J)i,}2//ri Ii / Jj 7 Jj ~VV~VYVYYVVWvvwWWVWWWwwuww~ jarming Systems R(esearch and Extension in j~ali - 1986-1994 INTRODUCTION 5 History of FSR Program in Mali 5 Objectives of the Program 6 Collaborative Linkages 6 The USAID/JER Faringm Sy stemn Research Methodology in Mali 7 Project Site and Rationale for Choice 7 Availaible Resotirces tor Pi ogram Implementaition 9 Implementation Strategy 10 THE SECID FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCI I AND EXTENSION UNIT 10 STRUCTURE, RATIONALE, AND BENEFITS OF FSR PROGRAM (OHV AND MOPTI VOL ETS) 11 Comnpleinentarity of FSR Components ___________________________________________ I I Expected Socio-Economnic Benefits of the Programn 13 DIAGNOSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM 14 Rapid Rcc nnais-,ance SurFvCN 14 Charaictcrization of the Pi odUCtion Systein 14 Goas of and Constiraints to AgricLttural Production 21 DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGIES FOR INCREASED CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION 26 Technology Development in the OHV Zone 26 Some Diagnostic and Specific Studies 27 Experimentation and Otherl Studies 28 Technical and Economic Evaluation ot Proposed Technologies 46 Intermedite Imipact Indicaitors of Technologies Proposed bv FSR/E 49 INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 54__________________________ Improvement of Reseairch Capacity 5 Ti ining and Short-term Consultants _____________________________________________54 FINANCIAL MANAGEMIENT 55 INFORMATION SYSTEM\,S MANAGEMENT 55 BUDGET 56 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND PO1LICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND EXTENSION 57 REFERENCES 58 APPENDICES -8 PUBLICATIONS LIST 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This project was supported by USAID Con- tract No. AFR-0232-C-6031-00 and executed by the Southeastern Consortium for Interna- tional Development, with Auburn University as the lead institution. 'Ac -c ie, 2k 44- Ftoncnn in ;&IMeI; - 19R;1QQ4 ANTHONY K. YEBOAH AND RICHARD L. GUTHRIE 1 INTRODUCTION HISTORY OF FSR PROGRAM IN MALI The Department of National Farming Systems Research (NFSR) is one of six departments in the Institute of Rural Economy (IER). The department is charged with conducting farming systems research (FSR) throughout Mali by establish- ing FSR teams in each ecological zone (Long-term Plan, OHV Volet, March 1990). During the initial stages of its creation, the department's activities were concentrated in the southern part of the coun- try: the Fonsebougou volet initiated research activities in the following zones: Tominian, Koutiala, et Kadiolo, while the Bougouni-Sikasso volet started activities in Yanfolila, Kolondieba, and Koumantou. 1 Professor of Agricultural Economics, North Carolina A&T University and Professor of Agronomy and Soils, Au- burn University. In 1986, the OHV volet was started with funding from USAID and the Government of Mali to carry out farming sys- tems research work in central Mali. Finally, in late 1991, a FSR team was set up in the fifth region of Mali based at Mopti. The Mopti team of the NFSR program is now operational with the financial and technical support of USAID and the Gov- ernment of Mali. Thus the department has four major projects each man- aged by a coordinator, however, this document deals only with the OHV and Mopti Volets. (1) Fonsebougou Volet: This project is financed jointly by the Dutch and Mali governments and is in its fourth phase. The project currently has both research and pre-extension ac- tivities. (2) Bougouni-Sikasso Volet: This project was initially fi- nanced by the Canadian government then brought under J67Fk'UIk'/g S1J LCVV7 kCsC67r 6 67t'/6 FXtCk'lsiGk'1 iP'7 VZ~i1i 1986 1996 UIJPl tundin', until this y ear. The piroject CLiii-Clitix ha>1, V th reseai ch and pie exteflxion ,icti\ tie>. 3) OH\/ Valet: This project xrairted in Juine 1986 is ti- nmnced jointly bxy USAlP) midi the Govxerment at Maili. The piaJ CCt 11 ha i Ceeiich, pre-extensian and demalnxtra tioan actix itiex. (4) Mopti Valet: This volet max xtated laite in 1991, at tr ai two veai delmx, tindet the joint ttindin, at USAID and the Goxveirnment at Mal. The main act ivity pertairmed laist x eur wax1 ai rapid reconnaissmnce survey. The 1992-93 agriculturail xeaxant wxill he its titxt icxeaieh xemi. OBJECTIVES OFTHE PROGRAM TilIF N.ATIONA\L OBJFCTIVES The ax ciall abjectix c Of the N ational Paimninl Sx stcm pta0 tji am, is to enhlAnCe the dex'eOlapmeni t OfteCIxixlagO(ie and rural develapmrent policy actians that ate aidapted ta the aIWICtull diti~ n> at tai-re in arder to increase taod production and en- able the caointirx ta achiexc s elt xutfic.iency in taad praduictnon aind ai ,reater food SeCff tii tr Specitic proriam objectives in- Celude the tallaxx in': (1I) Ta xruldx the cuirrent tarmin', sys temxs inl Mil 'so ax to identify tarmer>s prablem>in aind pat tic Llar the tchlnicall anld sac ia caonaiic constraint., to nexx technolag\N aIdaptionl. (2) Ta dcx elap a1 S\vxtem~ at Ca11mnicatian betxx cci tarmll ers, thematic i exearclxei , and dexvelopers so i to inltlInCC thle objectrive>, and thle mlerlxidalo'x at the thematic i eseaich and dICx e pmnCntalI programs in the rutal irca>s to aiddi c thle aICtulI proibleims and needs at tat mers. (3) To dCx clap inll(1 collabritatio n wxithx tarmer>, the- mritic reseairdcier and extension aettarmiixg technoligicW that ire adapted to tairmet>' coanditian>, and wxhichx allex iare the imijor production COnItlraintx faced by t~irmci>. (4) To propose to dcxvelopment policy imkcrs clemnrt>" tar the desig(n at ag(riCLttit al dcevelopment pal ic ic> wxhich lx re adalpted to the fitrming sys>tems cotiditions. (5) Ta train nationalxc icntixr> and technic ian> ta a imefll fLil responsibi lity inl the implementation at the national proa gi1-l amota Milli. Fo'US AND OBJECTI\TS OF TI IL FSR/E suppoiRT TO THE NATIONAL FSR PROG RAM The miiiii tocuS at thc FSR/E xuLlppOrt to the miitioiiil [SR aI01lml i> to iiiipi axe2 the tresearch cipabiliries at the prn iix The output A tihe xupirt ix to leald to al bettet- uiderxtmidinug at the total ti m nx it amnrt and sys>tems, at ptrodution thi itigh' identiticati1on atmijar ci nstritint> and prax idin'- luion> thiotighI' Uninterrupted reeat clx and t(2chn0lagx cx\ aItion. USAIID/IFR FSR/[ ix expected to taiciliiite the cx naon at ixtegi rited FSR aictix irie> thait strengthxen the lna hutxxcci aixt xiat ioix teeit dxcix, extetxxian agcits aind tat itier>. The global abjectixve at the prograux SuppOrt is to tic ili- irare the reali-zation at tlxe ixattixal objectixvcx: (1) bv providin, technxiical and rexOLirce suipport ti Ixhe ixittioal prog'raim in deticieixt area>s at rexearchx gap>; (2) byN dcx eloping agr-ICuIlrmit l teclxixlogi6ex xxhichx ate relevant to tairmets' need> and circumittitanicex, (3) bx axxsirin tixrle exaltiaton at tecxixlogliex anxd 11x cx ilxing appri e mid mnetlxadali ie> tar ctticitent dittfusion mid aldopriox; (4) byx hxelpinxg to trinl nattoxal FSR xccixntitic t ecich pet xonnel and techxnical taift; () bx prooxidiixg tclxnical aidxixorx- xcix ]ice>s to the mla t tixal rcearmch lix ,eixcral anxd FSR in pairtic ulat. COLLABORATIVE LINKAGES D)iffereixt xversioxs at collaboi itix e liixkigex necexat xftr an ettic ient FS-R pi i atix Ixi Ve beenx dJ c uixxixred over thle x ear>. Thxe version xtimixariced bxeloxx hx&) beeen wxidely uixed ix other coiinriic> iix rxe -Sahel Rcegian. Thxe call ibixttix e liixk, mm-a be dexcribed ix shoxx ini Fig- LieI Bexides txe tarmxers xwith~ xvhai the FSR ream is expected to xxrk tiI>rle ream ix, tlxa expected to establxl c lose xx atkiixg relariaixxhipx xwithx txx aOtri type> at -partxer>. Tlxcxe iic rct xciiclx pairtixers ad tlxe dcxvelopint partixet w xoirkinxg in the at ci. Thxe t cici h pairtxer> include iii1 tlxe1maric i' 2eeacder> at naioinal rceeii ch ceixtet miad inx'titmitex, tlxe Faculr t Agr C tiltitic( at the ltxxritLItC ot RmiiAl PtOdiic11ion 11 KatlxauomOi and Fig, I .Famim, iig x emi re xcaic collaboraixtive lii a ~J ri viv~jS9SkUS e-,w I ~w1Fxte~st~ w l41- 986-1-991, local hirariches ot international agricultur al research centers. The collaborative links wvith the regional dev elopment agen- cies irc established through formal documients ot cooperation. THE USAID/IER FARMING SYSTEM RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN MALI The methodology used tot FSR is as showsn in Figure 2 and may be described by the followxing principles: (1) FSR is viewedc as a research approach promoted and supported by an FSR department. (2) The FSR department prov ides on station scientists wxith information on fai ers conditions, own solutions and tech nical needs, so as to enable each scientist or discipline to ad- dress a relevant prohlem and to tind tot a ,i\-en problem, a feasible solutiou \i hA a1 itc m\~ iI faced by the fai-11 i 3) The l H- ivj 1111 1H1, 111c technologies on faim wxith farimeis' active pairicipation and it feeds back to station based scientists and to agiricuiltural dcx (1 opment agencies information on performances to be tackl(U (4) The FR department selects, designos, and tests coii b inatioris of technologies in colLiboi anon wxith i escai chei, PROJECT SITE AND RATIONALE FOR CHOICE OHV VOLET The goveinmental agricultural desvelopment parastatal, Operation Haute Valle6e, in JLIl -, 1983, disvided its 7one of op- eration into six adm in istrativ e sectrs: Kangaba, Ouelessebougou, Bancournana, Koulikoro, Kati, and Banamnba. These sectors wxetc subdis ci into 30 7ones, "Zones d'Expansion R~italc," (ZER), and tlic ZER werc tutheir suibdivided in to 1 50 sectors "Sectenis de Base," appioximately 939 villages and settle- ments in the area, Figure 3. The population of the OHV zone (390,790 people in the last census in 1976) is predominantly rural, dens ingy the major- ity of ic reenues t rom agiricuiltuiral activ ities. The main ethnic grouips found in the area ate the Malinke, the Bambara, the Sarakholle, the Peul, and the B-o. The 01 IV 7one encompasses an area of 31 ,530 Square ki- louieteirs wh ich iepresciits 2.5 of tI i Maliaui territory and 11 'X ot thecultivated rain-ted area. It cov ers the area immedi- ately surrounding the capital city, Bamako, and hence has ac- cess to the largest market in Mali. The climate varies from Sahelian (600 mmin raintall) in the northern sectors of Banarnba and Noirth Koulikoio, to Sudano-Sahelian ( 1,200 mum rainfall) in the South in OuelesscboUgou, Bancoumnana and Kangaba. From 1981 to 1 9 8 5 rainfall Wxas loxx, but in 1986 the drought appeared to diminish and the pattern approached the 50 year Pre-extension -10- and extension -4- Test and evaluate on-farm Select Design design of development technologies actions Test technologies on-station On-station and subsite tests Select design Select design of combinations of relevant research of technologies gap technologies Fig. 2. Thc IF U/I \-\J)~ U iitiJ! I 1 \Ldl vi ' . ..uiks (f)I N 1 N ll Identify problems 10 Inform researchers and solutions and developers Yarnming Systems Researc h anod Exteosion in Mali-1986-1994 average. However, 1988 experienced a higher-than-normal rainfall while that of 1989 and 1990 were below the long term average. The rainfall average for last year was also above nor- mal. The mean temperature varies seasonally from 26 to 36 degrees Celsius. The plains are soils of fine silt, clay materials, or sand, laying over lateritic hardpans. The topography which directly affects the climate of the region, is dominated by the Mandigue mountains in the Sectors of Kati, Bancoumana, Kangaba, and Koulikoro, and the Niger River, which crosses the region from Southwest to Northeast. Lands of variable topography lay be- tween the Niger and the mountain chains. Mountain and cliff areas have predominantly rock outcroppings and wash areas. The broad alluvial plains of the Niger are the agricultural heartland of the region. Rice, millet, sorghum, vegetables, and cash crops grow in this area. Rice is also grown in the lowlands around the villages. In the sectors of Kangaba, Bancoumana, Ouelessebougou, Kati and South Koulikoro, millet and sorghum are grown in gravelly sandy soils, generally clay-silt or silt-clay mixtures. In the dominantly agropastoral sectors of Banamba and North Koulikoro, souna millet is the principal crop. Tree crops (mangoes, Karite, and etc.) are also important through- out the region. The road system in the OHV zone comprises four main hubs, starting at Bamako in the directions of Kati, Banamba, Kangaba, and Ouelessebougou. In addition, the area is served by a network of secondary roads, many of which become im- passable during the rainy season. Health and education cen- ters are located mainly in the larger urban centers and in the main villages in some sectors. These centers appear to be more developed in the Sectors of Kati and Kangaba than in Banamba, where they are rare. MOPTI VOLET Zoning in the fifth region has been attempted by several studies, however in a general manner, three principal natural zones can be identified: the Delta, Plateau, and the plains (Henry de Frahan et al., 1989; PIRT, 1986). The Delta covers about 46% of the total area of the region and contains about 48% of the population with a density of about 18 inhabitants per square kilo- meter. The main crops are rice, millet, sorghum, and Delt cowpeas. Fishing, craftmanship and migration are im- portant sources of income. The importance of livestock lies not only with its income generation, but also with Delt the way it affects natural resource management. The Delta serves as the main source of forage pasture during Senc the dry season for all of the region. The Dogon Plateau which covers 11% of the region's area and 15% of its population is characterized Sou by a higher population density (22 inhabitants per square kilometer). The important crops are millet and veg- etables. Small ruminant production and migration are impor- tant income sources. The S6no Plain and South Gourma are characterized by pure millet stands (South Gourma) or in association with cow- peas and dah (S6no Mango and Seno Gondo). The initial zone of intervention consists of the Delta (Delta South and the southern portion of Delta Central and the S6no Gondo (S6no Koro and S no Bankass). The agricul- tural diversity of the Delta is very well represented by the south- ern and central portions. S6no Mango and south of Gourma are dominated by livestock production activities. Dryland crops such as millet, cowpeas, and dah are found mainly in S6no Gondo. The pressure on agricultural land is more pronounced in the Dogon Plateau than in the Delta and S no. Due to the present size of the team, a limited area of inter- vention is chosen with a view of progressive expansion over the years as more resources become available and as acquired experience is made use of in future interventions. Thus the Dogon Plateau is not included in the initial zone of interven- tion. The pertinent criteria used in the choice included the fol- lowing (see Table 1): ...the importance of the zone in the context of the overall development of the fifth region; ...how representative the zone is from the point of view of the existing rural production systems; ...the potential of the zone in terms of human and natural resources; ...accessibility to the zone all year round; and ...the presence of research and development institutions to collaborate in the interdisciplinary approach to research used by the farming systems research. Based on these factors, initially two research villages were TABLE I. SOME IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ZONES OF INTERVENTION e Rainfall Production system Structures mm a South 350-600 crop-fishing-livestock ORM OPM ODEM crop-livestock DRA CMDT BNDA (mainly irrigated rice) GTZ CARE-MALI a Central 350-400 crop-fishing-livestock ORM OPM ODEM crop-livestock BNDA DRA (mainy irrigated rice) o Koro 350-450 crop-livestock DRA ODEM BNDA (mainly millet based) o Bankass 450-600 crop-livestock DRA ODEM (mainly millet based) rce: Rapid Reconnaissance Survey, DRSPR/Volet Mopti 1992 8 I cIruvouu _Sij> KFUS *ei e, ;ir 61kd (:xtcu o,;I i' 1i /7986- /99 selected in Seno Koro and a village each was chosen from the other three zones (Figure 4). However, due to the limited size of the team, one village was dropped from among the two cho- sen in Seno Koro. AVAILABLE RESOURCES FOR PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION Over the life of the project there has been a progressive evolution in the resource available for implementing the pro- gram. The section below gives an overview of the situation as it existed during the final year of technical assistance to the project. Personnel: The national FSR programs both at Bamako (OHV Volet) and at Mopti still benefit from the financial and technical support of USAID and the Government of Mali. Two technical assistants currently constitute part of the national farming system research program. They include an agricultural economist, who also serves as the chief of party, and an agrono- mist, based in Mopti. The national counterparts at Bamako consist of two agricultural economists, two livestock scientists, two agronomists, and a technician. Those for Mopti include an agronomist, an agricultural economist, two livestock scien- tists, a sociologist, a research