FORTY.FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT
Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1933
OF THE
Agricultural Experiment Station
OF THE
Alabama Polytechnic Institute
AUBURN
M. J. FUNCHESS, Director
AUBURN, ALABAMA
Contents
Trustees ------------------------------------------------------------------ 3
Station Staff -------------------------------------------------------------- 3
New Publications-------------------------------------------------------- 5
Agricultural Economics----------------------------------------------- 6
Agricultural Engineering --------------------------------------------- 7
Agronomy and Soils----------------------------------------------------- 9
Animal Husbandry and Poultry --------------------------------- I-----19
Botany and Plant Pathology------------------------------------------ 24
Entomology ------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Home Economics ------------------------------------------------------- 30
Horticulture and Forestry ------------------------------------------- 30
Special Investigations--------------------------------------------- 31
ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
TRUSTEES
His Excellency, B. M. Miller, President Ex officio
A. F. Harman, Superintendent of Education Ex officio
W. H. Oates (First District) Mobile
Charles Henderson (Second District) Troy
H. H. Conner (Third District) Eufaula
T. D. Samford (Third District) Opelika
H. D. Merrill (Fourth District) Anniston
C. S. Culver (Fifth D istrict) .............................................. G adsden
J. A . R ogers (Sixth D istrict) ............................................. Gainesville
P. S. Haley (Seventh District) Oakman
C. W. Ashcraft (Eighth District) Florence
Victor H. Hanson (Ninth District) Birmingham
P. O. Davis, Secretary
EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF
John Jenkins Wilmore, B. M. E., M. E., 1888
Bolling Hall Crenshaw, M.S., 1891
Luther Noble Duncan, M. S., 1905
Administrative Committee 1932
M. J. Funchess, M. S., Director of Experiment Station
W. H. Weidenbach, B. S., Executive Secretary
P. 0. Davis, B. S., Agricultural Editor
Mary E. Martin, Librarian
Sara Willeford, Agricultural Librarian
Agricultural Economics:
J. D. Pope, M. S.
B. F. Alvord, M. S.
E. H. Mereness, Ph. D.
*C. M. Clark. M.S.
Dee R. Eoff, B. S.
Edith M. Slights
Agricultural Engineering:
M. L. Nichols, M. S.
J. W. Randolph, M. S.
A. Carnes, M. S._
N. W. Wilson, B. S.
E. G. Diseker, B. S.
H. D. Sexton, B. S.
H. C. Mauer, B. S......
Agronomy and Soils:
M. J. Funchess, M. S.
J. W. Tidmore, Ph. D.
Anna L. Sommer, Ph. D.
**F. L. Davis, M. S.
*G. D. Scarseth, B. S....
J. A. Naftel, Ph. D....
R. E. Yoder, Ph. D.
H. B. Tisdale, M. S.
J. T. Williamson, B. S.
R. Y. Bailey, B. S.
D. G. Sturkie, Ph. D....
G. H. Jester, B. S......
F. E. Bertram, B. S.
E. L. Mayton, B. S.
J. W. Richardson, B. S.
J. R. Taylor ..... ....
E. C. Richardson, B. S.
Agricultural Economist
Associate Agricultural Economist
Associate Agricultural Economist
Assistant Agricultural Economist
Assistant in Agricultural Economics
Statistical Assistant
Agricultural Engineer
Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U. S. D. A.)
Assistant Agricultural Engineer
Assistant Agricultural Engineer
Assistant in Agricultural Engineering
Graduate Assistant
------------------------- Graduate A ssistant
----------- Agronomist
.......... Soil Chemist
Associate Soil Chemist
Assistant Soil Chemist
Assistant Soil Chemist
Assistant Soil Chemist
Assistant Soil Chemist
Associate Plant Breeder
Associate Agronomist
Assistant Agronomist
Assistant Agronomist
Assistant in Agronomy
Assistant in Agronomy
Assistant in Agronomy
Assistant in Agronomy
Assistant in Agronomy
---- Graduate Assistant
*On leave.
**Assigned by the State Department of Agriculture and Industry.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Animal Husbandry and Poultry:
J. C. Grimes, M. S.
W. D. Salmon, M. A.
G. A. Schrader, Ph. D.
C. O. Prichett, B. S.
G. A. Trollope, B. S.
D. F. King, M.S.
W. E. Sewell, M. A.
G. J. Cottier, M. A.
J. G. Goodman, B. S.
Botany and Plant Pathology:
J. L. Seal, Ph.D.
G. L. Fick. M. S.
E. V. Smith, M. S.
Entomology:
J. M. Robinson, M. A.
L. L. English, Ph. D.
H. S. Swingle, M. S.
F. S. Arant, M. S..
Home Economics:
Edna R. Bishop, M. A.
Horticulture and Forestry:
L. M. Ware, M. S.
C. L. Isbell, Ph. D.
0. C. Medlock, M. S.
R. W. Taylor, M. S..
E. E. McElwee
Special Investigations:
J. F. Duggar, M. S.
Agricultural Substations:
Fred Stewart, B. S.
R. C. Christopher, B. S.
J. M. Henderson, B. S.
J. P. Wilson, B. S.
K. G. Baker, B. S.
C. L. McIntyre, B. S.
Otto Brown, M. S.
H. F. Yates, B. S.
Head, Animal Industry Group
Research Professor Animal Nutrition
Associate Research Professor Animal Nutrition
Associate Research Professor Animal Nutrition
----------------------------- Poultry H usbandm an
Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Assistant Animal Husbandman
Assistant in Animal Husbandry
Graduate Assistant
Botanist
Associate Botanist
Assistant in Botany and Plant Pathology
Entomologist
Associate Entomologist
(Spring Hill, Ala.)
Associate Entomologist
-- Assistant Entomologist
Associate Home Economist
Head Horticulturist
Horticulturist
Assistant Horticulturist
. Assistant Horticulturist
Graduate Assistant
Research Professor of Special Investigations
Superintendent Tennessee Valley Substation,
Belle Mina, Ala.
Superintendent Sand Mountain Substation,
Crossville, Ala.
Assistant to Superintendent Sand Mountain
Substation, Crossville, Ala.
Superintendent Wiregrass Substation,
Headland, Ala.
Superintendent Black Belt Substation,
Marion Junction, Ala.
Assistant to Superintendent Black Belt
Substation, Marion Junction, Ala.
Superintendent Gulf Coast Substation
Fairhope, Ala.
Assistant to Superintendent Gulf Coast
Substation, Fairhope, Ala.
CHANGES IN STATION STAFF DURING 1932-33:
Appointments:
R. E. Yoder, Ph. D.
E. C. Richardson, B. S.
Resignations:
C. G. Garman, M. S.
C. T. Bailey, B. S.....
C. F. King
--------------- --- Assistant Soil Chemist
Graduate Assistant in Agronomy
..... Associate Agricultural Economist
--------- Superintendent Poultry Farm
Assistant to Superintendent Tennessee
Valley Substation, Belle Mina, Ala.
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
NEW PUBLICATIONS
Davis, F. L., and Scarseth, G. D.-Some 
Correlations Be-
tween Crop Yields and the Readily 
Available Phosphorus in
Soils as Determined by Troug's Method. 
Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron.,
24, 909-920. The amounts of readily available 
phosphorus by
Troug's method and by a slight modification of 
the method in
a number of Alabama soils and the crop yields on these soils
in the greenhouse are reported. Statistical correlations 
and
graphical analyses of the relationships between 
the values ob-
tained for readily available phosphorus and the 
yields of crops
in the greenhouse are also given.
Davis, F. L.-A Correlative Study of the Relationships 
of the
Hydrogen-ion Concentration and the Degree 
of Calcium Satura-
tion of Soils to the Growth of Austrian Winter Peas on Certain
Soils. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., 24, No. 12 Supplement, 
38. A
statistical study was made of the correlated relationship 
between
the yield of Austrian winter peas in pot 
cultures in the green-
house and (1) the H-ion concentration and (2) 
the degree of
calcium saturation of groups of Norfolk, Greenville, 
and Decatur
soils.
Diseker, E. G.-An Inexpensive Machine for 
Filling the
Trench Silo. Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station Circular
61. The circular reports the use of a 
small power feed cutter,
without a blower, which has sufficient capacity 
for filling a
trench silo. A 4-horsepower gas engine was 
found to be suf-
ficient for its operation.
