FIFTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT
January I to December 31, 1940
OF THE
Agricultural Experiment 
Station
OF THE
Alabama Polytechnic Institute
AUBURN
TE
/872
M. J. FUNCHESS, Director
AUBURN, ALABAMA
Alabama Polytechnic Institute
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
TRUSTEES
His Excellency, Frank M. Dixon, Chairman Ex-Officio
A. H. Collins, State Superintendent of Education Ex-Officio
Francis W. Hare, (First District) Monroeville, Alabama
George Blue, (Second District) Montgomery, Alabama
T. D. Samford, (Third District) Opelika, Alabama
*John V. Denson, (Third District) Opelika, Alabama
H. D. Merrill, (Fourth District) Anniston, Alabama
C. S. Culver, (Fifth District) Gadsden, Alabama
Robert K. Green, (Sixth District) Greensboro, Alabama
Paul S. Haley, (Seventh District) Jasper, Alabama
Edward A. O Neal, (Eighth District) Florence, Alabama
Victor H. Hanson, (Ninth District) Birmingham, Alabama
Ralph B. Draughon, Secretary of Board, Auburn, Alabama
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF
Luther Noble Duncan, M.S., LL.D., President
M. J. Funchess, M.S., D.Sc., Director
J. W. Tidmore, Ph.D., Assistant Director
W. H. Weidenbach, B.S., Executive Secretary
Kirtley Brown, A.B., Agricultural Editor
Mary E. Martin, Librarian
Sara Willeford, B.S., Agricultural Librarian
Agricultural Economics:
B. F. Alvord, M.S.
B. T. Inman, M.S.
J. N. Mahan, M.S.
B. T. Lanham, Jr., M.S.
**E. G. Schiffman, M.S.
J. H. Blackstone, B.S.
J. W. Lester, B.S.
W. F. Lagrone, B.S.
Agricultural Engineering:
J. H. Neal, Ph.D.
R. M. Merrill, B.S.
E. G. Diseker, M.S.
F. A. Kummer, M.S.
E. D. Gordon, M.S.
D. A. Parsons, B.A.
J. O. Laws, B.S.
I. F. Reed, M.S.
C. H. Bailey, M.S.
A. W. Cooper, B.S.
Agronomy and Soils:
J. W. Tidmore, Ph.D.
N. J. Volk, Ph.D.
J. A. Naftel, Ph.D.
Anna L. Sommer, Ph.D.
G. W. Volk, Ph.D.
J. B. Dick, B.S.
E. L. Mayton, M.S.
D. G. Sturkie, Ph.D.
J. T. Williamson, B.S.
H. B. Tisdale, M.S.
R. J. Jones, Ph.D.
H. R. Albrecht, Ph.D.
H. W. Reuszer, Ph.D.
J. W. Richardson, B.S.
F. E. Bertram, B.S.
J. W. McClendon, B.S.
R. W. Taylor, M.S.
H. R. Benford, B.S.
W. Von Chandler. B.S.
P. B. Gibson, B.S......
M. E. Holt, B.S. ......
J. W. Langford, B.S.
D. T. Meadows, B.S....
J. C. Rice, B.S. .......
J. I. W ear, B.S. ......
C. M. Wilson, B.S.....
*Deceased.
**On leave.
Head, Agricultural Economics
Associate Agricultural Economist
Associate Agricultural Economist
Assistant Agricultural Economist
Assistant Agricultural Economist
Graduate Assistant
Graduate Assistant
Junior Economist (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Head, Agricultural Engineering
Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Associate Agricultural Engineer
-Associate Agricultural Engineer
Associate Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Project Supervisor (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Assistant Soil Conservationist (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Assistant Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Assistant in Agricultural Engineering
Assistant in Agricultural Engineering
Head, Agronomy and Soils
Soil Chemist
Associate Soil Chemist
Associate Soil Chemist
Associate Soil Chemist
Associate Agronomist (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Associate Agronomist
Associate Agronomist
Associate Agronomist
Associate Plant Breeder
Assistant Soil Chemist
Assistant Agronomist
Agent (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Assistant Agronomist
Assistant in Agronomy
Assistant in Agronomy
Assistant in Agronomy
---------------------------------- G raduate A ssistant
............................... ... G raduate A ssistant
--------------------- . ..---------- G raduate A ssistant
................. .............. ... G raduate A ssistant
----------------------------------- G raduate A ssistant
----------------------------------- G raduate A ssistant
...... . ........................... G raduate A ssistant
----------------------------------- G raduate A ssistant
--------------.-------------------- G raduate A ssistant
Animal and Poultry Husbandry:
J. C. Grimes, M.S.
W. E. Sewell, M.S.
W. D. Salmon, M.A.
R. W. Engel, Ph.D.
C. J. Koehn, Ph.D.
W. C. Sherman, Ph.D.
D. F. King, M.S.
G. J. Cottier, M.A.
P. D. Sturkie, Ph.D.
**M. J. Burns, B.S.
Botany and Plant Pathology:
J. L. Seal, Ph.D.
E. V. Smith, Ph.D.
J. R. Jackson, Ph.D.
H. M. Darling, M.S.
Horticulture and Forestry:
L. M. Ware, M.S.
C. L. Isbell, Ph.D.
E. W. McElwee, M.S.
P. A. Swarthout, B.S.
F. E. Johnstone, Jr., Ph.D.
0. A. Atkins, M.S.
W. R. Boggess, M.F.
**J. E. Bryan, Jr., B.S.
Hubert Harris, B.S.
W. A. Johnson, B.S.
Special Investigations:
J. F. Duggar, M.S.
Veterinary Medicine:
L. E. Starr, Ph.D.
Zoology-Entomology:
J. M. Robinson, M.A.
L. L. English, Ph.D.
H. S. Swingle, M.S.
F. S. Arant, Ph.D.
R. 0. Christenson, Ph.D.
A. M. Pearson, Ph.D.
Head, Animal and Poultry Husbandry
Animal Husbandman
-Animal Nutritionist
Associate Animal Nutritionist
- Associate Animal Nutritionist
Associate Animal Nutritionist
Associate Poultry Husbandman
Associate Poultry Husbandman
Associate Poultry Husbandman
Graduate Assistant
Head, Botany and Plant Pathology
Associate Botanist and Plant Pathologist
Assistant Botanist and Plant Pathologist
Assistant Botanist and Plant Pathologist
Head, Horticulture and Forestry
Horticulturist
Associate Horticulturist
Associate Forester (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Assistant Vegetable Breeder
Assistant Horticulturist (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Assistant Forester
Assistant in Forestry
Assistant in Horticulture
Laboratory Technician
Research Professor of Special Investigations
Animal Pathologist
Head, Zoology-Entomology
Entomologist
Fish Culturist
Associate Entomologist
Associate Zoologist
Associate Biologist (Coop. U.S.D.I., and
State Department of Conservation)
Substations:
Black Belt-Marion Junction, Dallas County, Alabama
K. G. Baker, B.S. Superintendent
T. B. Chisolm, B.A. Assistant to Superintendent
Gulf Coast-Fairhope, Baldwin County, Alabama
Otto Brown, M.S. Superintendent
Harold Yates, B.S. Assistant Superintendent
Sand Mountain-Crossville, DeKalb County, Alabama
R. C. Christopher, B.S. Superintendent
H. A. Ponder, B.S. Assistant Superintendent
Tennessee Valley-Belle Mina, Limestone County, Alabama
Fred Stewart, B.S. Superintendent
J. K. Boseck, B.S. Assistant Superintendent
Wiregrass-Headland, Henry County, Alabama
J. P. Wilson, B.S. Superintendent
C. A. Brogden, B.S. Assistant Superintendent
CHANGES IN STATION STAFF DURING 1940
Appointments:
M. J. Burns, B.S.
P. R. Gibson, B.S.
F. E. Johnstone, Jr., Ph.D.
J. . Laws, B.S.
J. N. Mahan, M.S.
D. A. Parsons, B.A.
H. W. Reuszer, Ph.D.....
J. C. Rice, B.S.
C. M. Wilson, B.S.
Resignations:
H. R. Benford, B.S.
W. Von Chandler, B.S.
H. M. Darling, M.S.
B. T. Inman, M.S.
J. W. Langford, B.S......
**On leave.
Graduate Assistant
Graduate Assistant
LAssistant Vegetable Breeder
Assistant Soil Conservationist (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Associate Agricultural Economist
Project Supervisor (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
.. Agent (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Graduate Assistant
Graduate Assistant
Graduate Assistant
Graduate Assistant
Assistant Botanist and Plant Pathologist
Associate Agricultural Economist
---------------.---------------- G raduate A ssistant
4
NEW PUBLICATIONS
Experiment Station Publications
(Bulletins, Circulars, and Mimeographed Reports)
English, L. L., and Turnipseed, G. F.-Insect Pests of Azaleas
and Camellias and Their Control. Cir. 84: 1-18. (1940).
Clark, Carl M.-Rural Property Tax Problems in Alabama.
Bul. 247: 1-63. (1940).
English, L. L., and Turnipseed, G. F.-Control of the Major
Pests of the Satsuma Orange in South Alabama. Bul. 248: 1-48
(1940).
Lanham, Ben T., and Lagrone, Winm. F.-Size of Farms, Crop-
land Use and Conservation Practices, Lee County, Alabama.
(Report No. 1 for Lee County, May 1940).
Lanham, Ben T., and Lagrone, Wmin. F.-Labor Requirements
for Marion County Crops. (Report No. 1 for Marion County,
May 1940).
Lanham, Ben T., and Lagrone, Winm. F.-A Small Farm in
Lee County, Alabama. (Report No. 2 for Lee County, June
1940).
Lanham, Ben T., and Lagrone, Winm. F.-Land Use Plans for
a Two-Mule Farm in Lee County, Alabama. (Report No. 3 for
Lee County, July 1940).
Lanham, Ben T., and Lagrone, Winm. F.-Size of Farm, Crop-
land Use, and Conservation Practices, by Land Use Areas, Henry
County, Alabama. (Report No. 1 for Henry County, July 1940).
Mayton, E. L.-Corn Varieties.
Sturkie, D. G.-Artificial Manure Production.
Swarthout, Paul.-Factors Affecting Pine Reproduction in
Tallapoosa County. (Office Report, U.S. Forest Service.)
Swarthout, Paul.-Factors Affecting Pine Reproduction in
Autauga County. (Office Report U.S. Forest Service).
Tisdale, H. B.-Cotton Varieties.
Ware, L. M.-Present Status of the Pecan in Alabama. (Feb-
ruary 1940).
Ware, L. M.-Possibilities in New and Extended Uses of the
Sweet Potato. (August 1940).
Ware, L. M.-Brief Statements Concerning Tung-Oil Pro-
duction. (Revised August 1940).
5
Articles in Scientific Journals
Barrons, Keith C.-Root-Knot Resistance in Beans. Jour. of
Heredity, 31:35. (1940).
Koehn, C. J., and Sherman, W. C.-The Determination of
Vitamin A and Carotene with the Photoelectric Colorimeter.
Jour. Biol. Chem., 132:527. (1940).
Koehn, C. J.-A Rapid Photoelectric Method for the Deter-
mination of Vitamin A and Carotene in Milk. Jour. Biol. Chem.,
133:1 vi (1940).
Koehn, C. J.-Economical Rations for Dogs. Jour. Am. Vet.
Med. Assoc., 97:592. (1940).
Salmon, W. D., and Engel, R. W.-Pantothenic Acid and
Hemorrhagic Odrenal Necrosis in Rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and
Med., 45:621. (1940).
Salmon, W. D.-The Supplementary Relationship of Vitamin
B6 and Unsaturated Fatty Acids. Jour. Biol. Chem., 133:1 xxxiii
(1940).
Sherman, W. C.-Chromatographic Identification and Bi-
ological Evaluation of Carotene from Mature Soybeans. Food
Research, 5:13. (1940).
Sherman, W. C.-Effect of Certain Fats Upon the Utilization
of Carotene. Jour. Biol. Chem. Proc., 133:1 xxxix (1940).
Smith, E. V., and Swingle, H. S.-Effect of Organic and In-
organic Fertilizers on Plankton Production and Bluegill Bream
Carrying Capacity of Ponds. Trans. Am. Fish Soc., 69 (1939):
257-262 (1940).
Swingle, H. S., and Smith, E. V.-Fish Production in Terrace-
Water Ponds in Alabama. Trans. Am. Fish Soc., 69 (1939): 101-
105 (1940).
Volk, N. J.-The Effect of Soil Characteristics and Winter
Legumes on the Leaching of Potassium Below the 8-Inch Depth
in Some Alabama Soils. Jour. Am. Soc. Agron., 32, No. 11: 888-
890. (1940).
Ware, L. M.-Certain Aspects of the Alabama Field Trials
of Seed Potatoes as a Requisite for Certification. 
Am. Potato
Jour., 17: 13-20. (1940).
Articles in Popular Journals
Atkins, O. A.-Promising New Cash Crop for Hill Lands.
