RESEARCH UPDATE
t1991
POULTRY
Feeding Low Levels of Phosphorus to Layers Increases
the Risk of Bone and Kidney Disorders
Some egg producers tend to feed
marginal or deficient levels of phos-
phorous (P) because P sources are
expensive and an improvement in
egg shell quality is occasionally ob-
served when dietary P levels are
lowered. However, a recent AAES
study showed that hens excreted
abnormally high amounts of cal-
cium through the urine when they
were fed layer diets containing low
levels of phosphorus. This reaction
is not economical from the layer
nutrition viewpoint, and the associ-
ated urinary condition may ad-
versely affect health of the birds.
The purpose of the study was to
determine the influence of various
levels of dietary calcium (4 and 6
percent) and phosphorus (0.3 and
0.6 percent total) on plasma ionic
calcium (Ca"
+
) and inorganic phos-
phorus (P) and on urinary calcium.
Two hundred and forty Hyline
W36 hens were equally allocated to
four layer diets containing different
combinations of calcium and phos-
phorus, as shown in the table.
Urine and blood were collected
for analysis from the hens after 3
and 10 days of feeding the treat-
ment diets.
Influence of Differer
At the 
4 per- 
Ionc Ca (Cc-
cent dietary cal-
cium level, the
hens fed diets 
Samples
containing low
phosphorus (0.3
percent total) had Third day sampling
lower plasma P, Plasma Ca- (mg/dL
higher plasma 
Plasma P, (mg/dL)..
Ca*, 
and three- 
Urinary 
Ca (mg/dL).
fold higher ur- Tenth day samplin
inary concentra- Pasma Cr(/dL
Plasma P, (mg/dL) ..
tions than the Urinary Ca (mg/dL).
ones fed diets
containing 0.6 percent total phos-
phorus. The detrimental effect of
feeding low levels of phosphorus
was further enhanced when the
diet contained excess amounts of
calcium. The increase in urinary Ca
excretion caused by lowering di-
etary phosphorus was five-fold
when the diet contained 6 percent
calcium.
The excretion of high amounts of
calcium through urine may cause
hens to develop either or both of the
following health problems: (1) If the
calcium in the urine comes from
bone, prolonged calcium excretion
may deplete bones and cause cage
layer fatigue. (2) The excesscalcium
nt Dietary P and Ca Levels on Urinary Ca, Plasma
), and Inorganic P (P) in Commercial Layers
Dietary levels of Ca and total P
4% Ca, 4% Ca, 6% Ca, 6% Ca,
0.6% P 0.3% P 0.6% P 0.3% P
...... 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.6
........ 4.8 3.3 4.7 2.4
........ 48.7 140.2 64.9 214.4
g
) ...... 5.8 6.4 6.4 6.5
........ 6.7 4.1 7.1 3.8
........ 41.6 98.8 67.4 154.0
in the urine may react with uric acid
present in the urine to form solid
urates which can block urine flow
and cause damage to kidneys.
In the field, if hens are predis-
posed to any low dietary phospho-
rus-induced stress, they are very
susceptible to other pathogenic
agents present in the environment,
which complicates the diagnosis of
the origin of the problem. Although
feed costs will increase by adding a
sufficient margin of safety in di-
etary phosphorus content, the
costs can be offset by the savings
gained by improved flock perfor-
mance and reduced mortality.
K.S. Rao and D.A. Roland, Sr.
'LBA ! & IUL EXEIMN STAIO 'AUBURN UNIERIT
LOWELL T. Fitosism, IRCO A R UNV SIYALBM
Synthetic Vitamin D
3 
Metabolites
Improve Bone Strength In Aged Layers
Dietary vitamin D
3 
is con-
verted in the liver and kidney to an
active hormonal form of the vita-
min, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin 
D
3
.
This metabolite of vitamin D
3 
plays
a major role in calcium and phos-
phorus metabolism in the body,
stimulating the release of these
two minerals for building bone and
egg shell. The natural decline in
egg shell quality and bone
strength with age is believed to be
the result of a decrease in the bird's
ability to metabolize vitamin 
D
3
.
Based on this theory, experiments
were conducted at Auburn using
aged laying hens (70 weeks of age)
to determine if vitamin D
3 
me-
tabolites, namely 1,25-dihydro-
xyvitamin D
3 
and 1-alpha-hydr-
oxyvitaminD
3
, when supplemented
in the diet would improve bone
strength and egg shell quality.