Garman, C. G.-Factors Related to Income and Costs of Pro-
duction on Farms in Marshall and DeKalb Counties, Alabama,
1927-1929. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
236. Averages based on the study of 108 farms, of which 29
were classified as farms having commercial poultry flocks, were
used in this study. Farms having commercial poultry flocks had
more stable incomes than other farms. Increased acres of cot-
ton were related to increased labor income but the advantage
in income diminished as the price of cotton declined. High
yields per acre or per head were closely associated with low cost
per unit and high labor return.
"Farms which were above average in the three factors, acres
of cotton, yield of lint cotton per acre, and acres of cotton per
mule had an average labor income of $870, whereas those which
were below average in all three of these factors had an aver-
age labor income of $45."
Farmers using two-horse cultivators had higher labor in-
comes than farmers using one-horse cultivating equipment.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Grimes, J. C., Sewell, W. E., and Cottier, G. J.-The Use of
Ice in Curing Pork on the Farm. Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Circular 62. A method is reported for curing pork
on the farm during moderately warm weather by using an iced
brine solution.
Sturkie, D. G.-Control of Weeds in Lawns with Calcium
Cyanamid. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., 25, 82-84. This paper re-
ports the effect of treating a Bermuda grass lawn with various
amounts of calcium cyanamid; also the effects of treatment on
a number of different weeds and on sods of other species of
grasses.
Taylor, R. W.-Influence of Nitrogenous Fertilizers Applied
at Different Dates on the Numbers of Flower Clusters and Fruits
of the Strawberry. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 29, 313-17, 1932.
Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fall or at various dates
in the winter before the fruiting season increased the number
of flower clusters, flowers, and fruits. The greatest increase
over the check occurred where the fall fertilizer application was
supplemented by a winter application. Leaf growth and soil
nitrates indicated that applications of nitrogenous fertilizers
made in the fall or very early in the fruiting year did not supply
sufficient nitrogen over a sufficiently long period for best results.
Tidmore, J. W., and Williamson, J. T.-Experiments with
Commercial Nitrogenous Fertilizers. Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station Bulletin 238. Results are given concerning the
relative value of different sources of nitrogen, factors that de-
termine the relative value of different nitrogenous fertilizers,
and methods of correcting the acidity developed in soils from
the use of physiologically acid fertilizers.
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Relationship between the Type of Soil and Success of Farm
Mortgage Loans in Southeast Alabama. (E. H. Mereness).-A
study of 4,800 farm mortgages, covering about 60 per cent of
the land area of Coffee, Geneva, and Henry Counties, indicated
a close relationship between type of soil and degree of success
of loans as measured by losses per $1,000 loaned. In Table 1
farms showing about the same degree of success on certain of
the better types were grouped for convenience. The losses
ranged from an average of $24 per $1,000 loaned for the group
including Greenville, Ruston, Orangeburg, and Norfolk sandy
loam soils to $243 for the group of farms which were located
mostly on Kalmia fine sand. Norfolk sand and Susquehanna fine
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
sandy loam were intermediate in rank. Wide variations in suc-
cess of loans, however, occurred within most soil types which
showed that factors other than soil type affected the success of
loans.
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Field Curing and Baling Cowpea Hay. (E. G. Diseker).
Over a five-year period, curing cowpea hay in windrows has
consistently proved to be a more satisfactory method of pro-
ducing a high-quality hay than curing in the swath. Hay cured
in windrows retained more of the leaves and had a greener
color than when cured in the swath.
Turning the windrow should take place when the hay in
about half the upper portion of the windrow will rattle when
disturbed. With proper curing weather, one turning of the
windrow (usually three or four days after cutting, depending
upon the growth of hay) is sufficient. The hay should be
examined in the middle of the afternoon, and, if sufficiently
cured, turned the following morning after the dew has thor-
oughly dried from the upper part of the hay. This will prevent
shattering of the leaves and also place the windrow on dry
soil with the damp side up.
Hay containing 18 per cent moisture from portions of single
and double windrows was safely baled into a 78.5-pound bale
after 8 days of curing.
Studies of Soil Crust Formation. (A. Carnes).-An ap-
proximate expression of the law governing cementation in the
soil, based on the composition of the soil, was found. It was
also found.. that the cementation in a given soil varied with
the replaceable bases and approximately followed the law
x x
R- a(ea+ 
ea), where 
R is the 
modulus of 
rupture, a 
the R
value when x is zero, e the base of natural logarithms, and x the
percentage saturation with calcium. R was also found to be
proportional to the moisture.
In a preliminary study of flocculation, it was found that
the amount of material less than .05 mm. in diameter remain-
ing in suspension after stirring seemed 
to follow the law S- at
b,
where S is the percentage of material in suspension less than .05
mm., t the time in minutes of hand stirring, a is a constant de-
pending on the amount of flocculation at the start, and b is a
constant depending on the stability of the floccules.
Soil Dynamics. (M. L. Nichols.).-A study of the resistance
of soil to compressive forces showed that the relationship of the
thickness (T) of a given layer of soil to a compressive force
TABLE 1.-The Relation of Types of Soils to Losses Incurred on Farm Mortgage Loans from 1917 - 1931 irn
Geneva, and Henry Counties, Alabama.
Type of soil
Greevile, usto, 
Oang-1
ote oltypeso
Greenvlle, Ruston
burg" , r orolksady oa
Coffee County
Number Losses per
of $1,000
loans loaned
320
220
141
39
19243
$19.39
151.89
136.19
248.61
73.66
Geneva
Number
of
loans
683
46
50
1,1.28
County
Losses per
$1,000
loaned
$ 33.92
145.60
237.00
57.88
Henry County
Number Losses per
of $1,000
loans loaned
335 $14.33
190 53.99
677 39.63
Total three c,
Number Lo
of
loans 1
1,338
456
141
89
3,048
Coffee,
ounties
sses per
$1,000
loaned
24.46
103.63
136.19
242.98
59.15
-Loans made to finance the resale of foreclosed farms were not included.
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
(P) could be calculated by the empirical formula, 
TPk - a where
k and a are specific soil constants depending upon the moisture
contents and plasticity constants. While this formula was found
to be sufficiently accurate for practical calculations, its obvious
implications for extreme values of either T or P indicated the
need of further investigations which are at present under way.
The variations of the constants for each soil with moisture con-
tent approximately corresponded to Versley's classification.
It was found that the rate of penetration of a plunger, where
the reaction was free to arch over a considerable area, was pro-
portional to pressure and that this proportion was a function of
the apparent specific gravity. The compression and arch action
studies were continued to determine the relationship of these
factors to the rolling resistance of a wheel. The exact nature
of the soil reactions and of wheel slippage was determined by
special laboratory apparatus. It was found that the generally
accepted theory did not explain the true nature of slippage on
soils since slippage consisted of a compressive action in front
of the wheel resulting in actual forward movement with no ro-
tation of the wheel on its axle.
Studies of the curvature of the moldboard of the common
plow were continued and a method of measuring surface pres-
sures was determined. The English type plow was found to
be a portion of a conic surface which was formed by the rota-
tion of curve having formulas of 
the type y--a ebx.
AGRONOMY AND SOILS
Potash Top-Dressing Experiments With Cotton. (R. Y.
Bailey).-Potash top-dressing experiments were conducted on
Norfolk sandy loam during the five-year period, 1928-1932, in-
clusive, to determine whether an application of potash used as
a top-dressing on cotton, which was fertilized with 50 pounds
of muriate of potash per acre before planting, would increase
the yield, the size of bolls, the percentage of lint, or the oil
content of the seed.
The fertilizer treatments, the average yields, weight of
bolls, percentage of lint, and percentage of fat in the seed ob-
tained in these experiments are shown in Table 2.
Time of Turning Vetch for Corn and Cotton. (E. L. Mayton).
-Vetch on different plots was turned for corn about March
25, April 5, and April 15, during the eight-year period 1925-
1932. Corn was planted on these plots approximately ten days
after each turning date. Adjacent to each vetch plot two other
plots were planted to corn on the same date and fertilized with
nitrate of soda at the rate of 100 and 200, 200 and 300, and
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
TABLE 2.-Yield of Cotton, Weight of Bolls, Percentage of Lint, and
Percentage of Fat in Seed Obtained in Potash Top-Dressing
Experiments on Norfolk Sandy Loam.