Prog. Farmer. (January 1940).
Barrons, Keith C.-Sweet Corn has Promise for the South.
Market Growers Jour. (March 1, 1940).
6
Barrons, Keith C.-Tomato Diseases Cost Money. Sou. Seeds-
man. (May 1940).
Grimes, J. C.-Producing Hogs on Forage and Feed Crops.
Southern Agriculturist (January 1940).
Isbell, C. L.-Onions the Year Round. Progressive Farmer
(February 1940).
Isbell, C. L.-How to Grow Cabbage Seed. Alabama Farmers
Bul. (June 15, 1940).
Isbell, C. L.-Ten Simple Ways to Save Food. Progressive
Farmer (September 1940).
Isbell, C. L.-Sweet Potatoes Until Next August. Progressive
Farmer (October 1940).
King, D. F.-March in the Chicken Yard. Progressive Farmer
(March 1940).
King, D. F.-Scratching for Bigger Profits to Crow About.
Progressive Farmer (April 1940).
King, D. F.-Pointers the Poultryman Can Use in May.
Progressive Farmer (May 1940).
King, D. F.-June Tips to Busy Farm Poultrymen. Pro-
gressive Farmer (June 1940).
King, D. F.-July in the Poultry Yard. Progressive Farmer
(July 1940).
King, D. F.-On the Job with Poultry. Progressive Farmer
(August 1940).
King, D. F.-Start the New Layers Right. Progressive Farm-
er (September 1940).
King, D. F.-Make Your Hens Lay when Prices Are High.
Progressive Farmer (October 1940).
King, D. F.-A.B.C.'s of Winter Laying. Progressive Farmer
(November 1940).
King, D. F.-A Score Card for Poultry Raisers. Progressive
Farmer (December 1940).
McElwee, E. W.-Control of Flowering. Auburn Forum,
A.P.I. (December 1940).
Salmon, W. D.-Livestock in Relation to Human Nutrition.
The Cattleman (June 1940).
Salmon, W. D.-Good Pasture for Cheap Hogs. Progressive
Farmer (December 1940).
Smith, E. V., and Swingle, H. S.-Most Fish Ponds Are Too
Big, Scientists Find. Alabama Game and Fish News (August 1940).
Ware, L. M.-Fertilizers for Irish Potatoes. Market Growers
Journal (March 1, 1940).
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
The Use of Short-Term Farm Credit in Marion County. (Ben
T. Lanham, Jr., and W. F. Lagrone).-Data from a study of
120 farms in Marion County show that practically all farmers
on small units not having a relatively high income from work
"off the farm" usually 
use some type of short-term 
credit-
loans of less than 12 months duration, normally made for use
in current crop and livestock production. Table 1 shows the
amounts, interest rates, and sources of these loans for different
size farms.
Table 1.-Short-Term Farm Credit Used in Marion County, Alabama, 1938.
One-mule Two-mule Three-mule
Item Unit farms farms farms
Amount of loan Dollars 52.05 113.36 153.57
Used for farm Per cent 83.0 77.0 74.0
Length of loan Months 8.0 8.0 8.0
Interest rate Per cent 7.6 7.7 8.0
Source of credit:
Local bank Per cent 57.0 85.0 86.0
Individuals Per cent 19.0 2.0 14.0
Federal agencies Per cent 24.0 13.0 0.0
The average size of loan for short-term credit varies directly
with the number of mules on each farm, averaging in each case
slightly above $50 per head of work stock.
The percentage of short-term credit devoted to farm uses
is highest on small farms. Interest rates, however, show an
increase as the size of farm increases. These differences are
due mainly to the source of credit-the higher the percentage
of funds borrowed from Federal agencies the lower is the aver-
age interest rate.
Present and Potential Production of Farm Woodland Areas
in Marion County. (Ben T. Lanham, Jr.).-A total of 56 per
cent of the farm land area of Marion County is in farm wood-
lands. Detailed study of forestry conditions on representative
farm woodland areas indicates badly depleted stands of second-
growth pine and hardwood, and a high percentage of undesir-
able trees in practically all forest areas in the county. Farm
woodlands in this county have been placed in three groups
(Table 2).
Forestry technicians of the Soil Conservation Service made
stand table projections to determine potential stands and po-
tential growth rates for all major forest types in the county.
Table 2 shows that only a small percentage of each of these
woodland areas is stocked with productive growing stock. On
pine-hardwood upland and pine-hardwood bottom type areas
less than 10 per cent of the present stand of trees are desirable.
Twenty per cent of the trees on old field pine forest type areas
8
Table 2.-Condition of Farm Woodland Areas in Marion County, Alabama.
Major forest types
Item Unit Pine-hardwood Old field
Upland Bottom pine
Portion of total woodland
area in major forest types Per cent 90.0 4.0 6.0
Portion of woodland area at
present non-productive Per cent 85.0 80.0 70.0
Present volume per acre:
Total all classes Cu. ft. 880.5 1,847.6 1,627.5
Sawtimber trees Bd. ft. 230.0 743.0 655.0
All other trees Cords 9.4 20.4 16.3
Potential volume per acre Cu. ft. 3,085.0 3,250.0 3,500.0
Growth rate, per acre:
Present Cu. ft. 59.0 88.2 87.0
Potential Cu. ft. 132.0 162.0 174.0
Estimated time to achieve
potential conditions Years 30 40 40
are desirable. Forestry technicians report that, on the aver-
age, the cubic foot volume of present stands can be more than
doubled. Growth rates can also be doubled if such areas are
placed under good farm woodland management practices and
on sustained yield bases. To achieve these conditions, however,
will require from 30 to 40 years.
Availability and Use of Farm Family Labor in Marion Coun-
ty. (Ben T. Lanham, Jr., and W. F. Lagrone).-A farm man-
agement study of Marion County farming conditions shows that
two-thirds of the farms in the county are operated wholly with
family labor. Of all farms included in the study, 78 per cent
of the one-mule farms, 64 per cent of the two-mule farms, and
31 per cent of the three-mule farms used family labor alto-
gether in 1938. The remaining farms in each size group sup-
plemented family labor with either wage labor or sharecrop-
pers.
Data for representative farms in each size group indicate
an increase in labor force available as size increases, but do not
show corresponding increases in the percentage of available
labor used for field work on each farm (Table 3). This is at-
tributable to differences in amount and composition of the labor
force available and in the amount of cropland operated per
family. Since only about one-third of the available farm family
labor force is utilized on farms, this county is faced with the
problem of surplus farm labor during most of the year.
Variations in Annual Work Stock Costs by Size of Farms in
Marion County. (Ben T. Lanham, Jr., and W. F. Lagrone).
Under normal conditions total net costs of keeping mules on
one-, two-, and three-mule farms in Marion County are $78.89,
9
Table 3.-Farm Family Labor Available and Used for Field Work on
Representative One-, Two-, and Three-mule Farms in
Marion County, Alabama, 1938.
Three-mule farms
One-mule 
Two-mulem 
ar
Item Unit farm farm 
Operator's Share
family family 
family cropper's
f amily
Field workers per
family Number 3.1 4.3 4.3 4.0
Man-equivalent
workers
1  
Number 2.6 3.6 3.6 3.3
Man-equivalent days
available for field
work per family
2  
Days 398 505 505 478
Man-equivalent days
worked per family Days 121 178 
156 111
Percentage available
days worked per
family Per cent 30.5 35.2 31.0 23.2
Cropland operated
per family Acres 22.5 35.8 33.7 19.6
Cropland operated
per man-equivalent
worker Acres 8.6 9.9 9.4 5.9
1A man-equivalent worker is here defined as one who can do the usual amount of work
performed by one male worker in a 10-hotr work day. Man-equivalent designations range
from 0 to 1.0.
2
Man-equivalent workers per family multiplied by days suitable for field work. After
correcting for weather conditions, Sundays, usual farm holidays, etc., there are 177.4 days
suitable for field work. In calculating total days available per family, man-equivalent factors
for children in school were adjusted to allow for time spent in school.
$89.49, and $101.73 per head, respectively, (Table 4). Only
a small portion of these costs is a direct cash expense. The largest
single item is feed, which constitutes two-thirds of the total in all
cases. Feed costs vary from $48.00 per mule on one-mule farms
to $67.20 on three-mule farms.
The combined effects of small mules, low feeding rates, high
mule labor requirements, and inadequate housing facilities, are
reflected in the condition and value of mules on small farms,
particularly on one-mule farms.
Cropland acreage operated per mule is higher on small
farms than on large farms. Mule costs per acre of cropland are
consequently lower on small farms than on large farms.
Mules on small farms work a larger total number of hours
per animal annually than those on large farms. The average
costs of mule labor per hour worked are 12.7 cents on one-
mule farms, 14.5 cents on two-mule farms, and 15.5 cents on
three-mule farms. On the basis of individual crops, work stock
costs for all major crops grown in this county increase as size
of farm increases.
Investment in Land and Buildings by Size of Farms in Marion
County. (Ben T. Lanham, Jr., and W. F. Lagrone) .- The ratio
of investment per farm in land and buildings in Marion County
10
Table 4.-Net Annual Costs of Work Stock per Head on 120
Farms in Marion County, Alabama.
Item Unit
Farms surveyed Number
Mules Number
Average weight, per head Pounds
Average age, per head Years
Average value, per head Dollars
Average years work life,
per head Years
Feed, per head:
Corn, (equivalent) Bushels
Hay (equivalent) Tons
Pastures, native Days
Crop aftermath Days
Costs, per head:
Feed
Labor
Buildings
Pasture
Veterinary and
other cash costs
Interest
Depreciation
Total
Crop acres per mule
Mule cost per crop
acre
Mule labor per farm
(total)
Mule costs per hour
worked
Mule labor per acre:
Cotton
Corn (total)
Summer legumes
(hay)
Winter legumes
(turned)
Mule costs per acre:
Cotton
Corn (total)
Summer legumes
(hay)
Winter legumes
(turned)
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Acres
Dollars
Hours
Cents
Hours
Hours
Hours
Hours
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
One-mule
farms
41
41
883
13.2
60.00
17.1
41
1.3
254
37
48.00
12.74
1.86
2.83
1.86
3.60
8.00
78.89
22.5
3.51
700
12.7
51
37
34
12
6.48
4.70
4.32
1.52
--
Cotton-Corn
is approximately the same for all three size groups studied
(Table 5), averaging about 30 per cent investment in buildings
and 70 per cent in land for the county as a whole. There 
are
significant variations, however, in value of land per acre when
studied by use for all size groups.
Cropland by far represents the best farm land in the county.
Values of pasture land are low because such areas usually 
rep-
resent poor land once farmed but now abandoned and used 
as
Two-mule
farms
64
128
970
12.1
68.00
17.6
58
1.2
273
26
56.40
12.74
2.30
1.78
3.89
4.08
8.30
89.49
17.9
5.00
1,233
14.5
53
40
41
13
7.68
5.80
5.81
1.88
Three-mule
farms
15
45
1077
9.5
84.00
18.0
64
1.6
285
14
67.20
12.74
2.30
2.40
4.66
5.04
7.39
101.73
17.8
5.72
1,967
15.5
53
40
41
13
8.22
6.20
6.22
2.02
11
Table 5.-Investment in Land and Buildings per Farm, and Investment in
Land per Acre by Use, by Size of Farms, 120 Farms,
Marion County, Alabama.
One-mule Two-mule Three-mule
Item Unit farms farms farms
Farms surveyed Number 41 64 15
Investment per farm in:
Land Dollars 661.66 1055.86 1739.58
Buildings Dollars 271.38 458.89 804.15
Investment in:
Land Per cent 70.9 69.7 68.4
Buildings Per cent 29.1 30.3 31.6
Land value, per acre:
Cropland Dollars 15.01 18.66 17.28
Pasture land Dollars 8.29 9.52 13.45
'
Woodland Dollars 4.65 5.44 8.57
pasture. Little pasture improvement has been done in such
areas. Woodland areas are usually steep rocky slopes not suited
for cultivation, or are low lands subject to flood damage and
covered largely with species of undesirable hardwoods. Land
values increase, too, as size of farm increases. This is largely
due to the relative productivity of such land. Land on small
farms usually represents that which has been in intensive row-
crop cultivation for many years; consequently, because of
erosion and loss of natural fertility, it is valued lower than land
on large farms.
Farm Machinery and Equipment by Size of Farms in Marion
County. (Ben T. Lanham, Jr., and W. F. Lagrone).-Results
of a farm management study of 120 cotton-corn farms in Marion
County indicate that only minimum requirements of farm ma-
chinery and equipment are maintained on most farms in this
county. With a surplus of available farm family labor, little
attention has been given to the possibility of substituting ma-
chinery for man labor. The small amount of machinery and
equipment is of low cash value; normal annual repairs are high;
and most of it has been used for more than 50 per cent of its
potential years of life.