assistant, and a technician. Both regional teams are supported by computer technicians, accouli- rants, secretaries, and drivers. The overall NFSR is headed by an agricultural economist. The list of personnel for the pro- gram in each region is shown in the appendix. Computer equipment: There are currently 21 micro-com- puters, one laptop, and 12 printers at the OHV volet and six micro-computers, one laptop, and two printers at Mopti. Vehicles: The OHV volet has currently four Toyota Land Cruisers, a Toyota 4x4 pick-up, one Jeep Cherokee, two Peugeot 504s, and two Peugeot 505s. The purchase of four more Jeep Cherokees has been budgeted as part of the commodity renewal process. The Mopti volet has three Jeep Cherokees. Office Space and Housing: The OHV volet has been oc- cupying the new office building at Sotuba since January, 1990. The construction at Koporo has been completed and that at Mopti is to begin soon. The Mopti volet is currently sharing office space with the rice research station (formerly WARDA) at Mopti and is using some of their residential facilities at Svar6. Others: Various office equipment, furniture and some experimental equipment (soil sampling tools, animal weighing scale, and field equipment) have been purchased for both volets. However, further purchases are expected, especially for the Mopti volet. No. 4. -I Uricr i~ cc o ~s.Nii cc survcN ullaoc V RI IN optI let) . Yrming 8Sstems k'eserck and Extension in JMa~li-1986-1994 SIMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY The implementation strategy proposed by the project pa- per (see Executive Summary) consisted of the following: (1) Extension of the Farming Systems Research and Ex- tension work from the then single zone to the two other princi- pal food production areas of the country. (2) Improvement of Research-Extension-Farmer Link- ages, as well as those within the agricultural research, training, and policy-making institutions. (3) Training and Staff Development of 19 personnel with advanced degrees, the transfer of field methodology and analy- sis skills at all levels, and the facilitation of further professional development. During the first phase of the project, a FSR team was es- tablished in the OHV zone, based in Bamako. A second team has been established, during the second phase, in the fifth re- gion, based at Mopti. The Research-Extension-Farmer linkages have been well established. A formal document of collaboration exists between the extension service in the OHV zone (Opefration Haute Vallkee) and a similar one is being developed between the Mopti team and ORDs and research units in the area. Research propo- sitions are developed in close collaboration with both the ex- tension service and farmers in the research villages. Research activities during the implementation phase are also coordinated by both units with specific tasks assigned to each, coupled with periodic meetings. This is especially the case with technolo- gies at the pre-extension stage. Finally, research results are dis- cussed by both units before being submitted to USAID and the Government of Mali for approval through the mechanism of technical commisions. The results and research proposals for the 1992-93 season were first reviewed and discussed at a re- gional technical commission from March 24-28. This was fol- lowed by a review and discussion before a national technical commission from April 25-28. The two documents were then approved. All the 19 personnel were trained successfully, with about sfx of the participants already back in the country and working with the various research units and institutions and two others on the way. Most of the other participants are expected back at the end of this year. Continuing staff development is achieved through short-term training both in and out of the country. Thus the implementation strategy previewed by the project paper has been followed closely. THE SECID FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND EXTENSION UNIT The South-East Consortium for International Develop- ment (SECID), which is comprised of over 20 U.S. universi- ties and other institutions for higher education, was awarded the contract to provide technical assistance (TA) for the project and also to provide both long-term and short-term for the per- sonnel of the project and IER as a whole. Thus the SECID Farming System Unit funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) became an integral part of the Farming Systems Research and Extension Department in May, 1986, with the task of conducting farming systems re- search in the OHV zone in Region II with expected extension to the fifth region in the fifth year. The specific objectives of SECID FSU were as follows: (1) to identify the principal constraints of increased food production, (2) to identify technologies appropriate for farmers which could overcome the production constraints, (3) to develop and implement a multidisciplinary research method which could guide production technology and produc- tion research to directly address these production constraints, (4) to identify the elements of that method which could be implemented in national farming systems research pro- grams, and (5) to train host-country personnel to assume increasing responsibility in their contribution to research. The initial technical assistance called for three TA posi- tions at the headquarters in Bamako. One was a Research Man- agement Specialist who would serve as the research advisor to the DRSPR Project Director, and as the Chief of Party of the TA team for a period of six years. The second position was that of a financial manager who would be responsible for the set-up and operation of the accounting and procurement systems also for a period of six years. The third position was for a Data Processing/Statistical Specialist who would set up the computer systems, the formats in which field data could be entered, the programs by which they could be analyzed. Three person-years were proposed to train DRSPR staff in the operation and main- tenance of the system. In the field, two long-term advisors (one agronomist, one agricultural economist) were posted to help develop, test, and apply field methodologies in the OHV zone. Along with their senior Malian colleagues, these adivors had the re- sponsibility for transferring skills to more junior research- ers. The expansion to the fifth region was to take place following an evaluation after four years. The expansion called for the posting of two more advisors with the same skills for a period of four years each. 10 STRUCTURE, RATIONALE, AND BENEFITS OF FSR PROGRAM (OHV AND MOPTIVOLETS) COMPLEMENTARITY OF FSR COMPONENTS R.ATIONALE FOR C)OMPONENT CHOICE The disciplines ot Agronomy and Soil Science and Ani- m-a 1 Production and Economics hav e been identified as neces- sary 1 components to a >4FSR protram. These choices have been Used xxideix in) the Sahel comitries at Buirkina Faso and, -enci&1l. The di,,c ipline at agro-torl eti w xas added to the comaponenit> to take into consideration the dleterioi atin, V eIetAtiVC eC cOf a the area and the national piriority on environmental COnIerva- t ion. Thie >ociO -economiiic >ttidlie>' piovide the r esearch pio~i am wxith an undei >randinL, ot the ocial and economiuic talctoi" tha~t determine the feasibility at the existing technologies and of those to heu introduced. The ,,oil StrudN is to search tot tec hnodo(ice that xxould block the dei~radation ot soil resources and bu[ild Up the >tare at knofldea the ;oil imana'ement at the farm lexC ci\ L t,>ing tesoUices locally axvailable. The agronomic re,,earch aim> to StUdy the major cirop mmaagement pict ice> in the ai ea and .introduce inmpiroved practice> tested by thematic researchers to The animnal pi OdUCtiOn comTponent i> aIimled at the inte gration at anal piodiiction wxith crop piOduction SO a," to pio- mnore stible and efficient uigricultirail piractice> by >ttiliLting the comilplementary x iue ot the crop and ainimal enteirprises. Th ar tretx oponent introduce> practice> at in- tegratinl- multi-purpowe vceiceatian onl the tarm so a> to increase teed] and energx1 >uIpplx of the farmer tiroum a given >pace xx Iile at the SailIe timte pi Oivu iin"I natural resouice conserv atioin. JIIk(uI~J K UCk#'i K H 1 ft /Fx~~i V1I 7 QD( 77)~ FARMER GOALS AND OBJECTIVES .1 I.. ~ Land Labor ~ ~ Mn9nt. Management Capital Livestock IGrass, Forest Skills Resources Resources Technology h Cap. Res. f Management BASIC RESOURCE ALLOCATION POOL Soil & Water Management I Crop Management Animal Res. Management op Off-Farm Animal ucts Inoe Pout HOUSEHOLD MARKETS Ftii,! to. Lit,, ol) F'SR (. mponews. LINKAGES OF FSR COMPONENTS The linkages ot the FSR components are illustrated in Figure 5. The SOejo econom1ic studies provide the progrim with an Undeistanding ot the constraints tot improx ing the traditional taringm sy tems by identitving the following: .. tarmers' goals and objectives, ..lev els of availabe resources, ..resouirce manaigement alteinatives, and .. ICOuirce allocationi to the dittei ent enteiprises on the farm. Gaiven this condition, the crop and ainimal production comiponentsdesign mediations that would optime tarm pro ductiOn "vithl i spect to the given resources. The agro-forestry, Component tries to .increase the energy aInd teed harvest from the farm tot a given typology ot -ta irmer as well as preserv e i e sources SO as to suIstain y~ield. Similairly, the soils aspect ot the progiram wxorks out strategies and mediations so that the re- SOnice base xxill b-e improv ed wxhich in the long rtin determines .11. aerLand Labor Grass/ forest m ng nt. Forest Products Prod CONSUMPTION/ SAVINGS/INVESTMENTS Yarmivng Systems Ikesecrck and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 the welfare of the farm community. As an illustration, an improvement in the soil and water resources of the area would lead to increases in crop and forage production, other factors remaining unchanged. This, in turn, would lead to a higher crop yield per area and/or forage produc- tion. The higher grain yield would lead to less land to be culti- vated once farmers' goals have been achieved, which would give opportunity for natural vegetation regeneration and ulti- mately ecological stability. The higher vegetative production would increase the animal feed source, therefore, higher ani- mal productivity as a by-product of which manure availability and traction power, could improve. If prices are favorable the increase in income would be expected to encourage farmers to pay for the investment in soil and water management. This program assumes several conditions. One of the main tasks of the FSR program is then to clarify these assumptions, identify the conditions under which the different components may be complemented, and work out alternatives for the socio- economic and bio-physical environments. Simultaneously, the findings have to be conveyed to the different development and research partners for concerted action. At all phases, the farm- ers' roles in the whole program can never be overemphasized. Thus the FSR program's role can be summarized as an approach in which the farmers' key roles in the research are underlined in an attempt to work out a research strategy to encourage the different enterprises to be complementary in a given environment (social, economic, as well as physical). PHASING IN OF COMPONENTS Even though for discussion purposes the components are presented separately, in practice all the activities are conducted simultaneously with various components phasing into each other in time depending on gestation period. ON EXPECTED SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF THE PROGRAM The major goal of Malian agricultural policy, like those of other countries in the Sahel region, is to achieve self-sufficiency in food crop production as soon as possible. The government plans to achieve such a goal through: .farmers organizing and training, .micreasing in productivity in the agricultural sector, ...enhancing and improving crop livestock integration, and .conserving natural resources and protecting the envi- ronment. The Malian National Farming Systems Research program aims at identifying technological needs and the most promis- ing and relevant agricultural technologies available in Mali and elsewhere within the semi-arid zone, at satisfying such techno- logical needs, and finally at adapting such technologies to the environmental, resource, and management conditions of small farmers. Through interdisciplinary research on the farm, the pro- gram will first adapt technologies to improve the resource base of the farming systems. This will be achieved through soil fer- tility improvement, soil and water management techniques, livestock management and agro-forestry development within an integrated system of production. The identification of most adapted improved varieties of crops, forages, trees, and shrubs would then help to further in- crease the productivity of farming systems in the region. Thus the program's objectives are well in line with the national goals, objectives, and strategies and can substantially contribute toward their successful achievement. The FSR program expects to yield tangible results within a five-year period and to be able to propose extension, tech- nologies, and resource management systems that are profitable and accessible to small farmers. IUseful and directly applicable research results should then be available within a five-year period for adoption. Other impacts expected from the adoption and applica- tion of the program's research results are: ...A reduction in rural emigration by making more and better production alternatives available to young farmers, which may also lead to a reduction in urban unemployment.. ...Livestock being an important source of protein and an important export commodity of Mali, the program's research results by increasing productivity in the livestock sector through improved livestock feeding and management is expected to have significant positive effects on human nutrition, on the country's balance of trade, and on investments in the agricultural sector of the economy. It should be noted that the methodology, linkages and rationalizations reviewed in this chapter have been applied by the FSR program in the OHV volet since its beginning in 1986. Thus being in its sixth year, those tangible results alluded to in the above paragraph should be available. A document of syn- thesis of these results is expected this fall. In addition, an evalu- ation program is underway to measure the impact of the re- search program on rural households. Preliminary results of the first phase of this evaluation have already been presented to USAID/Bamako. The second phase is in progress and results are due to be submitted soon. On the other hand the Mopti Volet is just beginning its first full year of implementation, and thus, valuable results for extension should not be expected until about 1995. 