Potash fertilizer
pounds muriate per acre' 5-year averages-1928-1932
Before Top- Pounds 
Weight Percentage Percentage
Before dressing seed cotton of 100 of of fat
per acre bolls lint in seed
Lbs.
None None 506 1.06 38.3 22.83
50 None 782 1.16 38.5 24.33
50 200 794 1.18 38.2 25.54
1All plots received 400 pounds of superphosphate and 200 pounds of sodium nitrate
per acre.
200 and 400 pounds per acre for the April 5, April 15, and
April 25 planting dates, respectively. Every fourth plot in the
experiment was untreated and served as a check plot. All check
plots were planted on the first planting date. Corn was spaced
18 and 36 inches apart in five-foot drills on different sections of
the plots.
The eight-year average yields of all treated plots were larger
on the section spaced 18 inches apart, whereas on the untreated
check plots the 36-inch spacing produced the larger yields. The
average yields following vetch were 22.9, 27.6, and 29.6 bushels
per acre on the plots turned March 25, April 5, and April 15,
respectively. The yields from vetch plots in each case were
larger than the yields from the nitrate of soda plots, which
were planted on the same date.
In a similar experiment vetch was turned for cotton about
March 25, April 5, and April 15, and cotton was planted ap-
proximately ten days after each turning date over the same
eight-year period. One plot adjacent to the vetch plots plant-
ed April 5 and April 25 was planted on the same date and fer-
tilized with nitrate of soda at the rate of 300 pounds per acre;
the phosphate and potash fertilization was the same on each
plot.
The eight-year average yields of plots planted on April 5,
15, and 25 were: vetch 1,159, nitrate of soda 1,192; vetch
1,111; and vetch 1,014, nitrate of soda 1,044 pounds of seed
cotton per acre, respectively. These data indicate that early
planting of cotton was more important than the larger growth
of vetch obtained on the plots planted on the last two dates.
Therefore vetch should be turned for cotton as soon as there
is a sufficient growth to supply a reasonable amount of nitrogen.
A Comparison of Stable Manure, Nitrate of Soda and Vetch
as Sources of Nitrogen for Cotton and Corn in a Two-Year Rota-
tion. (E. L. Mayton).-This experiment was started in the fall
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
of 1924 and has been continued over the eight-year period, 1925-
1932. The cropping system was a two-year rotation of cotton
and corn. Manure was applied at the rate of 5 tons per acre
each spring; nitrate of soda at the rate of 325 pounds per acre;
and the vetch was turned about April 1. The phosphate and pot-
ash fertilization was essentially the same on each plot. Monantha
vetch was killed by cold in 1928; in 1929 rabbits destroyed the
vetch and Austrian peas on the corn plots; and in 1932 rabbits
destroyed Austrian peas on both the corn and cotton plots.
Consequently, only six crops of winter legumes have been turned
for cotton and five crops for corn, over the eight-year period,
as compared with the regular applications of manure and ni-
trate of soda each year.
The eight-year average yields of seed cotton, pounds per
acre, were as follows: manure 1,581; nitrate of soda 1,287;
and vetch 1,348. The corn yields over the same period were:
manure 37.2; nitrate of soda 35.2; and vetch 31.4 bushels per
acre.
Austrian Winter Peas. (H. B. Tisdale).-Table 3 shows the
average seed yields of Austrian winter pea strains selected in
1928 from a field of Austrian winter peas grown from commer-
cial seed. The selected strains of peas showed less resistance
to cold than the commercial strain, which may be partly at-
tributed to the more advanced growth of the selected strains.
The low yield in 1933 was caused by a freeze in February.
TABLE 3.-Average Yield in Bushels of Seed per Acre of Selected
Strains of Austrian Winter Peas.
Average 3
Strain No. 1931 1932 1933 years
1931-1933
7 15.00 6.21 .35 7.19
48 11.67 7.58 .44 6.56
6 14.33 3.58 .13 6.01
9 13.67 2.92 .13 5.57
29 10.00 2.55 .44 4.33
22 7.67 3.50 .70 3.96
30 7.00 1.78 .98 3.25
Commercial 5.39 1.56 1.88 2.79
Oat Breeding. (H. B. Tisdale).-Table 4 shows the results
of a test for three years of oat strains selected in 1929 for cold-
and disease-resistance. In these tests the Red Rustproof strains
have proved to be superior to the other strains tested. The
Fulghum Strain 6A may be considered a new variety of Ful-
ghum oats, which is characterized by being about one week
later and having larger and more vigorous-growing plants than
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
the regular Fulghum variety. The Small Winter and Norton
are cold-resistant and good-yielding strains, but are too suscep-
tible to the rust disease for Central and South Alabama.
TABLE 4.-Average Yield, Bushels per Acre, of Selected Oat Strains.
Strain or Variety 
1931 1932 
1933 Average 3
years
Red Rustproof 43A 55.8 73.4 46.7 58.6
Red Rustproof 2A 49.3 79.4 45.7 58.1
Red Rustproof 3A 53.1 75.3 41.0 56.5
Red Rustproof 48A 53.6 72.9 41.7 56.1
Red Rustproof 69A 44.7 73.7 42.4 53.6
Fulghum 6A Check 54.6 45.0 40.3 46.6
Norton 30-34 54.6 31.3 33.7 39.9
Norton 30-38 53.1 30.5 31.9 38.5
Norton 3 49.0 28.9 33.0 37.0
Small Winter 57A 43.2 31.1 32.3 35.5
Small Winter 14A 45.4 27.0 30.9 34.4
Fulghum 35A 38.0 40.5 24.3 34.3
Fulghum 29 C.B. 38.4 37.3 26.0 33.9
Small Winter 69A 46.0 24.6 31.2 33.9
Fulghum 26A 41.3 33.5 25.7 33.5
Fulghum 38A 37.4 36.5 26.4 33.4
Small Winter 51A 51.1 20.3 26.3 32.6
Histological Studies of the Fiber and Seed of Cotton. (D. G.
Sturkie).-This study was started in 1929 to determine the
origin of the fiber and its development in length, width, and
thickness. The successive stages in the development of the seed
were also studied.
In 1929, flowers as they appeared were marked with dated
tags. After a forty- to fifty-day period several bolls of each
daily stage were harvested and preserved in formalin acetic
alcohol.
In 1931 and 1932 material in successive stages of develop-
ment were secured from bolls produced by flowers of the same
blooming date and preserved in formalin acetic alcohol. Plots
were irrigated to prevent undue water stress, but were not
irrigated often enough to cause abnormal plant growth. Flow-
ers were tagged on July 31 and August 15. Fertilization was
similar and adequate on all plots. A large number of bolls
were collected at three-day intervals starting from date of
blooming and continuing through maturity.
Fiber origin studies were made with flower buds, young
fertilized and young unfertilized ovules. Material was embed-
ded, sectioned, stained, and mounted by standard methods. A
variation of the standard was used in sectioning fibers. This
consisted in stretching the fibers across cardboard frames and
embedding in the usual way. Development of fiber thickness
was then determined by measurements of cross sections.
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
Progressive development of fiber length was determined
by combing out the fibers in warm water and measuring their
length. The length of lint on sides and ends of six seed was
measured. Measurements of the length of very young fibers
were made with the aid of a microscope. The major and minor
axes of all the seed of the boll were measured while still in
warm water. Due to the small number of measurements made
the results are relative and not absolute.
During 1931 and 1932 bolls produced by flowers of the
same blooming date were collected daily, dried and weighed.
The seed were then delinted, dried and weighed to determine
development in weight.
The results may be summarized as follows:
FIBER ORIGIN.-Cotton fibers originated from the outermost
cells of the epidermis of the seed. Most fibers are formed on
the day of blooming irrespective of pollination or fertilization.
Very few fibers are formed after the third day.
FIBER ELONGATION.-In fertilized ovules, rapid elongation of
fiber proceeds until the twenty-first day, elongation being com-
pleted by the twenty-fourth day. The period of most rapid
growth is between fifteen and twenty-one days of age. During
this period the fiber is lengthening at the rate of approximately
1/25 to 2/25 of an inch per day. In unfertilized ovules, fiber
elongation ceases after the third day.