In the first experiment, supple-
mentation with either metabolite
The Effects
Vitamin D
caused an increase in
bone weight, but no
improvement was 1,25 (OH)
2 
D
3
evident 
in bone 
(gg/kg)
breaking 
strength 
or
in egg shell quality. 
................
In the second experi- 1.0...............
ment, three levels of
1,25-(OH)
2 
D
3 
were fed at each of
four different levels 
of vitamin D
3
.
Results showed that improved
bone weight, bone breaking
strength, and egg shell quality
resulted from adding the metabolite
to a vitamin D
3
-deficient diet, see
table. When birds were fed a diet
containing 1500 ICU D
3
/kg
supplemented with 1,25-(OH)
2 
D
3
,
the response was not as pro-
nounced.
Egg specific gravity was im-
proved with the metabolite; how-
ever, an observed decrease in egg
weight would account, in part, for
this improvement. Shell weight,
of Dietary Supplementation of 1,25 (OH)
2 
D
3 
to a
Deficient Diet on Bone and Egg Shell Strength
Bone Bone breaking Egg Shell Egg
weight strength specific weight weight
(g) (kgF) gravity (g) (g)
5.1 5.8 1.0732 5.05 63.9
6.0 7.6 1.0773 5.51 65.4
5.9 7.4 1.0782 5.52 64.8
percent shell, and egg breaking
strength were not significantly im-
proved by feeding the metabolite.
However, bone breaking strength
and bone weight were significantly
increased by adding the metabolite
when sufficient vitamin D
3 
was fed.
These results indicate that, in the
aged hen, vitamin D
3 
is sufficiently
metabolized to maintain egg shell
quality. However, the increases in
bone strength due to supplemental
1,25-(OH)
2 
D
3 
suggests that vitamin
D
3
is not sufficiently metabolized to
the active form [1,25-(OH)
2 
D
3] 
inthe
blood to maintain bone strength.
T.J. Frost and D.A. Roland, Sr.
New Vaccine Tested for Control of Reovirus Diseases in Broilers
Avian reoviruses, prevalent in
poultry-producing regions world-
wide, cause poor digestion and ab-
sorption of nutrients.
Control of reoviruses through im-
munization of broiler breeder stocks
was thought to be effective in the
past. However, this immunization
method has proven ineffective in
recent years, particularly in broiler
males reared for an extended
growout period.
Early immunization of these
birds with a live virus can induce
extended resistance to reovirus in-
fection. Unfortunately, live highly
attenuated vaccines given at 1 day
of age in conjunction with Marek's
disease(MD) vaccine interferes with
the replication of MD vaccine caus-
ing increased MD condemnations.
"
Less attenuated reovirus vaccines
administered through drinking
water (DW) routes are generally too
reactive to use in broilers less than 2
weeks of age.
These problems point to the need
for a reovaccine which is safe, not
reactive, does not interfere with
other vaccines, and is effective in
young chicks. AAES research
evaluated a new reovirus vaccine
for vaccination of chickens be-
tween 1 and 7 days of age. This
product, Enterovax?, is a modified
mild-reacting cell cultured cloned
reovirus vaccine produced by
Schering-Plough Animal Health,
Kenilworth, New Jersey.
In the first trial, day-old specific
pathogen free (SPF) broilers were
given this reovirus vaccine mixed
2
with Newcastle disease (ND) and
infectious bronchitis (IB) vaccines
by coarse spray (CS) route. In-
fectious bursal disease (IBD) virus
vaccine was also given by subcuta-
neous route (SQ). At 2 weeks of age,
chicks were challenged with reovi-
rus. Results showed that vacci-
nated chicks had resistance to infec-
tion as measured by the absence of
gross lesions and high body weights
at 42 days of age. Antibody titers
against IBDV, NDV, and IBV
showed no interference among the
four vaccine viruses.
Trial 2 was done with commercial
broilers having maternal antibody
to reovirus. Birds were vaccinated
at 1 day of age with reovirus by
CS or SQ routes. Some of the
continued on page 3
New Vaccine, continued
Enterovax-vaccinated birds were
also given MD vaccine by SQ or MD
vaccine alone. At 2 weeks, birds
were either challenged with viru-
lent MD or reovirus. Results
showed that vaccinated challenged
birds had significant resistance to
reovirus challenge at 7 weeks of age.