13 rming Systems /?esearca cndu Extension in HaVli-1986-1994 DIAGNOSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM The development of technologies suitable for farmers re- quired certain specific information that would provide knowl- edge about the project area (agro-climatic differences) and the farmers (e.g production constraints). Such information served to develop the design and implementation of research and de- velopment programs. Thus before designing an on-farm re- search program for the OHV and the Mopti zones, an overview of the agro-climatic, socio-economic environment, animal hus- bandry practices and agronomic practices was required. To obtain background information about the zones, secondary sources were exploited. The results of these studies are summa- rized in this section. C RAPID RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY This was conducted in May, 1986, (Isabelle Valencia, 1986) in the OHV zone and in January, 1992, (DRSPR/Volet Mopti March, 1992; Yeboah A.K. Amadou Diarra, May, 1992), for the Mopti volet and the results served, in part, in the delin- eation of the agro-climatic zones of research as described ear- lier in the introduction and also in providing basic informa- tion about households. For details of production systems and constraints, consult the above cited references. SCHARACTERIZATION OFTHE PRODUCTION SYSTEM As opposed to the "top down" approach that character- ized most agricultural research and development projects until the early 1970's Farming Systems Research and Development is characterized by a "bottom up" approach to agricultural re- search and development. As such, it first attempts to identify and clearly define the problems/constraints and conditions of agricultural production at the farm level before designing final solutions to resolve or alleviate such problems or constraints. The resulting iterative process of diagnosis-design and test results in more "appropriate" solutions to solve the identi- fied problems. Baseline studies at the farm and village levels are an in- dispensable instrument to complete the first diagnosis phase of FSR and to identify opportunities for technology development. The specific objectives for the collection of this kind of data include: .To study the current agricultural production systems so as to acquire more data and knowledge on small farmers' socio- economic, institutional and technical agricultural problems! constraints, with a particular emphasis on the constraints to technology adoption. ...To identify the adjustment mechanism (strategies, technological innovations and others) utilized by farmers as solutions to cope with their agricultural problems. ...To identify and define the technological needs of farm- ers ("appropriate technologies") and the appropriate types of development actions needed to resolve the existingproblems and satisfy farmers' and national goals and objectives in the agricultural sector. These objectives are attained by monitoring economic activities of farmers in the primary research sites and by re- viewing the results of previous studies. In order to determine the economic feasibility costs and benefits of promising technologies, the socio-economic baseline studies encompassed economic activities of farmers including crop production, livestock production, crop and livestock trans- action and marketing, input purchases, financial transactions (including credit), off-farm income generation, fuel energy pro- duction, and consumption and general expenditures. This data collection began in May 1988 and continue until April 1990 for the OHV volet; and for Mopti, data col- lection begun during the 1992-93 agricultural season and is expected to continue for another season. A brief summary is provided below: OHV VOLET Data covered rainfall monitoring and resource use and management by the farmers. RAINFALL Rainfall levels in the principal research villages were mea- sured twice daily and the results show remarkable annual and location variation as indicated in Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5. Figures in Tables 2, 3 and 4 indicate a wide variability in rainfall levels across the four zones. In 1988-89, the South ex- perienced the earliest rainfall, in April, while the rest had their first rains in May. For the zone as a whole, much of the rainfall occurred from June to September. The figures also show that the average annual rainfalls are sufficient for cereal production and that the problem of soil moisture is closely related to rain- fall distribution and farmer water management practices. The availability of soil moisture during certain points of plant de- velopment, such as flowering, is crucial for good crop perfor- mance. This had serious implication for research into early- planting, drought-resistant, and early maturing crop varieties. It also has implications for livestock production in terms of water and forage availability. RESOURCE USE AND CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION What resources are available to a farm family and how they choose to use those resources provide major constraints as to what type and quantity of technology will be feasible and acceptable in an area. Thus the identification of resources and 14 Yarming Systems tesearc h and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 2. MONTHLY AVERAGE RAINFALL (MM) IN THE OHV ZONE (1988-89) Month North of OHV South of OHV East of OHV West of OHV Kanika Dore. Lande Balan. Gouani Mount. Komin. Yed. April 22.30 May 10.40 5.00 44.50 28.30 18.70 12.00 25.00 14.40 June 56.60 68.50 182.50 157.60 226.80 46.50 122.20 102.30 July 296.50 237.50 312.50 272.50 336.20 385.00 321.30 224.00 Aug. 237.40 267.10 306.50 238.00 348.75 336.00 300.40 337.20 Sept. 73.70 131.00 242.50 245.10 145.50 133.50 168.00 171.20 Oct. 35.60 39.50 29.00 82.50 21.00 54.30 19.50 64.00 Nov. 20.00 3.00 Total 710.20 768.60 1,1 17.50 1,046.30 1,097.0 967.30 956.40 916.10 Av. total 739 1,082 1,032 936 TABLE 3. MONTHLY AVERAGE RAINFALL IN THE OHV ZONE (1989-90) Month North of OHV South of OHV East of OHV West of OHV Kanika Dor6b. Land6 Balan. Gouani Mount. Komin. Y6k6. Feb. 18.80 March 28.00 April 5.50 May 16.00 2.50 45.70 27.30 38.00 22.45 26.90 June 29.35 74.70 109.70 153.60 143.10 161.60 75.00 88.70 July 131.50 158.00 155.00 131.30 142.40 165.80 179.75 186.27 Aug. 371.70 163.00 324.50 281.60 288.30 334.50 246.50 275.50 Sept. 71.30 92.00 142.50 145.40 161.10 75.80 109.25 169.50 Oct. 7.90 94.50 74.00 36.80 39.00 11 1.75 94.50 Nov. Total 611.75 598.20 808.20 809.90 799.00 814.70 744.70 841.37 Av. total 605 809 807 793 TABLE 4. MONTHLY AVERAGE RAINFALL IN THE OHV ZONE (1990-91) Month North of OHV South of OHV West of OHV East of OHV Kanika Balan. Deguela Kominta Tingudle February March April May 4.00 1.80 June 19.70 145.00 95.40 50.50 97.50 July 235.60 248.50 295.60 142.60 365.90 August 216.50 152.50 258.00 157.80 September I 30.20 348.00 333.50 158.00 234.40 October 4.50 5 1.90 r28.50 November 2.00 Total 392.00 958.00 928.90 605. 10 885.90 Av. total 943.45 their use by farm families was a major focus of FSR/E. Data were collected on household family structure hence family la- bor availability, land availability, crop areas cultivated, and crop yields. Only a brief summary is provided in this section. De- tails of data and analyses are available in annual reports of the project (DRSPR/Volet OHV 1988, 1989, and 1990). FAMILY STRUCTURE AND LABOR USE In 1989, ten households each from eight villages were surveyed. The informa- tion collected included demography, par- ticipation in agricultural activities and time allocated to diffferent cropping activites. The results are summarized in tables 6 and 7. For the zone OHV as a whole, an average household has about 26 members roughly equally divided be- tween the two sexes and children. Out of this total only about 46% participate in some form of agricultural production ac- tivity indicating a shortage of family la- bor. The households in the east of the zone (Gouani and Mountougoula) are smaller in size as compared to those in the other regions. However, the percentage of members that participate in agricul- tural production is equal to the zone aver- age. Participation in agricultural activity is about the same for the two sexes 56% each, but only 25% of the children work in the fields (Table 6). Table 7 does not give information on post-harvest activities. Labor needs for the different activities are highly variable, with weeding and harvesting activities appearing to require the most labor, 27% and 20%, respectively. The weeding pe- riod extends from the end of June until mid- September; is followed by harvesting from the end of October to mid-January. Thus these are the peak labor demand periods which explain the acute labor shortage dur- ing these periods. Several fields cultivated and planted to crops often go unweeded or totally abandoned, a situation exacerbated by both long-term and short-term migration of family members. The data in Table 7 show that about 200 person days of labor are required per hectare to perform the field operations for agricultural production and its distribution indicates the participation of both men and women and also children in all of these activities albeit with different intensities. However, the amount of time allocated to sowing and weeding by women is relatively higher than that by the men. Harvesting time is equally shared by men and women while men's labor is more important than the women's labor for plowing and other land preparation activities. 15 TABLE 5. NUMBER OF DAYS OF RAINFALL IN THE TABLE 6. FAMILY STRUCTURE, NUMBER OF PERSONS OHV ZONE (1990-91) PER HOUSEHOLD AND PERCENT PARTICIPATING IN Month North South West East FARM OPERATIONS IN THE OHV ZONE (1989-90) Kanika Balanzan D6gu6la Kominta Tinguil6 Village Total number per household Participating in field operations February Men Women Children Total Men Women Children Tc March - Kanika II 12 12 35 55 50 33 4 April Dor6b. 7 10 9 26 57 50 22 4 May I 3 June 5 8 4 6 12 Land6 9 8 9 26 67 38 22 4 July I5 II 16 15 20 Balanz. II II 8 30 64 73 38 6 August II 17 II missing Gouani 4 4 4 12 50 25 25 3 September 13 14 15 15 15 Mount. 6 6 5 17 67 67 40 5 October 2 5 3 missing Kominta 10 10 10 30 60 60 30 5 November I I Yekeb. 10 10 9 29 60 60 22 4 Total 36 44 58 51 51 OHV 9 9 8 26 56 56 25 4 Av. total 51 TABLE 7. TOTAL NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF PERSON DA Labor use also varies with the crop in question (Table REQUIRED BY DIFFERENT CROPPING ACTIVITIES (1989-90 8). A hectare of maize requires more labor than the other cereals. In association, the production of these two crops Activity Total Men Women Childr is more labor intensive than the production of any other No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. No. cereal association. Thus a labor-saving technology was Plowing 22 II II 12 6 9 5 perceived to be more profitable for these two crops. Sowing 20 10 8 9 10 15 2 Two conclusions were derived to orient FSR/E re- Plowing/sowing 32 I5 12 14 10 15 10 search in this domain. First, labor shortage is more Weeding 57 27 28 31 23 3 6 Harvesting 42 20 20 22 IS 23 7 severe for sowing, weeding and harvesting. Research Cleaning 7 3 5 6 2 0 I in these areas were reinforced. Secondly, the produc- Others 29 14 5 6 0 0 24 tion of sorghum and maize was the most labor-demand- Total 209 100 89 43 66 31 55 ing, hence research into labor-saving technology had these crops in focus. USE OF EQUIPMENT AND ANIMAL TRACTION The most important agricultural materials are equipment TABLE 8 P TOTAL NUMBER OF PERSON DAYS (PD) and draft animals. A survey of 60 farmers conducted in 1988- REQUIRED PER HECTARE AND ITS DIsTRIUION 89 indicated that more than 40% of the farmers did some shal- (PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL) FOR DIFFERENT CROP ,, low plowing with the traditional implement known as "daba. ACTIVITIES IN THE OHV ZONE (988-89) However, a greater percentage, around 66%, plowed with Crop Farm operation animal traction while close to 17% of the total area culti- Total Sowing Weeding Harvesting Others vated was not plowed (Table 9). Tractors were used on only PD Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. about 1% of the total area cultivated. Also, fields selected to Millet 102.4 9.8 49.0 36.6 4.6 be plowed depended on the crop planted, availability of labor Sorghum 108.4 12.5 48.0 39.0 0.5 and equipment. Rice 95.4 4.7 76.5 I 8.8 -2. Maize 220.2 10.2 26.5 40.1 23.2 Another survey of 263 farmers across five villages showed Cowpea 101.2 7.4 31.8 60.8 that the draft animals used included oxen, horses, and donkeys Cotton 139.5 6.2 47.0 43.3 3.5 (Table 10) with the most important being oxen (used by 65% Peanut 120.3 20.4 39.8 39.8 of the farmers), followed by donkeys (used by about 34% of the Millet/Sorghum 93.7 7.7 64.6 27.7 farmers). The use of horses and donkeys is more prevalent in Millet/Maize 107.2 8.5 42.2 24.8 24.5 the northern part of the zone whereas oxen are more popular Sorghum/Maize 125.4 I 1.6 42.5 34.3 I 1.6 in the southern section. Tractors were used by only 10 % of the Millet/Cowpea 77.2 16.5 52.3 3 1.2 Sorghum/Cowpea 96.0 12.9 56.4 29.9 0.8 farmers surveyed, mostly in the South. CowpealPeanut 187.9 8.8 34. I 39.0 18. I Another finding of the survey was that the use of equip- Peanut/Dah 260.1 14.9 48.5 36.6 Millet/Sorghum/Cowpea 107.9 12.3 57.3 30.4 - ment or draft animals did not imply ownership as shown in Millet/Cowpea/Dah 80.6 14.9 67.1 18.0 Tables 10, 11, 12, and 13. An average household owned less Sorghum/Cowpea/Dah 80.7 13. I 46.0 40.9 than a pair of oxen and less than one of the other draft animals. Yarming Systems tesearch ancnd Extension in Mali-1986-1994 tal 6 12 2 01 3 39 N0 18 6 en Pct. 9 4 18 II 13 2 44 26 16 I I II I I I ar 1 inig Systems Research a nd Extension in Mali-1986-1994 Meth No p Plowi Plowi anin Plowi Villag Kanik Balan Degu Komir Tingu Total Village Sample Cultivators Seeders Harrow Plows size No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. Kanika 31 4 13 33 10 0 0 30 97 Balanzan 37 6 16 5 14 23 62 37 100 D6gu6la 53 12 23 20 38 19 36 34 64 Kominta 48 9 18 12 24 0 0 21 43 Tinguel1 93 13 14 9 10 2 2 47 51 Total 262 44 17 49 19 44 17 169 65 TABLE 13. AVERAGE NUMBER OF OTHER EQUIPMENT OWNED BY FARMERS IN THE OHV ZONE (1989-90) Village Sample size Cultivators Seeders Harrows Plows Kanika 31 0.13 0.10 0.0 1.96 Balanzan 37 0.14 0.14 0.5 0.95 Deguela 53 0.25 0.34 0.4 0.87 Kominta 48 0.18 0.24 0.0 0.42 Tingueld 93 0.14 0.10 0.0 0.66 Total 262 0.17 0.18 0.2 1.0 TABLE 9. SOIL PREPARATION METHOD USED BY THE FARMERS No farmer owned a tractor even though 10% (A SAMPLE OF 60 FARMERS) OF OHV ZONE (1988-89) of them used one. This implies a high de- gree of borrowing and renting. od No. of farmers Percent of farmers Total area in hectares Percent of area Other agricultural equipment used in- lowing 25 42 76.7 17 clude cultivators, seeders, harrows, and plows ing with daba 24 40 73.3 16 ng with 49 82 293.2 66 (ble 13); again the level of ownership is far nal traction below the rate of use. This low level of equip- ing with tractor 3 5 4.4 I ment ownership inhibits the timely perfor- mance of field operation which is especially TABLE 10. USE OF DRAFT ANIMALS AND EQUIPMENT important in a region, such as this, where rainfall is BY THE FARMERS (NUMBER AND PERCENT OF FARMERS) limited in quantity and it is of short duration. IN THE OHV ZONE (1989-90) CROP PRODUCTION e Sample Oxen Horses Donkeys Tractors Sorghum, millet, and maize form the staple diet size No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. and hence are the most important crops in the zone. ,a 31 22 65 27 87 29 94 0 0 A fourth cereal, rice, is also widely consumed but is zan 37 36 71 0 0 18 49 5 14 grown mainly in the southern portion of the zone. In la 53 37 97 0 0 15 28 22 42 1988, all farmers surveyed cultivated sorghum and nta 48 24 70 0 0 15 31 0 0 6i6 93 50 50 0 0 12 13 0 0 33% planted rice while 53% planted millet. Only 11% 262 169 54 27 10 89 34 27 10 of them grew rice. Correponding figures for 1989 were 79%, 49%, 47% and 23% for sorghum, maize, TABLE I I. AVERAGE NUMBER OF DRAFT ANIMALS millet, and rice respectively (Table 14). AND EQUIPMENT OWNED BY FARMERS Besides cereals, other crops planted are peanuts, cowpeas, IN THE OHV ZONE (1989-90) dah, and vouandzou. Sorghum and maize together were planted Village Sample size Oxen Horses Donkeys Tractors on over 70% of the total area cultivated for each of the three Kanika 3 I 2.03 0.9 1.39 0.0 years (Table 15). Balanzan 37 2.14 0.0 0.46 0.0 Yields also vary with the type of association and the cli- Diguila 53 1.96 0.0 0.32 0.0 Kominta 48 I.10 0.0 0.28 0.0 matic conditions in place during the year. The "Land Equiva- Tingudle 93 1.30 0.0 0.17 0.0 lent Ratio" of crop associations for pure crops is about 1.62, Total 262 1.70 0.2 0.52 0.0 thereby supporting the predominace of associations over pure stands. TABLE 2. USE OF OTHER EQUIPMENT BY THE However, it appears that there are significant cereal yield FARMERS (NUMBER AND PERCENT OF FARMERS) losses when they are grown in association with legumes. For IN THE OHV ZONE (1989-90) example, millet, in a good rainfall year like 1988, produces over TABLE 14. CROPS PLANTED BY FARMING HOUSEHOLDS IN THE OHV ZONE, NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS (1988-89,1989-90 AND 1990-91) Crop 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. Millet 37 53 35 47 26 72 Maize 23 33 37 49 29 81 Sorghum 70 100 59 79 36 100 Rice 8 II 17 23 8 22 Cotton 22 31 9 12 5 14 Peanuts 42 60 61 81 32 89 Cowpeas 54 77 50 67 28 78 Dah 21 30 16 21 20 56 Vouandzou 12 17 10 13 17 47 Tomato 3 4 8 II 12 33 Fonio 2 3 7 9 9 25 17 Yarming Systems Research and Extension in iali-1986-1994 TABLE I5. CROP AREAS CULTIVTED BY FARMERS IN THE OHV ZONE IN HECTARES AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL AREA CULTIVATED (1988-89, 1989-90, AND 1990-91) Crop 1988-89 1989-90 1990-9 Hec. Pct. Hec. Pct. Hec. Pct. Millet I I11.1 2 4.1 I 9.8 3 Sorghum 76.4 16 91.6 15 45.4 13 Rice 23.0 5 33.8 6 8.0 2 Maize 20.8 4 22.2 4 7.6 2 Cotton 49.6 10 16.6 3 8.6 2 Peanuts 20.4 4 23.8 4 7.4 2 Tomato 1I. 0 3.6 I 8.4 2 Maize/Cowpea 10.2 2 0.2 0 0.0 0 Millet/Sorghum 8.8 2 19.5 3 25.8 7 Maize/Millet 6.5 I 8.3 I 7.9 2 Millet/Cowpea 46.8 10 29.2 4 8.2 2 Maize/Sorghum 17.1 4 12.9 2 9.4 3 Sorghum/Cowpea 147.6 30 109.2 18 43.0 12 Sorghum/Peanut 2.8 I 12.4 2 10. I 3 Peanut/Cowpea 10.2 2 5.9 I 6.6 2 Peanut/Dah 6.9 I 4.1 I 10.0 3 Millet/Cowpea/ 16.6 3 195.8 31 134.7 38 Sorghum Peanut/Cowpea/ 2.0 0 4.3 I 0.3 0 Sorghum Dah/Cowpea/ 7.9 2 9.3 I 0.0 0 Sorghum Peanut/Dah/ 2.7 I 5.3 I 2.4 I Sorghum TABLE 16. CROPYIELDS (KG/HA) IN THE OHV ZONE (1988-89, 1989-90, AND 1990-91) Crop 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 Millet 878 499 377 Maize 1,114 783 731 Sorghum 699 484 404 Rice 450 442 1281 Cotton 702 I, 117 766 Peanut 580 483 351 Sorghum/Cowpea 503/51 I 609/68 444/67 Millet/Sorghum 139/876 117/193 127/277 Millet/Cowpea 336/14 192/33 593/39 Sorghum/Peanut 417/486 108/239 98/388 Peanut/Cowpea 483/94 402/52 300/48 Maize/Sorghum 296/493 645/347 441/308 Maize/Millet 392/180 966/193 138/319 Millet/Cowpea/Sorghum 417/24/327 131/48/405 97/177/321 850 kg/ha but in association with cowpeas, the yield is only 336 kg/ha. Sorghum, in pure stands, yielded close to 700 kg/ha but only 503 in association with cowpeas (Table 16). However in years of less than adequate rainfall, (1990-91) cereals tend to perform better in association with legumes than in pure stands. Pure millet stands in 1990 yielded only 377 kg/ha but in association with cowpeas, a yield of close to 600 kg/ha was obtained. Despite the above hypotheses, no definite conclu- sions could be drawn since, for example, sorghum fared better in pure stands than it did in association with peanuts in 1990. