HIGHLIGHTS
of agricultural research
v()I IA, No 4 WtNTUP 1Q9
Agricultural 
Experiment 
Station 
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AUBURN UNIVERSITY i7
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DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
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Ferti lzcr Nitrogen --- Is It Needed fo r Soylbeafns
Marketing Heavicr Hogs Shows No Producer Advantagc
Top-Pruning of Hardwood Seedlings
Soybcan Production Costs and Returns
Sorghum Silage for Beef Steers
Alabama Crops and Livestock-Now and Long Ago
Biolo gicai Attack on Plant Disease Fungus
Winter Application of Nitrogen for Fescue
A History of Dairy Science at Auburn University
Profits Affected by Meat Consumption and Prices
Phalaris Aguatica-Promising Cool Season Grass
Woody Ornamentals-A Multimillion Dollar Business
Efficient Crop Production and Pest Problems
White-Fringed Beetles-Insect Amazons
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COVER PHOTO. Research dealing with soy-
beans-production, costs, and returns-is
covered in stories an pages 3 and 6.
FERTILIZER NITROGEN -
Is It Needed for Soybeans?
D L. THURLOW .,d HOWARD T. ROGERS
Dep c,,rm ot or Agronomy ao,d Soils
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This comparison at the Lower Ccastal Plain
Substation shows results of applying nitro-
gen to soybeans growing on land not previ-
ously planted to the crop. The larger plant
at right came from the treatment that got
50 lb. N per acre, whereas the smaller one
at left was on an area that got no nitrogen.
Despite the early growth difference, there
was no yield difference.
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Marketing Heavier Hogs
Shows No Producer Advantage
B. G. RUFFIN, Dept. of Animal Science
R. A. MOORE, JR., Upper Coastal Plain Substation
H OGS WEJ(.IIINO 200 to 220 lb). have been preferred by
the industry for several years. Producers have been advised
against feeding to heavier weights, on the assumption that
larger hogs require more feed per unit of gain. In addition.
a iiational effort was dimrected toward production of meatier,
less fat carcasses. And lighter pigs were preferred because
they were thought to be- leaner.
This situation seems to be changing somewvhat now. Heav-
ier bogs are being processed by certain packers with little
or no market penalty. The packers realize a labor advantage
from processing heavier carcasses and there are indications
that modern meat type hogs will maintain a favorable rate
of gain and feed coinversion to heavier weights.
Despite the change in attitude about heavier weight hogs,
there appears to be little adxvantage to producers. This was
learned in a study at the Upper Coastal Plain Substation,
Winfield, that measured feed requirements, average daily
gain, and carcass composition of pigs marketed at 200, 230,
and 260 lb.
Five trials involving 200 pigs xvere done from March 1968
to April 1969. Weanling pigs from Substation sow s \vere as-
sigiied at random to three treatments, balancing weight, age,
sex, and litter and breed composition.
A basic corn-soybean mneal ration with added vitamins and
minerals was fed, with protein content varied as follows: 16%
ration from weaning to 125 lb.; 14% from 125 to 200 lb.;
and 12% protein from 200 lb. to slaughter weight.
Performance measurement compared
by market weight
The pigs were fed in confinement on concrete floored pens.
Individual weights and feed conversion per pen were re-
corded for each trial. At specified slaughter weights, the
bog: s were hauled to the Meats Laboratory at Auburn Uni-
versity Agricultur al Experiment Station xvhere carcass in-
formation was obtained.
A summary of performance data for all trials is presented
in the table.
There was a slight reduction in average daily gain in the
260-lb. market hogs as compared with the 200- and 230-lb.
groups, but differences were not statistically significant.
Sore feet presented a problem in the 230- and 260-li).
groups, causing 10% and 28%, respectively, to be removed
before reaching the desired final weight. Pigs that suffered
sore feet showed a decrease in rate of gain and an increase
in number of days on feed.
After reaching 200 lb., an additional 17 and 38 days on
feed were required for 230- and 260-lb. market weights.
Pigs fed to 200 pounds required less feed per 100 lb. gain
than those continued to 230 and 260 lb. For each increase
in market weight there xvas a corresponding increase in feed
required per unit of gain.
Carcass weight per day of age was practically the same
for the three weights studied, as shown by carcass data in
the table. Dressing percentage increased with the heavier
hogs, but only slightly. Body length and loin eye area in-
creased with each increase in slaughter weight.
Backfat thickness increased 9% between 200- and 230-1l).
weights, and 18% between 200- and 260-lb. The 200-Il).
hogs also showed superiority in grading, with a marked in-
crease in USDA grade for each increase in market weight.
(Higher numbers indicate pourer grades.)
As suggested by these findings, there is no advantage to
the producer from feeding hogs to heavier weights. There
was no improvement in rate of gain at heavier weights, and
feed conversion was better for lighter hogs.
A significant increase in amount of fat in the heavier car-
casses explains some of the reduced efiiciencv of feed utiliza-
tion. The longer feeding period required for heavier weights
resulted in more leg problems, which could adversely affect
performance. Heavier hogs were fatter, and their carcasses
graded poorer and probably yielded less desirable cuts of
pork.
200 lb.
s#4r 427~
Pig performance
Num ber of pigs -------- -------
Initial weight, lb.------- -------
Final w eight, lb.--------- ------
D ays fed ---- --- - -----
Average daily gain, lb.----------
Feed per cwt. gain, lb.--- ------
Carcass data
Carcass weight per day of age, lb.
Dressing percentage - -----
L en gth , in.- --- ----------------
Loin eye area, sq. in.--- -------
Backfat thickness, in.--- -----
USDA grade ------ ------
4
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34
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1.51
357
0.88
73.7
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4.43
1.27
1.56
67
34
229
128
1.52
368
0.90
74.3
30.9
4.48
1.41
1.93
67
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258
149
1.48
386
0.90
74.7
31.9
4.83
1.50
2.13
LARGE, HEALTHY SEEDLINGS are essential for good per-
formance of hardwood plantations, even under favorable
planting conditions. The most reliable measure of seedling
vigor is diameter of the stem at the ground. When raised to a
desirable diameter, however, seedlings of two of our most
popular species, yellow-poplar and American sycamore, are
commonly 2-3 ft. or more in height. Such long stems in-
crease handling and shipping costs and make machine plant-
ing impossible. Top-pruning, either in the nursery or just
before planting, would control height without limiting seed-
ling diameter.
In spring of 1966, test plantings were made to check the
effects of pruning on early growth and survival of these
species. Each species was planted on an upland site in the
Upper Coastal Plain, but at widely separated locations with
different soils. Both sites were disked before planting but
received no later treatment.
The yellow-poplar and sycamore seedlings averaged 2.0
ft. and 2.1 ft. in height respectively, before pruning. Two
degrees of pruning, one-half and three-fourths of total stem
length, were tested. Growth and survival were measured
for the next 3 years, and forking caused by pruning was
checked after the second and third years.
For both species growth increased roughly in proportion
to the degree of pruning, and total heights were essentially
equal after 3 years regardless of treatment. The greater
growth of pruned seedlings probably resulted from a better
balance between the seedling tops and root systems. The
maximum size of the root system of lifted seedlings is largely
fixed by the necessity for undercutting the root systems at a
moderate depth to make lifting economical.
PERFORMANCE OF PRUNED AND UNPRUNED SEEDLINGS
OF YELLOW-POPLAR AND AMERICAN SYCAMORE
Treatment Average growth Av. ht. Survival
Spring 1966 1966 1967 1968 -Fall 1968 Fall 1968
Ft. Ft. Ft. Ft. Pet.
Yellow-poplwa
No prun ............ 0.5 0.7 1.0 3.9 100
'/2 prun ---------- 0.7 0.9 1.3 3.8 97
% prun ........... 1.1 1.2 1.3 3.9 99
American sycamore'
No prun. ----- 0.8 2.1 2.6 7.6 85
prun -----.---- 1.3 2.0 2.8 7.0 89
* prun ........... 1.5 2.4 2.9 7.3 88
'Plantation contained 128 seedlings in each treatment.
'Plantation contained 112 seedlings in each treatment.
Average survival was high for both species and was not
reduced by pruning. About 18% of the pruned yellow-
poplar seedlings were clearly forked after 2 years. However,
after 3 years more than half of the forked seedlings were
judged to be developing single stems. Pruning caused almost
no forking in sycamore.
Provided planting is done on properly prepared sites,
pruning up to three-fourths of the original stem apparently
does not appreciably harm the performance of yellow-poplar
and sycamore seedlings. Forking induced in yellow-poplar
is probably largely temporary. Permanently forked trees
could be removed in the first thinning without a loss of
revenue.
