dry milk,
evaporated milk, and ice cream. The
amount of milk equivalent recommended
for each family member was calculated
by age and sex, and adjusted to total
meals eaten at home.
The recommended nutritional standard
of 5 qt. of milk equivalent per week for
children, 7 qt. for teenagers, and 3.5
qt. for adults was used to measure ade-
quacy of family use of milk products.
Families in which sweetmilk equivalent
makes up less than 50% of total equiva-
lent seldom used nutritionally adequate
amounts of dairy products.
Data in the table show that with in-
creased annual income, per capita use
of sweetmilk nearly tripled in white
families and doubled in Negro families.
At any range except the lowest, sweet-
milk use by Negro families was about
half that of white families. Use of
cheese and total equivalent nearly dou-
bled with increased income in white
families, but there was little change in
Negro families.
Annual family
income, dollars
White families
Under 1,500 --
1,500-2,999 .......
3,000-4,499 -
4,500-5,999 --
6,000-7,999 .......
8,000-9,999 .......
10,000-12,999 ......
13,000 and over ....
Average - - -
Negro families
Under 1,500 ---
1,500-2,999 .......
3,000-4,499 .......
4,500-5,999 -------
6,000-7,999 --------------
8,000-9,999 .............
10,000-12,999 ......
13,000 and over
Average
Per capita weekly food costs increased
much more rapidly with greater income
in Negro than in white families. Milk
expenditures doubled with increased in-
come in white families. Negro families
never exceeded the amount spent for
milk products by the lowest income
group in white families, regardless of
their income.
All white families, except the lowest
income group, used 85% or more of
milk equivalent regarded as necessary
for adequate nutrition. In each income
range, the ratio of sweetmilk equivalent
was more than 50%. Only Negro families
in the highest income range approached
this level of dairy product use.
Per capita use of ice cream equivalent
was the same in both races. A greater
percentage of Negro families used equal
or larger amounts of buttermilk, dry
milk, and evaporated milk than white
families. Consumption of processed milk
products did not offset low use of sweet-
milk equivalent in most Negro families.
The average Negro family was using
59% of the amount of milk products
considered nutritionally necessary.
One of the greatest potential markets
for beverage-type milk products is in
Negro families with younger children.
Activities such as Headstart, School
Lunch Programs, and the Expanded
Food and Nutrition Programs can reach
special groups. If milk products are to
become a full member of the Basic
Four food groups in Negro families, a
vigorous nutrition program is necessary.
Family Per capita milk eq
Distri-
bution
Pct.
1
2
7
9
15
16
22
28
12
24
30
15
9
8
2
0
Average
size
No.
2.5
2.6
3.2
3.7
3.7
3.6
4.0
3.9
3.8
3.9
3.6
3.3
4.8
4.4
4.4
3.5
0
3.9
Sweet-
milk
Qt.
0.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.2
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.4
0.8
.5
1.0
1.0
.9
1.3
1.6
0
1.0
All
cheese
Qt.
0.5
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.7
.9
0.7
0.3
.3
.6
.2
.4
.4
.2
0
0.4
luivalent used Per capita
ME ME' Food Milk
used recc. cost
2  
cost
Qt. Qt. Dol. Dol.
2.5
3.6
3.4
3.4
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.4
4.0
2.4
2.0
3.0
2.1
2.4
3.0
2.7
0
2.5
3.7
8.9
3.8
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.1
4.0
2.4
0
4.2
6.20
7.12
6.15
6.64
6.90
8.12
8.11
8.82
7.74
3.16
4.40
5.04
4.65
5.16
5.64
8.86
0
4.69
0.74
.98
.99
1.03
1.11
1.17
1.26
1.35
1.17
0.69
.54
.74
.60
.71
.82
.90
0
0.67
' Recommended Dietary Allowances, Sixth Revised Edition, 1964. National Academy of
Science. National Research Council Pub. 1146.
2 Includes milk product expenditures.
PER CAPITA USE OF MILK EQUIVALENT AND FOOD COST PER WEEK, BY ANNUAL FAMILY
INCOME, 801 WHITE AND 124 NEGRO FAMILIES, THREE ALABAMA CITIES, SPRING 1968
L~IILllullL~~ ~II \L~LIIY L
A LOSS OF $200 MILLION by the poul-
try industry in the United States from
leukosis of chickens is the loss estimate
prior to 1970. The Marek's type of the
leukosis complex is believed to account
for 90% of this loss and its incidence
has increased steadily during the past
decade.
Marek's disease is caused by a herpes
virus (es) that causes partial paralysis
and lymphoid tumors in various organs
of the body. Not all birds that acquire
the agent develop the disease. The de-
velopment of tumors resulting in mor-
bidity and death cause the economic
loss. The onset of morbidity and time
of death in a flock depends largely on
the age exposed and the severity of ex-
posure. Losses chiefly are unthriftiness,
death, reduced egg production, and con-
demnations. The dollar loss from con-
demnation of broilers rose from 4 to 5
million 10 years ago to 25 to 30 mil-
lion in 1970. During the past 12 months
many company operations have averaged
5 to 10% condemnation losses for months
at a time, particularly during winter and
early spring.