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Livestock and poultry are an important part of the agri- cultural system of the households in the OHV zone. Livestock, especially cattle, is a source of permanent wealth while small ruminants and poultry are used as transitory sources of cash income. An inventory study conducted on 263 farmers from five villages in 1990 showed that an average household owned seven head of cattle, three head of sheep and three goats (Table 17). The farm-family ownership of cattle is higher in the South than in the North of OHV where small ruminants are rela- tively large in number. The introduction of small ruminants into the western and eastern parts of the zone were considered in the FSR/E research program. Livestock and poultry management TABLE 17. OWNERSHIP OF practices used by LIVESTOCK IN THE OHV ZONE farmers were ana- (AVERAGE NUMBER PER lyzed in a separate HOUSEHOLD) (I 990-91) study and results are Village Cattle Sheep Goats provided in Table 18. Kanika 5 8 7 Over 71% of Balanzan 9 2 I the farmers added Degula 9 3 1 salt to cattle feed dur- Tingudl6 7 I 3 ing the rainy season OHV average 7 3 3 as compared to 61% in the dry season. Cattle feed supplements, such as bonemeal and calcium phosphate, were used by only 16% during the rainy season as compared to 52% in the dry season. The correponding figures for small ruminants were 10% and 42% respectively. Thus abundance of forage and other vegetative matter during the rainy season is seen as being sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of livestock. Most farmers (between 85% and 90%) vaccinated their cattle and also treated them for diseases whereas only 42% of small ruminant owners performed these practices. Ponds were the major watering sources for all livestock during the dry season. Streams and rivers were used mainly during the dry season due to the unavailability of standing water. Castra- tion of cattle was done by up to 45% of the owners, but only 26% of small ruminant owners practiced it. Poultry was owned by about 98% of the farmers but only 38% of them reported having consumed poultry meat. Also less than 15% sold any bird (less than 5) during the entire year. Out of the 77% of farmers that owned small ruminants, 52% reported rarely slaughtering for consumption and over 94% sold less than five head of animal. For cattle, out of the 77% who possesed cattle, 71% rarely slaughtered their animals for meat and about 70% reported no sale of animals during the year of the survey. 18 Yarming Systems Research and zExtension i n Mali-1986-1994 1 TABLE 18. LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN THE OHV ZONE (NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS FOLLOWING PRACTICES) (1989-90) Management practice Poultry Sheep/goats Cattle Ownership No. of farmers owning cattle No. of farmers with at least 10 head Meat Consumption Pct. of farmers rarely consuming Pct. of farmers frequently consuming Sales Pct. of farmers with no sales in I989 Pct. with sales of < 5 heads/year Pct, of farmers castrating Pct, of farmers vaccinating Pct. of farmers treating diseases Dry season watering source Lakes and ponds Rivers and streams Wells Other sources Rainy season watering source Lakes and ponds Rivers and streams Wells Other sources Dry season feeding Pct. of farmers adding salt to feed Pct. of farmers adding supplement Rainy season feeding Pct. of farmers adding salt to feed Pct. of farmers adding supplement Dry season livestock watch Pct. of farmers using salaried watch Pct. of farmers using family watch Pct. of farmers using both of above Pct. of farmers using other sources Rainy season livestock watch Pct. of farmers using salaried watch Pct. of farmers using family watch Pct. of farmers using both of above Pct. of farmers using other sources Miscellaneous Pct. of farmers in possession of reproductive females Mortality rate among animals of less than 6 months old 39 31 31 85 38 25 38 62 52 48 I 39 15 94 26 42 42 61 10 32 23 16 42 3 23 29 42 35 10 < I 58 0 42 29 68 < I 0 68 32 71 100 45 94 87 65 26 10 29 48 13 3 29 61 52 71 16 26 39 < I 32 71 26 55 9 3.7 8 3.3 17 7.0 Total 134 54.7 III 45.3 245 100.0 CROPS AND CROP AREAS Table 21 gives information on the crop areas and number of farm workers per unit area by type of ownership. The average farm size and area cultivated per farm worker are bigger in Ldr6 than they are in Yourd (Table 22). This may be explained by the proximity of the latter village to the urban centers of Sevar6 and Mopti. Tables 23 and 24 present three important features: (1) the 19 3arming Systems k'esearc h and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 21. DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION PER HOUSEHOLD ATYOURE BYAGE AND SEX Class in years Sex Male Female Total per class No. Pct. No. Pct. Total Pct. 0-7 16 8.0 22 I1.1 38 19.1 7 -15 21 10.6 19 9.5 40 20.1 15-55 50 25.1 51 25.6 101 50.7 > 55 9 4.5 II 5.5 20 10.1 Total 96 48.2 103 51.8 199 100.0 TABLE 22. CROP AREAS,AREA PER WORKER BY OWNERSHIP TYPE Type of ownership Village L6re Youre Total Avg. Area per Total Avg. Area per area worker worker Household fields 135.3 I1 2.02 0.55 54.63 1.27 0.39 Male owned fields 14.3 1 0.75 0.001 - - Female owned fields 3.33 0.1 0.01 4.52 0.4 0.032 TABLE 23. AREA CULTIVATED BY FARMERS IN LERE BYTYPE OF CROP (1992-93) Crop Crop area Average Minimum Maximum Std. dev. Millet 1.38 1.01 1.75 0.52 Sorghum 1.53 Vouandzou 0.76 Peanuts 0.10 0.06 0.12 0.03 Millet/Cowpeas 1.47 0.61 3.85 1.18 Millet/Sorghum/Cowpea 1.61 Peanut/Oseille 0.15 0.06 0.34 0.12 Vouandzou/Oseille 0.36 0.04 0.74 0.29 Vouandzou/Peanut 0.30 0.16 0.44 0.20 Millet/Cowpea/Oseille 1.76 0.07 5.02 1.48 Fonio/Cowpea/Oseille I1.36 Sorghum/Cowpea/Oseille 0.49 TABLE 24. AREA CULTIVATED BY FARMERS IN YOURE BY TYPE OF CROP (1992-93) Crop Crop area Avgerage Minimum Maximum Std. dev. Millet 0.42 0.39 0.46 0.04 Sorghum 2.21 - Rain-fed rice 0.39 0.29 0.49 0.14 Peanuts 0.5 I 0.29 0.73 0.3 1 Millet/Cowpeas I.3 I 0.3 1 3.43 0.93 Sorghum/Cowpeas/Oseille 1.47 0.46 2.86 1.07 Millet/Sorghum/Cowpeas 0.72 0.59 0.85 0.18 Vouandzou/Oseille 0.17 Rain-fed rice/Sorghum 0.76 Millet/Oseille 0.38 0.26 0.59 0.18 Sorghum/Cowpeas 1.38 0.31 3.16 1.04 Sorghum/Millet/Oseille 2.06 0.21 3.91 2.62 Sorghum/Millet/Cowpeas 1.62 I.07 2.31 0.63 Sorghum/Millet/Oseille 0.38 0.10 0.65 0.39 Millet/Cowpeas 0.95 0.17 2.10 0.69 smallness of farmers' fields, (2) the absence of fonio in Your6, and (3) the absence of rice in Lr6. The most important crops and crop associations in Ldrd, in terms of areas cultivated, are millet/cowpea/oseille associations followed by associations of millet/sorghum/cowpeas and those of millet/cowpeas. The im- portant pure stand crops are sorghum, millet, and vouandzou, in order of importance. But in terms of number of farmers grow- ing the crop, the most important association is millet/cowpeas/ oseille, produced by 100% of the farmers surveyed. In Your6, on the other hand, the most important crops in terms of area under cultivation are sorghum/cowpeas/oseille associations (2.06 ha) followed by sorghum/millet/cowpeas. In pure stands, again, sorghum is the most widely cultivated with a per farmer average of 2.21 hectares. However, in terms of number of farmers engaged in production, the most important crops are millet/cowpeas associations followed by sorghum/cow- peas and millet/cowpeas/oseille. CROP YIELDS Tables 25 and 26 give the yield figures for the different crops for the 1992-93 season. The figures in the two tables show yields that generally average less than one ton per hectare except for vouandzou at Lere and rain-fed rice at Youre; this leads to the absence of self- sufficiency in cereal production. EQUIPMENT, DRAFT ANIMALS AND OTHER AGRICULTURAL TOOLS Different types of agricultural implements are owned by the farmers as shown in Table 27. The average numbers of units owned of cultivators and seeders are the lowest among the lists presented. From the above discussions, the following conclusions were made: ...rate of migration is low in the two villages; ...the majority of farms are community-operated; ...the ratio of farm workers to total household size is rela- tively higher than for the OHV zone, thus there is higher la- bor availability; ...crop yields are very low; and ...there are village associations which will make it pos- sible to extend credit and other development services. In addition to the above characterizations, information was also obtained on the agronimic, cultural, and livestock pratices of the farmers in the zone (see Mopti Volet "Results for the 1992-93 season"). Two specific studies on agroforestry were conducted in collaboration with the Agroforestry Department. These were: (1) Some aspects of agroforestry developement within the cropping systems of farmers, and (2) Lessons of soil and water conservation obtained from farmer practices. Details of these studies are provided in the document for the Technical Commission in Mopti. 20 I I IIIICU LVVVUCQI V3CIIIC I.IV V~\ arming Systems I Researc h and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 25. YIELDS FOR CROPS AT LERE BASED ON TYPE OF ASSOCIATION Crop association No. Crop yields in kg/ha of cases Avg. Minimum Maximum yield Yield yield Millet Principal crop 10 343.60 1765.67 506.33 Secondary crop I 367.00 Pure stand I 508.00 Sorghum Principal crop I 553.00 Secondary crop I 620.00 Cowpeas Secondary crop 9 52.45 3.00 110.00 Vouandzou Principal crop 3 1,073.83 800.00 1,473.00 Pure stands I 912.00 Peanuts Principal crop 2 472.50 345.00 600.00 Oseille Secondary crop 5 337.45 3 .00 I, 193.50 Tertiary crop 9 320.92 80.00 592.00 TABLE 26. YIELDS FOR CROPS ATYOURE BASED ON TYPE OF ASSOCIATION Crop association No. Crop yields in kg/ha of cases Avg. Minimum Maximum yield Yield yield Millet Principal crop I I 6589.64 368.00 1,204.00 Secondary crop 6 94.67 Sorghum Principal crop II 558.82 208.00 1,376.00 Secondary crop 4 82.00 44.00 96.00 Rain-fed rice Principal crop I 872.00 Pure stands 2 1,086.00 352.00 1,820.00 Vouandzou Pure stand I 600.00 Peanuts Pure stand 2 434.00 348.00 520.00 TABLE 27. NUMBER OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAFT ANIMALS OWNED BY FARMERS IN LERE ANDYOURE Equipment, tools and draft L6rd Your animals (avg. per farmer) Plow 1.43 1.82 Cart 1.40 I. 10 Cultivator 1.00 0 Seeder 1.00 0 Daba 14.90 12.75 Cutlass 10.80 5.75 Draft cattle 2.50 3.83 GOALS OF AND CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION NATIONAL GOALS National and farmers' goals are the major determinants of farming systems research activities. The national goals for the agricultural sector can be sum- marized as follows: ...food self-sufficiency ...improved income and standard of living of farmers; and ...restoration and conservation of agricultural potentials. FARMERS' GOALS The farmers' goals are variable depending on the level of decision. The results of a survey conducted by FSR/E (Volet OHV 1989a) show that food security remains the principal goal of farmers (Table 28) in reference to crop production, while the acquisition of money for daily living expenses is the main goal for livestock production. Thus, overall at national and farmer levels, the main goal appears to be to maximize food security. Food security is achieved through: ...Crop production; ...Livestock production; and ...Off-farm income generating activities. Surpluses generated in crop production and off-farm ac- tivities are saved in the form of livestock and are cashed when necessary for a transaction (purchase of grains and other items). Livestock is an important component of the farmer's portfolio. Social security is achieved by fulfilling social obligations: pay- ing premiums in the form of gifts, ceremonies, labor, and etc. The maintenance and improvement of social status is achieved through: ...timely fulfillment of social obligations; and ...wealth accumulation in the form of livestock, and grains to acquire more economic security and political power. TABLE 28. NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS INDICATING A SPECIFIC GOAL FOR AN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITY OUT OF A TOTAL OF 263 (OHV ZONE 1990) Goal Crop Production Livestock Production No. Pct. No. Pct. Wealth 0 0.0 19 7.2 Income for 43 I 6.0 155 59.0 living expenses Donkeys 1.9 1.67 Camels 2.0 5.40 Food security 208 79.0 6 2.3 Animal traction only - 29 I I.0 21 Yarvuing Systens tesearca ind Extension in Wali-[1986-1994 CONSTRAINTS The principal constraints are similar for OHV and Mopti except for the variation in intensity which affects the priorities to be given to individual constraints for research intervention. INADEQUATE MOISTURE The insufficient quantity and poor distribution of rainfall have been cited as a major constraint to crop production by the farmers in both FSR/E zones of intervention (OHV and Mopti). The rainfall varies TABLE 29. AVERAGE greatly both across zones ANNUAL RAINFALL FOR and over the years (Table OHV (1988-89 29). The start and end of AND 1989-90) the rainy season is also Zone Annual rainfallZoneAnulaifl highly variable. A high proportion of seasonal 198889 198990 mm mm rainfall occurs in a few North73 60 showers, while a large South 739 605 number of showers con- East 1,32 807 tribute to ineffective West 936 793 quantities of moisture. OHV avg. 947 754 Such rainfall characteris- tics make scheduling of agricultural activities problematic and lead to severe crop moisture stress at critical stages of growth (i.e. germination, flower setting, and grain formation). Effect on crop production systems: The consequence at the village level is a reduction of up to 25% in crop yields. Effect on animal production systems: Both quantity and quality of feed are affected by the inadequate moisture supply. Ruminant animals are the first victims of drought. This is the basic reason for transhumance or seasonal movement of live- stock. The animals cover long distances to get water. This coupled with the inadequate level of nutrition for cows, ewes, and does and high expenditure of energy by the grow- ing offspring to follow their dams, could lead to high losses at a younger age. The productivity of animals exposed to low-nitrogen cel- lulosic pasture, as seen during the dry season, is frequently fur- ther depressed by low voluntary intake. Loss of live weight and poor reproductive performance are common phenomena un- der such conditions. FARMERS' STRATEGIES Farmers' strategies include the following: ...risk minimization through crop diversification and maxi- mum exploitation of potentials of different crops with different soil moisture requirements and growth cycles (maize, sorghum, millet, cowpea and peanuts); ...a dynamic planting strategy to escape drought with effi- cient use of local soil moisture retention capacities; ...varietal search and selection of shorter cycle varieties; ...differential field management (i.e. better management of some fields with more manure and timely labor uses to in- crease chances of crop success); ...crop substitutions; ...grain stock and marketing strategies (e.g. grain purchase and stock at the end of unfavorable rainy season); and ...seasonal and long term migrations. TECHNOLOGICAL NEEDS Technological needs include: water management technologies (i.e small irrigation dams); shorter cycle varieties to escape drought or drought-toler- ant crops and varieties; soil-water management technologies, particularly the im- provement of the efficiency of traditional soil-water manage- ment techniques; mechanical labor-saving technologies for timely soil prepa- ration and planting; technologies that will improve the animal feed supply; and credit to acquire animal traction implements. AVAILABLE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SOLUTIONS Two main research solutions are: varietal selection, and soil/water management. Some elite technologies are listed below: In the area of varietal selection: Crop variety improvement is a major research undertak- ing of the national and international research institutions. The main focus of the research being: ...identification andimprovement of varieties with respect to yield potential, drought tolerance and disease resistance; ...specification of ecological zones and management re- quirements of recommended varieties; and ...evaluation of introduced varieties under farm conditions. Among the promising varieties are: Sorghum: Tiemarifing, S-3 4, JCSV- 1063, CSM-3 88, Sako6ka, Malisor 84-1, Malisor 84-7, Bimbiriba. Millet: Souna, Sanio, Boboni, NKK, Synth~tique 11, Synthdtique 16, PN 4, 81 BHT. Maize: Ti~manti6 de Zamblara. Arachide: 47-10, 28-206, 55-43/7. Cowpea: TVU 76-07, Amary sho, KNI, KVX 30-305- 3G, Shotely, TN 88-63. 