Table 6 shows the most common types of equipment found
on Marion County farms, the average age and value of each
item in 1938, normal rate of depreciation, normal annual repair
costs, and the 1938 purchase price.
For determining the usual kinds of equipment on represen-
tative Marion County farms by size, a complete enumeration
of the types and number of pieces of equipment reported per
farm was recorded. Results of this enumeration are shown in
Table 7. On one-mule farms it was found that only 3 imple-
ments were reported on 100 per cent of the farms; these were
a Georgia or single stock, a Gee-Whiz or scratcher, and a one-
horse turn plow. More than half the one-mule farms surveyed
had combination planters, fertilizer distributors, and home-made
12
Table 6.-Average Age, Value, Rate of Depreciation, Normal Repair Costs,
and Purchase Price of Usual Types of Equipment on Farms in
Marion County, Alabama, 1938.
Aver-
Type of equipment Records age
age
(1938)
Number Years
Wagon (one-horse) 20 16
Wagon (two-horse) 73 12
Planter (combination) 98 8
Fertilizer distributor 79 6
Disc harrow 26 12
Section harrow 30 10
Joe (top) harrow 82 9
Gee-Whiz (scratcher) 154 7
Georgia (single) stock 223 7
Drag (home-made) 56 3
Turn plow (one-horse) 166 8
Turn plow (two-horse) 75 9
Cultivator (two-horse) 10 13
Middle buster (two-horse) 32 9
Mowing machine 12 11
Hay rake (two-horse) 11 10
Stalk cutter (two-horse) 21 6
Aver- Rate Normal
age of annual
value deprecia- repairs
(1938) tion
Dollars Per cent Dollars
24.77
40.78
11.79
4.25
22.64
11.81
2.23
4.31
1.51
2.06
4.34
10.58
28.29
8.63
43.93
23.12
15.92
3.4
4.2
5.9
10.0
4.5
4.5
5.6
7.1
6.7
12.5
5.9
5.0
4.5
5.3
3.6
5.0
5.9
3.05
3.09
1.03
.69
1.42
1.27
.84
1.48
2.45
.17
1.51
2.04
1.91
1.70
4.33
1.25
.90
1
Normal repairs include purchases of new plow points to replace old ones and also
sharpening of old points in addition to all general repairs.
2
This is the cash price of specified types of equipment. If purchased "on time", an
additional 10 per cent should be added for interest and carrying charges.
aEstimate.
Table 7.-Number and Percentage of Farms Reporting Specified Types of
Equipment in Marion County, Alabama, 1938.
One-mule Two-mule Three-mule
farms farms farms
Type of equipment Total Per cent
1 
Total Per cent
1  
Total Per cent
1
No. re- report- No. re- report- No. re- report-
ported ing ported ing ported ing
Farms surveyed 41
Wagons (one-horse) 19
Wagons (two-horse) 3
Planters (combination) 27
Fertilizer distributor 29
Disc harrow 4
Section harrow 6
Joe (top) harrows 21
Gee-Whiz (scratcher) 44
Georgia (single) stock 57
Drag (home-made) 23
Turn plow (one-horse) 46
Turn plow (two-horse) 5
Cultivator (two-horse) -
Middle buster (two-horse) 6
Mowing machine -
Rake ( two-horse) -
Stalk cutter (two-horse) 5
100.0 64
44.2 1
7.0 55
62.8 54
67.4 41
9.3 13
14.0 17
48.8 49
102.3 87
132.6 122
53.5 31
107.0 91
11.6 51
- 9
14.0 22
- 8
- 7
11.6 12
100.0
1.6
88.7
87.1
66.1
21.0
27.4
79.0
140.3
196.8
50.0
146.8
82.2
14.5
35.5
12.9
11.3
19.4
15
15
17
9
9
7
12
23
44
2
29
19
1
4
4
4
4
100.0
100.0
113.3
60.0
60.0
46.7
80.0
153.3
293.3
13.3
193.3
126.7
6.7
26.7
26.7
26.7
26.7
1
The percentage of farms reporting specified types of equipment is more than 100 in
cases where the average is more than one piece of the specified type of equipment per farm.
For instance, the percentage of two-mule farms reporting Georgia stocks is 196.8, which
means an average of approximately two Georgia stocks per farm.
Purchase
price 
-2
(1938)
Dollars
60.00
90.00
22.00
8.50
50.00
22.00
4.00
7.50
2.50
5.003
8.25
18.00
40.00
15.00
95.00
45.00
60.00
13
drags. Assuming that implements reported on 50 per cent or
more of the farms are usual, the representative one-mule farm
would be equipped with a planter, a fertilizer distributor, a
Georgia stock, a Gee-Whiz, a one-horse turn plow, and a home-
made drag. The total value of such a setup in 1938 was $28.26,
and normal annual repairs $7.33 or 26 per cent of the estimated
investment.
Using the same assumption as on one-mule farms for calcu-
lating usual equipment, the representative two-mule farm was
found to have two Georgia stocks and one of each of the fol-
lowing pieces of equipment: two-horse wagon, planter, fertilizer
distributor, Joe harrow, Gee-Whiz, one-horse turn plow, two-
horse turn plow, and a home-made drag. The total estimated
value in 1938 was $83.36, and normal annual repairs $15.75, or
about 20 per cent of the estimated investment.
The representative three-mule farm had three Georgia stocks,
two Gee-Whizzes, two two-horse turn plows, a two-horse wagon,
a planter, a fertilizer distributor, a disc harrow, a Joe harrow,
and a one-horse turn plow. The 1938 value of this setup was
$114.10, and normal annual repairs $22.44, or 20 per cent of
the estimated investment.
Credit Advances to Sharecroppers in Marion County. (Ben
T. Lanham, Jr., and W. F. Lagrone).-A study of 24 share-
cropper families in Marion County for the crop year 1938 in-
dicates that credit advances to sharecropper families are only
about half as much when made in provisions as when made in
cash or in a combination of cash plus provisions (Table 8). One
fourth of the cropper families studied received advances in 1938 in
the form of provisions; whereas, two-thirds of the remaining fami-
lies received advances in cash. The average per family for all groups
was $72.83. This figure is approximately 50 per cent higher
than the average size of short-term loans made to other farmers
in the county who received credit from local banks, individuals,
and Federal lending agencies.
There are only minor variations in the number of acres of
share cotton per family for these groups, but enough to empha-
size further the difference between advances by provisions and
Table 8.-Credit Advances per Sharecropper Family by Type of Credit,
24 Sharecropper Families, Marion County, Alabama, 19381.
Acres of Credit
No. Credit advances per share advanced
Type of of family' cotton
credit advanced families per of share cotton
Cash Prov. Total family
Cash 13 $88.15 $ .00 $88.15 4.7 $18.76
Provisions 6 .00 41.67 41.67 4.9 8.50
Cash and provisions 5 58.00 30.00 88.00 4.6 19.13
Total and av. 24 $57.41 $15.42 $72.83 4.7 $15.83
'These figures do not include the cost of the cropper's share of fertilizer, ginning, etc.
14
other types. Since cotton is the only major 
cash crop in the
county, the amount of credit advanced per acre 
of share cotton
(Table 8) indicates the wide variation which exists 
in ability
of sharecroppers to repay advances at the 
end of the crop-
growing season.
Approved Soil-Building Practices Carried Out in 
Marion
County. (W. F. Lagrone and Ben T. Lanham, Jr.).-A 
study
of the organization and management of farms in Marion 
County
for the crop year 1938 shows that large farmers 
in this county
received payment for only about 60 per cent of the soil-building
practices which they carried out under provisions 
of the 1938
AAA program due to excess of approved practice units over
their soil-building allowance. Small (one-mule) farmers, 
on the
other hand, did not take up all their soil-building 
payments,
and only in rare instances did individual farmers 
in this size
group earn more practice units than their farm allowance. 
In
addition, 17 per cent of these small (one-mule) farmers 
re-
ceived no soil-building payments at all. (Table 9).
Table 9.-Per Cent of Soil-Building Units Earned Through Use of 
Specified
Practices by Size of Farms, Marion County, Alabama, 1938.
One- Two- Three- Four- County
Approved practices mule mule mule mule total
farms farms farms and over
Summer legumes interplanted 48 42 41 35 
41
Seeding winter legumes 25 28 25 28 727
Green manure and cover crops 17 18 18 17 18
Application of phosphate 8 9 12 15 
11
All other practices 2 3 4 5 3
Total 100 100 100 100 100
Per cent of farms reporting
one or more practices 83 90 93 98 89
Practice units earned vary between size groups when ex-
pressed in terms of a comparable unit such as units 
earned per
100 acres of cropland. For instance, one-mule farmers earned
in 1938 an estimated 32 units, two-mule farmers 42 units, three-
mule farmers 44 units, and farmers with four or more mules
75 units per 100 acres of cropland. This greatly emphasizes
the advantage of superior resources with which larger farmers
can carry out conservation practices-not only a larger 
quantity,
but also practices of greater value to soil maintenance 
and im-
provement.
Although interplanting corn with summer legumes leads 
in
importance in total units earned in this county, it decreases 
in
relative importance as size of farm increases. Seeding winter
legumes and the use of green manure and cover crops show
little relative change in importance by size groups. The appli-
cation of phosphate and most other practices, however, 
are
15
used to a much greater extent on large farms than on small
farms.
The per cent of farmers reporting one or more practices
increases as size of farm increases, ranging from 83 per cent
for one-mule farmers to 98 per cent for farmers with four or
more mules per farm.
Farm Costs of Operating Automobiles and Trucks in Marion
County. (Ben T. Lanham, Jr., and W. F. Lagrone).-Records
were taken in 1938 on 20 farms in Marion County which utilized
automobiles and trucks in connection with usual farm opera-
tions and practices. Records on automobiles showed that in
1938 the average farmer operating such a vehicle possessed an
automobile which was 6 years old, valued at $217.19, and which
was depreciating at the rate of 12.5 per cent annually. Normal-
ly, the farmer drives 3,275 miles per year at a cost of 5.6 cents
per mile, 42 per cent of which is for farm use (Table 10).
Table 10.-Farm Costs of Automobiles and Trucks' per Farm Reporting,
Marion County, Alabama, 1938.
Item Unit Auto Trucks'
Records Number 19 4
Average value: 1938 Dollars 217.19 287.50
Average age: 1938 Years 6 4
Rate of depreciation Per cent 12.5 16.7
Normal use per vehicle Miles 3,275 4,625
Operating cost per mile Dollars .056 .053
Costs, per vehicle
Fuel cost Dollars 47.25 79.09
Normal repairs Dollars 10.44 12.50
License Dollars 9.39 15.00
Tires Dollars 11.00 7.31
Taxes Dollars 5.39 7.21
Total cash costs Dollars 83.47 121.11
Depreciation Dollars 100.00 125.00
Total costs Dollars 183.47 246.11
Farm share Per cent 42 57
Farm costs Dollars 77.06 140.28
'All trucks are "pick-up" trucks.
Operating expenses total $83.47 per car and depreciation makes
up an additional $100.00. The farm share of these expenses is
$77.06.
Records on four "pick-up" trucks were obtained. These aver-
aged 4 years of age in 1938 and were valued at $287.50, with
a depreciation rate of 16.7 per cent or approximately $125 per
year. They were driven an average of 4,625 miles per year at
a cost of 5.3 cents per mile. Total operating cost per truck per
year was $121.11 plus $125 depreciation. Fifty-seven per cent
of this cost or $140.28 was charged against the farm for farm
use.
16
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Physical Reactions of Tillage Tools Causing Compression and
Arch Formation, and Analyses of Plow Moldboard Shapes and
Materials. (F. A. Kummer).-A new method of measuring and
studying compression and arch action was developed. By this
method the soil is placed in a glass-faced metal box and an
external force in the form of a plunger, whose shape is similar
to that of the tool to be tested, is applied to the surface of the
soil. The penetration of the plunger causes particle movements
within the soil mass which can be observed through the glass
plate. Each moving soil particle traces its own path across the
coated glass surface, thus making it possible to detect the rela-
tive magnitude and direction of even the smallest movement.
Graphical analyses of records thus obtained make it possible
to determine the force distribution and the area of greatest
compression produced in the soil by differently shaped tillage
tools or plungers.
An attempt was made to establish certain constants for the
formulas which govern the design of moldboard curvatures for
various soil conditions. A method of geometrical vector analysis
was used to include variations resulting from different soil con-
ditions. These were determined by slider-friction tests and the
resulting coefficient of friction was introduced to modify the
curvatures accordingly. The establishment of design constants
by this method should aid materially in the standardization of
existing shapes.
Contour Furrows for Water Conservation on Pasture Land.
(J. H. Neal, A. W. Cooper, and E. L. Mayton).-One year's
results indicate that it does not pay to contour furrow a hill-
side pasture of the type used in this experiment. The pasture
has a sandy loam soil with slope from four to seven per cent.
Results show that although one-half the runoff water is saved
by contour furrowing, it does not increase the herbage yield
because only five per cent runoff occurs on the check plots
with no contour furrows. At the time this small amount of
water is saved by the contour furrows, it is not needed.