FIBER WIDTH.-The fiber attains its maximum width by the
sixth day after blossoming.
FIBER THICKENING.-Fiber thickening does not begin until
the fiber has attained its entire length. Thickening of the fiber
wall usually begins on the nineteenth day. Thickening is rela-
tively slow until the twenty-seventh day, but after this it is
rapid and is generally completed by the thirty-ninth day.
SIZE OF SEED.-Seed growth, as regards length and width,
is practically completed in twenty-one days.
WEIGHT OF SEED.-The weight of seed increases very slowly
for the first ten days and more rapidly until approximately
forty-five days of age.
PERCENTAGE OF LINT.-For the first twenty-one days the per-
centage of lint is variable; during this period the weight of
the fiber is proportional to its length but after maximum length
is reached the increasing weight of the fiber is due to the
thickening process. From the twenty-second to the fortieth
day the weight of a seed and the weight of lint from that
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
seed increases at the same rate. After forty days the lint
ceases to gain in weight while the seed continues until about
the forty-fifth day. This causes a decrease in the percentage
of lint after the fortieth day.
Studies with Calcium Cyanamid in the Control of Weeds in
Lawns. (D. G. Sturkie).-These studies were made during the
winters of 1931-1932, and 1932-1933. The results may be
briefly summarized as follows:
(1) Granular and powdered cyanamid were equally ef-
fective in control of weeds when used at the rate of 1,500
pounds per acre.
(2) The best time of application was in February or March.
(3) The material should be applied at the rate of at least
1,000 pounds per acre for best control. Rates less than this
did not kill all of the weeds.
(4) Applications as large as 3,000 pounds per acre were
not injurious to dormant Bermuda grass. This was the heaviest
application used in the study.
(5) Applications of over 250 pounds per acre were very
injurious to Italian rye grass on Bermuda grass sod.
(6) An application of 1,500 pounds of cyanamid per acre
killed the following plants:
Chickweed (common) (Stellaria me-
dia (L) Cyrill.)
Chickweed (mouse-ear) (Cerastium
viscosum L.)
Cranesbill (Geranium carolinianum
L.)
Lesser Wart Cress (Coronopus didy-
mus (L) Sm.)
Cudweed (Gnaphalium purpureum
L.)
Bur clover (Medicago arabica Huds.)
Carolina clover (Trifolium sp.)
Hop clover (Trifolium procumbens
L.)
White clover (Trifolium repens L.)
Black medic (Medicago lupulina L.)
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale
Weber.)
Dwarf dandelion (Krigia virginica
(L.) Willd.)
Hen-bit (Lamium amplexicaule L.)
Lespedeza (Lespedeza striata
(Thunb.) H. & A.)
Peppergrass (Lepidium virginicum
L.)
White Plantain (Plantago virginica
L.)
Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia
L.)
Sheep sorrell (Rumex acetosella L.)
Wood sorrel (Oxalis stricta L.)
(7) An application of 1,500 pounds of cyanamid per acre
did not kill the following plants:
Wild garlic (Allium vineale L.)
English Plantain (Plantago lanceo-
lata L.)
Purple Bent Grass (Argostic hyema-
lis (Walt) B. S. P.)
A Study of Winter Lawn Grasses and Their Effect on Ber-
muda Grass. (D. G. Sturkie) .- During the winter of 1932 a
test was conducted to determine the best winter lawn grasses
on Bermuda sod and on non-sod land. Half of each area was
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
closely mowed (1/
2
-inch stubble) and half was mowed high
(2-inch stubble). The following grasses were tested: Italian
rye, English rye, Pacey's rye, crested dog's-tail, meadow foxtail,
tall meadow oat, redtop, wood meadow, sweet vernal, orchard,
rescue, Kentucky blue, Canada blue, bulbous blue, rough stalk
meadow, Cocoo's bent, South German bent, creeping bent, sea-
side bent, Colonial bent, Rhode Island bent, sheep fescue, fine-
leaved sheep fescue, Chewings' New Zealand fescue, various-
leaved fescue, Chewing's fescue, hard fescue, meadow fescue,
and true creeping red fescue.
For lawn purposes the best grasses were Italian rye, Pacey's
rye, English rye, rough stalk meadow, true creeping red fescue,
Chewings' New Zealand fescue, Chewings' fescue, seaside bent,
South German bent, and Kentucky blue.
The Bermuda was badly injured by Italian rye, Pacey's rye,
English rye, sweet vernal, Chewings' fescue, and meadow fescue.
It was only slightly injured by awnless brome, Kentucky blue,
Canada blue, and rough stalk meadow grasses. The injury
from the other grasses was intermediate between the two ex-
tremes mentioned. The injury was more severe in all cases
where the grass was cut with a high stubble. It required about
30 days for the Bermuda grass to recover from the injury
caused by the winter grasses.
The Determination of the Lime Requirement of Soils by
Casorption Studies. (J. A. Naftel and R. E. Yoder).-A study
was made of the lime requirement of five typical soils of Ala-
bama and one from the Mississippi Delta. Bradfield's concept
of base saturation, a soil in equilibrium with 
an excess of CaCO
3
and the CO
2 
partial pressure of the air, was applied throughout
the investigation. It was found that the amount of Ca sorbed
was very definite under these equilibrium conditions. Further-
more, the saturation point was easily obtained experimentally
and occurred through a definite pH range. The saturation
points were obtained from glass electrode measurements of
pH and by specific conductivity curves. The milli-equivalents
of Ca sorbed per 100 gms. of soil, at the air-calcium-soil equili-
brium, is termed the "casorption" value. Briefly, it is a measure
of the Ca unsaturation of the soil, Descriptive data of these
soils are included in Table 5 and Figure 1.
Greenhouse experiments were set up to determine the op-
timum degree of Ca saturation for crop growth on the different
soils. Pots of each of the soil types were limed to 0, 25, 50, 75,
and 100 per cent of their casorption values both with CaCO
3
or with CaCO
3 
. MgCO
3
. Growth curves were plotted after the
crops were harvested, and from these the lime requirement
was obtained for the different soils and crops. The growth
curves for soybeans of all the soils passed through a maxi-
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
0 41 C 3 ,0 6.6 .fo /0.0 1.66
M Cfe PER 0o6o 5 Solt..
FIGURE 1.-Air-CaCO-Soil Equilibria in Soils.
mum, and hence this method proved satisfactory. As would
be expected, the greatest lime response was obtained on the
Lufkin which had the lowest Ca saturation. The other five
soils were relatively highly saturated with Ca. There was no
evidence of lime injury in these soils even with the 100 per
cent casorption value addition.
TABLE 5.-Base Exchange Status of Different Soil Types.
Soil type
Cecil clay
Decatur clay loam
Hartselle sandy loam
Norfolk sandy loam
Delta very fine sandy loam
Lufkin
pH
value
6.32
5.75
6.10
6.10
6.60
4.75
Base ex-
change capa-
city in milli-
gram equi-
valents per
100 gms. of
soil
10.00
8.75
3.20
3.25
10.20
34.15
Exchange
calcium
Milli- Per-
equi- centage
valents of ex-
per 100 change
grams capa-
of soil city
4.54 45.4
3.39 38.8
1.65 51.6
1.26 39.8
7.18 70.3
15.12 44.3
Exchange
magnesium
Milli- Per-
equi- centage
valents of ex-
per 100 change
grams
of soil
0.94
1.24
0.39
0.54
2.11
8.39
capa-
city
9.4
14.2
12.2
16.6
20.7
24.4
ii I I Ilr IIII IIHI l RI I I ~ I li I I~--
Forty-Fourth Annual Report1
Casorption studies are adaptable to the soils of the humid
region regardless of their state of base saturation. The 
results
of this study show that casorption values together with growth
curves from crops are fundamentally satisfactory for the de-
termination of the lime requirement of a soil.