MD-challenge results showed no in-
terference with the two vaccines.
A third trial was done in commer-
cial broilers with maternal immu-
nity that had been vaccinated under
commercial conditions. Birds were
either vaccinated in the company's
hatchery at 1 day of age by CS
mixed with ND-IBV vaccines and/
or 7 days of age in the broiler house.
Some of the 7-day-old vaccinates
received reovirus vaccine by CS
and others by DW. Birds were
challenged with reovirus at 21
days of age.
Birds vaccinated at 1 day of age by
CS, at 1 and 7 days by CS, at 7 days
by CS, or at 1 day by CS and 7 days
by DW had protection against chal-
lenge at 6 weeks of age. However, a
single vaccination at 1 day of age
was inferior to the other three vacci-
nation regimes. There were no dif-
ferences in results between the three
7-day vaccine regimes, indicating
that a single vaccination at 7 days
by CS or DW is sufficient to induce
resistance to infection.
Results indicate that Enterovax
given by CS or DW route between 1
and 7 days of age will effectively
induce immunity in broilers with
maternal antibodies and will not
interfere with other vaccines given
simultaneously.
J.J. Giambrone
Intestinal Immunization
Necessary for Effective
Control of Salmonella
The contamination of poultry
products with Salmonella enteritidis
is an international public health
problem in the poultry industry.
Many procedures have been used
with variable 
degrees of 
success in
attempts to lower the incidence of
contamination, but the problem still
persists.
It is reasonable to assume that vac-
cination would limit or lower the
rate of S. enteritidis contamination in
poultry. A vaccine developed at the
AAES induced a good antibody re-
continued on page 4
Composting Offers An Alternative for Disposal of Dead Birds
Mortality is a normal component
of broiler production. For a flock of
100,000 broilers grown to 49 days of
age and averaging 0.1 percent daily
mortality (4.9 percent total mortal-
ity), approximately 5 tons of dead
birds require disposal.
Identification of alternative meth-
ods for the disposal of mortalities
has been recognized as a priority by
the poultry industry due to newly
imposed local, State, and federal
environmental regulations.
Presently, burial pits are com-
monly used for dead bird disposal
on poultry farms; however, the per-
sistence of residues in these types of
pits after years of use and the poten-
tial for ground water contamination
are emerging reasons for considering
alternative methods of disposal. In-
cineration is one of the biologically
safest methods of disposal; however,
it is slow, expensive, and may gen-
erate air pollution.
Composting, a natural process by
which organic waste material is
broken down by naturally oc-
curring microorganisms into a more
useful end product, is an environ-
mentally and biologically safe al-
ternative for the disposal of poultry
farm mortalities. It is critical that
the composting 
process results 
in
inactivation of pathogenic (avian and
human) microorganisms before
compost is applied to land. The
elimination of pathogens is brought
about by thermal inactivation
through heat generated during a
normal composting cycle.
A commercial on-farm composter
was investigated by AAES re-
searchers to determine changes in
microbial populations, tempera-
ture, and moisture over a typical
composting cycle. During com-
posting, the population of total
aerobic bacteria remained relatively
constant throughout primary and
secondary composting. High levels
of enteric (coliform) bacteria declined
only slightly during primary
composting, but were reduced to
nondetectable levels once the com-
post was aerated by transfer to a
secondary composting bin.
Temperatures in the primary bin
increased within 3-5 days to, 110-
1200 Fand remained steady until the
material was transferred 7-8 days
later to the secondary bin. Tem-
peratures in the secondary bin'
quickly achieved 140-1500 F and re-
mained steady during 25 days of
composting. Moisture levels varied
from 25 to 45 percent.
Results of this study indicate that
coliform bacteria were effectively
inactivated during composting, in-
dicating that enteric pathogens such
as Salmonella would be inactivated.
Results further indicate that aera-
tion due to transfer of compost from
the primary to secondary bin is
critical for temperature generation
and the resultant thermal inactiva-
tion of enteric bacteria.
Based on this evaluation, compost-
ing appears to be an environmen-
tally and microbiologically sound
method for the disposal of dead
poultry.
D.E. Conner, J.P. Blake, and J.O. Donald
3
Intestinal Immunization, coninued
sponse in the circulation of chickens
against S. enteritidis.