22 Yarming Systems kesearc GandE xtension in Mali-V1986-1994 In the area of soil management techniques: Tied ridges: these have been shown to significantly in- crease yields (Rodriguez 1982, Nicou and Charreau 1985). On- farm researcher managed trials have shown significant yield increase and economic returns to the additional labor required to do the tied ridging (TR) on maize, sorghum, and millet. The technology has the advantage that no cash outlay is required if family labor is utilized, Availability of labor has been the limi- tation to the adoption of the technology. FSR/E could con- duct more research in order to refine this technology to make it less labor intensive. Another limitation of the TR technol- ogy is that, it does not work well on sandy soils because the ties tend to break in heavy rain. The soils in the southern part of OHV appear to be suitable for this technology. Diguettes/dikes: the construction of diguettes, although not as effective in retaining water as tied ridges, is a water con- servation method that has been investigated elsewhere in the Sahel region. Diguettes are barriers 10 to 15 cm high mainly made of rocks and placed on field contour lines 10 to 50 meters apart. The barriers, although permeable, slow runoff to allow increased infiltration. The technology has increased yields in the northern region of Burkina Faso (Wright 1985). Provided that rocks, the principal material for the construction of diguettes, are available, these barriers can be constructed in off- peak labor periods with family labor and are not as labor intensive as tied ridging. Mulch: crop residue can reduce rainfall runoff and increase water infiltration. The principal limiting factor is scarcity of mulching material. The crop residue is used for animal feed, fuel and construction materials. However, with improved management, increased biomass yields could lead to in- creased mulching material for improvement in soil and wa- ter management. Low SOIL FERTILITY AND LAND QUALITY DEGRADATION CAUSE AND EFFECTS The soils in Mali are mostly poor in fertility. Chemical properties indicate low organic matter content, low clay con- tent, low phosphorus content and consequently low nitrogen content and low cation exchange capacity. Analyses of physi- cal properties show mostly sandy and gravelly textures, low moisture retention capacity and high susceptibility to erosion. These properties lead to poor soil fertility resulting in low crop yields. FARMERS' STRATEGIES The farmers' strategies for dealing with the poor fertility problem are based on preferential application of nutrient ma- terials to the different fields. Soil fertility is, in general, better managed in the fields closest to the household compound than in the fields far away from the compound. Farmyard manure constitutes the main source of fertility for the fields closest to the compound and these are often planted to maize (in villages where this crop is cultivated). On further fields, moderate amounts of both organic and mineral fertilizers are used to re- store fertility with cereals-legume intercropping-or rotation. Fertility on fields farthest from the compound is maintained mostly with fallows and cereal-legume intercropping or rota- tion. Thus soil fertility is generally higher on fields closest to the compound with gradual reduction the farther the fields are from the compound. Consequently, grain yields also vary ac- cordingly. Farmers also make efforts to maintain the physical status of the soil to stop erosion and conserve both soil and moisture. The major traditional soil and water conservation techniques used include earthen diguettes around maize fields, stone bunds, mulching, and grass strips. TECHNOLOGICALNEEDS The main constraints related to the soil quality deteriora- tion problem include: shortage of organic manure, manure transportation problems, unavailability and high price of mineral fertilizers, high financial risk of mineral fertilizer application in semi- arid conditions, lack of credit facilities to buy fertilizers for food crops, high labor costs of installation of soil conservation de- vices, lack of collective or coordinated actions for soil conser- vation, and poor technical efficiency of traditional soil and water conservation techniques as presently used. DEVELOPMENT SOLUTIONS Development solutions by governmental and nongovern- mental organizations to tackle the problem include: diguette construction, fertilizer subsidies (stopped since 1985), and the Rock Phosphate project which supplies phosphate at a lower price, 47 CFA/kg. AVAILABLE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SOLUTIONS Solutions offered by agricultural research (IER) include: a widely recommended rate of cotton fertilizer: 100 kg of NPK (cotton complex) + 50 kg of urea, and PNT dose: 300 kg/ha over a 3-year period as a substitute for imported phosphate. Several institutions are working on soil fertility ameliora- tion. Major emphasis is on finding appropriate economic doses for different agroclimatic conditions and crop combinations. 23 Yawring Systems tResearch and Extension in Mli-1986-1994 Recently attention has been drawn to the role of organic matter in soil fertility. Where mineral fertilization alone is ap- plied, it can lead to soil-acidification. A brief overview of these technological options follows: Animal manure and composting: This technology, as mentioned earlier, is already in application in several areas of both zones of intervention. Insufficient quantity of materials is the main limiting factor. The animal production component of the FSR/E is currently working on improving fallow and crop- ping lands by integrating forage legumes and the raising of ani- mals, particularly cattle in enclosures for effective manure col- lection. This improved system of manure collection has al- ready received positive response from farmers. However, con- tinued improvement in the natural pasture and proper man- agement of crop residue is necessary in order to increase ma- nure and compost availability since animals could then be coraled to make collection possible. Forage legumes and trees are known to restore the fertility of the soil. This innovation has been introduced in the northern part (Kanika) of the zone OHV. Green manuring and plowing: Deep plowing, green ma- nuring, and other tillage practices have been observed to in- crease yield, due to change in soil structure, which allows for better root establishment and improved water infiltration and storage. About 60% of the farmers in OHV zone practice some form of tillage, either manual or with animal traction. Green manuring can also increase the fertility of the soil and add to water retention capacity of the soil. This technology also re- quires deep plowing to incorporate the crops into the soil. Chemical fertilizers: The usefulness of fertilizer usage is dependent often on adequate rainfall. Trials by the agro- nomic component of FSR/E have shown yield response to fertilizer to be highly variable between sites, crop kind and years. There is, however, considerable risk of financial loss when fertilizer is used alone.The following research is on- going: specification of fertilizer rates for food crops in different agro-ecological zones, increasing the solubility of PNT, composting and manure application, and cereal/legume rotations. LABOR SHORTAGE CAUSE AND EFFECTS The main cause of labor shortage is migration during the agricultural season. This labor shortage results in reduced farm sizes, poor till- age, poor crop maintenace, and abandoned fields. FARMERS' STRATEGIES TO DEAL WITH THE PROBLEM Some of the farmers' strategies include the use of agricul- tural equipment, the preferential maintenance of fields based on the crops planted on them, and the use of hired labor for certain activities such as weeding and harvesting. TECHNOLOGICAL NEEDS Two technological needs of the farmers are labor-saving equipment and implements, and more efficient (agronomically and economically) herbicides. AVAILABLE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SOLUTIONS Some of the available solutions include the introduc- tion of herbicides, increasing animal draft power through the use of new materials and different types of animals (don- keys and horses), and diversification in the equipment used for mechanical weeding (DMA). INADEQUATE QUANTITY AND POOR QUALITY OF FEED RESOURCES Inadequate quantity and quality of feed is the major constraint to animal production. Where nutrition is ad- equate qualitatively, particulary in protein content, parasites and diseases have a minor effect on the productivity of the ani- mals. When amino acid availability from a diet is low, how- ever, parasites and diseases could manifest as the dominant constraint to production. The nutritive value of feedstuffs is essentially a func- tion of the availability of energy and nitrogen. Research has shown that cereal crop residues and mature natural pas- ture have abundant sources of energy as cellulose but are poor in the content of nitrogen. Such materials will re- main to be a basic diet from which animal protein will be derived. Thereby, creating the conditions through forage legumes that will allow the efficient utilization of the ma- terials is of prime importance for the effective integration of animals, particularly cattle, in the farming system. 24 Jcrming Systems tResearch andE xtension in Mli-1986-1994 FARMERS' STRATEGIES Over 90% of the farmers in OHV raise either poultry, cattle, or small ruminants (Volet OHV 1990). The percentage is expected to be higher for the Mopti zone even though such information is not currently available. The number of live- stock raised in the OHV ranges from zero to about 68 with an average of about six animals, the highest concentration being in the southern region of the zone (Volet OHV 1990). Livestock production is a family enterprise sometimes guarded by children, however, most cattle are entrusted to the Fulani herdsmen. Draft oxen are kept on the farm in addition to a very limited number of non-draft animals. The use of horses and donkeys is more prevalent in the West and North of OHV respectively. The feeding of small ruminants is sedentary/extensive with: grazing natural pasture as the basis of feeding with some provision of supplements consisting of the irregular addition of crop residues (straws), and the animals are guarded during the rainy season and left to stray in the dry season. All year round, they are watered and housed by the farmers. The feeding of large ruminants is also sedentary/exten- sive with natural pasture as the major feeding source with some supplementary feeding in the dry season. The cattle entrusted to the Fulani herdsmen are fed through transhumance during the dry season. During the rainy season, they are fed on natural pastureland around the villages. Fallows around the villages are the main natural pasturelands. The feed supplements are salt, special varieties of cereals (mainly for draught animals), and crop residues. The latter consists of crop residues of cereals and legumes. The ce- real crop residues used are the most green and tender stems obtained during the harvest. The legume supplements are cow- pea and peanut residues. Cowpeas are mainly grown as inter- crop. The amount of cowpea residues produced on the farm is very low compared to cereal residues. The former serving as a source of nitrogen supplement, the quantity produced cannot offset the deficiency of nitrogen to improve the utilization of the latter by the animals. TECHNOLOGICAL NEEDS Technological needs include: increase the quality and quantity of feed resources, and promote forage conservation techniques. Such technologies are particularly needed for the dry season feeding. DEVELOPMENT SOLUTIONS The emphasis nationally is on vaccination programs against killer diseases. Grazing of natural pasture is the domi- nant form of feeding. Natural pasture harvest at the right stage and production of forage legumes accompanied with conserva- tion will undoubtedly increase the feed budget bothquantita- tively and qualitatively. This will open the way for the long- term genetic improvement of the animals for milk, meat, and draft power. Low PRODUCTIVITY INPUTS AND LIMITED CASH RESOURCE AND CREDIT Most farmers are still using low productivity hand-tool implements to perform most crop production activities. Lack of sufficient cash resources and limited acces to credit prevent many farmers from acquiring higher productivity inputs such as animal traction implements, fertilizers, etc. to relax the la- bor bottlenecks and increase output. INSUFFICIENT INPUT SUPPLY AND EXTENSION SERVICES Overall, cash crop producers traditionally benefit more from input supply and extension services than from food crop producers. The situation has improved in recent years due to the presence of several non-governmental organizations and improved OHV actions. Other agronomic constraints include crop pests and dis- eases, low effective off-farm demand of food grains, inadequate or poorly implemented pricing, marketing, and grain stocks management policies. ANIMAL DISEASES The major diseases of sheep and goats are muzzle scab and foot rot; and the major diseases of cattle are pasteurellosis, trypanosomiasis, and tick-borne diseases. AGRO-FORESTRY CONSTRAINTS The main difficulty farmers confront in the tree plant- ing activities is the lack of water. Natural rainfall is insuf- ficient to ensure plant establishment. Furthermore, there is no water source (bore-hole, well, reservoir) for watering seedlings during the dry season. Other difficulties such as the straying of cattle, the unavailability of seedlings and termites are somewhat negligible in comparison with the problem of lack of water. 25 .,-- Aft ' ~ DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGIES FOR INCREASED CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN THE OHV ZONE Ex alUiting the impact of in agricuiltiiral i esueirc p peet has iixxax keen a dittienir task on which xvery little in termsot literature exist.,. Thix xeectioni of the diickiment kcins \N ithl a reviex of the ditterent diagnostic aind themnatiC Studiex that were undertaken and the tee hnokics propoixd to allex i ite the pto- dut ion constr aints identified in the OHV -one. The review\ uxexS researc h data aind agroni mie and socio cconomnic infoi- iation from FSR/E and other re.xearch it ',anrati in>, in the ionc. FSR/E ha> been eon~diicting research in the --ne since 1 986 and the research resulIts, rev iewx of tee hnologiex, aind iec oin mtendation> reflect this orientation. The section begin> xx ith a diSCeIixion ot each technology in teims of its cixeftlnex>C And tea- *sibilitv to the farmeis in the short term, niedium teim, and long term. The mnodalitv oit adoption is pre~ented together wxith thle evailuation ciriteria. Soc 10 econoitic iesear ch has shown i that tfirnmers do not necessarily aidopt tec hnologic, in the toi m ot pieket., but irither tae a one it a time approaeh to adoption (B1 cilee et Hesse Lie Polancio, 1986; Mann, 1987). This imide of adoption pre- ails' despite thle tact that thle greatest impact on crop x ield is obtained xxhen technologies ire Uised in combination. Firm- eri> strate',ies for tec hnology adoptioni is based on availaibilit1 ot technioloy, technlical feasibility, economic profitabilitx, aind c onsiderations for isk and resource eiidox mlerit in thle cirop- ping sxystenm. Techinologic> that are favored by the above tac- tors are adopted fitr~ and the others ar e considei ed latei bixed 0In tarmnei initial experience wxith adopted technologies. Theix, exven it a tecchnolo'ic ii package, exists, there is a Io igca1,jl >Cpue ttii adoptioi n tirom boith agri m iiiic and ee~l iic xViexx pmoints. Tb is information on adoption modalimty is important in oriient- in', researc and fex etenioin pi ogram>s With this in viewx, this section Uses the ax itlable tresults fromn agronomic, technical, inde socio-ecirnmic r esearcli to asses, iir confimi the compat- Yarming Syjstems tPesearch and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 ibility of the technologies and cultural practices proposed to the farmers of the OHV zone. Results from agronomic research stations and those from on-farm trials are used to evaluate the proposed technologies. Partial budgets and benefit-cost ratios are used to determine economic profitability. Risk and vari- ability analyses are performed on test results to assess potential financial losses. After the review of the proposed technologies, the sec- tion proceeds to identify the available technologies for the present production system and those that have potential for a more intensive system. SOME DIAGNOSTIC AND SPECIFIC STUDIES LAND TENURE SYSTEM This study was conducted in 1988 to describe the system of land ownership in the research villages. Four principal own- ership modes were identified: ownership by the largest and old- est families existed in over 75% of the villages, ownership by village chief existed in about 38% of the villages while collec- tive ownership and individual titles to land existed in only about 12.5% of the villages in both cases. Allocation of land to indi- viduals is then made by the respective authorized owners as the case may be. All land litigations are resolved locally with the government rarely intervening. Livestock have acess to fallow and pasture land without reference to ownership; however, ani- mals of the land owner have the first right to the use after- harvest crop residue. The systematic reduction in natural pas- ture has created conflict between the crop production and live- stock production systems. AN ANALYSIS OF WOMEN'S TIME ALLOCATION TO AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES This study was conducted in 1988 and its results showed that women participate fully in all agricultural activities over TABLE 30. PRINCIPAL CROP VARIETIES IN Two OHV ZONES Crop Niaganabougou in the south Bougoula in the east Variety Type Variety Type Maize Kabadid Local Kabadie Local Kababl Local Tidmantid Improved Mochi Local Sorghum K~dd Local Tidmarifing Improved Bimbiri Local Bimbiri Local Drongon Local K~dd Local Millet Sanio Local Sanio Local Tobacco Paraguay Improved - Cotton - - BI63 Improved Rice Maloble Local Dis Local and above their traditional domestic and socio-eonomic respon- sibilities. In certain areas of the zone, women are reponsible for providing condiments for the household's consumption. To meet this need, the women cultivate their individual farms beside those owned by the household. Yields from these fields are very low since the land apportioned to the women is usu- ally poor in fertility. In addition, the women do not have ac- cess to good agricultural implements nor to credit. These find- ings helped shape FSR/E research into potential alternative income sources for women, improvement in soil fertility of women's fields, and infant-nutrition improvement through lo- cal resources. INVENTORY AND COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PRINCIPAL CROP VARIETIES IN THE OHV ZONE: THE CASE OF NIAGANABOUGOU AND BOUGOULA In 1988, a study was conducted in two villages Niaganabougou in the south and Bougoula in the East of OHV with the aim of identifying the principal crop varieties and the extent of their cultivation by the farmers. Table 30 summarizes the varieties and indicates whether or not it is an improved or local variety. Improved cereal varieties are practically absent in the southern region of the zone, except for rice which covered 56% of the total area planted to the crop. Improved maize and sor- ghum varieties are found in the eastern part and they occupied 98% and 6% respectively, of the total area planted to the crops in 1988. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ROLE OF SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION BY MALINKE WOMEN This study, initiated in 1989, was to identify the socio- economic use of small ruminants by women. The results indi- cated that sheep are used for family consumption (33% of house- holds interviewed) and sacrifices (17% of the households). Goats are principally used for family consumption. Small ru- minants are sold by the women to pay for cereals and other family needs and sometimes are exchanged for hired labor. The women obtain their animals through purchases with income from agriculture and also through marriages (dowries). ANALYTIC STUDY OF WOMEN ASSOCIATIONS This study was conducted in 1989 in the five principal research villages with the objective of identifying the women associations in existence, their structure and form, objectives, activities, and the major constraints to their efficient perfor- mance. This was to help in identifying intervention domains together with researchers and developers. The results showed that in almost all cases, the associations were formed with so- cial objectives rather than agricultural ones. Thus despite the presence of these associations, agricultural production was an Gambiaka Improved 27 3 rwmig Systems Plesearcl anc dExtension in Vcali-1986-1994 individual affair. The lack of agricultural equipment was cited as the main constraint of agricultural production. It appeared that the association could be a mechanism of obtaining such equipment. FOOD SECURITY IN THE OHV ZONE A households's self-sufficiency in food production is mea- sured as the percentage of its food needs covered by its own production. Estimates by FAO in 1988 put the per capita food need for a Malian household at 188 kg. During this year a study was conducted in five representative villages in the OHV zone to assess the levels of food self-sufficiency. The study was repeated a year later and results are summarized in Table 31. They showed that in 1988-89, the level varied between 31% for the East of the zone to 54% for the West. However, in 1989- 90, the East had 143% while the South had the lowest level of 56%. For each zone, the level of sufficiency was higher in 1989- 90 than in 1988-89 despite the better-than-average rainfall in 1988. Possible explanation might include the higher than usual migration that took place in 1989 thereby reducing the num- ber of persons to be fed per household. The study also investigated the potential for self-suffi- ciency based on available land and the level of technology in existence. The results showed that despite the availability of cultivable land, labor was the main bottleneck against increas- ing food production. TABLE 31. LEVEL OF SELF-SUFFICIENCY IN CEREAL PRODUCTION IN 1988-89 AND 1989-90 Region Pct. of self-sufficient Level of self- Per capita food households sufficiency deficit in kg Pct. Pct. 1988-89 1989-90 1988-89 1989-90 1988-89 1989-90 North 10 II 49 60 -98 -74 South 10 10 51 56 -93 -82 East 05 12 54 58 -86 -80 West 00 65 31 143 -131 -76 OVH 56 25 46 79 -102 -40 =EXPERIMENTATION AND OTHER STUDIES STUDIES ON THE CONSTRAINTS TO THE ADOPTION OF TECHNOLOGIES A STUDY OF VILLAGE ASSOCIATIONS The adoption of new production techniques vary widely between farmers and also between villages across the different agro-climatic zones. The development agencies have an ob- jective of encouraging the formation of village associations to promote economic and social development. In addition, these associations are used as vehicles for technology diffusion since often such diffusion is more successful than if done through individual farmers, However, very little is known about these organizations in terms of their characteristics and the mode of technological transfer across their farmers, hence this study was initiated in 1991. The main objectives of these associations are very diver- sified and include the collective performance of field work (40%), general social development and development of cash crops such as cotton (15 %).. The principal resources used by the associations are labor (40%) and cash resources (42%). Credit is used by only 9% of the associations interviewed. The main constraints included are insufficient cash availability (32%), lack of equipment (27%) and lack of credit (16%). The main extension activities so far as farmer groups were concerned were tests on crops, the use of simple production techniques and phytosanitary treatment of plants. Agro for- estry and environmental protection are at a very limited level. TRANSACTIONS AND REVENUE SOURCES OF HOUSEHOLDS INOHV ZONE This study started in 1991 was designed to describe the structure of the formal and informal agricultural markets for crops, smallstock, chickens, and animal products available to traditional farmers in the OHV zone. The different sources of revenue and expenditures were also identified. Both formal and informal markets exist in the zone. A greater percentage of farmers sold shelled peanuts than any other crop confirming the notion that peanuts are a cash crop. The sale of cereals is very limited since they serve mainly as the staple diets of house- holds. With the exception of rice growers (17.1%), cereals serve very little as a source of income. Cotton provides the highest income, close to 60,000 CFA but grown by only a few farmers. Due to unavailable storage facilities, most farmers sell the output during harvest and post-harvest time leading to lower prices and incomes. Sales of vegetables occur throughout the year due to the ability of garden production during the offseason. Vegetables, together with potatoes and sweet potatoes, are very important income sources. Vegetable sales are more prevalent among farmers in group three and are done mainly in formal markets. Poultry serves as a transitory source of income whereas livestock serves as a source of permanent wealth. Livestock sales are more prevalent among farmers in the first group. More farmers make purchases of sorghum than any other agricultural product and most of the purchases occur during the rainy sea- son just before the first harvest. Higher percentages of farmers in group three make cereal purchases than those in group one. Many of the transactions are made on a cash basis and take place in the formal markets. Very little investment in agricul- tural inputs takes place. The most common investments are in improved seeds and inorganic manure. The purchase of chemi- cal fertilizers is limited to the application on vegetables, espe- cially in Kominta. Most of the input transactions occur in in- formal markets (between farmers) except for chemical fertiliz- ers. Wild fruit hunting is the main alternative source of in- 28 arming Systems Researck hand Extension in Mali-1986-1994 come used by the highest percentage of households followed by remittances from abroad. Significant differences exist between villages in terms of the importance of the different sources of income. The determining factors include distances from ur- ban centers, migration, and the availability of rural industries. AVAILABILITY AND USE OF CREDIT AND ITS IMPACT ON TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION r( t il il Despite the technical feasibility and economic viability in terms of profits and risk of new technologies, their adoption g a is often limited by certain factors such as funds to finance the initial cost of investment. Farmers, in the absence of available a personal or family funds, will have to rely on credit to acquire these technologies. The lack of adequate rural financial insti- a tutions limits the availability of such credit. A study into the availability and use of credit would help inform the developers 1 about the appropritae measures to take to encourage the adop- 1 tion of recommended technologies. This study lasted two years. Interviews of 225 households from four villages were conducted p across the principal agro-climatic zones. The information col- e lected included the use of credit and sources of income. sl Table 32 gives the distribution of the form of credit be- h tween the principal FSR/E research villages. From the above results, it is clear that the majority of cred- c its (58% of farmers who responded) taken by farmers was in- t kind and only 17% of them obtained cash credit. Percentage fi TABLE 32. TYPES OF CREDIT BY FARMERS IN THE OHV ZONE (1992-93) Village Credit in-kind Cash credit No. of farmers Pct. of farmers No. of farmers Pct. of Kanika 7 23 25 8 Deguela 26 49 7 I Kominta 44 92 7 I Tinguild 53 57 - Total 130 58 39 1 Source. FSR/E/OHVVolet Survey on the availability and utilization of credit (1I of in-kind credit was higher in D gu la, Kominta, and Tingu l6 which are villages located in what can be termed as relatively more agriculturally intensive. In these villages, most of the credit was tied to cotton production in the form of fertilizers and insecticides. Contrary, the percentage of cash credit was highest in Kanika, in the northern part of the zone. This could be attributed to the presence of BNDA which gives cash credit for livestock fattening. The results of the two-year study also show a high annual variability in the credit given. However, a lot of caution is needed in drawing conclusions due to several factors such as changes in sample size between the two seasons and changes in the political situation in the country that affected the activi- ties of state financial institutions. Even though the majority of credit is in-kind, most of it is epaid in cash as shown in the table below. In 1991-92, even hough 58% of the credit was in-kind almost all of it was repaid n cash again the following season. Over 70% of the repay- nents were in cash (Table 33). It is also apparent that a greater percentage of farmers n group three (according to the farmer typology-developed wo years ago) obtain loans than those for in group one and roup two (Table 34). These two groups are better equipped Lnd possess more livestock than those in group three. It as therefore being hypothesized that farmers in group one Lnd two will be at less risk since they are more likely to be Lble to survive poor agricultural seasons and repay loans. Thus hey are inclined to be more willing to obtain credit. The armers in group three are assumed to be more at risk hence ess willing to take credit. However, the results in Table 34 call -hese hypotheses into question. It is entirely possible that the oor and less equiped farmers are more willing to take credit in in effort to improve their welfare through investment in .quipment and other productivity-increasing technology. In hort, they have more need for credit than the other farmers ience if made available to them on favorable terms, they would accept credit. These results also point out the fact that "redit as extended by local financial institutions, is less risky han otherwise believed, thus enabling the poorest among the -armers to access it. TABLE 33. CREDIT REPAYMENT METHOD FOR THE TWo SEASONS 1991-92 AND 1992-93 (PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS) farmers Village Repayment in-kind Repayment in cash S1 1991-92 1992-93 1991-92 1992-93 3 5 Kanika - 1.9 78.3 II .3 - D6guela 0. 1 10.8 5.9 4.5 7 Kominta - 14. I 9.2 31.5 Tingueld - - 6.5 25.9 992-93). Total 0. I 26.8 99.9 73.2 Source. FSR/E /OHVVolet Survey on the availability and utilization of credit (I1992-93). TABLE 34. DISTRIBUTIoN OF CREDIT OBTAINED BETWEEN FARMER TYPES (PERCENTAGE OF FARMERS) Village Group I Group 2 Group 3 1991-92 1992-93 1991-92 1992-93 1991-92 1992-93 Kanika - - 22.7 9.5 36.6 2.7 Ddguila 12.4 5.3 1.6 3.4 4.7 6.8 Kominta - - 6.4 16.8 3.0 28.7 Tingudl6 8.4 7.2 2.0 9.6 2.2 9.0 Total 20.8 12.5 32.7 39.3 46.5 48.2 Source. FSR/E /OHVVolet Survey on the availability and utilization of credit (1992-93). 29 I~ I I farming Systems i esearcl and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 However, specific situations deserve mention. The re- payment period and the need to repay in cash often force farm- ers to sell all their produce at the end of harvest to pay the creditors. For example, the majority of livestock-fattening loans extended by BNDA in Kanika were to be repaid in five months at an interest rate of 4.5%. Faced with marketing problems, farmers are forced to travel as far as Bamako to sell their ani- mals, abandoning other agricultural activities in the process. The different sources of credit include developers and pri- vate individuals such as civil servants and farmers. During the 1992-93 season, for example, over 30% of all credits extended in the zone were made by civil servants, followed by individual farmers (28.2%), OHV (22.%) and BNDA (10.2%). The greatest percentage of the credit obtained is used for the purchase of seeds (97% of farmers) and fertilizer (68% farm- ers) as shown in Table 35. Credit is available and even though certain terms and conditions for obtaining it exist, the available credit is offered on reasonable terms. However, more information is needed. The poorest of farmers do use credit and are willing to use more and farmers themselves are an important source of credit. TABLE 35. UTILIZATION OF CREDIT BY FARMERS IN THE ZONE IN 1992-93 (NUMBER AND PERCENATGE OF FAR Use Kanika D6guela Kominta Tingudle No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. No. Pct. Draft animal 8 26 2 4 - - Improved seeds 23 74 9 17 - - - - Fertilizer - - 2 4 22 46 16 18 Pesticides - - 8 17 7 8 Livestock fattening 3 10 - - - - Source. FSPR/E /OHVVolet Survey on the availability and utilization of cred TECHNOLOGIES PROPOSED BY FSR/E FOR FARMERS IN OHV AGRONOMIC TECHNOLOGIES The agronomic research carried out by FSR/E in the OHV zone to alleviate production bottlenecks such as physical, cli- matological labor constraints can be grouped as follows: soil fertility improving and soil and water conservation technologies, labor-saving technologies, crop variety improvement, crop association performance improvement, and diseases, insects and other crop pests. Soil fertility improving and soil/water conservation tech- nologies include chemical and organic fertilizers, rock phos- phates, compost, mulching, plowing techniques, tied ridges, and digue/dikes. CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS On-station and on-farm agronomic research results have shown significant yield increases with the application of chemi- cal fertilizers on maize, sorghum, millet, and rice (ICRISAT 1986, 1987,1988; DRSPR/Volet Fonsebougou 1985, 1986, 1987). However, fertilizer response varies strongly with site and year. For example the results from maize/millet fertiliza- tion tests in the South of Mali showed that grain yield was significantly higher for farmer practice than for fertilized fields (K6b6 Demba 1987). Nevertheless, most agronomic test re- sults indicate that the use of chemical fertilizers is profitable given the necessary climatic and physical conditions (Pieri, 1985). However, continuous use of chemical fertilizers with- out the incorporation of organic matter into the soil can result in reduced crop yields. FSR/E conducted research on the fer- tilization of several cereal and leguminous crops both in asso- ciation and in pure stands. FERTILIZATION OF CROPS IN PURE STANDS Table 36 gives a summary of results obtained from the fer- tilization of pure maize stands. OHV For the average of the three villages, fertil- tMERS) izer application is profitable, yielding a marginal Total rate of return of 244%. Thus a farmer investing No. Pct. one dollar in chemical fertilizer will recover this amount plus an additional two dollars and forty- 10 4.4 32 91 four cents. The additional labor for fertilizer ap- 40 68 plication is also profitable since the net benefit 15 7 per person day of work is over 3480 CFA which 3 1.3 is higher than the estimated daily wage rate of it (1992-93). 