The Use of Quinhydrone with the Glass Electrode in De-
termining the Redox Capacity of Soils. (J. A. Naftel).-A
study was made of the reducing or oxidizing properties, "Redox
Capacity", of six typical soils of the Cotton Belt. The pH val-
ues of the soil suspensions were determined with the glass
electrode and then the suspensions were saturated with quinhy-
drone (QH) in known amount. The pH value was determined
at various intervals of time both with the glass and QH elec-
trodes. In certain soils, Nos. 1 and 2 in Table 6, a large drift
in pH value was obtained. Electrometric titrations of the sus-
pensions, after adding QH, showed that considerable hydro-
quinone had been oxidized by some constituent in the soil,
Soils 1, 2, and 3 in Table 7. There was little reduction of
the added quinone. The calculated redox capacities, in Table
7, were extremely high in Soils 1, 2, and 6, and very low in
the other three soils. Analyses showed that Mn was the ac-
tive oxidizing constituent in the soils possessing high redox
capacities. The results of this study indicate that QH, a com-
pound of equimolecular oxidizing and reducing properties,
together with the glass electrode, offers interesting possibili-
ties as an indicator for the redox capacity of a soil.
TABLE 6.-The Quinhydrone Electrode Error in Typical Soils of Alabama.
pH values of soil suspensions
No. Soil 
QH added 
Errors
series O 
Excess 
QH
G G QH 
QH elect
1 Cecil 5.60 7.46 7.68 1.86 0.22
2 Decatur 4.87 7.30 7.40 2.43 0.10
3 Hartselle 5.15 5.20 5.58 0.05 0.38
4 Norfolk 5.08 5.38 5.58 0.30 0.20
5 Delta 6.00 6.71 7.00 0.71 0.29
6 Lufkin 4.34 4.75 4.85 0.41 0.15
Note:
G = pH by glass electrode.
QH -= pH by QH electrode.
QH error = difference in glass electrode pH values before and after QH added.
QH electrode error - difference in glass electrode pH value and QH pH value after
adding QH.
Relation of Root System to Minimum PO
4 
Concentration
Necessary for Good Growth. (A. L. Sommer) .- A study of the
extent of root system as compared with the minimum PO
4 
con-
centration necessary for good growth indicated that, at least
17
00
Table 7.-The Influence of Mn on the Redox Capacity 
of Soils as Measured with Quinhydrone.
(Initial Q/HQ - 0.977)
M.E. per 100 gins. soil
Oxidized
5.300
5.250
0.225
0.225
0.1253
5.250
Added
6.725
6.725
6.725
6.725
6.725
6.725
Q
Found
5.600
5.450
6.200
6.170
5.140
9.300
Reduced
1.125
1.275
0.525
0. 5555
1.585
2.575
QH
Q/HQ
3.440
3.250
0.926
0.922
0.755
5.550
Redox'
capacity
246.3
227.3
5.1
5.5
22.2
557.3
ME. Mn per 100 gins.
EX
2
0.0
0.408
Trace
Trace
Trace
1.225
QH EX2
6.10
6.90
0.19
0.12
0.40
4.28
Reduced
by QH
6.100
6.492
.190
.120
.400
3.055
'Obtained as follows: (Q/HQ- 0.977) 
(100)
2Exchangeable.
i -i
c-i
Soil
1
2
3
4
5
6
Added
6.9.25
6.925
6.925
6.925
6.925
6.925
HQ
Found
1.625
1.675
6.700
6.700
6.800
1.675 wI
II
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
for a number of plants, the greater the root surface the smaller
is the P0
4 
concentration necessary for normal growth. Fur-
ther evidence was obtained in a comparison of the phosphorus
content of the expressed juice of the lower stems and of the
young leaves of cotton (small root surface, high PO
4 
require-
ment) and of buckwheat (relatively large root 
surface, low PO4
requirement). Both kinds of plants were grown in each of sever-
al 1,000-liter containers and the P0
4 
concentrations maintained
were 0.8 p.p.m., 3.2 p.p.m., and 12.8 p.p.m. Plants at all con-
centrations made good growth but the cotton plants at the high-
er concentrations were much larger than those at a concen-
tration of 0.8 p.p.m. The expressed juice from the stems of
buckwheat contained much more phosphorus than that from
cotton. There was much less difference (sometimes a reversal
in the relationship) between the phosphate contents of the
young leaves of the two kinds of plants. This indicates that
there is little or no difference in the amount of phosphorus
needed to produce a unit of dry matter of the two plants and
that the rate of growth is limited at low PO
4 
concentrations
by the rate of supply of this ion. The analytical data are given
in Table 8.
TABLE 8.-Phosphorus Content of Expressed Juice of Stems and of
Young Leaves of Cotton and Buckwheat.
Percentage phosphorus
P.P.M. Expressed juice Young 
leaves (dry weight)
PO in
solution of stems 
Soluble phosphorus Total 
phosphorus
Cotton Buckwheat Cotton Buckwheat Cotton Buckwheat
0.00901 0.0195 0.35 0.53 0.55 0.76
0.8 0.00902 0.030 0.52 0.86 0.76 1.10
0.0095' 0.034 0.46 0.65 0.68 0.86
3.2 0.0202 0.040 0.84 0.67 1.18 
0.88
0.0121 0.036 0.68 0.67 1.00 0.90
12.8 0.0282 0.057 0.80 0.58 0.90 0.88
'First crop of buckwheat and first harvest of cotton (38 days).
2Second crop of buckwheat and second harvest of cotton (57 days).
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AND POULTRY
A Protein Supplement to White Corn for Fattening Hogs in
the Dry Lot. (J. C. Grimes, W. E. Sewell, and G. J. Cottier).-
This study has been continued but some variation 
was made
in the kind of rations used. This was thought to be desirable
because in the previous tests serious trouble developed 
from
what was thought to be a deficiency disease but 
what has at
times in the past been called "cottonseed meal poisioning."
The trouble first developed in a lot that was receiving 
a supple-
19
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
ment of tankage and cottonseed meal and later to a degree
in all the other lots.
In order to make a further study of this trouble eight lots
of ten hogs each were fed on white corn and various amounts
of cottonseed meal from July 6 to September 28, 1932. The
rations used in the different lots were as follows:
Lot I.-White corn and a mixture of equal parts of tankage
and cottonseed meal, self-fed, free choice.
Lot II.-Same as Lot I except soybean hay was added.
Lot III.-White corn, cottonseed meal, self-fed, free choice.
Lot IV.-White corn three parts, and cottonseed meal one
part, mixed and self-fed.
Lot V.-Same as Lot I except for the previous treatment
of the pigs (sows and pigs on oat pasture during the suckling
period).
Lot VI.-Same as Lot IV except that hogs had access to
green soybean pasture.
Lot VII.-Same as Lot I except hogs had access to green
soybean pasture.
Lot VIII.-Same as Lot III except hogs had access to green
soybean pasture.
The pigs used in all lots except Lot V were raised under
dry-lot conditions, and all lots were under dry-lot conditions
while on experiment except as noted above. A mineral mix-
ture of charcoal, lime, and salt was supplied in all lots.
None of the hogs showed a deficiency trouble similar to
that noted in the previous tests. It is possible that the season of
the year influenced the results. The pigs used in this test were
farrowed in the spring and fattened during the summer. They
were in the sunshine more than the pigs used in the previous
test which were farrowed in the fall.
No "cottonseed meal poisoning" was noted despite the fact
that in one of the lots 27 per cent of the total ration consisted
of cottonseed meal. Several of the hogs in Lots III and IV
where there was a heavy consumption of cottonseed meal, how-
ever, had shaggy coats of hair and made very slow gains.
A brief summary of the results is given in Table 9.
I. The Ability of the Vitamin B-deficient Rat to Utilize d-
Glucose. (G. A. Schrader).-In continuance of the experiment
a more complete study of the beriberi rat has been made. In
addition to the usual chemical analyses for glycogen, the res-
piratory metabolism, in approximately 30-minute periods, was
determined for 4 hours following the administration of a gly-
cogen precursor. These determinations were performed on
rats which received no vitamin B and showed no symptoms
(Group II) and on rats which received adequate vitamin B
20
TABLE 9.-Summary of Results in Feeding White Corn with 
Various Protein Supplements to Hogs
During an 84-Day Period.