Collection of Runoff and Soil Losses from Terrace Outlets
on Strip Cropped and on Clean Cultivated Areas. (E. G.
Diseker).-Soil and water losses from terrace outlets were col-
lected from a 31/2 acre field. Nichols terraces served as bounda-
ries between plots. For three consecutive years prior to 1938
this area had been strip cropped with cotton, soybeans, and
oats during the cultivating season and was strip planted to oats
and vetch during the fall and winter seasons. During the past
two cultivating seasons the entire area has been planted to cot-
ton, which followed vetch. The plots vary in size from 0.2 to
0.7 of an acre and the slopes between terraces range from 5
17
to 25 per cent. The soil in these plots varies from a Bradley
sandy loam to a Cecil clay (eroded).
Greater quantities of soil and water moved down the slopes
into the terrace channels and out the end of the channels when
the entire area was clean cultivated to cotton than when there
was an alternate strip of cotton and a cover crop on each terrace
interval. The greater portion of this soil remained in the terrace
channel, which caused breaking of the terrace. Runoff and soil
losses from the clay plots were 2.6 times as great as those from the
sandy plots. Occasionally heavy losses occurred from the clay
plots during a given rain, whereas the losses were negligible
from the sandy plots. Most of the losses resulted from intense
rains, especially those that occurred when the soil was loose
and practically saturated. Five times as much soil was lost from
the field during the cultivating season as was lost during the
non-cultivating season. The runoff and soil losses in 1940, per
unit of one inch of erosion producing rainfall, were three times
as great as those in 1939, and four times as great as those in
1938. (The areas were in strip crops in 1938). Numerous small
gullies were formed running from the lower side of one terrace
down to the upper side of the next terrace; the terraces were
broken several times. Under the present system of clean cultiva-
tion during the summer months, it appears that the soil fer-
tility and terraces will be difficult to maintain on slopes from
ten to twenty-five per cent.
A Comparison of Crimson Clover and Hairy Vetch as Soil
Conserving Crops. (J. H. Neal and C. H. Bailey).-This experi-
ment was started in September 1938. The cover crops were
turned under in April, and cotton was planted on May 12. The
cotton received the equivalent of 600 pounds of 6-8-4 fertilizer
per acre, the nitrogen being applied by a weighed amount of
the cover crops. All plots received the same fertilizer applica-
tions and cultivation, with the exception that clover ,supplied
the nitrogen for one set of plots and vetch supplied the nitrogen
for the other set. After the cotton was harvested, vetch and
clover were again planted between the cotton rows in October.
Since the clover did not germinate well, it had to be replanted
about a month later.
The results for the first two winters were in favor of crimson
clover. The vetch plots lost 11/2 and 2 times as much soil as
the clover plots for the respective years, and lost 20 to 50 per
cent more runoff. Since the clover was a month later than the
vetch in getting started this past fall, the vetch was slightly
superior.
During the summer when all plots were in cotton, there were
no appreciable differences in the erosion losses from the clover
and vetch plots.
Cotton yields on the clover plots were 5 to 10 per cent higher
than on the vetch plots.
18
AGRONOMY AND SOILS
Cotton Rust. (N. J. Volk).-Field and greenhouse experi-
ments show that cotton rust is caused by a lack of potassium.
The severity of the rust appears to be enhanced by an excess
of phosphorus and alleviated by the presence of sodium.
Available Potassium in Soils. (N. J. Volk).-Three crops,
soybeans, vetch, and peanuts, grown consecutively on 10 im-
portant Alabama soils have obtained zero to 63 per cent or an
average of 24 per cent of their potash from non-replaceable
forms. All crops were supplied with ample nitrogen, phosphorus,
lime, and rare elements but no potassium. This is one of several
factors which make it difficult to predict from the results of
chemical tests just how much potassium should be added to a
given soil to obtain optimum returns.
A Survey of the Agricultural Lime 
Resources in Alabama.
(J. A. Naftel).-The location and distribution of agricultural
lime resources in the State heretofore have not been determined
and summarized. This survey is important at present since the
agriculture in Alabama is changing from an acid tolerant type
to a lime-requiring type of farming and the demand for lime
necessarily is increasing. In the past, agricultural lime has been
obtained from the mineral belt of North Central Alabama and
even from other states. This not only added to the cost of lime
but in many instances a supply of lime was not accessible to
farmers.
From this survey it was found that about thirty geologic
formations and several by-product sources of lime are found
in the State. The locations of these are shown on the map in
Fig. 1. There are potential supplies of lime in a majority of the
counties. Although most of the sources of lime are high calcic,
ample supplies of dolomitic or magnesic sources are available.
Particularly noteworthy is the supply of soft limestone in the
southern part of the State which can be worked into suitable
agricultural lime at extremely low cost.
It may be concluded from this survey that lime resources
in the State are sufficient and widely distributed and should
supply agriculture with relatively low cost lime.
A Comparison of the Relative Values of Superphosphate,
Rock Phosphate, and Collodial Phosphate for Crop Production.
(Garth W. Volk).-Since considerable quantities of collodial
and rock phosphate are being used for various crops in this
section, the relative values of these phosphate fertilizers were
compared with superphosphate.
An experiment was started in the greenhouse in which
Sumter, Eutaw, Cecil, Decatur, Hartsells, and Norfolk soils were
19
High Calcic Limestones
SHigh Calcic and Dolomitic Limestones
SSelma Chalk and Sumter Clay
SClayton Formation, High Calcic Soft Limestone
T Mariana and Ocala High Calcic Soft Limestone
Basic and Blast Furnace Slag
Chewalca Marble, Dolomitic Limestone
Paper Mill Sludge
SOyster Shells, High Calcic Lime
FIGURE 1.-Areas in Alabama where agricultural lime may be found.
20
treated with rock, colloidal, and superphosphate at the rate of
600 pounds of 16 per cent superphosphate per acre. Rock and
collodial phosphates did not increase significantly the yields of
vetch or sorghum on Sumter, Cecil, Hartsells, or Norfolk soils;
whereas superphosphate increased the yields of vetch over ten
times and the yields of sorghum two to twenty-three times. On
Eutaw clay, superphosphate produced about 100 per cent and
140 per cent and on Decatur clay loam about 350 per cent and
128 per cent more vetch and sorghum than did the other phos-
phates.
Since the above experiment compared these fertilizers on an
equivalent P
2
0
5 
basis and a unit of P
2
0
5 
is considerably cheaper
in the rock and colloidal phosphates, another experiment was
started in which the phosphate was varied from 8 per cent to
64 per cent on a 600-pound per acre basis. This experiment
was conducted on Hartsells very fine sandy loam and Cecil
clay. All rates of superphosphate produced from 50 per cent
to 310 per-cent more sorghum on the Hartsells soil and from
180 per cent to 1000 per cent more sorghum on the Cecil soil
than rock or two brands of colloidal phosphate. From 50 per
cent to 67 per-cent more vetch was produced by all rates of
superphosphate on Hartsells soils than for the other phosphates.
There was practically no difference in the effects of rock or
two brands of colloidal phosphate on the yield of vetch.
The Effect of Ammonium Sulfate on the Availability of Rock
Phosphate for Crop Production. (Garth W. Volk.)-In green-
house pot tests it was found that when ammonium sulfate was
mixed with rock phosphate and the mixture applied to a soil,
considerably more sorghum was produced than when sodium
nitrate was used with rock phosphate. Besides producing more
plant growth, chemical analyses of the sorghum showed that
more calcium and phosphorus were removed from the soil. Since
ammonium sulfate produces considerable acidity in soils, an-
other experiment was started in which lime was mixed thor-
oughly with the soil and with the fertilizer before application
in the drill. Ammonium sulfate continued to produce more sor-
ghum when lime was mixed with the soil but failed to produce
more sorghum when lime was mixed with the fertilizer. In the 
latter
case the acidity produced by ammonium sulfate was probably
neutralized before it had any solvent effect on the rock phos-
phate. Superphosphate (16 per cent) produced more sorghum
with either source of nitrogen than the rock phosphate.
Diseases Which Are a Factor in the Elimination of White
Clover from Alabama Pastures During the Summer. (H. R. Al-
brecht) .- Although diseases have seldom been recognized as
factors contributing to the elimination of white clover from Ala-
bama pastures during the summer, observations made in plots
at Auburn and in a number of pastures nearby indicate that
21
white clover can become generally infected and frequently
largely destroyed by one or several of the following organisms:
Sclerotium rolfsii, Sclerotinium trifoliorum, Colletotrichum trifoli,
Stagonospora meliloti, and Botrytus sp.
Sclerotium rolfsii proved to be the most destructive of the
five diseases studied; most of the extensively damaged plants had
in almost every instance been severely attacked by this organism.
The other organisms had in many cases attacked the plants severe-
ly but with the exception of Boltrytus sp., it is doubted that any
plants were extensively damaged by them. Plants which were dam-
aged the least were not generally attacked severely by any disease
although evidences of infection were noted on most plants.
Severely diseased plants did not maintain themselves well dur-
ing periods of severe drought. Those which did survive until fall
when the organisms became more or less inactive were slow to
renew growth.
White Clover Seed Studies. (H. R. Albrecht).-Germination
tests conducted in November 1940 on open-pollinated spring-
harvested seed from 401 white clover selections revealed that
scarification of white clover seed before planting may in some
cases be advisable.
Germination varied from zero to 44 per cent; 190 lots germi-
nated only zero to 5 per cent, and 109 lots from 6 to 10 per
cent. The proportion of nonviable seed varied from zero to 44
per cent, the higher incidences of faulty seed generally occur-
ring in those lots of higher germination.
Seed lots with different percentages of hard seed were scari-
fied with emery cloth prior to a second series of germination
tests. Germination was increased appreciably in all lots, in one
case from zero to 99 per cent.
Scarified and unscarified seed from 8 plants were planted
in flats in the greenhouse and differences in stands up to 88
per cent were noted in two weeks. Subsequent counts indicated
that these differences gradually diminished.
The germination and planting tests indicated that scarifica-
tion of spring-harvested white clover seed may be required to
insure stands when the seed is to be planted the fall following
harvest. The planting tests reveal, furthermore, that scarifica-
tion will assure more complete stands in shorter periods of time.
Corn Variety Tests. (E. L. Mayton).-The average results
of variety tests conducted on the substations and experiment
fields over the three-year period 1938-1940 show that for all
sections of the State, Paymaster, Douthit, and Mosby are the
highest yielding varieties of white corn, and Hybrid Golden
Prolific G. C., and Indian Chief are the highest yielding yellow
varieties.
22
The Response of Kudzu to Fertilizer Treatments. (E. L. May-
ton).-In an experiment on Norfolk sandy loam soil the four-
year average results of fertilizer treatments on an established
stand of kudzu show that there was a response to phosphate
applications. There were no definite indications that treatments
of potash and lime were beneficial.
The Effect of Method of Preparation of Land for Cotton on
the Properties of the Fiber and the Composition of the Seed.
(D. G. Sturkie).---Analyses were made on the fiber and seed of
cotton produced in land preparation studies made at the Pratt-
ville Field and the Tennessee Valley Substation. No significant
differences in the length of lint, fineness of lint, weight of seed,
oil content of seed, protein content of seed, or percentage of
fuzz on the seed resulted from any of the treatments used.
Cotton Breeding. (H. B. 
Tisdale and J. B. Dick).-Work 
on
the improvement of Cook 144, Stoneville, and Deltapine varie-
ties of cotton by the straight line method, and work on the
development of new varieties and strains of wilt-resistant cot-
tons by the hybridization method were continued in 1940.
Two wilt-resistant strains of the Deltapine variety were iso-
lated following five years of planting and selecting on wilt
infested soil. One of these strains produces plants about 6 inches
taller and is a little later in maturity than the other strain.
They possess a high degree of wilt-resistance, and are high
yielding strains producing medium size bolls and lint around 1
inch or better in length.
New strains of Stoneville 2B and 5A have been developed
at the Sand Mountain and Tennessee Valley Substations which
are apparently superior to the parent varieties in yield and
percentage of lint. One strain of Stoneville 2B is being increased
and distributed by the Sand Mountain Substation. The strain
of Stoneville 5A will be further increased at the Tennessee Val-
ley Substation for distribution.
Comparisons of Fertilizers of Different Analyses Applied
at Different Rates for Cotton. (J. T. Williamson, F. E. Bertram,
J. K. Boseck, R. C. Christopher, H. A. Ponder, J. W. Richard-
son, and R. W. Taylor).-The average results from 396 fer-
tilizer experiments with cotton conducted in cooperation with
Alabama farmers during the years 1937-40, inclusive, show that
complete fertilizers containing as high as 9 per cent nitrogen
and 8 per cent potash gave the highest profits when used at
the rate of 300 pounds per acre. However, at the rate of 600
pounds per acre a 6-8-4 fertilizer was the most profitable.