It is possible that pruned seedlings may not perform as
well because of early overtopping on sites where initial con-
trol of woody competition is poor. However, competition
TOP-PIIIIG of HARDW1D001
SEE LI _,S BEFORE I'LAT'Ii ,
HARRY S. LARSEN and SHERMAN D. WHIPPLE
Department of Forestry
from annual weeds on both planting sites, and from grass
on the sycamore site, was fairly heavy in this study.
The practical benefits of pruning would be greatest if it
were applied in the nursery before lifting. In addition, forest
nursery managers would be encouraged to produce larger,
more vigorous seedlings if the height problem were elim-
inated. All seedlings in each nursery bed could, of course,
be pruned to an arbitrary, desirable height in a single opera-
tion.
Some of the difficulty in achieving successful planting of
hardwoods, particularly when machine-planted, can be traced
to the large size of root systems. Despite undercutting, large
hardwood seedlings tend to have a bulky root system with
long lateral roots. This suggests the desirability of combining
top-pruning and lateral root-pruning before lifting.
A commercial paper company had tested the growth of
hand top-pruned and root-pruned sycamore seedlings in Ala-
bama with favorable results. Experiments have recently
been conducted by Auburn to test the effects of lateral root-
pruning of row-sown yellow-poplar seedlings once or twice
during the growing season. These attempts to develop seed-
lings with more compact root systems have thus far not
proved to increase growth or survival. However, they have
demonstrated the feasibility of mechanical pruning. They
also indicate that lateral root-pruning prior to lifting should
not be harmful if accompanied by top-pruning and could be
beneficial. A study is planned to test this possibility.
Half-pruned American sycamore seedling after 3 years.
IN RECENT YEARS SOYBEANS have be-
come an important cash crop in Alabama.
Total value of the crop has increased
from $4.9 million in 1958 to $30.7 mil-
lion in 1967, an increase of more than
500%. In 1967 corn was the only Ala-
bama row crop planted to more acres
than soybeans. However, in that same
year cash receipts from soybeans ex-
ceeded that of any other crop.
Soybeans can be grown successfully in
most sections of the State and under a
wide range of soil types and climatic
conditions.
In addition to having suitable soils
and climate, a majority of Alabama's
farmers already have most of the ma-
chinery and equipment necessary to pro-
duce soybeans. Therefore, most of the
farmers in the State could produce soy-
beans with a relatively small outlay of
capital for purchase of specialized ma-
chinery.
Data in this study were collected by
personal interview from farmers of four
farming areas of Alabama. Areas in-
cluded were the Southeast Area (Hous-
ton, Geneva, and Covington counties);
the Southwest Area (Escambia and Bald-
win counties); the Black Belt Area
(Dallas, Marengo, Hale, and Perry coun-
ties); and the Northeast Area (Madison
and Jackson counties). The four-area
study included about two-thirds of the
total 1966 Alabama soybean acreage.
About 50% of the farmers interviewed
were planning to increase soybean acre-
age. The two major areas planning to
expand production were the Southeast
and the Black Belt. The most common
reason given for planning expansion was
that soybeans were more profitable than
other crops. Other reasons given were
soybeans fit in well with a double crop-
ping system, soybeans had a lower labor
and capital requirement, and soybeans
were not allotted.
There were two factors associated with
increased acreage of soybeans. Yields in-
creased an average of about 1 bu. per
acre for each 100-acre increase in size of
soybean operation in the Southeast and
Southwest areas. Also, the larger pro-
ducers received from 10 to 20 cents per
bu. higher price for their soybeans. This
was true in all four production areas.
It was found that the number of in-
secticide applications was highly cor-
SO YBEAN PRODUCTION
COSTS and RETURNS
inALABAMA
SIDNEY C. BELL and BRUCE WARD
Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
COSTS AND RETURNS FOR SOYBEAN PRODUCERS, ALABAMA, 1966
Ite mAll 
Producer groups'
producers Low Mid High
Southwest Area
Number of farms 103 32 35 36
Av. acreage of soybeans/farm -------- 189 152 216 195
Av. yield per acre in bushels...... 31.2 23.6 31.1 37.5
Per acre Dollars
Gross returns 89.08 65.50 90.91 108.17
All cost- 47.00 50.63 46.73 44.05
Returns to land, labor, & mgt.---. 60.41 34.40 61.42 81.81
Returns to labor & management 48.16 22.15 59.17 69.56
Returns to management........ 42.08 14.87 43.54 64.12
Southeast Area
Number of farms ----------- 49 16 17 16
Av. acreage of soybeans/farm.... 100 60 81 159
Av. yield per acre in bushels.... 25.8 17.2 25.4 34.7
Per acre Dollars
Gross returns 72.18 46.74 71.45 98.36
All cost------- 45.12 43.73 45.79 45.83
Returns to land, labor, & mgt.-- 41.33 17.01 40.34 66.65
Returns to labor & management_ 32.07 7.75 31.08 57.39
Returns to management .... . 27.06 3.01 25.66 52.53
Black Belt Area
Number of farms--- ------ - 33 12 11 10
Av. acreage of soybeans/farm---- 319.7 253.8 379.8 331.5
Av. yield per acre in bushels .......... 25.7 16.7 27.4 34.6
Per acre Dollars
Gross returns----- 68.10 47.32 70.22 90.70
All costa-------------------------------------..... 38.85 37.82 40.76 
38.00
Returns to land, labor, & mgt.---- 41.73 21.41 42.73 
65.00
Returns to labor & management 34.07 13.77 35.09 
5.7.36
Returns to management ............... 29.22 6.13 29.46 
52.67
Northeast Area
Num ber of farm s ------------------------------ 47 14 17 
16
Av. acreage of soybeans/farm ........ 162 121 194 
183
Av. yield per acre in bushels .......... 28.7 20.1 28.5 
37.4
Per acre Dollars
Gross returns --------------------------------- 82.59 52.07 80.59 
115.12
All cost -......................................... 44.82 46.06 43.37 
45.03
Returns to land, labor, & mgt.----- 56.64 25.04 55.72 
89.17
Returns to labor & management_ 51.57 19.81 51.02 
83.89
Returns to management ................ 37.77 6.01 37.22 
70.09
'Producer groups are based on returns to land, labor, and management.
2 Includes fixed machinery cost, total variable cost, interest on operating 
capital, land
cost, and labor cost.
related with the yield. In 3 
of the 4
areas, as the number of insecticide 
appli-
cations increased from 0 to 3, yields 
in-
creased an average of 2 bu. per acre 
for
each additional application.
The producers in each area were di-
vided into three groups based on returns
to land, labor, and management. There
were two other returns computed, re-
turns to labor and management and re-
turns to management.
When comparing all areas, the South-
west and the Northeast areas had the
highest average production for the high
group with approximately 37 bu. per
acre. The 16 high producers in the
Northeast Area had the highest return
of any group to management with an
average of $70.09. This is return above
all cost. The Southeast and Black Belt
areas were about the same in return to
management with their highs being ap-
proximately $52 above all cost.
SORGHUM SILAGE
for BEEF STEERS
R. R. HARRIS and W. B. ANTHONY
D~eportini oh Animalt Science
V. L BROWN, Lower Coastal Mtalin Substionl
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ALABAMA CROPS and LIVESTOCK
Now and Long Long Ago
J. H. YEAGER, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
A LABAMA crop and livestock produc-
tion today differs from the time of our
forefathers. Changes, in some cases,
have been rapid and dramatic. In other
respects, progress has been rather slow.
In most cases data do not exist for
crops and livestock produced in 1819,
when Alabama became a State. The first
complete Census of Agriculture was not
taken until 1925. Nevertheless, certain
crop records go back to 1866. Although
this article cannot provide a "sesquecen-
tennial treatment" (150 years) of Ala-
bama agriculture, much information
presented goes back to the earliest years
for which records are available.
Cotton has been a mainstay and still
is an important cash crop. In 1866,
977,000 acres were harvested with an
average yield of 120 lb. of lint per acre.
Cotton acreage increased until 1911
when 3,833,000 acres were harvested
with an average yield of 214 lb. of lint
per acre. Price received that year aver-
aged 9.580 per lb. From 1911, cotton
acreage decreased to the early 1920's,
increased until 1930, and declined since
the 1930's. In 1967, 340,000 acres were
harvested. This was the smallest acre-
age on record, about one-third of that
harvested in 1866. Today's production
is mainly from highly mechanized farms.