500 CFA for a Malian worker. In Gouani, where agriculture is more intensive in terms of equip- ment and other input usage, the application of urea togther with that of PNT or cereal complex is more prof- itable that the application of urea alone. Contrary, in Mountougoula, a village in the same zone as Gouani, but where agriculture is less intensive perhaps due to its proximity to Bamako, the application of urea alone appears to be more ben- eficial than when combined with PNT or cereal complex. Thus the profitability of fertilizer application does not only vary with site and climatic conditions such as rainfall but also with the resource management practices of the farmer. FSR/E conducted a test on the effect of fertilization and improved cultural practices on pure sorghum stands on farm- ers' fields during the 1988-89 season and results are summa- rized in Table 37. The results showed highly significant vil- lage-treatment interaction especially for the users of ammo- 30 Jarming Systems tkesearch a nd Extension in M)ali-1986-1994 TABLE 36. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZATION OF PURE MAIZE STANDS ON FARMERS FIELDS IN THE OHV ZONE (1988-89 AND 1989-90) Item Fertilization TI T2 T3 T4 Average of 3 villages 1988-89 Total yield, kg/ha 1,030 2,220 Adjusted yield 2 927 1,998 Value of production 3 50,985 109,890 Total costs 0 17,130 Net benefit (NB) 4 50,985 92,760 Increase in NB 41,775 Marginal rate of return 244% (MRR) s Return/person day of 3,48 I1 additional labor 6 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 At Gouani 1989-90 Total yield 1,490 1,930 1,975 2,390 Adjusted yield 1,341 1,737 1,777 2,151 Value of production 44,253 57,321 58,641 70,983 Total cost 15,180 33,080 19,420 26,680 Net benefits (NB) 29,073 24,241 39,221 44,303 Increase in NB -4,832 10,148 15,230 MRR Domin. 239% 132% Return/person day of -402 1,69 I 2,538 additional labor Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 At Mountougoula 1989-90 Total yield 1,069 1,400 1,040 Adjusted yield 962 1,260 936 Value of production 31,746 41,580 30,888 Total costs 15,1 80 33,080 19,420 Net benefits (NB) 1 6,566 8,500 I 1,468 Increase in NB -8,066 -5,098 MRR - Domin. Domin. Pct. of farmers losing money 0 For 1988-89 test,T I represents the farmer practice without Fertili- zation. For I1989-90,T I - 100 kg/ha of urea.T2 in 1988-89 - 100 kg/ ha of ammonium phosphate and 50 kg/ha of urea, but for 1989-90, T2 = 100 kg/ha of ammonium phosphate and 100 kg/ha of urea.T3 - 100 kg/ha of urea and 300 kg/ha of PNT and T4 - 100 kg/ha of urea and 100 kg/ha of cereal complex. Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 10 % to reflect harvest and other forms of losses. Adjusted yield multiplied by the average maize price which was 55 and 33 CFA/kg in 1988 and 1989 respectively. Adjusted yield multiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer costs in CFA. SMarginal rate of return. SNet benefits divided by the number of additional person days nec- tional 48 hours is needed to fertilise an hectare translating to 6 per- son days of work if one supposes that a person day corresponds to 8 person days. nium phosphate and urea (T4) compared with users of PNT only (T2). At Gouani, there was a significant treatment effect with a fertilizer yield increase of 74% or about 830 kg/ha of sorghum. The application of ammonium phosphate and urea produced a yield increase of 49% or 720 kg/ha of sorghum over the application of only PNT with a marginal rate of return of 403.3% which was lower than the return rate for PNT applica- tion. However, the return to the additional labor required for fertilization was much higher for the former than for the latter (5679 as against 3073 CFA per person day). At Mountougoula, the average yield increase due to fer- tilization was only 69% or 470 kg/ha of sorghum. Even though there was no significant yield difference between PNT applica- tion and the application of ammonium phosphate and urea, the former had a return rate of over 687% at the margin and a return to additional labor of 4858 CFA per person/day as com- pared to 52.8% and 744 CFA, respectively, for the latter treat- ment. TABLE 37. EcoNoMIc ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZATION OF PURE SORGHUM STANDS ON FARMERS FIELDS IN THE OHV ZONE (1988-89) Item Fertilization TI T2 T3 T4 At Gouani 1988-89 Total yield, kg/ha I, 120 1,480 1,910 2,470 Adjusted yield 2 1,008 1,332 1,719 2,223 Value of production 70,560 93,240 120,330 155,610 Total costs 0 4,240 12,240 16,900 Net benefit (NB) 4 70,560 89,000 108,090 138,710 Increase in NB I 8,440 37,530 68,150 Marginal rate of return 434.9% 306.6% 403.3% (MRR) 5 Return/person day of 3073 3 28 5679 additional labor 6 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 0 At Mountougoula 1988-90 Total yield 680 1,210 missing 1,090 Adjusted yield 612 1,089 981 Value of production 42,840 76,230 68,670 Total cost 0 4,240 12,240 16,900 Net benefits (NB) 42,840 71,990 - 51,770 Increase in NB 29,150 8,930 MRR 687.5% 52.8% Return/person day of 4,858 744 additional labor Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 TI represents the farmer practice without Fertilization,T2 repre- sents improved cultural practice and 300 kg/ha of PNT for 3-year and300 kg/ha of PNT followed by 50 kg/ha of urea at I60 CFA/kg and T4 represents improved cultural practice and 100 kg/ha of am orms of losses. Adjusted yield multiplied by the average sorghum price which was 0 CFA/kg in 1988. Adjusted yield multiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer s Marginal rate of return. 6 Net benefits divided by the number of additional person days nec- essary for fertilizer application.The application of ammonium phos- phate or PNT followed by an application of urea will use up I 2 per- son days. II I Yarming Systems tesearc h and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 Thus, it is apparent that farmers in Gouani who are rela- tively more intensive in terms of equipment use can more prof- itably apply the more expensive but more nutrient enriched combination of ammonium phosphate and urea. The farmers in Mountougoula, who are generally less intensive, will fare better with the local rock phosphate. Yield differences could not be attributed to rainfall since the two villages are in the same agro-ecologic zone. Fertilization of rain-fed rice was started in 1989 with vari- ety choice and fertilization as the main goals. Initial effort of fertilization was through the use of BG 90-2 planted on flooded fields previously planted to vegetables. This was at the urging of the farmers themselves. However, this variety turned out not to be suited agro-climatically to the zone. Mineral fertili- zation was thus introduced into the test the previous year and results are summarized in Table 38. The fertilization of farmer varieties proved to be the most profitable with a marginal rate of return of over 100% and a return to additional labor of 2,491 CFA per person day. The production of the improved variety resulted in reduction in net benefits, even if fertilizers were applied. However, none of the farmers who planted the improved variety without fertilization lost any money as against 40% of those who fertilized. TABLE 38. EFFECT OF VARIETY AND FERTILIZATION ON RICE YIELDS IN BALANZAN (1990-9 1) Item Fertilization and variety, TI T2 T3 T4 Total yield. kg/ha 575 1,103 291 470 Adjusted yield 2 345 662 175 282 Value of production 3 61,410 117,836 31,150 50,196 Total costs 0 26,530 0 26,530 Net benefit (NB) 4 61,410 91,306 31,150 23,666 Increase in NB 29,896 -30,260 -37,744 Marginal rate of return 113% (MRR) 5 Return/person day of 2,49 I -3,145 additional labor 6 Pct. of farmers losing 0 0 40 money T I represents the farmer variety without fertilization,T2 represents armer variety 100 kg/ha of ammonium phosphate at I82.8 CFA/kg variety without Fertilization and-T4 represents improved variety and 100 kg/ha of ammonium phosphate at 182.8 CFA/kg followed by 50 kg/ha of urea at I 65 CFA/kg Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 40 % to reflect harvest and pro- cessing losses. Adjusted yield multiplied by the average rice price which was 178 4 Adjusted yield nmultiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer costs in CFA. Marginal rate of return. Net benefits divided by the number of additional person days nec- essary for fertilizer application.The application of ammonium phos- phate followed by an application of urea will use up 12 person days. FERTILIZATION OF CROP ASSOCIATIONS Table 39 gives a brief summary of results obtained from fertilization of sorghum/peanut association. The source of phosphatic fertilizer had no significant ef- fect on the yields of cereal/legume association. Testing this hypothesis on sorghum/peanut association, FSR/E applied lo- cal rock phosphate PNT and Simple Super at the recommended rates over a two-year period. No significant yield differences were obtained, even though fertilization was highly significant over the control. Such results make economic considerations extremely important due to cost effectiveness and risk aspects of technology application. Both sources of phosphate gave economically viable re- sults with marginal rate of return ranging from 452% to close to 1,900%. However, the local rock phosphate, PNT appeared to be relatively more economical for both seasons. The net benefits per hectare were higher than those for Simple Super with lower variability indices for both years. The returns per person day for labor required for fertilizer application were also higher for PNT( an average of 10,298 CFA as against an aver- age of 8,650 CFA). The local production of PNT makes it a better choice since its availability is better assured. Fertilization of sorghum/millet was conducted at Kominta, in the west of OHV zone. Tests carried out in 1987, 1988, and 1989 using mineral fertilizers did not prove profitable for millet and results for sorghum were not consistent. In 1990-91, the local rock phosphate was introduced as a possible fertility source and the results and analysis are summarized in Table 40. PNT proved more profitable than mineral fertilizer appli- cation with a marginal rate of return exceeding 220% and a return to the additional labor needed for its application close to 1,700 CFA per person day. Further analysis (DRSPR/Volet OHV 1990) indicated that even if the per kilogram price of PNT doubles, the technology is still profitable yielding a net return at the margin of over 60%. Fertilization of sorghum/cowpea was begun in 1988 and the results of 1989 crop season did not show any significant difference in yield between phosphate sources (PNT versus Ammonium Phosphate). However, the application of phos- phate gave a significantly higher yield than the control (Table 41). Maize/sorghum is an important crop association for the farmers in the southern section of the OHV zone. In years of good rainfall, very high yields are obtained. Farmers owning livestock try to fertilize their sorghum/maize fields with ma- nure obtained from the traditional pens. The introduction of the improved corral system by FSR/E in this zone provided an opportunity for farmers to fertilize their fields with better qual- ity manure in combination with the local rock phosphate. This was the focus of this test initiated in 1989-90 and repeated in 1990-91. 32 I Yarming Syjstems tResearck hand Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 39A. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZATION OF SORGHUM/ ers pay these herders on the basis of pre-arranged modes of payments including cash and cereal PEANUT ASSOCIATION IN THE OHV ZONE (990-91) (Kon6 B, Yeboah A.K, and J.S Caldwell 1990). Item Treatment The application of animal manure has a TI T2 T3 marginal rate of return over the absolute con- Crop Sorghum Peanut Sorghum Peanut Sorghum Peanut trol of about 37.7% which is less than the mini- Total yield 267 499 296 653 433 703 mum 100%. However, the nutrient benefits of Adjusted yield 2 240 449 266 588 390 633 Value of production 90,194 I 16,838 128,552 manure application accrue over more than one Total costs 0 4,823 4,700 year and together with its positive effect on soil Marginal costs 4,823 4,700 structure and overall production sustainability Net benefits(NB) 3 90,194 I 12,015 123,852 makes a one-year analysis such as this one a Increased NB 21,821 33,658 Marginal rate of return (MRR) 452% 716% underestimation of the importance of manure Return/added person day 3,637 5,6 10 application. The results also show that the ef- Standard deviation 41,727 49,492 5 1,936 fect of fertilizer application is much higher when Index of variability 46.3 45.5 40.8 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 0 combined with manure than if applied alone. TI represents the farmer practice without fertilization,T2 represents the application of 65 kg/ The marginal rates of return for fertilizer appli- a of Simple Super and T3 represents 300 kg/ha of PNT for a 3-yr period. cation on fields that also received manure are Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 10 % to reflect harvest and other forms of losses. much higher than those from fields without Yield multiplied by the average prices for peanuts and sorghum which were 150 and 95 CFA/ g respectively in both 1990 and 199 1. manure. For example the application of urea Yield multiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer costs in CFA (SS was 74.2 CFA/kg for and ammonium phosphate has a return of over both 1990 and 199 I1 and PNT was 47 and 47.2 CFA/kg in 1990 and 199 I1 respectively). 5 Net benefits divided by the number of additional person days necessary for fertilizer applica- 990% if manure was also applied as against only tion which is estimated at 6 person days. Thus, the application of Simple Super and PNT each 62.2% if they were applied alone (Table 42). uses 6 person days. This combination was the most profitable in the TABLE 39B. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZATION OF SORGHUM/ 1989-90 season providing a return to additional PEANUT ASSOCIATION IN THE OHV ZONE ( 1991-92) required labor of over 3,000 CFA per person day. Similar conclusions could be drawn from Item Treatment Item Treatment, the results from the following year's test with TI T2 T3 manure application increasing the profitability Crop Sorghum Peanut Sorghum Peanut Sorghum Peanut of fertilizer application. The application of ma- Total yield 750 1,352 742 2,000 722 2,070 Adjusted yield 675 1,217 668 1,800 650 1,863 nure increased the marginal rate of return of Value of production 246,645 333,44 I1 341,270 PNT and ammonium phosphate from losses to Total costs 0 4,823 4,740 176 and 17% respectively (Table 43). The re- Marginal cost 4,823 4,740 Net benefits (NB) 246,645 328,618 34 1,270 turn to added labor was much lower: 1,376 and Increased NB -81,973 89,922 518 CFA respectively if manure was applied, but MRR 1,700% I1,897% in the absence of manure the applied fertilizer Return/person day of 1I 3,662 14,987 yielded negative returns (Table 43). additional labor yielded negative returns (ble 43). Standard deviation 73,723 120,945 68,402 ORGANIC FERTILIZERS AND COMPOST Index of variability 32.9 36.8% 20.3% Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 0 Organic manure and compost are applied T I represents the farmer practice without fertilization,T2 represents the application of 65 to village fields, especially of maize, but at rates g/ha of Simple Super andT3 represents 300 kg/ha of PNT for a 3-yr period, well below the recommended levels. The prin- 2 Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 10 % to reflect harvest and other forms of losses. Yield multiplied by the average prices for peanuts and sorghum which were 150 and 95 CFA/ cipal constraint to the adoption of this technol- zg respectively in both 1990 and 199 I. ogy is the scarcity of the manure whether of Yield multiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer costs in CFA (SS was 74.2 CFA/kg for both I 990 and I 99 I and PNT was 47 and 47.2 CFA/kg in I 990 and 199 I respectively), animal or plant sources. Harvest residues are Net benefits divided by the number of additional person days necessary for fertilizer applica- often fed to animals through the system of free tion which is estimated at 6 person days. Thus, the application of Simple Super and PNT each browsing. The resulting animal manure is also difficult to collect since the animals are left to Farmers were grouped into two: those possessing animal roam hence fecal matter is dispersed over a wide area. The manure in adequate quantites and those without. The animal technology of improved corralling system tested by FSR/E in manure was evaluated as the value of contractual arrangements which animals are penned and fed in a fenced area is aimed at between farmers and animal herders. The herders pack their resolving this problem. This technology is presented in more cattle on farmers' fields to provide manure to the soil and farm- detail later in the publication. 