Lot Number I I III IV 
V VI VII VIII
Av. initial weight per ani-
mal, pounds 59.35 59.05 59.30 
59.30 59.40 59.40 59.10 58.80
Av. daily gain, pounds 1.53 1.57 1.08 
0.99 1.56 1.37 1.60 1.22
Av. amount cottonseed -
meal consumed, pounds 12.39 11.95 27.66 
25.00 12.41 25.00 11.32 20.05
(per cent of rations)
Feed required to make 100
pounds gain:
Corn 317.47 305.30 302.98 387.82 
307.31 290.24 272.56 283.90
Supplement 104.68 102.35 117.97 129.27 
101.29 96.75 80.36 79.61
Soybean hay 17.05 
__
Mineral .94 1.21 1.54 
1.56 .99 1.13 .89 1.17
Av. f eed cost per 100
pounds gain, dollars 3.61 3.60 3.12 3.18 
4.59 3.32 _ 4.01 2.74
Price~ of f eed: Corn at 400 per bushel.
Tankage at $35 per ton.
Cottonseed meal at $16 per ton.
Minerals at $15 per ton.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
(Group III), as well as on the beriberi animals (Group I). All
3 groups of rats received the same diet and their daily food in-
take was kept as nearly equal as possible. In each group some
of the rats were used under basal conditions and others after
the administration of 125 mgs. of d-glucose.
It appears that the beriberi rat can utilize d-glucose, both
for immediate heat production and for glycogen formation.
The heat production of all 3 groups was raised to nearly the
same degree, 17, 9, and 15 per cent for Groups I, II, and III,
respectively. There also was a rise in the R.Q.'s of all 3
groups. Of the 125 mgs. of glucose administered Group I con-
verted 53, Group II, 72, and Group III, 54 per cent into gly-
cogen. When expressed in terms of total carbohydrate ac-
counted for, i.e., the sum of the administered glucose converted
into glycogen and that used for heat production, the percentages
were 97, 121, and 89 for Groups I, II, and III, respectively.
II. Efficacy of Fats in Decreasing the Vitamin B Require-
ment. (W. D. Salmon and J. G. Goodman).-When the diet
of rats contained 40 per cent of the test fat, the average time
required for the development of beriberi on various fats was
as follows: butter fat 34 days, hydrogenated cottonseed oil 37
days, Wesson oil 41 days, Crisco 41 days, hydrogenated cocoa-
nut-peanut oil mixture 41 days, pecan oil 46 days. As pecan
oil had a significant vitamin B-sparing effect it seemed desir-
able to determine if the fat in the pecan kernel would affect the
accuracy of the usual test for the vitamin B content of food
material. Pecan kernel and pecan kernel residue from which the
fat had been extracted were tested for their vitamin B content.
On the fat-free basis the kernel and the residue were equally
efficient in protecting pigeons against the onset of beriberi.
Since the pecan kernel contained 67 per cent of fat and the
daily protective dose for pigeons was 2.6 gm. it does not seem
probable that the fat content of the common food materials
will affect the accuracy of the test for their vitamin B content
if the pigeon method is used.
Simplified Rations. for Chicks. (G. A. Trollope, D. F. King,
C. T. Bailey).-Eight lots of 100 chicks each were fed various
rations composed chiefly of feed products grown on Alabama
farms; these rations were supplemented by a simple mineral
mixture. This report covers a two-month brooding period, a
three-month growing period, and a laying period of six months.
The phase of the study which pertains to the laying period
is still in progress. The control lot received a well-balanced,
ten-ingredient ration which has given satisfactory results over
a period of years. A ration of yellow corn meal, wheat shorts,
mineral mixture, and skim milk (ad libitum) proved more ef-
22
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
ficient than the control ration. A similar ration in which no
wheat shorts was used proved almost as efficient. The yellow
corn meal in simplified rations was superior to white corn meal,
even when the birds had access to seasonal green feeds. In
general, the simplified rations gave satisfactory growth, were
more economical, and resulted in higher egg production than
the ration used in the control lot.
Studies of Force-Molting and Time of Employing the Prac-
tice When All-Night Lighting Is Used. (G. A. Trollope, D. F.
King, and C. T. Bailey).-The objectives of this study were to
determine the effect of force-molting hens in connection with
the use of all-night lights and to determine the proper season
to force-molt. Three hundred S. C. W. Leghorns were used
in the experiment. Although the work is still in progress the
results to date indicate that the season of maximum molt in
hens was unaffected by force-molting at different times. The
date of force-molting materially affected the duration of the
molt. The later the hens were molted the shorter was the dura-
tion of the molt. Egg production was increased by force-molt-
ing during September.
Efficient Rations for Laying Hens (Phase C, Peanut Studies).
(G. A. Trollope, D. F. King, and C. T. Bailey).-The objective of
this project was to study the supplementary value of whole pea-
nuts, ground peanuts (with and without shells), and peanut
meal in rations for laying hens. Ten lots of 40 S. C. White Leg-
horn pullets each were used.
The basal ration consisted of yellow corn meal, bone meal
and salt, with whole white corn for the scratch ration. The
control lot received a mash ration of 66 pounds yellow corn
meal, 34 pounds dried skim milk, 7 pounds bone meal, and 1
pound salt. Sufficient milk was fed in Lots 5, 7, and 9 to provide
equivalent amounts of protein from milk and from peanut
sources. The protein supplements used in the rations and sum-
mary of results are given in Table 10.
Whole peanuts fed with the basal ration or with whole corn,
ad libitum, gave very low egg production and poor body weight.
When fed as the sole protein supplement, peanut meal gave
higher egg production than any of the other peanut products.
Ground peanuts (with shells) in combination with skim milk
gave a satisfactory egg production when fed with the basal
ration used in this experiment. The efficiency of the peanut
products for egg production was materially improved when
skim milk was substituted to supply 50 per cent of the protein
supplement. The highest rate of egg production was obtained
where skim milk was used as the sole protein supplement.
Rations that were high in fiber or fat, or both, gave low egg
23
24 Alabama Agricultural Experinment Station
TABLE 10O.-Egg Production, Weight of Birds, Egg Weight, and- Hatch.
ability of Eggs as Influenced by the Protein Supplement Fed.
Aver-
Average age Aver-
Lot Protein supplement monthly body age Hatch-
No. egg weight egg ability
production, of weight
birds____
number per cent pounds ounces per cent
1 Dried skim milk 17.3 57.1 3.93 1.97 81.48
2. None 6.8 22.6 3.35 1.79 41.22
3 Whole peanuts, ad lib. 9.1 30.0 3.29 1.88 74.47
4 Ground peanuts (with shells) 8.4 27.6 3.37 1.87 48.97
5 Ground peanuts (with shells)
plus skim milk 16.3 53.9 3.69 1.96 65.59
6 Ground peanuts (without
shells) 11.2 36.9 3.39 1.87 41.67
7 Ground peanuts (without
shells) plus skim milk. 14.8 49.0 3.56 1.95 85.65
8 Peanut meal 12.9 42.8 3.45 1.91 74.49
9 Peanut meal plus skim milk 14.1 46.8 3.63 1.94 84.26'
10 Whole peanuts, whole corn,
both ad lib. 4.0 12.7 3.05 1.78 78.00
production. A direct correlation existed between rate of egg
production, egg size, and- body weight of birds. The greatest
egg weight was obtained on rations supplemented with skim
milk.
BOTANY AND PLANT PATHOLOGY
Studies of Nut Grass. (G. L. Fick, E. V. Smith and R. Y.
Bailey) .- During the growing season of 1932, well established
systems of nut grass in the greenhouse and in the field were
clipped at regular intervals, varying from one day to one week.
The effects of the clipping treatments were followed by making
carbohydrate analyses and sprouting tests with the tubers.
The tubers from all clipped areas in greenhouse and -field
showed a rapid and marked decline in carbohydrate content.
By September the starch (the chief storage carbohydrate) in
tubers from clipped field plots was reduced to about 2 per cent
as compared to 19 per cent in tubers from the control plots. The
sprouting capacity of tubers was not so promptly affected; to-
wards the end of the growing season, however, a marked de-
crease was evident. Results of this experiment indicated that
clipping once a week was just as effective as clipping daily.
Clipping of the field plots was continued in 1933 and prior to
July 1 very few sprouts had appeared on any of the clipped
plot .L
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
Sprouting tests were conducted with tubers collected from
the field at frequent intervals during the winter. The results
obtained indicate that nut grass tubers do not have a well-
defined winter rest period but will sprout promptly whenever
environmental conditions are favorable.