Marek's disease is now known to be
highly infectious through air. The virus
is shed in the epithelial cells from the
skin, particularly in those from around
feather follicles, and chickens shed the
agent in greatest amounts about 2 to 3
weeks after becoming infected.
Control
Ways by which producers have or
are attempting to reduce losses from
this disease are: (1) genetic selection
for resistance, (2) protection of chickens
from exposure for the first 3 to 6 weeks
of their lives by rearing them in clean
environments away from o1d er stock,
(3) use of chemicals that kill the agent,
and (4) immunization. Research has
shown that a high degree of resistance
can be attained in as few as two genera-
tions of selection. Other results have
shown that starting chicks in clean iso-
lated quarters reduces the disease. Al-
though numerous investigators have at-
tempted to develop attenuated Marek's
vaccines, none has had great success.
It was only recently that two groups of
scientists (Burmester and colleagues with
USDA and Biggs and co-workers in
England), working independently, found
that a naturally occurring herpes virus
of turkeys when injected into chicks re-
sulted in marked protection against the
disease.
Recent work at Auburn has dealt with
(1) attempts with industry to develop
practical procedures for reducing ex-
vs.
MAREK'S DISEASE
S. A. EDGAR, Y. CHO, and H. WOMACK
Department of Poultry Science
posure to Marek's disease in commercial
poultry operations, (2) testing the rela-
tionship of age at the time of exposure
to the incidence of the disease and (3)
testing the effectiveness of reducing the
disease by immunization. Attempts to
protect birds by immunization with a
Marek's agent were unsuccessful.
Results of some of the field trials by
different companies to reduce Marek's
by cleaning contaminated premises are
summarized in Table 1. In all instances
the companies were able to reduce con-
demnation by 50% or more.
Chicks exposed at 7 days of age were
less than 50% as susceptible as those
exposed at 1 day and those exposed at
TABLE 1. INCIDENCE OF LEUKOSIS CONDEM-
NATIONS AMONG BROILERS BEFORE AND
AFTER SANITIZING CHICKEN HOUSES
Incidence of leukosis
Before After
Company clean out' clean out
Mor- With Mor- With
bidity tumors bidity tumors
Pct. Pct.
A + 14 None < 1
B ---- + 6 Some < 2
C --------- + 20 None < 3
D + 12 Some < 5
E -+ 12 Some < 4
'Several selected farms with 1 or more
houses having history of high leukosis con-
demnation.
2 weeks about half as susceptible as
those exposed at 7 days. By 6 or 9
weeks chickens were only about 10%
as susceptible as those exposed at 1 day.
These results support work at the Uni-
versity of Georgia where broiler chickens
reared and maintained for 3 weeks in
clean positive pressure houses and then
placed in contaminated quarters suf-
fered less than 10% as much from the
disease as hatchmates placed in the
same contaminated quarters at 1 day
of age.
TABLE 2. EFFECT OF AGE OF EXPOSURE ON
DEGREE OF MAREK'S DISEASE IN GROWING
CHICKENS, Two EXPERIMENTS
1
Age when
exposed
I day --
4 daysk-
1 week---
2 weeks_
3 weeks-
6 weeks-
9 weeks
Controls_
With
tumors
Pct.
43.0
24.0
20.0
13.0
8.0
3.5
3.5
3.5
Mortality
from Marek's
Pct.
25.0
19.0
15.0
7.0
2.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
' More than 3,000 chickens. Tests termi-
nated 12 to 16 weeks after exposure.
Results of several tests to pinpoint
the effect of age on susceptibility are
summarized in Table 2.
Results of preliminary trials to test
the effectiveness of vaccination with a
tissue culture turkey herpes virus (THV)
vaccine (source of THV-USDA, East
Lansing) or with THV- infected whole
turkey blood are summarized in Table 3.
TABLE 3. INCIDENCE OF MAREK'S DISEASE
IN CHICKENS VACCINATED AT ONE DAY OF
AGE WITH THV TISSUE CULTURE (TC) OR
THV-INFECTED TURKEY BLOOD
Con-
Strain of Vacc- Morbid demned
bird with signs for
tumors
A' Layer None Yes 15.5
A
1  
Layer Turkey No 1.9
blood'
B Broiler None Yes 15.0
B
1  
Broiler TC No 3.0
C Broiler None Yes 6.6
C
1  
Broiler TC No 2.5
D Broiler None Yes 9.1
D
1  
Broiler TC Some 5.4
Fifty birds of each treatment in each of
4 pens. 100 to 200 PFU's/0.25 ml. dose of
turkey blood.
15
GOOD MANAGEMENT
IDroudIit Affects GrowthIi
of Colion S11ew1S
BETTY KLEPPER
Department of Botany and Microbiology
V. DOUGLAS BROWNING
SWCRD, ARS, USDA
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