23
ANIMAL AND POULTRY HUSBANDRY
A Study of Hereditary Factors Associated with Economy of
Gains in Swine. (J. C. Grimes).-Eight unrelated pairs of Duroc-
Jersey hogs were mated in the fall of 1935. The pigs from these
matings were placed in individual pens when they were 72 days
of age and remained there until they reached a weight of 225
pounds. An accurate feed record was kept on each pig. The
most economical gaining male and the most economical gaining
female pig in each litter were used as foundation stock for
eight lines which have been selected through three generations
for economy of gains. They are designated the superior strain.
Likewise the most uneconomical gaining male and the most un-
economical gaining female pig in each litter were used to start
eight lines which have been selected through an equal number
of generations for expensive gains. They are known as the in-
ferior strain.
On the average, hogs in the superior strain have required
27 days less time to reach 225 pounds in weight and 34 pounds
less feed for each 100 pounds of gain than hogs in the inferior
strain.
There has been a very definite relation between the daily
feed consumption and the rate and economy of gain. Pigs which
consumed the most feed daily gained the fastest and the cheap-
est. The most economical gains have been made by pigs that
have reached a weight of 225 pounds in about six to six and
one-half months. There has been a tendency for the "medium
chuffy" type of pigs to gain faster and cheaper than the "long
rangy" type.
The number of pigs in the litter was not related to the birth
weight of each pig or to the rate and economy of gain. Pigs
born in litters of about five to eight appeared to make better
records than those born in very large or very small litters.
Studies of the Vitamin B Complex. The Relation of Pyri-
doxine (Vitamin B
6
), Pantothenic Acid, and Linoleic Acid to
the Cure of Rat Acrodynia. (W. D. Salmon).-Rats receiving
a fat-free diet of purified casein, sucrose, and salts, supplement-
ed with carotene, calciferol, a-tocopherol, thiamin, riboflavin,
and choline developed severe acrodynia. There appeared to be
more generalized fissuring of the epithelium than when the diet
contained liver filtrate or calcium pantothenate.
After severe acrodynia developed it was not improved by
the addition of either calcium pantothenate or methyl linolate
alone. The addition of pyridoxine alone produced some increase
in weight and, except in the most severe cases, appeared to
initiate healing of the dermatitis. The healing process was not
completed, however, unless calcium pantothenate and methyl
linolate were also added.
24
Additional evidence was obtained of a relationship between
pyridoxine and linoleic acid. The hematuria which is consistent-
ly associated with a deficiency of linoleic acid (or other essen-
tial fatty acid) was invariably delayed by the feeding of pyri-
doxine. In the absence of pyridoxine, hematuria frequently de-
veloped after the rats had received a fat-free diet for 6 to 8
weeks. When the diet was supplemented with adequate pyri-
doxine, hematuria rarely appeared in less than 16 weeks and
often required 24 weeks or longer. Moreover, hematuria oc-
casionally occurred in rats receiving 0.10 ml. of corn oil if the
diet was free from pyridoxine. When rats were restricted for
several weeks to a diet which was free from essential fatty
acids and pyridoxine, and then received pyridoxine, they almost
invariably developed hematuria within a few days. This hema-
turia sometimes was transient and recovery lasted for several
weeks before any exacerbation occurred.
Choline Deficiency in Young Rats. (R. W. Engel).-A diet
was formulated which consistently produced a fatal toxicosis
due to choline deficiency in young rats in from 8 to 10 days.
This diet consisted of alcohol extracted casein 6, alcohol extract-
ed peanut meal 30, sucrose 54, lard 6, and salts 4 per cent; and
was supplemented with adequate amounts of carotene, calci-
ferol, thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, and calcium pantothen-
ate.
The toxicosis was characterized by inactivity, labored breath-
ing, tremors, and coma. In some cases vertigo was present; fre-
quently hemorrhage occurred into the posterior chamber of the
eye.
Necropsy revealed extremely large hemorrhagic kidneys,
the hemorrhage originating in the cortex. Severe congestion was
present throughout the viscera with hemorrhage frequently oc-
curring in the lungs, heart muscle, lymph nodes, and adrenal
glands. Hydrothorax was usually present and occasionally as-
cites. Massive deposits of fat occurred in the liver; thymic
atrophy was common.
At least 5 mgm. of choline per rat per day was required to
completely protect the animals from this toxicosis.
Effect of Calcium Pantothenate and Other B-Vitamin Factors
on Liver Fat. (R. W. Engel).-Weanling rats fed a synthetic
diet supplemented with carotene, calciferol, thiamine, ribo-
flavin, pyridoxine, corn oil, and choline chloride, had a low con-
tent of liver fat at the end of three weeks. The addition of a
pantothenic acid fraction (filtrate factor 2) of liver or of rice
polish produced approximately 
a 100 per cent increase in 
liver
fat, the response from rice factor 2 being slightly lower. The
addition of crystalline calcium pantothenate produced similar
increases in liver fat. These results indicate that the pantothenic
acid contained in the liver and rice concentrates was responsible
25
for the increases in liver fatwhich resulted when these sub-
stances were present in the diet.
When thiamine or riboflavin was omitted from the diet con-
taining either factor 2 or calcium pantothenate, very low levels
of liver fat resulted at the end of three weeks. The lack of
pyridoxine in the diet had no effect on liver fat over a three-
week experimental period. However, at the end of a seven-week
experimental period there was a marked increase in the liver
fat in the rats not receiving pyridoxine.
Low levels of liver fat in rats on diets lacking in thiamine,
riboflavin, or calcium pantothenate was correlated with a low
level of food intake. This was not the case in pyridoxine de-
ficiency since low food consumption was accompanied by in-
creasing amounts of liver fat.
A Comparison of the Nutritive Value of the Protein of Cow-
peas and Soybeans. (W. C. Sherman).-Not only do soybeans
contain considerably more protein than do cowpeas (39 per cent
as compared with 21 per cent for cowpeas), but the protein
of soybeans is also superior in nutritional quality. The biological
value of the protein of several varieties of mature soybeans and
cowpeas both raw and heated was tested in feeding experi-
ments with rats. The soybeans and cowpeas were mixed into
diets at a level to supply 10 per cent protein. Both paired feed-
ing and ad-libitum methods of feeding were employed. With
both methods of feeding the soybeans showed a marked superi-
ority over the cowpeas in terms of grams gain in weight per
gram of protein consumed. The biological value of the protein
of soybeans and cowpeas was improved by heating as well as
by the addition of the amino acid cystine.
Experiments were also conducted with green vegetable soy-
beans and cowpeas. The green soybeans gave about 35 per cent
better growth than was obtained with paired-fed rats receiving
green cowpeas. The proteins of the'raw green soybeans had a
high biological value which was not appreciably increased by
heating.
The Vitamin A Content of Milk and Storage Tissues of Dairy
Cows as Related to Pasture and Feeding Practices. (C. J. Koehn).
I. Seasonal Variation in the Vitamin A Content of Milk.-The
vitamin A content of milk produced by the College dairy herd
was determined throughout the year at monthly intervals. It
was found that there was a definite cycle in which the vitamin
A content dropped to a low level in February and reached a
peak in June, then dropped again. The milk contained 5,000
international units of vitamin A per quart in June and 1,500 in
February. In only one month of the year, June, was there enough
vitamin A in a quart of milk to meet the daily human require-
ment. This is significant because during the winter months other
sources of vitamin A are also less plentiful than in the summer.
26
The consumer can readily distinguish winter milk because of its
pale color. He cannot identify winter butter, however, because
of the artificial coloring matter used by creameries to give all
creamery butter the appearance of summer butter.
The fact that the vitamin A content of the milk quickly drops
after it reaches its maximum, shows that the cows do not store
enough vitamin A in the summer to maintain a uniform content
of vitamin A in the milk.
II. The Effect of Winter Pasture on the Vitamin A Content
of Milk.-The vitamin A content of milk was considerably in-
creased by allowing the cows to graze on a winter pasture.
This pasture, consisting of Abruzzi rye, Italian rye grass, and
white Dutch and crimson clover, was seeded early in September.
Cows from the College dairy herd, whose milk contained 1,500
international units of vitamin A per quart, were turned into this
pasture on the second of February. Within a week the vitamin
A content of the milk of these cows rose to 5,100 units of vitamin
A per quart, which was higher than the richest summer milk
produced by the herd. The vitamin A content of the milk rose
steadily to 6,500 units per quart in May. The difference in ap-
pearance of the milk produced on the winter and permanent
pastures was very striking. The milk produced on the winter
pasture had a rich yellow cream layer, while the herd milk had
a white cream layer.
III. Carotene Content of Various Dairy Feeds.-The dairy
cow receives all of her vitamin A in the form of carotene. Sam-
ples of all types of feeds were analyzed, therefore, in order to
compare their relative effectiveness in supplying this essential
nutrient. The results of these analyses are given in Table 11.
It is obvious from these results that unless a winter pasture is
provided for dairy cows, their carotene intake becomes danger-
Table 11.-Carotene Content of Dairy Feeds.
Mgm. carotene per
Feed 100 gm. dry matter
Pasture
Abruzzi rye 67.7
Italian rye grass 62.6
White Dutch clover 46.2
Crimson clover 42.9
Carpet grass 37.4
Oats 33.2
Bermuda grass 30.1
Common lespedeza 22.4
Sorghum silage, freshly cut 4.6
Sorghum silage, one year old 1.21
Sericea lespedeza hay (poor quality) 1.18
Alfalfa hay (poor quality) .84
Grain mixture (dairy herd) .20
Cottonseed hulls None
27
ously low because of the low carotene value of the supplemental
feeds.
Oat Pasture as a Protein Supplement for Fattening Hogs.
(W. D. Salmon).-When eighty-pound pigs were placed on
green oat pasture and given a full-feed of shelled corn and
minerals, they made rapid and economical gains. The results
are summarized in Table 12.
Table 12.-Fattening Hogs on Green Oat Pasture-Summary of Results.
Lot 1
Corn-10 Lot 2
Cottonseed Corn
meal-1 Minerals'
Minerals'
Area of oat pasture 1 acre 1 acre
Number of hogs 10 10
Average starting weight 81 lbs. 80 lbs.
Average final weight 202 lbs. 193 lbs.
Average daily gain 1.59 lbs. 1.48 lbs.
Feed per 100 lbs. gain
Shelled corn 325 352
Cottonseed meal 32
Minerals 2 2
Total lbs. feed per 100 lbs. gain 359 354
Return per bushel corn fed during fattening"
With hogs at 7c $1.00 $1.00
With hogs at 6c 0.82 0.83
'The mineral mixture was composed of 3 lbs. basic slag and 1 lb. salt.
-In figuring the return per bushel of corn, cottonseed meal was 
charged at $1.70 per
100 lbs., and oat pasture at $8.00 per acre.
The addition of 1 pound of 41 per cent cottonseed meal for
each 10 pounds of corn increased the rate of gain slightly and
resulted in a more uniform finish. The gains were not more eco-
nomical. The results compare favorably with results obtained
on white clover pasture at the Tennessee Valley Substation.
This is encouraging for sandy land farmers who may not have
white clover available. In this experiment the oats had been
well-fertilized and made a luxuriant growth. Under such con-
ditions a protein supplement does not seem to be necessary for
hogs after they reach a weight of 75 to 80 pounds. When pasture
is limited, a protein supplement such as peanut meal, peanut
meal and tankage, or cottonseed meal and tankage should al-
ways be used.
Basic Slag as a Mineral Supplement for Hogs. (W. D. Sal-
mon) .- Basic slag gave satisfactory results again this year in
mineral mixtures for hogs. A mixture of 3 pounds basic slag and
1 pound salt was just as good as a mixture of equal parts of
lime, charcoal, and salt.
A comparison of two lots of shoats which were being fat-
tened on green oats pasture shows that it is necessary to feed
28
a mineral mixture to fattening hogs even when they are on
pasture. These shoats, averaged 55 pounds each when they were
started on a full feed of shelled corn supplemented with 1 pound
of peanut meal for each 5 pounds of corn. Nine shoats were
placed in each of two half-acre lots of green oats on January
31. One lot did not receive a mineral mixture. The other received
a mixture of 3 pounds of basic slag and 1 pound of salt.
The fattening period was 100 days. At this time the hogs
receiving the mineral averaged 204 pounds each. The hogs not
receiving mineral averaged only 149 pounds 
each and would,
therefore, bring about $1.00 per 100 pounds less than the heavier
hogs. With hogs at 7 cents per pound the mineral lot would
have returned $1.05 per bushel of corn fed during the fattening
period; the no-mineral lot would have returned only 73c per
bushel. The peanut meal was charged at $1.60 per 100 pounds
and the oat pasture at $8.00 per acre in computing this return.
It was interesting to observe that the hogs which did not
receive mineral grazed the oats completely into the ground and
destroyed the stand. In contrast with this, the hogs receiving
the mineral had plenty of grazing when the experiment ended.