The 200-lb. lint yield was not reached
until 1904, and 300 lb. was not reached
until 40 years later, in 1944. A 500-lb.
yield was first attained in 1963 and held
for 3 consecutive years.
Cotton prices have also fluctuated
since early years. First available price
data were for 1876 when Alabama farm-
ers received an average of 10. per lb.
for cotton lint or $50 per 500-lb. bale.
Prices dropped to an average of 
4
.
8
?
per lb. in 1894, then rose to an average
high of 34.90 in 1919. During the de-
pression of the 1930's the annual aver-
age reached a low of 5.640 per lb. In
1950, the highest average cotton lint
price was 40.230 per lb.
Years of highest average price were
not necessarily the ones with highest
value of the crop. Alabama farmers pro-
duced the most valuable crop of cotton
in 1948 when price averaged 30.860 per
lb., acreage was 1,630,000, and average
yield was 353 lb. of lint per acre. Value
of the crop was $184,769,000.
Alabama's harvested peanut acreage
was 300,000 in 1919, with average yield
of 550 lb. per acre, and average price
of 7.90 per lb. Acreage reached the
three-quarter million mark in the early
and mid-forties and has since been re-
duced. In 1968, 182,000 acres were
harvested averaging 1,350 lb. per acre.
Soybeans for beans have grown rapidly
in acreage. Only 3,000 acres were har-
vested in 1924 compared with 557,000
in 1968. Soybean acreage exceeded cot-
ton in both 1967 and 1968.
Corn, historically, has occupied the
largest acreage of any crop in Alabama.
There were more than 1,000,000 acres
in 1866. Acreage of corn increased un-
til 1917 to a peak of 3,800,000 acres.
Since the 1930's acreage has been de-
clining, although feed grain needs for
livestock and poultry have increased.
A part of the decline in acreage since
the 1930's may be explained by variable
and relatively low average yields per
acre. A State average yield of 20 bu.
per acre was not reached until 1948.
The 30-bu. average yield was not reached
until 1958 and the 40-bu. average yield
was first reached in 1965. In the 1950's,
corn yields varied from a low of 11.0
bu. per acre average in 1952 to a high
of 31.0 in 1958. Average yield in 1954
was only 2.0 bu. per acre higher than in
1952. The 1968 average Alabama corn
yield was 32.0 bu. per acre compared
with the U.S. average of 78.5 bu.
Lowest average price received for
corn was 37? per bu. in 1895, while the
highest average was $2.20 in 1947.
Corn at one time was a major feed
crop for mules and provided "cornbread"
for humans. It continues as the major
feed grain crop in Alabama.
Alabama acreage of oats harvested in-
creased from 55,000 in 1866 to a peak
of 410,000 acres in 1883. Since that
date when oats served as a major feed
crop for mules and horses, fluctuations
in acreage harvested have been rather
wide. Today acreage of oats harvested
is only a fraction of the peak acreage.
In 1968, Alabama farmers harvested only
28,000 acres.
Acreage of all hay harvested increased
from 8,000 acres in 1866 to 1,228,000
in 1943. The 1866 all hay crop yielded
an average of .80 ton per acre or a total
of 6,000 tons with an average price of
$12.96 per ton. The 1943 all hay crop
averaged .67 ton per acre. Total pro-
duction was 826,000 tons with an aver-
age price of $26.80 per ton.
In recent years the average acreage
of all hay has been approximately 500,-
000 with average yields near 1.5 tons
per acre.
In 1867 there were 625,000 head of
all cattle on farms while as of January
1, 1969, there were 1,896,000 head on
Alabama farms. Alabama ranked 19th
out of 50 states in number of head on
farms in 1969. Cattle numbers have fol-
lowed a cyclical pattern.
There were 140,000 milk cows on
Alabama farms in 1867. This number
increased to a peak of 471,000 in 1945
and declined to approximately 156,000
head.
The year 1867 found Alabama farm-
ers with slightly over 1,000,000 head of
swine. Numbers have fluctuated to the
present number on farms - 937,000 head
- not far different from 1867. However,
weight of pork marketed has increased
many times since more than 100 years
ago.
Data for chickens on farms only go
back to 1925 when 6.7 million were re-
ported. Today Alabama has almost 19
million chickens on farms, ranking 5th
in the Nation.
Alabama's giant broiler industry is a
late-comer in ter-ms of the past 100 years.
It came forth with 328.5 million broilers
in 1968 that accounted for almost $152
million in cash receipts by Alabamna pro-
ducers. The broiler industry is based on
purchased feed, much of which is im-
ported.
In 1968, crops accounted for 30% and
livestock and livestock products includ-
ing poultry made up 70% of cash re-
ceipts. Surely the future for Alabama
crops and livestock and the methods and
techniques used in production will hold
as many interesting changes as have oc-
curred in the past.
Pct of
caSh receips
[] Crops
.,d products
1930 1940 1950 i960 1968
Per cent of cash receipts from farm market-
ings, Alabama 1930-1968.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL may be an an-
swer to plant disease control. Matching
the saprophyte with the parasite may
turn the trick.
Its use as a control of the southern
blight fungus, Sclerotium rolfsii, has been
demonstrated previously in artificial cul-
ture media and in the greenhouse using
an antagonistic saprophyte, Trichodernma
viride.
Scientists do not completely under-
stand how this control effect 
takes place,
largely because there has been no suit-
able method for measuring growth of the
pathogen in soil in the presence of an-
other organism (mixed culture). It is
essential to know how the two organisms
interact in the soil environment before
an attempt is made to apply biological
control practices in the field.
Growth activity of a fungus in soil is
accompanied by certain physiological re-
sponses. For example, the organism
gives off carbon dioxide (CO,) into the
atmosphere and uses up oxygen (O,).
Either of these can be measured by
standard methods, and they indicate the
activity (respiration) of the organism.
However, when two organisms are grow-
ing together in the same soil, only total
respiration can be measured. Thus, the
activity of one organism cannot be sep-
arated from the other.
Enzymes are proteins produced hy
living cells. These substances are es-
sential in bringing about the chemical
reactions necessary for an organism to
utilize its food 
source. Different 
organ-
isms may produce different kinds of
enzymes, and these can he measured
chemically. Thus, if two fungi having
Fig. 1. This chart shows respiration of the
southern blight fungus, Sclerotium rolfsii
(Sr) and an antagonistic saprophyte, Tricho-
derma viride (Tv) growing in soil alone or
together. Note that respiration of the mixed
culture is similar to that for Trichoderma
viride alone.
BIOLOGICAL Attack on PLANT
R. RODRIGUEZ-KABANA and E. A. CURL
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
different enzyme systems are grown to-
gether in a container of soil, an analy-
sis of the soil can be made for presence
of their respective enzyme and thereby
trace the growth activity of each fungus
independently. This approach was taken
in the Department of Botany and Plant
Pathology, Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, to study the interaction of the
southern blight fungus and T. cirid.
6
I5-
z
45
0
0
04
0
3 6 9 12 15
DAYS OF GROWTH
Fig. 2. This chart shows the production of
the enzyme saccharase (indicating growth)
by Sclerotium rolfsii (Sr) when grown in soil
alone as compared to production when grown
together with Trichoderma viride (Tv). Note
the sharp decline in enzyme production
where the inhibitory saprophyte is present.
Before the principal study could pro-
ceed, however, certain questions needed
to be answered: (1) What were the
enzymes produced by each fungus un-
der the environmental conditions of the
experiment? This was determined by
growing each organism separately in
sterilized soil (free of other organisms)
and then analyzing the soil to see which
enzymes were produced. (2) Did the
parasitic fungus produce an enzyme that
the antagonistic saprophyte did not pro-
duce? For example, it was found that
S. rolfsii produced an enzyme called
saccharase, which T. viride did not.
(3) Was the amount of enzyme pro-
duced by the parasite a function of
growth? Several tests were required to
investigate this. It was found that the
addition of increasing amounts of
chopped mycelium of S. rolfsii to ster-
ilized soil caused a proportionate increase
in the amount of saccharase activity
when the soil was analyzed. 
Further,
CO, production (respiration) of soil
DISEASE FUNGUS
cultures showed a linear relationship to
enzyme production. Nutrient utilization
also was shown to correlate with sac-
charase activity. (4) Finally the optimum
soil plHI (acidity or alkalinity) for sac-
charase activity by the parasite had to
be estahlislhed, since enzyme activity is
very sensitive to changes in pH.
With this information, the background
was established for determining the ef-
fect of T. viride on S. rolfsii when they
are grown together. This was done in
flasks with 100 g. of sterilized soil.
One set of flasks was "seeded" with S.
rolfsii alone, another set with T. ciride
alone, and a third set with both fungi.