Challenge of vaccinated chickens
with live, virulent Salmonella re-
vealed that the chickens were resis-
tant to visceral infection but S.
enteritidis was still able to colonize
parts of the intestine. This indicated
that Salmonella contamination was
still possible in spite of the good
immune response.
It was concluded that specific im-
munization of the intestinal tract of
chickens is necessary to effectively
control Salmonella contamination. A
vaccine is being developed to in-
duce a secretory immune response
in the digestive tract of chickens.
E.C. Mora
Light:Dark Ratios Can be Adjusted for
Broiler Breeder Production
Rearing broiler breeder replace-
ments on a daily light regime of 8
hours light (L) and 16 hours dark (D)
from 2 to 20 weeks of age will effec-
tively stimulate onset of egg pro-
duction. However, reducing the
hours of light would help to reduce
energy requirements for lighting
and thus lower the cost of rearing
replacements. An AAES study was
conducted to determine if different
periods of daily light could be used
without detrimental effectsonbroiler
breeder replacements.
After 1 week in which all birds
were subjected to 23 hours L and 1
hour D daily, these four light:dark
ratios were compared:
4 hours L:20 hours D
6 hours L:18 hours D
8 hours L:16 hours D
10 hours L:14 hours D
Each treatment involved 300
broiler breeder females and 40 males
which remained on the light treat-
ments (with all other management
practices standard for all) until 20
weeks old. They were then moved
to a breeder house and subjected to
a standard 15 hours L:9 hours D
regime for the next 30 weeks. Pro-
duction was evaluated for the 30-
week period to determine effects of
light treatment during rearing on
reproductive performance of the
adult birds.
Females grown with 4 hours L:20
hours D daily matured 11 days later
than those raised on 6,8, or 10 hours
of light. As a result, the 4-hour light
females reached peak production
later than the others, had lower pro-
duction during weeks 23-30, and had
lower total production to 50 weeks
of age. In contrast, there was no
difference in production to 50 weeks
among those raised on 6, 8, or 10
hours of light daily, as listed below:
Eggs to
Light ratio 50 weeks
4 hours L:20 hours D 123
6 hours L:18 hours D 132
8 hours L:16 hours D 131
10 hours L:14 hours D 131
Hen-day eggproduction was 63.9,
68.4, 67.3, and 67.0 percent, respec-
tively, for the 4, 6, 8, and 10 hours
daily light. Those raised on 6,8, and
10 hours of light peaked in produc-
tion (reached approximately 80 per-
cent lay) by 29 weeks of age. There
was no difference in average egg
weight, egg specific gravity, and
body weight of females as a result of
light regimes.
In males, sexual maturity was de-
layed for 7 days by the 4-hour daily
light regime. There were no differ-
ences among the 6, 8, and 10 hours
daily light groups. Body weight,
semen concentration, and semen
volume were unaffected by lighting.
Since the results show no differ-
ences among the lighting regimes
using 6, 8, and 10 hours of light per
day, regimes other than the stan-
dard 8 hours L:16 hours D can be
used for rearing broiler breeder re-
placements.
G.R. McDaniel
4
Recycled Paper Chips
Suitable as Broiler Litter
Pine shavings are the principal
material currently used as broiler
litter in the Southeast. However, the
recent development of the compos-
ite board industry has resulted in a
decrease in the availability and an
increase in the cost of pine shavings.
This situation, coupled with the
continued expansion of the broiler
industry, has resulted in an in-
creased demand for alternative
litter materials.
Many types of materials have
been investigated for use as poultry
litter but, to date, none has been
adopted for widespread use by the
broiler industry. Litter materials
derived from waste newspapers of-
fer an attractive alternative to pine
shavings since waste newspapers
are widely availableand rela-
tively inexpensive. Furthermore,
newspapers currently take up a
large percentage of available
landfill space and, hence, there is
political and economic pressure to
recycle this material.
When used as broiler litter, mate-
rials derived from recycled paper
products have been observed to
have a higher moisture content
and result in a greater degree of
litter caking than wood shavings.
However, by processing recycled
newspaper into a chip form, it may
be possible to create a litter ma-
terial which will be suitable for
use by the broiler industry.