In order to study the development of the nut grass system,
one tuber was planted in each of 100 four-gallon pots containing
Norfolk sandy loam. Three pots containing systems of the same
age were emptied at 3-day intervals and the progress of the
development carefully recorded; material was also taken at
significant stages of development and prepared for future his-
tological study. The general trend of development was as
follows: The first sprouts to appear developed at the tips of
rhizomes which came from buds at or near the apex of the
tuber. Three days after the sprouts appeared an enlargement,
the basal bulb, was evident at the juncture of each sprout and
rhizome. The basal bulbs increased rapidly in diameter and by
the ninth day had formed one or more rhizomes. On the
eighteenth day new aerial shoots and horizontally growing
rhizomes from median and basal buds of the original tuber were
first observed. On this date also the first new tubers were found,
located on rhizomes which originated from the basal bulb. From
the eighteenth to the sixty-ninth day (July 1, 1933) rhizome,
tuber, and sprout formation progressed rapidly, resulting in an
extensive and complex system of nut grass.
Beginning April 10, 1933, an area of Norfolk sandy loam
on the Station farm was plowed with a two-horse turn plow
as often as nut grass sprouts appeared. Prior to July 1,
1933, this area had been plowed seven times. Although the
number and vigor of nut grass sprouts seem to have been re-
duced by plowing, some sprouts are still appearing on the area.
Control of Wild Onion, Altium vineale L. (E. V. Smith).
This work was initiated in October, 1932, with a two-fold object
in view: (1) to study the seasonal distribution and activity
of bulbs and seeds of the wild onion, and (2) to apply the re-
sults of the above study to an investigation of the control of
wild onion with creosote-kerosene or other sprays.
Beginning on October 17, 1932, examinations were made at
intervals of one week, and the number of bulbs at each stage
of activity determined. Approximately 1,200 bulbs were dug
each week.
The bulbs began sprouting some time before the project
was begun and on October 17 only about 15 per cent of the
bulbs were dormant; approximately 40 per cent had sprouted
but the sprouts were not above ground, and the other 45 per
cent had produced sprouts which were above ground. The
bulbs continued to sprout so that on December 26 only about
25
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
1.5 per cent of the bulbs were dormant, approximately 1.5 per
cent of them had sprouted but the sprouts were not yet above
ground, while the remaining 97 per cent had produced sprouts
that were above ground.
Bulbs dug on December 19, 1932, were studied in cross sec-
tion; some of the larger bulbs showed primordia of new sec-
ondary bulbs.
Plots, 5 by 10 feet, were established on onion-infested Ber-
muda grass sod and sprayed on December 20 with a 10-90
creosote-kerosene mixture at rates of 217.8, 435.6, and 653.4
gallons per acre. These plots will be kept under observation.
The Mycosphaerella Disease of Winter Peas, and Diseases
of Winter Peas and Vetches Caused by Ascochyta species. (J.
L. Seal) .- Mycosphaerella pinodes (Beck. and Blox.) Stone,
according to isolation studies, is more generally responsible for
diseases of peas and vetches than the two Ascochyta species.
The latter, however, are frequently encountered in field plant-
ings of winter legumes. Much of the field damage during the
past season was associated with failure of inoculation. Peas
and vetch, when not properly inoculated, are materially weak-
ened and suffer from the above diseases much more than nor-
mal plants. The diseases were far more abundant and spread
more rapidly in plantings after the hosts were weakened by
late winter freezes. These fungi fruit abundantly on weakened
host tissues.
From laboratory studies it has been found that the Ascochy-
tas are carried from season to season in and on the seed more
commonly than Mycosphaerella. All of these organisms may
live from year to year in the imperfect stage on old plant parts.
However, Mycosphaerella may be found producing asci on dead
plant tissues during the late spring and summer months. This
perfect stage is not essential for the organism to live from sea-
son to season in the South, but it does add an additional means
of perpetuating the organism.
These organisms gradually die when the host seeds are stored
for a number of years. In tests made over a four-year period,
however, it was found that, even though the seeds are gradually
freed of the organisms, they are so reduced in germinating
power it is unwise to plant more than one-year old seeds. By
the fourth year the seeds will have completely lost their germi-
nating power.
Crop rotation, planting disease-free seed, and seed treatment
to destroy surface-borne organisms offer the most promising
means of control.
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
ENTOMOLOGY
Life History and Control of Citrus Insects. (L. L. English).
LIFE HISTORY WoRK.-Seven generations of purple scale, Lepi-
dosaphes beckii Newm., were obtained in two years. Three were
obtained each summer and one during the winter. The shortest
life cycle required 52 days and the longest 148 days. Chaff
scale, Partatoria pergandii Comst., has three generations per
season, requiring from 57 to 96 days for the completion of the
life cycle. Records on the seasonal abundance of rust mite,
Eriophyes oleivorus (Ash), show it to be a pest of summer and
early fall. It is particularly injurious in the late summer.
INSECT CONTROL.-A season program of one application of
lime sulphur and two applications of oil gave almost perfect
control of rust mite. The treated blocks ran from 0.5 per cent
to 1.7 per cent russets, whereas the check block ran 45.6 per
cent russets. Lime sulphur at a concentration of 1-50 gave a
high kill of purple scale two weeks or less in age. The effective-
ness of this spray against older scales is more uncertain and
more dependent on weather conditions. A quasi-relationship
has been established between the viscosity of spray oils and their
effectiveness against purple scale. Within the limits of 64 to
96 seconds Saybolt the median lethal dosage of oil is a straight
line function of the viscosity.
Boll Weevil Control with Calcium Arsenate. (J. M. Robin-
son and F. S. Arant).-The work on boll weevil control was
limited in 1932 to dusting cotton at Auburn on Norfolk sandy
loam soil receiving different rates of fertilizer. The infestation
began near the north end of the dusted tier of plots and spread
gradually southward to the undusted tier. The percentage of
punctured squares was higher on the dusted than on the un-
dusted plots at all times from June 18 to August 2, in spite of the
fact that three applications of calcium arsenate were made
during this period; the infestation was especially high on plots
receiving 1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 pounds of fertilizer per acre.
Ten applications of calcium arsenate were made during the
fruiting season of the cotton. Four of the dustings, August 8
to 19 inclusive, were affected by rain within 24 hours. The
yields of cotton on the various plots were slightly above the
six-year average yields. Definite gains in favor of dusting oc-
curred on all fertilized plots. The increased yields of dusted
over undusted cotton were 213, 128, 426, and 400 pounds of seed
cotton per acre, respectively, for the plots receiving 500, 1,000,
1,500, and 2,000 pounds of fertilizer per acre.
27
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Turnip Webworm Control. (J. M. Robinson).-The results
of toxicity tests of various insecticides on the larva of this pest
under cage conditions indicated that barium fluosilicate, sodium
fluosilicate, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate were the most
effective. For quickness of kill they ranked as follows: sodium
fluosilicate, calcium arsenate, barium fluosilicate, and lead ar-
senate. These materials were also tested under field conditions
and the same relative toxicity resulted.
The average amount of dust used per acre for sodium fluo-
silicate was 26 pounds and for calcium arsenate was 9 pounds.
From the cage tests and the field tests, it is evident that sodium
fluosilicate and calcium arsenate are the most effective materials
to use in controlling the turnip webworm larva. When due con-
sideration is given to the amount of dust per acre, the relative
cost per pound, the availability of the material over the State,
and the further fact that calcium arsenate was approximately as
effective as sodium fluosilicate in the cage tests, it is evident that
calcium arsenate is the most satisfactory insecticide to control
the turnip webworm.
Life History and Control of the Cowpea Curculio, Chalco-
dermus aeneus, Boh. (F. S. Arant).-Studies were made in 1932
on certain phases of the life history to supplement studies pre-
viously made. The oviposition period of the cowpea curculio
began the middle of June and was continuous to the first of
October; this was a period corresponding roughly to the fruit-
ing period of the peas. The maximum number of eggs de-
posited by a single female was 281; the average was 111.1.
The maximum number deposited by a female in one day was
10 and the average 2.6. The average number of days in the
incubation period was 3.5.
The immature stages of the cowpea curculio were found to
be parasitized by a tachinid fly, Myiophasia globosa, Tns. Only
2.5 per cent of the curculio observed in 1932, however, were
infested.