Soil from flasks was sampled at inter-
vals over a period of 15 days, and sac-
charase activity and CO, production
(resphiation) determined. 
The results
are plotted in Figures 1 and 2. Note in
Figure 1, showing respiration, that val-
ues for the mixed culture (T. viride and
S. rolfsii) are essentially like those for
T. viride alone. Although respiration of
the pure S. rolfsii culture is lower than
for the other two cultures, this does not
tell how the saprophyte affects the para-
site in mixed culture. It only reveals the
period of maximum respiration in the
three sets of cultures.
When saccharase activity was meas-
ured, Figure 2, the picture was entirely
different. Since T. viride does not pro-
duce measureable amounts of saccharase
under these conditions, we know that
the recorded enzyme activity represents
growth of the parasite only. When S.
rolfsii was cultured alone, growth con-
tinued uninhibited for 12 days. In the
mixed culture, however, the parasite pro-
duced saccharase up to the 6th day;
thereafter, enzyme activity drastically
decreased.
From this it is evident that the sapro-
phyte interferes in some way with the
saccharase production of the pathogen.
Change in soil pH is a key factor in this
interaction. S. rolfsii requires a low pH
(more acid) soil for saccharase produc-
tion and best growth; it lowers the soil
p itself by producing an acid. Tricho-
derma, on the other hand, causes soil
pH to rise (more alkaline), and this is
probably the cause of inactivation of the
pathogen's saccharase producing system.
Further research at Auburn has shown
that Trichoderma also interferes with
production of other enzymes by the
parasite.
0 a
S
020
o
02
2 16
0
2
n
28
Sco I/ e 2tole
0 O
H 4 -
~
a
CL
0 3 r6 4 
12 1,5 18
DAYS OF GROWTH
EFFECT OF NITROGEN SOURCE, RATE, AND TIME OF APPLICATION To TALL FESCUE, 1966-67
AVERAGE, TVA FORAGE RESEARCH AREA, MUSCLE SHOALS
Nitrogen treatment Forage yield and protein content, by harvest
May 1 harvest July 1 harvest 
October 1 harvest
Forage Protein Forage Protein Forage Protein
Lb. Pct. Lb. Pct. Lb. Pct.
Ammonium nitrate
Dec. 15 75-------------------------------- 2,540 11.8 1,560 8.6 2,010 8.4
150-------------------------------- 4,140 12.9 2,160 8.9 2, 0 8.6
Jan. 15 75 ---------- ------------------ 2,820 11.7 1450 8.6 1,910 8.3
150 ------------------------------ 4,030 13.9 2,080 8.9 2,140 7.8
Feb. 15 75 --------------------- ---------- 2,600 13.9 1,440 8.6 2,170 8.2
150 -------------------------------- 3,840 16.1 2,110 9.1 2, 0 8.1
M ar. 15 75 ------------------------------- 2,450 12.7 1640 8.1 2,090 8.1
150 ----------------- 3,540 17.3 2,450 9.1 2,240 8.4
Urea
Dec. 15 75-----------------2,130 11.5 1,290 8.4 1,940 8.6
150 ----------------- 3,400 12.2 1,710 8.5 1,950 8.8
Jan. 15 75 ---------------- 2,660 11.3 1,380 8.3 2,000 8.6
150 ----------------- 3,680 14.1 2,1 0 8.8 2,200 8.1
Feb. 15 75 ---------------- 2,7560 12.9 1,570 8.4 2,240 7.9
150 ----------------- 3,620 14.8 2,260 8.7 2,340 8.1
Mar. 15 75 ----------------- 2,380 12.4 1,410 8.6 2,130 8.1
150 ----------------- 2,900 14.3 1,920 8.1 2,060 8.1
Check plot, no'N--------------- 830 10.6 780 9.1 2,130 7.6
Winter Application of Nitrogen
Sat'isfactory for Tall Fescue
D. A. MAYS, National Fertilizer Development Center, TVA
E. M. EVANS, Department of Agronomy and Soils
duced 90% as much forage as ammonium
nitrate at the first harvest and 92% as
much at second cutting. There was lit-
tle yield response to residual nitrogen at
the October harvest.
Forage yield response. to the first 75
lb. of N from ammonium nitrate aver-
aged about 1,800 lb. in May and 700 lb.
in July. The second 75 lb. of N in-
creased yields an additional 1,300 lb. in
May and 600 lb. in July, for a total of
about 1 ton of dry forage. This increase
from the second increment of N would
be an economical response if the addi-
tional yield were utilized.
The second 75-lb. increment of N
from ammonium nitrate also gave a de-
cided improvement in the forage's crude
protein content. Crude protein content
generally followed the yield response
pattern. Urea produced forage of slight-
ly lower protein content at comparable
N fertilization rates. Protein levels at
the May harvest were generally adequate
for all classes of beef cattle, especially
at high fertilization. Forage from July
and October harvests had too little pro-
tein for adequate nutrition of all except
non-lactating, mature cattle unless sup-
plemented with protein.
The response patterns for yield and
quality indicate that more than one ni-
trogen application is needed for grass
pastures during the year. It is recom-
mended that N be applied to fescue
pastures in late August or early Septem-
ber to stimulate fall growth and again
in winter to help spring production. This
winter application can result in a savings
because of somewhat lower fertilizer
prices and less demand for labor at that
time.
50 .6I I08.
AN ADEQUATE SUPPLY of nitrogen is
necessary for tall fescue pastures to make
rapid spring growth for early grazing.
Getting the nitrogen out at the preferred
time - just. before the most favorable
period for growth - is a problem because
of wet fields or heavy work loads in
spring. This is a particularly trouble-
some problem on heavy soils of the Ten-
nessee Valley area.
A possible solution to the application
problem is indicated by findings of a
project at the Tennessee Valley Author-
ity's Forage Research Area, Muscle
Shoals. In this 1966-67 test, mid-winter
application gave satisfactory results with
tall fescue.
Nitrogen rates of 75 and 150 lb. per
acre from ammonium nitrate were used
for established fescue on Lawrence silty
clay loam on December 15, January 15,
February 15, and March 15. Soil test
values on the area that had been well
fertilized and limed previously showed
10
pH of 6.4 and medium to high phos-
phorus and potassium levels. Phosphorus
and potassium were applied annually at
per acre- rates of 22 lb. P and 83 lb. K.
Forage was harvested about May 1,
July 1, and October 1 each year.
Because of rainfall differences, 
forage
yields were about one-third greater ins
1967 than in 1966. However, relation-
ships between rates, application dates,
and. sources of nitrogen were similar, so
data in the table are averages for the 2
years.
Winter application date had little ef-
fect on total yield response to ammonium
nitrate, as shown by the graph. Urea,
however, was less effective. when applied
in December or March than if put out in
January and February. 
In addition to
its less certain response at early and late
winter applications, urea was generally
less effective than ammonium nitrate in
improving yields. With all rates and
times of application averaged, urea pro-
Time o eN 11Ar
aipplication1.7 
H Ue
Oheck-Na N 18
I - ///e/ 75. !11111A3.05
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
rrium nitrate
150 N4.2 5
4.53
4.01
7P17/7/77/7/7 3.10
150 N
4.11
4.11
75 N 2.97
11 1 1 50 N II I II I II I JI 3.44
14.24
I 2 3 4
Dry forage, tons per acre
How total yield of tall fescue forage is in-
fluenced by rate, source, and time of N ap-
plication is shown by these 1966-67 aver-
ages from the Muscle Shoals test.
I
A History of Dairy Science at Auburn University
K. M. AUTREY, Department of Dairy Science*
COMMERCIAL DAIRYING began in Ala-
bama about 1915. Although most farms
throughout the State had family milk
cows at this time, there were no com-
mercial markets for dairy products.
Alabama agriculture was based largely
on a cotton economy. Therefore, there
was little demand for people trained in
dairy science. Likewise, there was little
need for research in this area. However,
there was limited instruction of students
in dairy husbandry. A herd of Jersey
cows was developed on the Auburn Uni-
versity campus in 1888 (then Alabama
Agricultural and Mechanical College at
Auburn). There were some facilities for
making butter 
and the first 'creamery'
butter made in Alabama was produced
at Auburn in 1915.
An early report by Earl S. Carton,
manager of the Auburn University
Creamery, indicated that cream routes
were developed near Auburn in 1915
and production increasd rapidly. But-
ter production was the first step in the
development of commercial dairying in
Alabama.