It would appear that hogs not receiving mineral would require
at least twice the acreage of pasture needed by hogs receiving
mineral.
Two hogs in the no-mineral lot "went down in their hind
parts" before the experiment was finished. This frequently hap-
pens when hogs are fattened on peanuts or corn and peanut
meal without a mineral supplement.
Another experiment this year has shown that the basic slag
mineral mixture can be used for brood sows as well as for fat-
tening hogs. On many farms basic slag and salt will be the most
economical mineral mixture for all classes of hogs. It should
be kept before the hogs at all times.
Management of Farm Poultry Flocks. (D. F. King and G. J.
Cottier).-The object of this project is to study under farm
conditions the importance of improved housing, feeding, and
breeding of hens and improved methods of raising chicks.
Where no improvement practices were followed the hens
produced an average of 58.96 eggs as compared with 77.67
eggs per hen obtained where improved feeding and housing
were practiced. On farms without improved housing, but with
improved feeding, the egg production per hen was 69.31 eggs.
Where improved feeding was not practiced, the average pro-
duction per hen was 62.34 eggs.
The yearly consumption per hen of cottonseed meal and
oyster shell was 16.77 and 1.2 pounds, respectively. Good hatch-
ability under farm conditions was obtained even though cotton-
seed meal was fed. Mortality was low when compared with mor-
tality among commercial flocks. The lowest mortality was ob-
tained where improved houses were used. Eighty-eight per cent
29
of the farmers in the group using improved methods of raising
chicks brooded chicks successfully with home constructed brood-
ers.
Value of Kudzu and Other Forms of Summer Green Feed
for Poultry. (G. J. Cottier and D. F. King).-For four and one-
half months during the summer of 1940 kudzu was compared
with Bermuda grass, Pearl millet, Kobe lespedeza, and Alyce
clover as a grazing crop for laying hens. The earliest grazing
was obtained in the kudzu and the Bermuda grass lots, and
the largest amount of green feed was produced in the kudzu
and the millet lots. The hens grazing lespedeza had the highest
egg production, largest egg size, largest body weight, and the
lowest mortality. Alyce clover did not make sufficient growth
by June 15 to permit its use as a grazing crop.
Table 13.-Response of Poultry to Summer Green Feeds.
Avg.
Avg. No. Avg. gain or loss
Lot Crop eggs per wt. 
of Avg. body in weight
No. grazed bird per eggs 
weight Mortality per hen
month (grams) (grams) per cent (grams)
1 Kudzu 13.73 51.13 1473 23.31 -82
2 Bermuda grass 11.03 50.46 1456 23.31 -46
3 Pearl millet 13.57 50.35 1503 36.63 + 9
4 Kobe lespedeza 14.45 51.79 1504 19.98 +67
5 Control-no
green feed 8.81 50.02 1378 93.28 -228
A Comparison of Kudzu Meal and Sericea Lespedeza Leaf
Meal as Vitamin Supplements to the Chick and Laying Rations.
(G. J. Cottier).-Kudzu meal and sericea lespedeza leaf meal
were compared as vitamin supplements for both chicks and hens.
For chicks these meals were compared with alfalfa leaf meal
while in the laying rations they were compared with alfalfa
meal.
In the chick rations alfalfa leaf meal was slightly superior
to Sericea leaf meal and very superior to the kudzu meal. For
hens the sericea lespedeza leaf meal was superior to either
kudzu or alfalfa meal.
The Effects of Induced Changes in the Developmental En-
vironment of Certain Genes. (Paul D. Sturkie).-The work thus
far on this project has been concerned with the effects of
changes in the temperature of incubation on the expression or
suppression of certain genetic characters. The temperature
treatments tried on embryos to date have been without effect
upon the expression of the genetic characters, Naked Neck,
Frizzled, Crest, and Comb types.
The character Polydactylism has shown some response to
lowered incubation temperatures. The embryos were subjected
30
to low temperatures at 21/2 to 3 days of incubation, the time in
development when the limb buds are beginning to form. The
character under control conditions is not completely dominant
that is, from a cross of a Homozygous-Polydactylous male to
normal females 247 (74 per cent) Polydactylous and 87 (26
per cent) normal chicks were obtained. On the experimental
treatment, lowered incubation temperature, 87 or 34 per cent
Polydactylous and 71 or 66 per cent normal chicks were ob-
tained. This indicates that the genetic character was suppressed
in a high percentage of cases.
BOTANY AND PLANT PATHOLOGY
The Life History of Nut Grass, Cyperus rotundus L. as Relat-
ed to Possible Methods of Control. (E. V. Smith and E. L. May-
ton).-An experiment was conducted during 1938 and 1939
which indicated that nut grass could be nearly eradicated from
a cotton field by grazing it with geese.
A second experiment was conducted during 1939 and 1940
on land heavily infested with nut grass. The cotton was not cul-
tivated after chopping and siding. Sixteen geese were grazed
on the one-half acre plot during the 1939 growing season and
only 4 during 1940. Six trenches, (2 feet wide) were dug across
the plot and the tubers were sifted and counted. Not a single
live tuber was found. In addition, 55 samples (2 by 2 feet)
were dug at random but no live tubers were found.
HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY
Quantity and Quality Factors as Affected by Stand in Second-
Growth Pines. (L. M. Ware and J. E. Bryan, Jr.).-The number
of trees on an acre greatly affects the quality and quantity of
wood produced. Second-growth stands of pines in the South 
are
conspicuously lacking in number of trees per acre. The recent
forest survey of Alabama, conducted under the direction of the
Southern Forest Experiment Station, has revealed that the aver-
age acre of second-growth pine carries about 43 per cent of the
volume it is capable of carrying and that about 53 per cent of
the total volume is composed of trees classed as rough and
limby. An insufficient number of trees per acre is largely re-
sponsible for the low-quality and low-quantity of material in
pine stands.
In 1925 two plots were established in a 10-year-old second-
growth pine stand. In one plot the trees were thinned to stand
approximately 16 feet apart and in the other left approximately
6 feet apart. The first plot represents a poor stand although
better than much of the second-growth area of Alabama; the
second plot represents a good stand. Data for these two plots
are given in Table 14.
31
Table 14.-Height, Diameter, and Volume of Trees in a Well-Stocked Stand
and a Poorly-Stocked Stand of Second-Growth Pines.
Basal
Trees Average Average area Volume Cordage
Treatment or per height diameter per acre per acre per
condition acre (feet) (d.b.h.) (sq. ft.) (cu. ft.) acre
Poor stand
(thinned 16' x 16') 144 39.8 9.5 76.49 1723.5 22.4
Good stand
(left 6' x 6' approx.) 1304 37.4 4.9 140.27 3037.3 39.4
In the widely spaced stand, there is about one-half as much
total wood volume as in the closely spaced stand; the average
tree is larger, but all trees in the widely spaced stand are limby
and rough and promise to produce lumber of very low quality.
Underneath the widely spaced trees is a dense stand of hard-
woods, largely sweetgum, which are ready to take over the
stand when the pines are removed.
In the closely spaced stand there is about twice as much
wood as in the widely spaced stand. The stems are well spaced,
and offer a choice of trees of good form and vigor for the ulti-
mate crop trees. Natural pruning of the lower branches has al-
ready assured trees free of knots. In 1940 approximately 508
fence posts per acre were removed, leaving the stand in better
condition than before. Beneath the pines on this area there are
no conspicuous hardwoods.
.The one area is representative of a typical acre of second-
growth pine in the South; the other is representative of an ideal
acre. These two plots standing side by side in effect represent
a contrast of what the forest area of the State is and what the
forest area might be with a good stand.
Selectivity Studies on Slash Pine and Loblolly Pine Under-
planted in an Existing Hardwood Stand. (W. R. Boggess and
J. E. Bryan).-The importance of selectivity in determining the
proper spacing in plantations of slash pine and loblolly pine
has been previously reported. It was shown in this study that
an original planting of 1000 to 1200 seedlings per acre was
necessary to insure a sufficient number of well-spaced disease-
free trees of good form and high vigor, which can be carried
through to ultimate "crop trees."
In planting pines on non-restocking areas all trees have an
equal chance of survival and growth. In underplanting pines
on areas already restocking with hardwoods, each pine must
compete with the plants already established on the land. The
number of trees originally planted, from which a choice may
later be made for high-quality crop trees, is of much importance.
It has been assumed that it was necessary to have only the
number of trees planted which would be needed for crop trees
32
since existing hardwoods would provide proper silvicultural
conditions for their development. The need of a large number
of trees from which high quality crop trees could be chosen has
been largely overlooked.
Plots of slash pine and loblolly pine planted in 1933 in a
thick stand of oak and hickory, which were approximately six
feet in height, were examined in 1940. Liberation cuttings were
made on some of these plots in 1937. At present the more vigor-
ous trees of slash and loblolly have attained a height equal to,
or exceeding, the hardwoods. From all appearances the pines
will dominate the stand in the future.
Individual trees were classified according to dominance,
shape of bole, and the presence or absence of defect and disease.
Two plots of slash pine and three of loblolly, planted in an ad-
jacent open field in 1933, were examined as a check against
the hardwood underplanting. Table 15 presents the data for
both the underplanted hardwoods and old field plots. All values
are expressed on a per acre basis.
Table 15.-Classification of Eight-Year-Old Pine Underplanted in Established
Stands of Young Hardwoods and in Open Field Planting.
No.
No. poor suppressed, No.
No. high quality diseased or trees
No. trees Type of quality but defective dead or
Species planted planting trees usable trees trees missing
Slash 908 Underplanting 110 200 498 100
Slash 908 Old field 175 371 292 60
Loblolly 908 Underplanting 100 230 468 110
Loblolly 908 Old field 140 362 328 78
The need of a sufficient number of trees for selection of
high-quality crop trees can be readily seen by the data in the
above table. The number of high-quality trees and the number
of low-quality but usable trees is much reduced in the under-
planting; mortality and defects have also been greater. While
it is necessary to have a relatively large number of trees in the
original planting, the picture is far from discouraging. Approxi-
mately 300 to 350 trees per acre have a chance of making usable
products, and the site is now supporting valuable species instead
of inferior hardwoods.
Another fact brought out by this study is that conversion
of scrub hardwood areas is quite feasible, although information
must be obtained on the amount of release needed and the time
when release will be most effective.
Comparative Cold Resistance of Several Cabbage, Collard,
and English Pea Varieties in the Field During the Winter of
1939-40. (Francis E. Johnstone, Jr.).-The exceptionally cold
winter of 1939-40 afforded an unusual opportunity to compare
Table 16.-Classification of Cold-Injured Plants
Percent of the total injured in each class
Total Five Five Stem Col. 3 Cm
Vait ubror to injury Plant Col. 4 Corn-
Varetynmbe No f ewer ten plus completely Col. 5 para-
injury leaves leaves 
leaf ruined (coin- 
rn
injured injured injury bined) rn
All Head Sel. FM 87093
All Head Sel. FM 87105
All Head Early FM 75682
All Head Select
Ferry's Round, Dutch
Midseason Market
Marion Market
Chieftain Savoy
Charleston Wakef ield
Copenhagen Market'
Cornell Early Savoy'
40 20.0
50 12.0
57 14.0
48 27.1
53 11.3
42 4.8
49 8..2
32 65.6
45 15.6
4 0
3 67.0
'Only one plot of each planted due to scarcity of plants.
37.5
26.0
35.1
47.9
43.4
38.1
30.6
21.9
60.0
50.0
0
37.5
22.0
35.1
22.9
15.1
35.7
16.3
6.3
22.2
25.0
33.0
0
8.0
3.5
0
11.3
4.8
4.1
3.1
2.2
0
0
5.0
32.0
12.3
2.1
18.9
16.7
40.1
3.1
0
25.0
0
42.5
62.0
50.9
25.0
45.3
57.1
61.2
12.5
24.4
50.0
33.0
4
9
6
3
5
7
Fi8
t~1
te2
34
the cold resistance of winter vegetables at Auburn. Cabbages
and collards had been transplanted to the field in October and
a large percentage of the cabbages and cabbage collards was
headed by the time the heavy freezes began in January. English
pea varieties were planted approximately every three weeks
from October 11 to February 23 so that comparisons were possi-
ble for different stages of growth.
Cabbages
The classification of the cabbage varieties as to cold injury
is given in Table 16. The data in this table were obtained by
examination and classification of each head when it was harvest-
ed. The ranking is based on the combined totals of the three
worst classes of injury. Heads falling in any of the latter classes
were considered unmarketable although stem injury was not
always apparent until the head was cut open.
Chieftain Savoy probably owes its outstanding resistance to
cold in the headed stage to the protective effect of the "savoyed"
leaves, as it has not proved especially hardy when subjected to
freezing before the plants begin to head.
Strain differences are exemplified by the wide difference in
the comparative rank of the strains of All Head Select.
Collards
All the collards were definitely more cold resistant than the
cabbages, and the cabbage collards were more resistant than
the non-heading collards.