Not one of the 1,265 beetles placed in the hibernation cages
during October 1932 survived the winter. There was a 5-per
cent survival in 1931-32.
The third year of tests to determine the susceptibility of
varieties was completed. The percentage of punctured peas
among the various varieties was as follows: California Black
Eye, 61.0 per cent; Six Weeks Pea, 48.4; Virginia Black Eye,
46.7; Dixie Queen Brown Eye, 42.7; Cowpea, 41.9; Conch, 36.0;
White Crowder, 34.4; Taylor, 33; Cream Crowder, 30.3; Speck-
led Crowder, 29.2; Lady Pea, 28.6; Extra Early Black Eye, 28.1;
Victor, 20.7. The average percentage of punctured peas for
the three-year period was as follows: California Black Eye,
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
52.8 per cent; White Crowder, 43.9; Cowpea, 42.6; Dixie Queen
Brown Eye, 42.4; Virginia Black Eye, 39.7; Extra Early Black
Eye, 35.7; Lady Pea, 35.5; Six Weeks Pea, 34.1; Cream Crowder,
31.3; Speckled Crowder, 30.9; Conch, 26.0; Taylor, 25.9; Victor,
20.7.
Dusting tests for the control of the cowpea curculio were
continued. Sodium fluosilicate alone or in combination with
colloidal silica or gypsum materially reduced the infestation
and produced no injury to the cowpea foliage. Lead arsenate
and barium fluosilicate burned the foliage of cowpeas rather
severely; the cowpea curculio infestation was too low on the
peas dusted with these materials to determine their effectiveness.
Biology and Control of the Southern Corn Rootworm, Dia-
brotica 12-punctata, Fabr. (F. S. Arant).-The sixth year of
tests to determine when to turn legumes and when to plant corn
to avoid injury from the Southern corn rootworm was completed
in 1933. Legumes were turned March 16, April 4, and April
19, and five plantings of corn were made at weekly intervals,
beginning the day following each turning. Considerable in-
jury occurred to the early corn following legumes. Little or
no injury occurred to any corn planted May 3 or thereafter.
These results are in accord with those of previous years.
Fungous and Bacterial Diseases of the Pecan Weevil. (H.
S. Swingle and J. L. Seal).-The two parasitic fungi, Metarrhi-
zium anisopliae and Sporotrichium bassiana, have been success-
fully reared in large quantities upon corn meal media. Three
applications of spores were made to the soil around pecan trees
and, while the diseases have apparently become established,
satisfactory control of the pecan weevil larvae has not been
obtained.
Life History and Control of the Pecan Weevil, C. caryae.
(H. S. Swingle).-The infestation of pecan weevils in 1932 was
heavy at Lanett and moderate at Camp Hill, Alabama. The use
of jarring as a control measure combined with the work of
natural parasites has reduced the infestation at the latter place.
Pupation took place in the fall, from September 9 to Oc-
tober 11. The length of the pupal period was approximately
six weeks. A portion of the weevils require two and some three
years for the completion of their life cycle.
Jarring was the most successful measure tried for control
of the pecan weevil. At Lanett, Alabama, 18,000 weevils were
taken from one grove by this method, and over 70 per cent of
the nuts were free of worms at harvest.
29
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
HOME ECONOMICS
A Study of the Calcium and Phosphorus Content of Various
Vegetable Foods Grown in Alabama. (Edna R. Bishop).-The
Ca and P content of a given vegetable varies widely, and usually
in opposite directions; the Ca/P ratio, therefore, varies marked-
ly. Increased rates of fertilizer with phosphate produce a
regular increase in phosphorus content but only a small change
in calcium. The plant materials analyzed were grown in a
greenhouse.
HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY
The Influence of Fertilizer Treatment on Certain Character-
istics of the Irish Potato. (L. M. Ware).-Laboratory studies
during the past year show in a very consistent way that as the
rate of application of a complete fertilizer is increased there is
a decrease in the percentage of reducing sugars, total sugars,
total solids and starch in the tubers and a reduction in the elec-
trical resistance of the juices. Field and storage studies show
correspondingly a definite increase in yield and plant vigor and
a progressive decrease in the shrinkage of tubers in storage with
each added amount of fertilizer. Little or no consistent differ-
ences in tubers could be attributed to a given element or to a
given source of material.
Species Composition of Burned and Unburned Forest Plots.
(L. M. Ware).-Data taken this year from one acre plots es-
tablished in 1926 on a cut-over pine area show a very signifi-
cant difference in the number of trees of different species on
the burned and unburned areas. On the area which has been
burned each year since 1926 there were 31 pine, 49 sweet gum,
268 sassafras, and 84 oak. On the area which has been burned
at five-year intervals-1927 and 1932-there were 79 pine, 76
sweet gum, 24 sassafras, and 9 oak. On the area which had
not been burned, there were 670 pine, 231 sweet gum, 29 sassa-
fras, and 43 oak. Four well spaced pine trees were left on each
area for reseeding purposes.
Causes of Crop Failures on New Ground. (L. M. Ware and
J. K. Boseck).-In the southern counties of Alabama, and es-
pecially in the counties bordering the Gulf, crop failures have
so often followed the effort to grow crops on new ground that
there has developed a general opinion among farmers, and es-
pecially among truck growers, that new ground is not suited
to the growing of many crops the first year after clearing.
After two years of experimental work in South Alabama,
30
Forty-Fourth Annual Report
the principal causes of failure have been determined and the
fact established that probably any of the truck or field crops
generally grown in this section of the state can be grown suc-
cessfully on new ground the first year after clearing. The al-
most complete absence of available phosphorus and the very
high nitrogen requirement the first year, are the two factors
which control crop production in the southern counties of this
state on fresh new ground.
Records on six truck crops and as many field crops indicate
that where no phosphorus is applied to new ground practically
no yield is made. Complete failure with some crops follows
where no phosphorus is added. Records on six truck crops
also show that a much higher rate of application of nitrogen
must be given to crops grown the first year after clearing on
new ground than in later years. Laboratory studies have indi-
cated that this is due to a locking up of the added nitrogen by
bacterial activity encouraged by the abundant supply of readily
available organic material. Nitrogen must therefore be sup-
plied in quantities sufficient to meet the requirements of the indi-
vidual crop in addition to the nitrogen locked by bacterial ac-
tivity. It appears now that new ground soils may be made quite
productive if it is recognized that available phosphorus is almost
absent from fresh land and that more nitrogen must be applied
to crops the first year than in later years.
A Promising Variety of Plum. (O. C. Medlock).-Observa-
tions since 1926 on the performance of the Methley plum indi-
cate that the vigor and productivity of the tree and the quality
of fruit are such that growers in Alabama should give this va-
riety a trial. The fruit ripens about June 1 and is good for both
dessert and culinary purposes.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
Nodule Numbers and Yields of Spanish Peanut Plants as
Affected by Inoculation. (J. F. Duggar).-Artificial inoculation
of unhulled seed peanuts with peanut pure cultures invariably
resulted in large increases in average number of both total and
large nodules per plant of the Spanish peanut variety grown at
Auburn on Norfolk soils. The increase in total nodules in 1930,
1931, and 1932 average 305 per cent on the unfertilized plots
planted with unhulled seed, and 142 per cent on those planted
with shelled Spanish peanuts.
Yields of dry nuts in four experiments were increased above
those of the non-inoculated plants by 27 per cent on the un-
fertilized plots and by 33 per cent on those that received phos-
phate.
32 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Effects of Commercial Fertilizers on Nodule Numbers on
Spanish Peanut Plants. (J. F. Duggar).-Nodule numbers were
usually increased above those on the unfertilized plots by ap-
plications in 1930, 1931, and 1932 of basic slag phosphate,
superphosphate, muriate of potash, or hydrated lime in custom-
ary amounts and not in contact with the unhulled Spanish pea-
nut seed. This is in contrast with a depression in nodule num-
bers, especially on the young plants, where superphosphate
and muriate of potash were placed in immediate contact with
the unhulled seed.
Differences in the Formation of Root Nodules on Spanish
and Runner Peanut Plants. (J. F. Duggar).-In each of two
years Runner peanut plants not artificially inoculated bore large
numbers of root nodules in contrast with scant nodule forma-
tion on adjacent uninoculated Spanish peanut plants.