In 1918 W. H. Eaton came to Ala-
bama from North Carolina as an Ex-
tension Dairy Specialist, employed by
the U.S. Government. He joined the
staff of Auburn University in 1920 to be-
come the first instructor of dairying.
Perry Creamery of Tuscaloosa was de-
veloped in 1924 and in the following
years there was considerable develop-
ment of fluid milk processing plants.
Cheese and evaporated milk plants em-
erged during the period 1930-1945.
As commercial dairying was born,
there was serious need for people with
college training in the science of milk
production and processing.
Auburn's President Bradford Knapp
saw the potential in the livestock indus-
try and was largely responsible for ob-
taining appropriations with which an
Animal Husbandry-Dairy Building and
a dairy barn for the expanding herd
were constructed on campus. These
structures, built in 1929, are still im-
portant parts of the current physical
plant of Auburn University.
*On leave.
A. D. Burke of Oklahoma joined the
staff in 1929 as Professor in charge of
dairy instruction in the Division of Ani-
mal Industry.
After Professor Burke's resignation in
1946, Dr. K. M. Autrey was employed
as Head of the Department of Dairy
Science, which was then separated from
the Division of Animal Industry (now
Animal Science). Dr. Fred Warren was
employed in 1947 to teach in the area
of dairy processing and dairy food tech-
nology. Following his resignation in
1948 Dr. Robert Y. Cannon was em-
ployed to teach and do research in this
area. Dr. G. H. Rollins joined the staff
in 1948 as an additional staff member in
dairy production.
By 1950 almost 50% of all milk pro-
duced in Alabama was sold through
commercial channels. Because of the
rapid growth of commercial dairying
there was serious need to develop a re-
search program at Auburn University to
serve the two broad segments of the in-
dustry.
The Dairy Research Unit was de-
veloped in 1950 at its present location,
5 miles north of Auburn. On it was con-
structed one of the first three milking
parlors of Alabama with such labor-sav-
ing features as vacuum movement of
milk through sanitary pipelines and an
overhead feeding system designed by
staff members. These features are com-
monplace now on modem dairy farms.
Prior to 1950 there were no funds for
dairy research at Auburn University.
There were some good dairy farming
demonstrations developed ,at the follow-
ing substations during the 1940's: Ten-
nessee Valley, Sand Mountain, Upper
Coastal Plain, Alexandria Field, Pied-
mont, Black Belt, and Gulf Coast. Work
on these units was primarily on the value
of improved pastures for milk produc-
tion.
With the development of the Dairy
Research Unit, some research projects
in dairy science were developed and the
research staff increased by the addition
of Dr. George E. Hawkins in 1952. His
main research interest is in ruminant
nutrition. The initial research emphasis
of the Department of Dairy Science was
in the area of dairy cattle nutrition and
feeding and in dairy product quality and
flavor improvement.
Much of the nutrition research from
1952 to 1960 dealt with the feeding
value of such crops as crimson clover,
sericea, millet and Coastal bermudagrass,
johnsongrass, and sorghum silages. These
studies involved considerable coopera-
tive work with the departments of Agron-
omy and Soils, Agricultural Economics,
Agricultural Engineering and the sub-
stations: Tennessee Valley, Sand Moun-
tain, Piedmont, Black Belt, Upper
Coastal Plain, and the Gulf Coast. Also,
some cooperative work with the Regional
Animal Disease Laboratory resulted in
some improvements of the portable calf
pen system of rearing dairy calves. This
system proved to be the most practical
management system to control coccidi-
osis.
Gary Paar was a member of the re-
search staff from 1961-1966. Many
analytical methods developed by him
are still in use in the dairy laboratories.
Research efforts in nutrition and feed-
ing were expanded with the addition of
Joe Little to the staff in 1962. Recent
research has included causes of milk fat
depression, the role of salvia in rumen
metabolism, blended complete rations,
and group feeding of concentrates and
roughages.
With the addition of Dr. T. A. Mc-
Caskey to the dairy staff in 1967, the
research program was further expanded
to include more work on microbiological
problems in the dairy industry. His cur-
rent research includes projects on: The
effect of milk composition on growth of
psychrophilic organisms; pollution prob-
lems associated with waste disposal; and
salmonellae organisms in vended foods.
The contributions of the department
to dairying in Alabama through under-
graduate instruction is illustrated by
alumni in positions such as: teaching,
research, extension, m arketin g, feed
manufacturing, dairy farming, milk proc-
essing, and governmental service.
The graduate program in the depart-
ment currently has 6 students.
11
A NYTIIUNG THAT AFFECTS INCOME is important. And that
is why changes in per capita consumption and consumer
prices of poultry and red meat are important to farmers
who produce meat animals. Since about half of 1968 cash
farm receipts in Alabama were from sales of poultry and
red meats (nearly equally divided), factors affecting such
income are of importance to a large segment of farmers.
Total per capita food consumption in 1968 averaged 5%
above the 1957-59 level. There wxere increases for 1both
animal arid crop food products, but consumption increases
for animal products have been greatest in recent years.
Poultry (73% of which is broilers) and beef have experi'nced
most of thc increases, as shown by the graph.
There were only 3 years in the past 15 wvhen per capita
consumption of poultry did not increase. The average person
consumed 60% more pounds of poultry and 139% more
producer profits affected by
varying consumption and prices
of poultry and red meats
MORRIS WHITE, Dept of Agriultural Economics and Rural Sociology
pounds of broiler meat in 1968 than in 1954. Increased con-
sumption of broilers wvas made possible by rising production
at a time when prices were declining.
Average retail price for broilers dropped 17.40 per 
lb.
(31%) between 1955 and 1961. Since 1962, annual average
retail pricc has remained stable, varying from 1.8 . above
to 1.7 below the average of 39.50 per 11b. However, 
pro-
duction in 1968 was 35.6% greater than in 1961.
Consumers ate beef in 1968 at a rate never before equaled.
Per capita consumption increased from 80 lb. in 
1954 to
109 lb. in 1968. A decrease occurred in only 1 year dnring
this period. The increase of 209 lb. per capita was a greater
increase is pounds consumed than were the increases 
for
pork and poultry. Proportionally the change was 
approxi-
matcly 37%, wvhich wvas double the rate of increase for pork
lbut o nly about one-fourth the rate at which broiler 
con-
sumption increased.
Retail price of beef reached a low in 1956 for the 1954-
1968 period. A sharp increase occurred in 1958, when 
aver-
age retail price rose about 15%. During the next 7 years
the retail price remained relatively stable, fluctuating 
from
2
.00j above to 1.60 below the average of 80.80 for the
period. The trend in retail price has been upward since
1964, wvith the 1968 average of 87.2 , representing a 27%
increase over 15 years earlier.
Average prices received by beef producers wereun
usually low in 1954. Producer prices rose 72% by 1958 and
have fluctuated within 18% of the 1958 level during the
past 10 years. The average in 1968 wvas approximately 10%
above the 1958 price, but wvas 89% greater than 1954 prices.
Relative stability describes the fluctuations in both per
capita consumption and average retail prices for pork during
the 1954-1968 period. No trends similar to those that oc-
curred wvith beef and poultry developed with pork. Per
capita consumption varied from 7% above to 8% below the
average of 63.4 lb. during tbe 15 year period. In 1968, con-
sumers ate only 6 lb. more pork per person tban in 1954,
Changes in the average retail price of pork established the
pattern of 2 years of falling prices followved by 2 years of
rising prices. The amount of change, 
either up or down,
never amounted to as much as 5% between 1955 and 1964.
There was a sharp increase of 14% in retail pork prices in
1965 and again in 1966. This was followed by a 9% drop
in 1967, with no change in 1968. This was the only time
in the past 18 years that average retail price of pork' 
failed
to change in the same direction for 2 consecutive years.
Changes in prices paid to pork producers generally 
fol-
lowed the pattern of 2 years of rising and 2 years of falling
prices. On a proportional basis, pork producer prices changed
almost three times as much as per capita consumption 
and
average retail prices.
Data for the iS-year period show: for poultry, an almost
continuous upward trend in per capita consumption that
has persisted even though prices leveled off during the last
half of the period; for beef, an unusual Situation in which
both price and per capita consumption increased, particu-
larly during the last third of the period; and for pork, 
short
term adjustments in supply and demand with no definite
trends either upward or dowvnwarrl.
Relationship between retail price and per capita consumption is
illustrated by the U.S. price and consumption curves shown here
for beef, pork, and poultry during the 1954-68 period.