In a recent AAES study, ultra-ab-
sorbent recycled paper chips (Ad-
vanced Material Technology, Inc.,
Ashville, Alabama), formed by com-
pletely reprocessing waste newspa-
pers, were tested at the Poultry Re-
search Unit to determine their suit-
ability for use as litter material for
growingbroilers. Litter, growth, and
processing parameters were deter-
mined while using paper chips or
pine shavings for rearing broilers.
continued on page 5
Recycled Paper Chips, continued
In the first trial, broilers were
grown to 51 days of age in pens
prepared with 4 inches of either
clean paper chips or pine shavings.
In the second trial, 1 inch of clean
paper chips or pine shavings was
added to stirred litter remaining in
each pen from the first trial and
groups of broilers were grown to
50 days of age.
Production parameters such as
body weight, feed consumption and
conversion, dressing percentage, and
the occurrences of mortality, breast
blisters, and leg abnormalities were
not influenced by litter treatment in
either trial. Litter moisture levels
were greater in the recycled paper
chip treatment at 21 days in the first
trial and were slightly but consis-
tently elevated in the recycled paper
chips throughout the second trial.
Litter caking was also greater in the
recycled paper chipsthroughout the
first trial, but did not differ between
treatments during the second trial.
Prior to use in the trials, pine shav-
ings contained higher levels of bac-
terial and fungal contaminants.
Populations of bacteria were also
greater in the used pine shavings a
week after completion of the second
trial. However, microbial popula-
tions did not differ between treat-
ments during the growing period of
either trial.
Although litter caking and mois-
ture levels were often greater in the
paper chip treatment, production
parameters were not adversely af-
fected in either trial. Generally, litter
caking and the buildup of litter
moisture lead to increased occur-
rences of breast blisters and leg ab-
normalities which can decrease
production performance. However,
due to differences in the structure,
absorbency, and texture of different
litter materials, moisture and caking
levels may not always increase the
tendency for these problems to
develop. Based on these results, it
appears these chips have potential
as a litter material.
R.J. Lien, D.E. Conner, and S.F. Bilgili
Lysine Requirement for Finishing Feed Differs
Among Strain-Crosses
Genetic selection for growth rate
and conformation has effectively
increased the market weights and
processing yields of broilers. How-
ever, under commercial conditions
secondary influences such as nutri-
tion, management, and diseases are
often superimposed to alter the live
performance and carcass yields.
In a recent study, male broilers
from eight commercial strain-crosses
(SC) were placed in replicated pens
(40 birds per pen; 8 pens per SC) and
fed common starter (23 percentcrude
protein, 3220 kcal metabolizable
energy/kg) and grower (20 percent
crude protein, 3220 kcal metaboliz-
able energy/kg) diets during 1-21
and 21-42 days, respectively. Dur-
ing the finisher period from 42 to 53
days, two levels of lysine (L), 0.85
percent (LL) and 0.95 percent (HL),
were fed (4 pens per SC) in the fin-
isher diet (18 percent crude protein,
3220 kcal metabolizable energy/
kg). Live performance (body weight,
weight gain, feed:gain ratio, and
mortality) and processing yields
(abdominal fat, wing, drtnstick,
thigh, and deboned breast fillets
and tenders) were determined.
The strain-crosses differed signifi-
cantly in body weight (at 1, 21, 42,
and 53 days), weight gain, and
feed:gain ratio (for the periods 1-21,
21-42 and 1-53 days). Broilers on HL
were significantly heavier at53 days.
Significant differences in chilled
carcass and abdominal fat weights,
percent chilled carcass, abdominal
fat, breast fillets, breast tenders,
drumstick, thigh, and wing yields
existed among the SC.
Significant response to high lysine
(0.95 percent) in the finisher feed
was observed for total deboned
breast (fillets and tenders combined)
weight and yield as a percent of
chilled carcass weight (exclud-
ing the abdominal fat).
The variation observed in live
performance and in processing
yields of commercially available
strain-crosses is attributed to differ-
ences in rate and degree of maturity
at market age. The optimum lysine
requirement of male broilers
during the finisher period appears
to be strain-cross dependent and
may be higher than the 0.85 percent
recommended by the National
Research Council.
S.F. Bilgili, E.T. Moran, Jr., and N. Acar
Shorter Light Periods Reduce Leg Abnormalities
at the Expense of Yield
Leg abnormalities are a major
problem in the broiler industry. Leg
problems can be reduced by restrict-
ing growth of the chicks during
their first 2 to 3 weeks of life either
directly by feed restriction or indi-
rectly through manipulation of the
lighting program.