The cold resistance rating, order of going to seed, and the
per cent seeded on March 7 are given in Table 17.
Table 17.-Comparative Cold Resistance Rating, Order of Seeding, and
Per Cent Seeding on March 7 of Collard Varieties.
Cold Order Per cent
Variety resistance of seeded on
ratinz seeding March 7
Georgia Cabbage Collard 1 4 100
Improved Heading Collard 2 5 0
Asgrow Cabbage Collard 2 2 100
Louisiana Sweet 3 3 100
Green Glazed 4 1 100
Since seeding is dependent on prolonged low temperatures,
resistance to seeding constitutes a part of the composite char-
acter termed "winter hardiness". Morris Improved Heading
Collard was outstanding in this respect. On March 7, it did not
have a single seeder, whereas every plant in the other varieties
had seed stalks.
35
English Peas
During early January, medium severe freezes injured the
earlier plantings of World's Record, Alaska, Little Marvel, and
Thomas Laxton, in order from worst to least injured. Nine other
varieties were slightly and about equally injured. Willets Won-
der (both Asgrow and Alabama strains) were not visibly in-
jured. The very low temperatures of late January (lowest was
70 F.) completely killed all plants above ground at that time,
except the first planting of Willets Wonder and a few plants of
Stratagem Improved in the same planting.
A later freeze on the night of April 12 injured the last plant-
ings slightly. On the basis of injury, varieties were classified as
follows:
No injury Slight leaf injury Medium leaf injury
Willets Wonder Thomas Laxton 'World's Record
Stratagem Improved Laxton's Progress Alaska
Dwarf Alderman Alderman
Creole Whirlwind
Hundredfold Laxtonian
Blue Bantam Little Marvel
'Most severely injured.
As in previous years, and contrary to the prevailing belief
among gardeners in Alabama, Thomas Laxton, and Alaska were
among the least hardy varieties.
Comparison of Outstanding Lines of Pole Snap Beans 
De-
veloped by the Alabama Station and Several Commercial Varie-
ties. (Francis E. Johnstone, Jr.).-Studies on yield and root-
knot resistance with three leading lines of pole snap beans de-
veloped by the Alabama Station and several commonly grown
commercial varieties have been carried on for three years on
two different sites at Auburn. The results have been summarized
and are presented in Tables 18 and 19.
The results show clearly that Alabama 25 and Alabama 1
are higher yielding beans than Kentucky Wonder at Auburn,
and that Alabama 18 is at least as good, on the average, as the
latter. In addition, Alabama I and Alabama 18 are very resist-
ant to root knot.
Alabama 18 is especially valuable as a breeding parent as
it has green pods and root-knot resistance combined in the same
plant. Apparently the genes for resistance and for green pods
are linked because crosses between Alabama 1 and Kentucky
Wonder, which have been made at Auburn, have yielded a
very low percentage of green-podded resistant plants. Many
more such plants should be obtained in crosses with Alabama
18, giving a much wider range of selection for other desirable
characters.
Table 18.-Average Yields in Bushels per Acre of Six Lines of Pole Snap Beans.
1938 1939
Better Poorer Better Poorer Better
soil soil Average soil soil Average soil
1940
Poorer
soil
Three-
year
Average average'
Kentucky Wonder
Genuine- Cornfield
Ideal Market
Alabama 1
Alabama 18
Alabama 25
Least difference for
significance at the
5 per cent level.
Least difference for
significance at the
1 per cent level
247
314
296
380
375
390
153
271
199
405
381
287
200
292
247
392
378
388
44
59
226
138
203
136
190
116
102
67
63
171
153
102
126
299
330
348
249
511
261
258
299
260
439
280
294
324
255
475
44 105 40 513
60 145 55 693
'Only summarized data for 1938 available; therefore, it was not possible to analyze the three years together by
method.
-Average of "better soil" only.
3Interaction of varieties X fields removed.
the anaylsis of variance
Table 19.-Comparative Root-Knot Resistance of Some Pole Snap Beans.
Variety Location
Kentucky Wonder
Alabama 1
Kentucky Wonder
Alabama 1
Alabama 18
Alabama 25
Student garden
Student garden
Hillculture farm
Hillcultuie farm
Hillculture f arm
Hillculture farm
Total
number
plants
examined
79
337
151
283
121
140
Classification as to degree of
inf estation
Free Light Med. Heavy
0
163
67
283
120
70
15
168
52
0
1
45
28
6
15
0
0
15
36
0
17
0
0
10
Total Per cent
number of total
inf ested inf ested
79
174
84
0
1
70
100
52
56
0
1
50
Variety
217
26 1'
290
245
329
____
37
Alabama 25 is valuable as breeding material because of its
high yielding ability. However, it is not resistant to root-knot.
The Influence of Several Plant Hormones on the Rooting of
Some Ornamental Plants. (E. W. McElwee).-Various concen-
trations of 4 plant hormones or growth-promoting substances,
indolacetic acid, indolbutyric acid, indolpropionic acid, and
phenylacetic acid were used in treatments of different lengths
to determine the most effective material, concentration, and
length of treatment for stimulating rooting of some southern
ornamental plants. Eighteen species of woody plants were used
in this study; 4 species, Chamaecyparis pisifera filifera, Coton-
easter francheti, Michelia fuscata, and Ilex vomitoria failed to
respond to any treatment.
Cuttings treated with indolbutyric acid consistently showed
a higher percentage of rooting and developed larger root systems
than cuttings treated with the other plant hormones. The data
presented in Table 20 show that for 60 per cent of the species
the indolbutyric treatment gave an average increase of 40 per cent
in the total number of rooted cuttings. This treatment increased
the speed of rooting and for 80 per cent of the species, ordinarily
difficult to root, caused the maximum increase in percentage of
rooting.
Another material, cane sugar or sucrose, proved to be al-
most as effective as indolbutyric acid in stimulating rooting of
the species used in this study. The data in Table 20 show that
cuttings of 45 per cent of the species treated for 24 hours in a
.05 molar solution of cane sugar (0.6 oz. to a quart of water)
gave an average increase of 45 per cent in the total number
rooted. Sugar did not materially increase the speed of rooting,
but for 80 per cent of the species not ordinarily difficult to root
it caused the greatest increase in percentage of rooting.
Another study was conducted to determine the relative value
of Vitamin B, and an extensively advertised commercial plant
hormone which is used in dust form for stimulating rooting. The
species and treatments used in this study are listed in Table 21.
The Vitamin B
1 
treatment consisted of watering the propa-
gating media weekly with a .013 p.p.m., solution of Vitamin B
1
.
The hormone powder treatment consisted of dipping the base
of the cuttings in the powder. The indolbutyric acid treatment
consisted of soaking the cuttings for 24 hours in a solution of
5 mgm., of acid to 100 c.c. of water.
The data in Table 21 show that Vitamin B
1 
alone had little
or no stimulating effect on rooting. In some cases it appeared
to have a detrimental effect on rooting. Data not reported show-
ed that the hormone powder increased the speed of rooting. The
treatment of Azalea and Camellia cuttings with Vitamin B
1 
and
hormone powder in combination increased rooting above that
of the check and also that of the hormone powder treatment
38
Table 20.-The Influence of Certain Plant Hormones
Some Ornamental Plants.
Species
Check and
material
giving
best
results
Number
cut-
tings
Concn.
mugm.
per 100
C.C.)
on the Rooting of
Length
of
treat-
ment
(hours)
Plants
rooted
in 51 to
111 days
(per
cent)
1. Species ordinarily not difficult to root.
Abelia
grandiflora
Berberis
sargentiana
Viburnum
carlesi
Viburnum
dentatum
Viburnum
tinus
Check 1
Sugar (Sucrose) 1
Check
Sugar
Check
Sugar
Check
Indolacetic
Indolbutyric
Check
Sugar
5-
5 1700
5-
5 1700
7-
7 1700
13
13
13
20 -
20 1700
2. Species ordinarily slightly difficult to root.
Kolkwitza
amabilis
Ligustrum
quihoui
Lonicera
maacki
Viburnum
tomentosum
Check
Indolbutyric
Check
Sugar
Check
Indolbutyric
Check
Indolbutyric
18-
18 5
10-
10 1700
14-
14 5
7-
7 5
12
24
24
24
3. Species ordinarily difficult to-root.
Juniperus
horiz
plumosa
Photinia
glabra
Photinia
serrulata
Pyracantha gibbsi
yunnanensis
Symphoricarpos
chenaulti
Check 6
Sucrose 6 1700
Indolbutyric 6 5
Check 10
Indolbutyric 10 5
Indolbutyric 10 5
Check .10-
Indolbutyric 10 5
Check 10-
Indolacetic 10 5
Check 8
Indolacetic 8 5
Indolbutyric 8 5
24
24
24
48
24
24
24
24
'Records completed in 51 days.
- 13
24 53
24 1001
- 14
24 57
6 911'
12 911'
- 15
24 80
5
5
17
100
20
70
21
35
0
43
0
331
33'
0
80
80
40
90
01
80
0-1
25
25
39
Table 21.-The Rooting Response of Some Ornamental Plants to Treatment
with Vitamin B
1 
and Other Plant Hormones
Per cent rooting in 173 days
Number Treatment
Species of plant cut- Hor- 
Indol- B
1 
and
tings mone butyric 
Hormone
Check powder acid B, powder
Azalea hinodegiri 50 82 86 74 90 100
Euonymus patens 10 88 67 20 63 88
Gardenia florida veitchi 20 80 35 45 75 85
Camellia japonica 15 40 60 93 0 93
Photinia glabra 20 5 75 30 5 30
used. This combination treatment increased by 40 per cent the
rooting of the two species, Camellia japonica and Photinia
glabra, which are difficult to root.
A Continuous Supply of Sweet Potatoes for Use on the Farm.
(C. L. Isbell).-Experiments were conducted during the years
1934 through 1939 to determine a practicable combination of
time of planting, time of harvesting, and methods of common
storage that could be used with sweet potatoes on the average
farm with reasonable assurance that a supply would be avail-
able for home use throughout the year.
Three lots of early set plants were harvested. The first lot
was harvested either by grabbling or digging small amounts of
the largest potatoes twice weekly for approximately 15 weeks,
harvest beginning about August 1. The second lot was harvested
in late fall before frost killed the vines when the soil was dry
and the weather warm. The third lot was harvested after frost
had killed the vines and when the temperature was generally
cool.
Some of the potatoes of the second harvest were stored in
banks immediately after harvest. Others of the second harvest
were allowed to dry or cure for about 10 days before they were
stored in banks. Potatoes of the third harvest were stored in
banks soon after harvest.
There were three large and three small banks, each con-
sisting of 25 or 1212 bushels, respectively, stored at each storage
period. A large and a small bank in each group was provided
with either ventilation and shelter, ventilation but no shelter,
or with neither ventilation nor shelter. Provision was made to
record the temperatures on the outside and inside of one of
the large banks that was sheltered and ventilated. Some of the
potatoes were taken out of the banks in late winter or early
spring and stored in a barn loft until August 1.
Harvesting by grabbling small quantities twice weekly from
early set plants reduced the total yield less than 3 per cent and
supplied potatoes for use during August, September, October,
and part of November.
40
When the potatoes were harvested before frost and stored
immediately, approximately 54 per cent remained sound without
ventilation or shelter; 63 per cent remained sound with ventila-
tion; and 64 per cent remained sound with both ventilation and
shelter. When the potatoes were harvested before frost and
dried for 10 days before storing, 42 per cent remained sound in
banks without ventilation or shelter; 47 per cent remained sound
in ventilated banks; and 51 per cent remained sound in banks
with both ventilation and shelter. When the potatoes were
harvested after frost, slightly less than 7 per cent remained
sound without ventilation or shelter; 7 per cent remained sound
with ventilation; and 10 per cent remained sound with both
ventilation and shelter provided.
In the various banks the small and medium size potatoes
kept better than the large ones. When there was a relatively
long cold spell and the temperature on the outside of the bank
reached a maximum of 20
0
F., during the day and was as low
as 10
0
F., during the night, the temperature of the inside of the
bank was just about 32
0
F., or low enough to cause serious spoil-
age of the sweet potatoes such as resulted generally through-
out Alabama during the winter of 1939-1940.
The rest period of banked sweet potatoes was over by late
winter or early spring, about the time farmers bed potatoes
for the production of plants. Unless removed from the bank
at this time or earlier, the potatoes began to sweat, sprout, and
crack and soon spoiled. However, if they were removed from
the bank and stored in small lots in a dry barn and covered on
cold nights to prevent chilling, some of them remained sound
and usable until August 1.
Possibilities of Devil's Shoestring (Tephrosia virginiana) as
a Hillculture Crop. (0. A. Atkins).-In 1939 a series of experi-
mental plots were set up at Auburn, Alabama, to determine
the possibilities of the Devil's Shoestring as an erosion control
crop and poor land plant, and to determine its possibilities as
a commercial source of rotenone in the United States. Sister
plants to those included in the experiment, which were trans-
planted as one-year-old plants, were found to average about
2 per cent rotenone according to G. A. Russel of the Bureau of
Plant Industry who supplied the plants. Since the experiment
was established detailed data have been obtained as to height
of plant, length, number of runners, etc., for all plants, plots,
and treatments.