Per cop,,,
Retail Pi,i,* lb
Phalaris Aquatica -Promising Cool Season Grass for Alabama
C.S. HOVELAND and E. L. CARDEN, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
W. B. ANTHONY and J. P. CUNNINGHAM, Dept. of 
Animal Science
(.OitL SEASOiN l'Eltt N N AL grasses ate \\ic~ it l r ioxx i iii Ala-
bltlna to firt-ilsft gritiig ill x winter anld early spt ing~ Wh 
eni
wxarm season peret iii als are dii o tit an 111utnprodutctiveC. \l ore(
lthat 770),000) acr'es of' tall] Iescite t ci 25,000 acres ol, orc]hard-
gfrass are niow grows in t the State.
The problemf wxith these grrasses is that all v arieties av ail-
alble w'xxere selected or I )redl itt areas tonuc ifIarth et no0rth wxhlere
xxiti c51trx riv al is at prime cotiiside ta titi i. These xvarieties atr
geiit ally wxititer dormanit itn Alabatta and tmake little or tin
growxth (ltilig the seasoti xxleti forage is badly iectle( atnd
xxIhet soil moistutre an c tetmnperatutre nmay Ie fIaxvoral]e.
TI e t eed Io' adlaptetl cool) seasonl peretntnial grasses it
'('tltal atnid soutbet t Al ab ata ahtas en ('01 iaged research xvith
exot ic species. A large tnumber (if' P/taintis aqualica itro-
dut ctitotns frtonm the NI 'citecirat cat area h axve beet i tested clot'
ittg thei past 8 years. M atni of th ese atre l ike hardli ggt ,ss, a
Phais 0 qua(l/111t it grtxs t itn Cal ifoitia, atnid haxve poo petrsist-
etnce. Howsexver, soim e it t tctimi)tis h axve pett niltied xxelf.
Grass growstht 1begint s itt Septembf er or Octoe it t a id ctnt
littoes tuntil Ma'. Seed hecads tmature ini Jite and thle gr asses
tent at t btox' i at i(] clot toatit it untilI late st iomer. Persxist etnce
an ti]frttcltctix its' haxve get letally i otI teeii sati stact ors iii
nothetrtnii Alab at)ma or onl ptootrly di alid soils el sewsher'ie ill
thet St ate. E statblish ed stat cs It axe tler'ta ted zert it etp ra-
tic's. lint tortftet u Al atam an, hoxwevet', surxvivalI of seed lit t gs
has hee poor.ittt
W\ite cr produtIc'tixvity' of sexveral P1 talarts intrdutction~ts ex-
ceeed th at o tit]] talfexcite or treecd caimatvgrass att t ftc P1lanlt
lBreedintg U nit ini cetntral Alabama oxver a 4-year petriod, Table
1.This tc'st xxias fertilizeud xxitt 160 lb). 
0
t N per actre ait
iii ills'. Tot a] antnuial foira ge yileld(s xxetre abont tI e sth)) c'otr
the b~etter Pliolaris aq/ttrtit'a it troutc'tions ats tot tall] fesc'ttt.
Ilttxsv'xc, P.A. 240261 1 rittm Nfttrtcct imidli otv'r .36% of1 its
Intl
1 
g (tiss 'llt d11itriti ft'e ct itical x ittet pei ittas comtlpareid
I ilt I I, 'I IS lt i~t (k ~i i 1 i wi .titt, t/tti't S I
liti l~t\ttt 'it i lw \tti t slI1ii11 Ulkti'N i. ;i thl
P .I. 240)261
Iltliitl"..''ts
lx. :31 li',i'ie
I) fontti 191 per
iWIC
Lb.
.,7 10)
I .6i30
I,25))
890ll
,50)
Dg tbli.dr
1,7 10 78 7.
17,11 78 74
4,74)) 77 74
1,8001 7:3 7:3
3,120) 78 76
Txiiipi 2. 'liti i l~t I)it;t x i i i S iiNio l'ltiiis aq itii'tt YLAHSi
,Xt~~~~D tin age perixittN Itit lit( r ie 1 i
's 't XtI.Xxitt ccm Iatt e
Phli Itt vi'tht-tic
1LI).
:3,280
3,130
2,220
I'll,
9. 12)0
8,620
7.94))
l
t
t
6t 7 S
7 ~s~i ~ -~
Growth characteristics of Phalaris gross were observed in this
nursery at the Plant Breeding Unit, Tallassee, in April 1966.
Brew 55tont Et~ 't ittittt F~ielcd lint xxititei prtuictiotn of' the
lest Illiis ilt tdiclitii xx is htightc' lte c thatn iii tfte
fIlet rItgitss, tit tit Itc' Plt il titis I rtai NIor occot, xx-its a]t i 2)12
tiws that~t of kit tckv :31 fescue', is shotwxn becltxx':
PitIrt tiss (l'.l. 201248)
llitri t 1.9ti's
K totiittkv '31 till ft'xttc'
Yt I.
'or.349b
129')0
192W)
Oct.-Apii.
4,010t
4,7401
P1 tr tis gratssex tire Iti gly' resptonsixve to t itrtogett atnd
vitlis c'im Ite hight itt [a its te y eatrs. Tittal x'ielcls exc.eecded
2 (tns of' dry foratge tier tacre xx itt 2t0tlb. 'N ini central
Alabatmtat hurit tg it fitsorabtle settsot , Tatble 2. II iglt tttumti -
etarIsl x wilitc'r pit iltict tot i a]d persi stentce tire alstt intfluen ced
I t'cu i it itl iitgc'to it. These grasses mutst be rested chtir-
of, ftttic reserve s tt (till xxitt't gitrlitug.
IFttrtge quit y oftt the xx itIer I) t'ttlictive Pialaris a(
1
I tat ica
ii ilt It t(i ittio appea'trs c'xcclit. II ,rili Iggi ,ss prove id higlliN
lii ,ttal e iii c, ct en t graito tIg trials tit thle i'tskc'gc Experi-
iii'iit F~ield. Reed'c c'itttht'graxs hias 1ttxx patatbility , hut stee's
totfit cc] to it to akc satisftac'totry ttlilln
D i gestile Ic' c l oatti'r oif, Phalarti~s aqu at ica is iugh. IHatrcd-
it ggr axs c'lt itt April tatnd tc'c tit ltatbs hatdc 65 to 74% digesti-
cdigestile, stuggestit ig thtat tittials should f)erforto xxd l i
till thes'ei gi .155(. Fo'tge' from wxell fertilized Fhtlttlris grasses
clt tai ietf 2(0 toi 26% ciiudle litriteint itt NIrc tt ant td April.
Batsedc it the fiiclitigs iftthe1 Atubu~rn tritals, sexvera~l Phltoioi.%
tia ut 'a ii itro titctit ats atppeatr pritomisotng its c'nit season pe'
( ittijzl pttsltrc's ill cetratl tatic southernt Altabatmt. Excelle'tt
e'd Itillt v i go r, good xx iiitetlit ttl iuctiot t, highi piltaltility int]
digestibility , good sect] prolntititi. and persisteicc tire de-
sit .tlle chiatrtctetristics otf these' gitisses. IHtwver, petrsistette
itt1 produltctiv ity dleped i] itt i ntt agenietit, tatd gotitd pertorn-
it ice tc'iptit c's thait tc) gtaintg or ctitting lie dotte fritom head-
I I g throuttgh cttls' slncilliet
i'loaris aquti l is tnit presently recotmttetided ini Ala-
I itt t ,if i iio seed itre aitsttl til e. A breeding piroijec't is ti iler-
xxa to dtev cselop ti xVartiety sttifatile fiti' Attfttttit.
\o\ , 
\fill
Feb. 00.-Apr. 
Full. 
-. .\pr
WOODY ORNAMENTALS 
- A
MULTIMILLION 
DOLLAR BUSINESS
LANDON C. MILLER and HENRY P. ORR
Department of Horticulture
A LABAMA wholesale nurserymen mar-
keted $4,839,700 worth of woody orna-
mental trees, shrubs, and vines in 1965.
The information comes from a survey
made in 1967 of 47 wholesale nurseries
in the State, based on 1965 business.
The average of sales for each of these
nurseries was $102,792.31. Each nur-
sery employed an average of 15.6 full-
time workers and 12,554 part-time man-
hours per year, with peak part-time em-
ployment in March, April, May, and
June.
All nurseries included in the survey
produced broadleaf evergreen shrubs.
Ilex (holly), Rhododendron (including
azalea), and Camellia were the major
broadleaf evergreens produced. These
were sold either as liners, in containers,
or b and b (balled and burlapped). A
liner is a rooted cutting or seedling with
one season of growth after rooting and
capable of being transplanted to a larger
growing area without adverse affects on
continued growth.