The use of lighting programs to
restrict feed intake has economic
advantages since it does not require
increased feeding equipment and
allows greater bird density. How-
ever, a delicate balance must be
maintained between reducing leg
abnormalities and maximizing yield
of edible meat. An AAES experi-
ment was conducted to identify
lighting programs which will allevi-
ate leg problems and allow accept-
able meat yields.
Day-old commercial broiler chicks
were placed into one of the four light
treatments. Treatment 1 was 23
hours light (L):I hour dark (D) from
continued on page 6
5
I mt~ncs aurlne: me ero~
Carcass and Yield Characteristics of Male Broilers
Processed at 57 Days of Age
Variable 
Result, 
by treatment
1 2 3 4
Prechilled carcass, lb.. 5.20 5.22 5.03 5.12
Chilled carcass, Ib...... 5.23 5.27 5.03 5.12
Abdominal leaf fat, lb.. .18 .20 .17 .19
Lean carcass', Ib......... 5.05 5.07 4.87 4.94
W ings, lb ................... .57 .57 .56 .55
Drumsticks, Ib ........... .73 .73 .71 .70
Thighs, lb ................... .88 .90 .87 .87
Tenders, lb .................. .24 .23 .22 .23
Fillet, Ib. ... ........... 1.01 .99 .95 .97
Cage,lb ..................... 1.54 1.57 1.48 1.53
' Lean carcass = chilled carcass-leaf fat.
Shorter Light Periods, continued
1 day of age to 8 weeks of age.
Treatment 2 was an intermittent
schedule of 1 hour L: 3 hours D
repeated from 1 day to 8 weeks of
age. Treatment 3 was 6 hours L:18
hours D from I day to 2 weeks of age
and 1 hour L:3 hours D repeated
thereafter. Treatment 4 was 6 hours
L:18 hours D from I1 day to 2 weeks
of age and 23 hours L:1 hour D
thereafter.
Body weights of birds provided
short light periods (treatments 3
and 4) for their first 2 weeks of
age were reduced compared to the
conventional (treatment 1) and
intermittent (treatment 2) light
programs. However, body
weights were not statistically
different at 56 days of age. Feed
efficiency (feed consumed per body
weight) was not different among
treatments.
Legs of broilers were scored visu-
ally at 42 and 57 days of age as being
normal or abnormal (i.e., twisted,
bowed, swollen, and/or scabby).
The percentage of abnormal legs
increased with age and was lower
EDITOR'S NOTE
Mention of company or trade names does not indicate
endorsement by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station or Auburn University of one brand over another.
Any mention of non-label uses or applications in excess of
labeled rates of pesticides or other chemicals does not
constitute a recommendation. Such use in research is
simply part of the scientific investigation necessary to
fully evaluate materials and treatments.
Information contained herein is available to all persons
without regard to race, color, sex, or national origin.
January 1991 2M
in treatment 3 compared to
treatment 1. Legs were
scored for the presence or
absence of tibial dys-
chondroplasia (TD) at 13,
42, and 57 days of age. Broil-
ers in treatment 3 showed
better recovery from TD
compared to other treatments
at 57 days.
Carcass and yield charac-
teristics (deboned meat plus
drumsticks and thighs) are
shown in the table. Carcass
weights and weights of parts were
lower in treatment 3 compared to
treatment 1, although values
were not statistically different.
The lighting program used in
treatment 3 was successful in de-
creasing the incidence of leg prob-
lems, but meat yields were also
reduced. Economic decisions can
be made by the broiler industry
for exchange of leg abnormali-
ties for yield.
J.A. Renden, S.F. Bilgili, R.J. Lien, and
S.A. Kincaid
CONTRIBUTORS TO POULTRY SCIENCE RESEARCH PROGRAM 1989-90
Agri-Bio Corp.
Alabama Poultry & Egg Assoc.
American Cyanamid Co.
Ethyl Corp.
Hoechst-Roussel (Agri-Vet Division)
Hoffman-LaRoche
Indian River Co.
Nutribasics Co.
Pitman-Moore Co.
Public Health Service
Ralston Purina Co.
Ross Breeders, Inc.
Southeastern Poultry & Egg Assoc.
USDA/ARS
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Alabama,Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University
Auburn University, Alabama 36849-0520
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. 9
AUBURN, ALA.
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