In the fall of 1940, after having grown two years at Auburn,
one half the plants were harvested and the fresh weight as
well as the dry weight of the roots determined. Devil's Shoe-
string has given little response to any fertilizer treatment. Yields
of roots (dry weight basis) between 1080 and 2220 pounds per
acre were obtained when calculated on the basis of 6000 plants
41
per acre. If a value of 7 cents per pound is given for the dry
roots, this is a gross return of 75 to 155 dollars per acre.
The roots of the Devil's Shoestring are long and slender and
are of little value in holding the soil. During the summer months,
however, the rather dense tops of the plants act quite satis-
factorily in retarding erosion. Since the plant is a perennial and
loses its leaves in the fall, it offers very little protection to the
soil during the winter months; therefore, some practice of using
a winter ground cover with the herb must be worked out if
good soil conservation is to be obtained where this plant is
grown.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
Studies on Crotalaria and Sericea. (J. F. Duggar).-Cro-
talaria, drilled in single rows at same time as corn at the rate
of one pound per acre in the middles between 6-foot corn rows,
gave a 6-year average annual yield of 78 pounds of shelled
crotalaria seed per acre; from a seeding rate of 21/2 pounds,
the yield was 151 pounds; and from a seeding rate of 5 pounds,
the yield was 276 pounds.
Untreated crotalaria seed, confined in bags of very thin
muslin, were spread on the surface of prepared sandy soil for
varied periods in the month of May 1940. A few months later
these seed were placed in an incubator for 28 days. They germi-
nated at rates of 5, 90, 89, 94, 76, and 57 per cent for exposure
periods of 0, 5, 12, 17, 25, and 29 days, respectively, to natural
conditions on the soil surface.
From scarified sericea seed sowed in mid-August 1937, at
rates of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 pounds per acre, the average
annual yields of hay for a 3-year period were respectively 3566,
4130, 4757, 4195, and 4850. From a seeding made May 12,
1938, also at rates of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 pounds per acre,
the average annual yields of hay for the first three years were
5962, 6298, 6307, 6289, and 6833 pounds per acre, respectively.
Following the plowing under of stubble from a three-year-old
stand of sericea, corn fertilized with basic slag and muriate of
potash afforded the first year an increase of 18.6 bushels per
acre, and in its second year an increase of 11.6 bushels of corn.
These are gains of 95 per cent in the first corn crop and 38
per cent in the second.
From plowing under of sericea stubble aged two years, with
shoots about 6 to 8 inches tall, the increase of Sudan grass hay
with non-nitrogenous fertilizers the following year was 2609
pounds per acre or 176 per cent.
The average yield of corn for five years on the plots where
corn annually followed turned-under crotalaria plants that had
emerged after laying-by corn was 11.6 bushels greater than
from the plots continuously in corn without any legume or any
commercial nitrogen.
42
ZOOLOGY-ENTOMOLOGY
The Relative Efficiency of Rotenone-Containing Insecticides
in the Control of Vegetable Insects. (F. S. Arant).-Laboratory
and field experiments with rotenone insecticides were continued
in 1940. In the laboratory, a satisfactory method of evaluating
the rotenoid content of insecticides was developed. It consisted
of adapting the Goodhue colorimetric method for use with a
photo-electric colorimeter, the establishment of exact tempera-
ture relationships, and the elimination of sulphur as an inter-
fering element in mixtures containing this material as a diluent.
Commercial samples of rotenone-sulphur dusts, which were
giving unsatisfactory control of vegetable insects in the State,
were found to be in poor mechanical condition. The mixtures
were lumpy and uneven and contained commercial sulphur flour
rather than a dusting grade of sulphur.
Roots of devil's shoestring (Tephrosia virginiana) grown on
sandy loam soil at Auburn, in cooperation with the Soil Conser-
vation Service and the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, retained
their rotenone content during the second year of growth. Chem-
ical tests indicated 0.6 to 2.8 per cent rotenoid content as de-
termined by the modified Goodhue method. Yields of 1/2 ton
to more than 1 ton of dry roots per acre were also recorded.
In field experiments with late cantaloupes and cucumbers
(Gherkins), the pickleworm, Diaphania nitidalis (Stoll), was ef-
fectively controlled by derris-talc dusts containing 1 per cent
rotenone and 10 per cent flour. In the experiment with canta-
loupes each treatment was replicated 5 times on fortieth-acre
plots; control from different rates of application varied from
83 to 94 per cent. Cantaloupes receiving 9 applications of dust,
each at the average rate of 14.1 pounds per acre, matured edible
melons of good quality at the rate of 3200 per acre as compared
with 96 melons per acre on the undusted plots. Most of the
melons ripened between August 23 and September 5. In the
experiment with Gherkin cucumbers, seven applications of dust,
applied during a rainy period, resulted in a control of 93.6 per
cent.
Field experiments were conducted with 1 per cent rotenone
dusts for control of the Harlequin bug, Murgantia histrionica
(Hahn) on collards. Two applications of derris-talc and of Treated
derris-talc mixtures, each containing about 10 per cent flour, re-
sulted in approximately 96 per cent control. The insects subse-
quently killed the plants which were not dusted. Four additional
applications of dust, all affected by rainfall, were required to
protect the dusted plants from bugs migrating from the dying
undusted ones.
Since investigators elsewhere had recommended the inclusion
of sulphur, hydrated lime, and nicotine in rotenone dusts for the
control of the aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae (L), and other insects
on cabbage, experiments to determine the effectiveness of such a
43
mixture in Alabama were conducted. This dust, composed of derris,
sulphur, hydrated lime, and nicotine sulphate, 25-37.5-37.5-5 by
weight, was considerably more effective against the aphid in a
field experiment than derris and talc of the same rotenone con-
tent, but little or no more effective than derris, talc, and nicotine
sulphate, 25-75-5. Laboratory tests with the same mixture, diluted
with talc to 0.2 per cent rotenone and 0.4 per cent nicotine con-
tent, showed the derris mixture containing sulphur, lime, and
nicotine was less effective 20 to 26 days after mixing than derris
and talc alone against adults of the Colorado potato beetle, Lep-
tinotarsa decimlineata (Say) and the Harlequin bug, Murgantia
histrionica (Hahn). Treated derris was more effective against
these insects than an untreated brand.
Studies on the Occurrence, Epidemiology and Inter-Host
Relationships of Nematode Parasites. of the Chicken (Gallus
gallus) in Alabama. (R. O. Christenson) .- Autopsy records of
the poultry of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station show
that the degree of parasitism has not diminished during 1940,
except in the case of Ascaridia galli. Heterakis bonasae has been
found in Alabama bobwhite quail. Heterakis gallinae was found
concurrently with blackhead in the wild turkey. A chukar part-
ridge was found infected with Ascaridia galli, and the bobwhite
quail from the State Quail Farm at Prattville, Alabama, had a
high incidence of Eimeria dispersa and Trichomonas sp., both of
these parasites being Protozoa. Raillietina sp., a cestode, has been
found in the chukar partridge.
Studies have been concluded on the morphology of the eggs of
chicken nematodes, namely: (1) Capillaria columbae, (2) Cheilos-
pirur hamulosa, (3) Ascaridia galli, and (4) Heterakis gallinae.
The eggs of the latter two species will remain viable in vitro, for
well over a year under optimal conditions. The longevity of the
former two species will extend over six months. These studies
show that potential infections will endure for long periods in the
soil which must be taken into account in any pen rotation program
if it is to be entirely successful.
The soil temperatures since September 19, 1940, have not
reached magnitudes sufficient to kill parasite eggs. During dry
periods the soil does become sufficiently desiccated to kill the eggs
in unsodded, unshaded plots.
Eggs of Ascaridia gal li and Heterakis gallinae will tolerate
strong nicotine compounds for short periods. They will develop to
active embryos in solutions which will later kill them. Nicotine
alkaloid retards the development of embryonic nematodes. Adult
Ascaridia galli will tolerate strong solutions of nicotine alkaloid
but lose motility and become quiescent when even traces of the
compounds are present. The retarding effect on the larvae, and
the stupefying effects on the adults, probably account for the de-
gree of effectiveness possessed by nicotine anthelmintics.
44
The Fumigation of Camellias and Azaleas with Methyl
Bromide. (L. L. English).-Tests were conducted in a gas-tight
chamber equipped with thermostatic controls. With the tempera-
ture held constant at 80
0
F., the margin of safety between perfect
kills of Coccids (Lepidosaphes camelliae Hoke and Fiorinia theae
Green) and plant injury decreased as the dosage was increased.
The margin of safety with dosages of 4 and 6 pounds per 1000
cubic feet was too small for practical use. With the dosage held
constant at 2 pounds per 1000 cubic feet, the margin of safety
between perfect kills and the maximum exposure without injury
to Camellias was 1 hour at temperatures of 80, 85, and 90'F. At
75 and 950F., the margin of safety was 1/ hour. With the one
variety of Azalea used throughout, the margin of safety was 1
hour at 80
0
F., and 12 hour at 75, 85, and 90
0
F; at 95?F., the
margin of safety was zero.
Out of 58 varieties of Azalea cuttings tested, 34 survived a
dosage of 2 pounds per 1000 cubic feet for 11/ hours at a tempera-
ture of 80
0
F., with negligible loss. Serious loss was sustained by 6
varieties, the most susceptible being Coral Bell and Salmon Beauty.
Twenty-four out of 46 varieties of Camellia cuttings survived a
dosage of 2 pounds for 2 hours at 80
0
F., with negligible loss.
Serious loss was sustained by 8 varieties.
Fifty-three varieties of Camellias from 8 to 20 inches in size
were fumigated as dug from cold frames. The injury amounted to
no more than slight burn to tender foliage on a few varieties.
The dosages and exposures were 2 pounds for 2 hours, 1 pound
for 3 hours, and 1/ 2 pound for 5 hours, all at 80
0
F.
As a practical measure a dosage of 2 pounds per 1000 cubic
feet with an exposure of 2 hours at 80
0
F., was recommended.
Farm Fish Ponds. (H. S. Swingle and E. V. Smith).-Male
orange-ear bream (Eupomotis microlophus) and female bluegills
(Lepomis macrochirus) were crossed successfully. The resulting
hybrids are being tested for sterility.
The maximum weight of bass fingerlings produced in a fer-
tilized pond was 124 pounds per acre. The maximum weight of
goldfish produced in a fertilized pond was 996 pounds per acre.
Soybean meal was found superior to peanut meal and cotton-
seed meal as a fertilizer for ponds containing bluegill bream. The
addition of superphosphate increased the effectiveness of the soy-
bean meal.
Bass fry, hatched in May, were raised to a size of approxi-
mately one pound by December. Where ponds were stocked with
the correct number of bass fry, over 80 per cent of these fish
lived to reach a legal size.
In one year of fishing, 339 pounds of bass, bream, and crappie
were removed from a 1.3 acre fertilized pond. The effect of such
heavy fishing on this pond is being studied.
Studies were made of the bottom organisms in a fertilized and
an unfertilized pond; the dry weight of organisms per square foot
45
in the former was 3.48 times that in the latter. The fish produc-
tion in the fertilized pond was 2.6 times greater than that in the
unfertilized pond. The maximum concentration of food organisms
occurred in the fall just before the ponds were drained to check
on the fish production.
Experiments dealing with the control of several aquatic weeds
were conducted in several ponds in the State. Naias (Najas guada-
lupensis) is one of the worst weeds in Alabama ponds. It was
controlled in three large ponds in 1939 by the use of inorganic
fertilizer. It reappeared in only one of the three ponds in 1940 and
was controlled again. Two new ponds were in a Naias control
experiment in 1940, and the Naias was greatly reduced in both.
The fertilizer induced a heavy growth of filamentous algae or
phytoplankton which apparently "shaded out" the Naias. A curly
leaf species of Potamogeton also was controlled by fertilization.
.Spatter dock (Nuphar advena) was controlled by cutting the
leaves with a scythe five times during the summer. The infesta-
tion of water shield (Brasemtia schreberi) was greatly reduced by
removing the leaves twice.
A pond was stocked with bream alone for eight years and then
brood bass were added; the latter were not able to spawn success-
fully. Beginning in 1939, the pond was fertilized and fished heavily.
The bass then were able to spawn and the bream grew almost as
much in one year as they had previously grown in five.
A thirty-year-old pond located in poor sandy land in east-central
Alabama was drained to determine its productivity. This 29-acre
pond was supporting an average of 48 pounds of fish per acre. A
nine-year-old pond located in central Alabama was also drained.
This 5-acre pond was found to be supporting 100 pounds of fish
per acre. In each pond the weight of carnivorous fish made up
about one-third the total weight of fish.