Narrowleaf evergreen shrubs were pro-
duced by 89.4% of the nurseries. Juni-
perus (juniper) and Thuja (arborvitae)
were produced in the highest volume
among the narrowleaf evergreens. The
majority of the junipers were sold as 
lin-
ers, with b and b plants second, and
containers third in volume. The major-
ity of Thuja was sold as b and b plants,
liners almost equal volume, and con-
tainers a minor item.
Ornamental trees were produced by
57.5% of these nurseries. The major
genera produced were Cornus (dog-
wood), Magnolia, Cercis (redbud), Al-
bizzia (mimosa), and Acer (domestic
and Japanese maples). These were sold
as liners, bare root, or b and b plants
with containers being a minor method
of preparation for sale.
Deciduous shrubs were produced by
76.6% of the nurseries. Lagerstroemia
(crapemyrtle), Forsythia, Magnolia
(Japanese), and Deutzia were the major
deciduous plants grown. The majority
of these plants were sold as liners.
Woody ornamental vines were produced
by 14% of the nurseries.
14
Wholesale nurserymen sold 46% 
of
their plants to local 
buyers (located
within 25 miles). However, 
32% of the
plants were shipped to distant 
southern
cities with Atlanta receiving 
the largest
volume, followed by Dallas-Fort
Worth, Houston, Birmingham, Norfolk -
Portsmouth, and Shreveport among 
oth-
ers. Retailers in states outside the 
South
bought 22% of the Alabama production.
New York was, by far, the largest vol-
ume importer followed by Illinois, Indi-
ana, Iowa, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.
TABLE 1. PROPORTION OF ALABAMA WHOLE-
SALE NURSERIES PRODUCING SPECIFIED TYPES
OF WOODY ORNAMENTALS, 1965
Plant type Production 
of Alabama
Plant type wholesale nurseries
Pct.
Broadleaf evergreens 100.0
Narrowleaf evergreens 89.4
Deciduous plants ......... 76.6
Ornamental trees----- 57.5
V ines ------------- -- 14.9
Nurserymen are anticipating an in-
crease in demand for ornamental shrubs
and trees. Therefore they are planning
to increase broadleaf evergreen shrub
TABLE 2. VALUE OF SALES OF 
WOODY ORNA-
MENTALS IN ALABAMA BY LOCATION 
AND
TYPE OF BUYER, 1965
Type of outlet Value 
of sales
Local sales*
Individual consumers_
R etailers -----------------------
W holesalers .........
Other growers .------
Public agencies .....
Landscape contractors.
All local sales ------
Distant sales
Southern cities
Cities outside the
S ou th -----------------
All distant sales-
All sales .......
Dol. Pct. Pct.
743,350
794,109
142,250
282,737
2,673
261,143
2,226,262 46
1,508,704
_1,064,734
2,613,438 54
4,839,700 100
33.4
35.7
6.4
12.7
0.1
11.7
32.0
22.0
Within 25 miles of the nursery.
production by 25% between 1965 
and
1970. Narrowleaf evergreen 
shrub pro-
duction may increase 
as much as 69%
and deciduous shrub 
production is an-
ticipated to increase 
by 14%. The num-
ber of ornamental 
trees being grown 
by
the nurseries may 
more than triple by
1970.
Wholesale nurseries 
still face many
production problems such 
as a shortage
of labor, weather 
hazards, weed control,
unskilled labor wage 
rates, insect con-
trol, and production 
capital.
An area of marketing 
that could possi-
bly be greatly improved 
is that of pric-
ing and bookkeeping. 
Only 21.3% of
the nurserymen could determine 
produc-
tion costs per plant from 
their records.
Imitating prices of larger, 
nearby nurser-
ies was the leading method 
used in estab-
lishing prices for their 
products.
TABLE 3. MAJOR GENERA OF BROADLEAF EVERGREENS 
AND METHODS OFPREPARATION
FOR SALE BY ALABAMA WHOLESALE NURSERIES, 1965
Type of Method of preparation for sale
broadleaf 
Nurs- Sold 
by 
Balled
evergreen eries sample 
Rooted Liners Containers 
Bare and bur-
evergreencuttings 
root lapped
No. No. No. No. No. 
No. No.
Abelia 2 80,000 80,000
Aucuba 1 3,000 3,000
Buxus 4 94,000 
80,000 10,000 4,000
Camellia 3 175,000 
43,600 118,000 13,600
Cleyera 1 34,000 20,000 
8,000 6,000
Fatsia-- 1 2,000 2,000
Gardenia 8 30,200 
2,000 25,000 3,200
Ilex 11 2,957,800 
2,331,100 542,600 83,600
Ligustrum 5 41,000 
25,000 16,000
Magnolia 5 77,200 20,000 
19,900 35,200 2,100
Photinia 2 34,000 
10,000 22,000 2,000
Pittosporum-------- 1 6,000 
2,000 2,000 2,000
Podocarpus 1 10,000 
10,000
Prunus----------- - 2 4,000 
4,000
Pyracantha 
1 52,000 
5,000 47,000
Rhododendron
(including azaleas) 7 3,827,900 
2,271,000 1,426,800 57,500 72,600
Other - 8 880,200 
696,300 102,200 81,700
MOST OF US are becoming increasingly
concerned about the deterioration of our
environment and the contributions of
agriculture to its pollution. Conse-
quently, it is our obligation to continue
to evaluate agricultural practices and de-
termine whether it would be possible to
supply foods, fiber, fuel, and shelter of
the quality and quantity our society
needs without simultaneously despoiling
our environment.
Imagine what Alabama would be like
if man had never lived here. The land
would be nearly all forested. Deer, tur-
key, fish, and other game would abound
along with wolves, coyotes, foxes, and
other predators. The air and water would
be clear and unpolluted and the soils
fertile. Plants and animals would live
together in a stable, self-perpetuating
community which would make nearly
maximum use of all natural resources.
Very little unused sunlight would reach
the forest floor through canopies of
plants. Most rain that fell would be
held in the high organic soil of the for-
est floor.
Now imagine a few hundred families
of people placed in the area but de-
prived of today's equipment and tech-
nology. They would find this beautiful
and bountiful State a very inhospitable
place. Essentially all of their efforts
would be spent trying to find something
to eat while, avoiding being eaten. There
would be little or no, time for art, music,
science, or recreation. This is probably
what it was like when man first started
his existence on earth. The bountiful
state of Alabama that we have visualized
could support no more than a few thou-
sand people if they had no agricultural
skills. Let us now examine some of the
agricultural skills that allow it to support
millions of Alabamians in relative com-
fort.
One of the first major steps in the de-
velopment of civilization was taken when
man first began cultivating crops rather
than wandering about harvesting what-
ever he could find. It was then that he
must have had his first battles with plant
pests. He had to remove some compet-
ing weeds and drive off some animals to
protect the fruits of his labor.
It was not long, historically speaking,
before man began to recognize the bene-
fits of organic fertilizers either in the
form of manure or plant and animal
products. Fish and sea weeds were
among the early organiic materials used
to fertilize crops. Unfortunately, in-
creased fertility also favored competing
weeds and root diseases and healthy,
vigorous plants were more attractive to
herbivores and insects. In time, man
learned that the value in organic com-
pounds came from inorganic materials
within them. He learned how to eco-
nomically manufacture, distribute, and
apply chemical fertilizers formulated
with these inorganic materials. These
fertilizers also have problems associated
with them. One is that they are more
subject to loss through leaching and sur-
face erosion and hence may cause ex-
cess fertility in ground water and
streams.
A few apple trees scattered through a
forest will produce some apples each
year. If competing trees are removed,
fertilizers applied, and animal and in-
sect pests held somewhat in check, then
the yield is markedly increased. Man
soon recognized that it is much easier
to do these operations if the trees are
together. This, however, creates more
pest problems. Trees scattered through
the forest may be subject to occasional
attacks by disease or insect pests which
seldom destroy all of the fruit on any
one tree or affect all of the trees. Where
apple trees are assembled in one orchard
a disease agent or insect pest attacking
one tree may multiply rapidly and spread
to all of the trees. Not only are more
trees affected but often the infestation
is more severe. Again in increasing his
efficiency man increased plant pest prob-
lems.
When man began assembling plants
in one place for ease of cultivation and
harvest he observed that all plants were
not equally productive so he began se-
lecting particular varieties for superiority
in quantity or quality of yields. He also
began bringing in desirable plants from
distant lands. However, many of his
selections and introductions were poorly
suited to the natural environment and
were particularly subject to diseases and
other pests. Virtually all major crops in
Alabama would disappear if not propo-
gated, cultivated, and protected by man.
Thus, increased fertilization, concen-
tration of a single crop in one area, and
selection of plants with little regard for
their resistance to pests created a situa-
tion in which pest control was essential
to crop production. Man compounded
the problem by introducing alien plant
and animal species. Many of these in-
troduced species, removed from an en-
vironment where they had natural con-
trols, multiplied and became serious
pests.
It is not surprising that farmers were
overjoyed when 2,4-D, DDT, and zineb
were added to their arsenal of weapons
for fighting pests. However, not all
weeds could be controlled by 2,4-D, nor
all diseases by zineb, nor all insect pests
by DDT. Furthermore, many insects de-
veloped resistance to DDT. Industry met
the challenge and an increasing array
of pesticides was produced. Public de-
mands for perfect fruits and vegetables
led to steadily increasing usage of pesti-
cides. Often more than one insecticide
was used and predacious insects and
birds that helped hold some pests in
check were killed along with the pests.
The public has now become concerned
that species other than the target species
are being affected. This completes the
full cycle and we are back where we
started.
Two things must be kept firmly in
mind. The demands of the present pop-
ulation cannot be met by dependence on
natural foods and the balance of nature.
Man must alter his environment to sur-
vive. It is equally important that all
recognize that pest control, while neces-
sary, must be accomplished with the
minimum damage to our environment.
Chemical weapons should be used wisely
and pointed directly at the target species.
More research to this end is essential.
15
Efficient Crop Production
Can Increase Pest Problems
D. E. DAVIS, Dept. of Botany and Plant Pathology
140a o~4 low(e 4ert Vzed4
WHITE-FPINOED 
pr-ri
E. E BARNES and MAX H. BASS
Depo, rment of ZooloqyE Eromolocjy
A \( \\%xIlII I In MtIL I Ills thew
/\tittats of (;reek inN 
thltoag Eitcl
Ieiliale b)eetle \\ill lay abfoit 
1,000 egg~s
(furitigT he]- lifetime., thus 
potelitiafly ill-
cxeasing tile p!optilitioti 
I ,00 01(1d at[
eatch Ilie\\ geteiertiot . These itisects 
ate
kitowsii to feetd onl I70 kinids 
of' flailts ats
adults and 240 kinds 
ats lt-vac. Among
those plants attacked 
by 1both lars aie atnd
adults atre pealnuts. corn1, 
sugarcat Ic, Irish
pontatoes, So5 'beans, 
aiid cottoti. T hese
tev just at ess of tihe reasot is \\rlbite
fritiged betltes are takent 
set joisls ' v1
s,-ienjtists itt tit(e soittitstern 
Ittitedf
States.
'lihe wx ijte-frinigec beetle 
is at natis e ot
Sou th America, xs hiere it is xx idls\ 
dis_
tribttted tltrotughtout 
Argtiita, Ut a/il.
(bhile, atuf Uruigit. It \\rias fir st reportled
tit the Ut ited States itt 
19:36 ssfeti t 5)ci-
niens wsere found iii 
()kaloosa Coilttit
Fl oridi. Latter, 
beetles ssere Iou t 1( 
ill
('oxitigtott itttd (Cettexi 
acomitties itt Alit
lait a. These itisects 
litat flo its S i d
thtouigftot 8S ottthealstertt 
states, wxithi
locall lfet'5tltitotts repotrted 
itt 6I adjoitli)tg
States.
T-he otitlit dlisttributiont 
of' this inl
sect is probalys limifted 
ottlx Its1)' the
depith to xwhIich the 
soil free/es it) \\ill-
ter-. Thle xx Iite-fritiged 
beetle ox etxx ii
tet s its at larsvi a6 
to 8 it). bielows the
SOil s nit ace tt d can 
probab )t Iv spreadt
tlorthl-Iriv to allt ' v egion 
Mtt\x11r tlt( soil
does tt tt ftreeze to atll 
appt cci al c ( deptft1.
Its wsestward sp-eiid 
xxvouild be littitedf
fbv as aillfble nlloistiire, 
bitt itl otl it titrate I
sittuttiott Sufficietnt 
ittistittc xxoutld bw
av ilatble.
Wthite-i itgcd beetle 
adhutlts are iii'
less tttd citinot inoxe 
im ail ppreciali
distatice ott their osvt, 
probabily less 1ltitii
at mile duritig their 
life spilt. This ill-
sect's spre'ad is accomoplishted 
pi iiarifs
thi tougl thtI e commtuetrcitl 
inlovcet It of,
ctips, Soil, sod, tntuttsery 
stock, fiii ttn m a
chiiterv, etc.
Thte iiisect's t eprtidtctix 
e p)tititel is
pl let i cit tl. Ote h eavxilIy 
ittfested -ot-
toti field xvts estimntted to 
havte 240,000t
adutl t s per acre, ittid( 
thle aitthots oh -
setrved such vs[ numbertttlcs 
of beetles itt
1900i that houtses iil roatds iii 
somtte
palrt s tl' thIe cit wsex re fit cratl s cosvered.
goi o tit llsct i a el l01
Whilte ft 1itt(t becth s his c toils 
I geit-
ci ttii it seat. Frotm 'sasititutil 
August
lie aldult beetles emler-ge. 
Adults ift c
IliotxititatelY 11t- ilt 
lot tg, dartk gres
xx itfi aix \llute hnd e\N 1ilig 
allotg tlleit-
Sitde. uttit possess a shttott, 
broad Sittout.
All arc fctttales anid treprotduie 
ptrtltctttt
gTeticidlvs. Th'le 
aitsw le lifttime of' 
tite
55 ite fi igedt Itectle atdift 
is 2 to 5
tuttilts. Th'le eggs, 
whIticht ire 1,titl
xxeeks to :3 mtthls, depctiditig 
ott tem-
fiet-are ittic moitisturte. 
Thel( fats te feed
et ttirclv fielos gi tttiid it lI 
the dutr-ittitnt
oftite liii sal Statge is tiotrnatlf 
1t) to I I
nIttoitis. Thte inisects pass 
the xxi let ill
tIlte h \i I it stg . ltl"O la IZt e 
i Ia7 tt) tlteI(
ciid tof' jidtl tlit( Iistie luitte 
iltit(h stoil.
1)1 t)imttittf 14 davss.
I ]Wi5 Atutiti titisci sits Agrieif-
Ititaf E'xpct iittit Statlitit rcccix ed 
iI gi ttit
ittnt thte I.SI)A tot develttp it 
lbt ators\
reirtlig tlttilitftit fir tficxx 
\llt tittigecl
fictfe. 'h'llis potsed ~ it 
thtet tit iqiitc fi tilt
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT 
STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN, ALABAMA 
36830
E. V. Smith, Director
PUBLICATION--Highltghts o
AgrICUltiral Research 12 69 
1 OM
its fii-at a nd iti tstiaflk protduce at genera-
titii wxithitn 18 to 25 das s. A birief dI-
set iItitti otf thie teeltilipe dleveloped 
hetre
att Atit rii is gix cit beltiss
Adults xxerc kept itt ciages ttt c fed
citliet allfalfit leitses ot an ) artificial 
diet
cttsistintg of I its, tlt h~dates, 1)1 
t-
teit is. xitaioits, tnuioeits, andc 
drtied] A
falf't leatf meatl mixed together iltt
itgitt base.
Eggs wxere hatched 1), plaitntg themn
to i ittist fil tet- papet- ill peti i dislits. Thte
egas x\\ioil( legiti to httch 211 (flas s aifter
1ei ii g pla~cedI ill the dishi. Eggs 
coutld
bp stttred itler dry cot ditiot s for- 
as
I ottg its 120) (ht' vs atn d swouild still 
Ita~tch
xxitltiti 24 houtrs xxheit plaedl it idst
Liorsae xxere r earted iii it sterile 
soil
x i th sprotlintg Ir ish potatoe1s. 
ll ' iv I-
I iptifatit g tile tempferaturiie tile hits ald
p riutd xxias shoirten ed conisi deraly 
audit (
tt perc:-i tt g stritvai ~l \\,its iii creased
tover field t cited piipllttiot is ir 
pttptilla
tiittis rearied itt cot istat temtperturetstc.
Mlioie t esctrcht is nteeded oil th Itt1)
ttlogs att c cii titl of thle 55 lite 
ft it iged
lietfe. \\']tell suich xx ork is utidertikei
this rititig itetlitic xxill give 
iresear cit
cis icads atccess tot the varttitous 
lif'e statges
tof tis itisect.
POSTAGE PAID
United States Departmenrt of Agricutur.e