33 7arming Systems tkesearc h and Extension in M)ali-1986-1994 TABLE 40. ECONOMic ANALYSIS OF THE FERTILIZATION OF SORGHUM/MILLET ASSOCIATION IN KOMINATA (1990-91) Item Treatment, TI T2 T3 Crop Sorghum Millet Sorghum Millet Sorghum Millet Total yield 299 216 434 274 444 371 Adjusted yield 2 269 194 390 247 400 334 Value of production 39,474 54,249 62,658 Total costs 0 4,700 18,280 Marginal costs 4,700 18,280 Net benefits(NB) 3 39,474 49,549 44,378 Increased NB 10,075 4,904 Marginal rate of return 222% 26.8% (MRR) Return/added person day 1,679 817 Standard deviation 10,252 15,936 13,509 Index of variability 25.9 32.2 30.4 Pct. of farmers losing 0 0 money TI represents the farmer practice without fertilization,T2 represents 300 kg/ a of PNT for a 3-yr period andT3 represents the application of 100 kg/ha of ammonium phosphate during plowing. Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 10 % to reflect harvest and other forms of fosses. 3 Yield multiplied by the average prices for millet and sorghum which were 87 and 84 CFA/kg respectively in 199 1. 4 Yield multiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer costs in CFA (Ammo- nium phosphate was 182.8 CFA/kg and PNT was 47 CFA/kg.) Net benefits divided by the number of additional person days necessary for ertilizer application which is estimated at 6 person days. TABLE 41. EFFECT OF FERTILIZATION ON THEYIELDS OF! AND COWPEA IN ASSOCIATION (1989) Village Treatments, and crop yield, kg/ha TI T2 T3 Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea S Dorebougou 584 456 600 616 683 744 Y6k6bougou 304 95 424 70 555 105 Average 444 276 512 343 619 425 Mountougou 364 242 556 269 637 387 Gouani 602 115 768 112 1,134 126 Average 483 179 662 191 886 257 T I: control (no fertilization) T2: 50 kg/ha of urea T3: 300 kg/ha of PNT and 50 kg/ha of urea T4: 100 kg/ha of ammonium phosphate and 50 kg/ha of urea. FSR/E also investigated the effect of two different sources of animal manure (from transhumant animals and from im- proved corrals) on the yield of millet/cowpea association. The study had two components: field with manure and fields with- out. For the fields without manure the treatments consisted of T1 the absolute control, T2 which received an amount of ma- nure equivalent to the average deposited by transhumant ani- mals (see study below) and T3 received the recommended rate of manure (3.5 tons per hectare). In the second part additional treatments were incorporated: T4 received only manure de- posited by the transhumant animals and T5 had manure from corrals added to that deposited by transhumant animals to obtain the recommended rate. The results show that manure from the transhumant animals produced millet yields that were over 10% higher than those for manure from improved cor- rals. For cowpea yields, fields without manure application had better yields than those receiving organic manure. However, there was a significant difference between the two sources of manure in terms of cowpea yields with manure from improved corrals producing yields that were 97% higher than those from transhumant animals. A study of the contracting arrangements for animal ma- nure was conducted. This was a study aimed at quantifying the manure deposited by transhumant animals on farmers' fields after a given number of days stay. The method was based on an equation developed by ISRA in Senegal in 1986 (DRSPR/Volet OHV 1990). The results indicated a high cor- relation between the length of stay during the season, the number of animals in Tropical Livestock Units, and the amount and quality of manure deposited. The technology of tied ridges has been introduced to West Africa since 1950 (Dagg and McCartney 1968). On- station and on-farm researchers have indicated that tied ridges increase yields (Nicou and Charreau, 1985; Dugue, 1985; Rodriguez, 1982; Ohm and associates 1985a and 1985b). On-farm research has SORGHUM shown significant increase in yield and economic profitability for the additional labor required for using tied ridges on maize, sorghum, and millet in Burkina T4 Faso (FSU Annual Report 1982, and orghum Cowpea 1983; Lang and associates 1984; Ohm and 813 600 associates 1985a and 1985b). Still, in 569 138 Burkina Faso, research has demonstrated 691 369 970 699 a yield increase of between 15 and 20% 1,536 172 for maize, around 24% for sorghum with- 1253 435 out fertilizer application and over 85% with fertilization, and 60% and 73% re- spectively for millet without and with fertilization (Kibreab, Yilala, and Prundencio 1986). Unfortunately, re- search carried out by ICRISAT in Mali did not yield satisfactory results as obtained in other sahelian countries (Table 44). FSR/E has also researched the interaction between fertili- zation and ridging and the results are summarized in Table 45. In 1989 test results, tied ridges gave an average yield of 695 kg/ha, 9% higher than simple ridges, with a net benefit per hectare of 2,058 CFA and per person/day of 229 CFA, which is less than the daily wage rate of a Malian worker (estimated between 250 and 500 CFA). 34 tarming Systems tkeserck hand Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 42. ECONOMic ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZATION OF M FARMERS FIELDS IN LANDE IN THE OHV Zo Item Fertilization TI T2 With manure Maize Sorghum Maize Sorghum Maize Total yield, kg/ha 51 1 255 1,074 388 1,33 Adjusted yield 460 203 967 349 I, 198 Value of production, 25,939 50,408 7 Total costs 2,975 6,770 I Net benefit (NB) 3 22,964 43,638 5 Increase in NB 20,674 3 Marginal rate of return 544.8% 4 (MRR) Return/person day of additional labor 3,827 3,082 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 Without manure Maize Sorghum Maize Sorghum Maize Total yield 309 266 616 365 829 Adjusted yield 278 239 554 329 746 Value of production 21,841 35,719 Total cost 0 11,830 Net benefits (NB) 21,841 23,889 Increase in NB 2,048 MRR 17.3% Return/person day of 171 additional labor Pct. of farmers losing money 0 For farmers with manureT I represents the application of 3.5 tons/ha of n of 3.5 tons/ha of manure plus 25 kg/ha of urea,T3 represents 3.5 tons of r ha of PNT for 3 years and T4 represents 3.5 tons/ha of manure, 25 kg/ha phosphate. For farmers without manure, TI represents the absolute con plus 300 kg/ha of PNT for 3 years,T3 represents 50 kg/ha of urea, 150 kg/h phosphate and T4 represents 50 kg/ha of urea plus 100 kg/ha of ammoniu 2 Yield multiplied by the average prices for maize and sorghum which we 1989-90. 3 Yield multipled by the average grain price less fertilizer costs and opport (Ammonium phosphate was 179 CFA/kg, urea was 151.8 CFA/kg and PN of manure was evaluated at 850 CFA.) Phosphorus application had a stronger effect on millet yield than the application of nitrogen. Millet yield was 760 kg/ha with PNT application, a 10% increase over yield from urea application. Tied ridges in combination with PNT gave a yield of 755 kg/ha, an increase of 29% over yield from farmer practice (simple ridges). Even though the difference was not statistically sig- nificant, this suggests that the combined or interactive effect of tied ridges and phosphorus application is higher than their individual effects. The net benefits per hectare for this combi- nation was close to 2,200 CFA, however, the net benefit per additionl person day needed was very low. In addition, the interactive effect of tied ridges and urea had negative net ben- efits per hectare due to millet yields that were lower than even those from simple ridges. Manual construction of tied ridges consumes too much labor, over 100 person hours per hectare, and this is the princi- pal constraint to this technology. This labor need can be re- duced to an average of 75 person hours with the use of animal traction (Ohm et al AIZE/SORGHUM STANDS ON NE1989 M T DO 1985b). However, cash E (1989-90) expenditure is minimal for this technology if family T3 T4 labor is available. Tied Sorghum Maize Sorghum ridges have an additional Sorghum Maize Sorghum 658 1,653 794 constraint of not being 592 1,488 715 very efficient in sandy 70,910 86,999 soils because the ridges 1,010 8,560 break easily during rain- 39,900 78,439 36,936 55,475 fall. Despite these con- 59.7% 993.3% straints, over 15% of the cultivable land in Mali is 1,723 2,052 suitable for the applica- 0 0 tion of this technology. Sorghum Maize Sorghum The western part of the 456 1,059 666 OHV zone is adaptable to 410 953 599 this technology. 46,348 63,196 18,660 25,490 The farmers in the 27,688 37,706 OHV zone use various con- 5,847 15,865 servation methods includ- 3 1.3% 62.2%i 325 1,322 ing erosion control prac- tices such as fallowing, 0 0 stone rows or rock bunds, nanure,T2 represents the application trunk barriers, tree plant- nanure, 25 kg/ha of urea and 300 kg/ ing and mulching. FSR/E of urea and 100 kg/ha of ammonium trol,T2 represents 50 kg/ha of urea has tested several of these a of PNT and 50 kg/ha of ammonium techniques at the pre-ex- im phosphate. tension stage in collabora- re 33 and 53 CFA/kg respectively in tension stage in collabora- tion with the extension ser- tunity cost of animal manure in CFA. vice. Much of the work has T was 42.4 CFA/kg in 1988-89, a ton rock bunds and earthen dikes and results of three years of work are summarized below. With the planting of Bauhinia rusfescens and half-moons, the number of species increased from 32 in 1989 to 61 in 1992. Where Bauhinia rusfescens was planted without half-moons, the number of species increased from 43 in 1989 to 83 in 1991. With the installation of half-moons without Bauhinia rusfescens, the number of species increased from 32 in 1989 to 62 in 1992. With the control, the number increased from 47 in 1989 to 51 at the end of the experimental period. Thus the installation of only Bauhinia rusfescens appears to give the best results with an increase of 40 species within the period of test. The control had the lowest number, an in- crease of only 14 species. An 80% soil recovery was obtained across the whole experimental field. There was no significant difference between the height of Bauhinia rusfescens with and without half-moons (47 cm with half-moons and 35.9 without.) Both treatments give a signifi- cant biomass increase with 1.241 kg/m 2 for Bauhinia together with half-moons and 0.863 kg/m 2 for half-moons alone. With 35 Yarming Systems tesearc and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 43. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZATION OF MAI SORGHUM STANDS ON FARMERS FIELDS IN DEGUELA IN THE OHV ZONE (1990-91) Item Fertilization TI T2 T With manure Maize Sorghum Maize Sorghum Maize Total yield, kg/ha 467 756 735 765 703 Adjusted yield 420 680 662 689 633 Value of production, 85,600 98,555 106, c Total costs 2,975 7,675 21 Net benefit (NB) 3 82,625 90,880 85,/ Increase in NB 8,255 3, Marginal rate of return 175.6% 17 (MRR) Return/person day of -1,376 additional labor Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 Without manure Maize Sorghum Maize Sorghum Maize Total yield 714 1,099 765 1,050 572 Adjusted yield 643 989 689 945 515 Value of production 136,105 124,225 121,510 Total cost 0 4,700 18,280 Net benefits (NB) 126,105 1 19,525 103,230 Increase in NB -6,580 -22,875 MRR Return/person day of -1097 -3,8 I 3 additional labor Pct. of farmers losing money 30 48 For farmers with manure T I represents the application of 3.5 tons/ha of m represents the application of 3.5 tons/ha of manure and 300 kg/ha of PNT for 3 T3 represents 3.5 tons/ha of manure and 100 kg/ha of ammonium phosphate. Fc without manure,T I represents the absolute control,T2 represents 300 kg/ha of years,T3 represents 100 kg/ha of ammonium phosphate. 2 Yield multiplied by the average prices for maize and sorghum which were 50 an kg respectively in 1990-9 1. 3Yield multipled by the average grain price less fertilizer costs and opportuni aniomal manure in CFA. (Ammonium phosphate was 182.8 CFA/kg, and PNT wa kg in 1990-9 1, a ton of manure was evaluated at 850 CFA.) TABLE 44. EFFECT OF SOIL PREPARATION ON SORGHUM AND MILLETYIELDS IN KG/HA (1988 AND 1989) Soil preparation Sorghum Millet Sotuba Samanko Cinzana 1988 1988 1989 1988 Plowing 2,710 2,080 1,950 901 Ridging 2,310 2,240 Tied ridging 1,920 937 Source. ICRISAT annual report 1989 and 1990. the use of Bauhinia and half-moons a total biomass production of 12.4 tons/ha can be expected. There is a significant increase in the presence of useful plant species such as Cassia obstisifolia, Cenchrus biflorus, Cucumis filicolis and Pennisetum pedicellatum and the disappear- ance of species such as Zornia glodutiata whose presence indi- cates poor soil conditions. There is over 90% rate of soil re- covery as compared to 7% before the installation. A green ZE/ matter yield of 1,280 kg per square meter or 12.8 metric tons per hectare was recorded. There is also appreciable increase in vegetation heights with baobab increasing to between 53.5 and 130 cm while tamarind increased between 40.5 and 74 cm. 3 TREE PLANTING IN FIELDS Sorghum Baobab showed the highest survival rate, over 881 793 75% for the first season and 97% and 89% for the 985 second and third seasons, respectively. Tamarind 225 730 comes second with about 50% rate of survival dur- 105 ing the first season and 47 and 100% for the sec- .0% ond and third season, respectively. Almost all of 518 the ner6 trees died during the first season due to 0 erroneous weeding, shock during transportation, insect attacks, and shortage of the rainfall season. Sorghum An acceptable germination rate for haie-vie 1, 120 1,008 of close to 40% was obtained, however, the sur- vival rate was almost nil during the second year due to attacks by grasshoppers. The test is planned for five years and it is currently in its 4th year. The predominant species observed on the test fields in- clude Andropogon pseudapricus 71.88% in 1992 as against 6.3% in 1990, Schoenofeldia gracilis 58% as ianure, T2 against 25.9% and Combretum glutinosum, 6.66% years and ai 1 yer farmers and as against 1.5%. The production of vegetative mat- Sr farmers PNT for 3 ter in 1992 was about 0.154 kg per square meter or J95 CFA/ 1,086 kg of dry matter per hectare. d 95 CFA/ The use of diguettes-murettes and small dams ty cost of s 47 CFA/ permitted an increase in area cultivated by up to three hectares. There was significant reduction in surface run-off speed and an increased infiltration rate. Based on the above results, the following techniques were recommended for diffusion by the extension service: rock bunds, diguttes-murettes and small dams, and planting of Bauhinia rufescens at a spacing of 2x2m. These technologies produce the following effects: signifi- cant reduction in surface run-off speed and increased infiltra- tion rate. FSR/E introduced the improved fallowing method or tech- nique in 1988 not only as a means of providing forage for live- stock, but also to improve soil fertility and thereby increasing subsequent cereal yield. The improvement technique consisted of the implantation of Stylosanthes hamata, a forage legume. The interactive effect of the legume and fertilization was evalauted by the addition of fertilizers to the treatment at the end of the fallow period. Results are summarized below. EFFECT ON NATURAL REGENERATION OF PLANTS After the first year of test, the rate of appearance of legumineous plants varied between 2.33 and 36.33% on the land receiving the improved method of fallowing. Stylosanthes 36 arming Systems I'esearch a nd Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 45. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE INTERACTIVE EFFECT OF FERTILIZATION AND TIED RIDGES ON MILLETYIELD IN THE NORTH OF OHV ZONE Item Treatment SR TR SRU TRU SRP TRP 1989-90 Total yield 584 677 594 664 744 755 Adjusted yield 526 600 535 598 670 679 Yield increase 74 9 72 144 153 Increase in net 3,108 -7,212 -4,566 1,808 2,186 benefits 2 Return/person day 345 -480 -304 301 146 of added labor, 3 Effect ofTied Ridges SR TR SR TR 1988 1989 Total yield 530 880 640 695 Adjusted yield 477 792 576 625 Yield increase 315 49 Increase in net - 13,230 2,058 benefits Return/person day 1,470 229 of added labor SR is the farmer practice, simple ridges without Fertilization;TR repre- sents tied ridges without Fertilization; SRU represents simple ridges with urea application;TRU represents tied ridges with urea; SRP represents simple ridges with PNT and TRP represents tied ridges with PNT 2Net benefits = increase in yield x average grain price (42 CFA/kg in 1988 and 1989) less fertilizer costs (50 kg/ha for urea at 15 I.8 CFA/kg and 300 kg/hs for three years for PNT at 42.4 CFA/kg. Net benefits divided by additional labor needed for the construction of ridges and fertilizer application. It has been estimated that manual tying of ridges and animal traction-aided tied ridges require 100 and 75 hours respectively of additional labor per hectare.These figures are equivalent to about 12 and 9 person days if a person day is assumed to be hours of work.The application of fertilizer requires roughly 48 hours of work or 6 person days. hamata had a presence of 11.33 %. There was also a large pres- ence of gramineous plants. Biomass production during the first was higher on the tra- ditional fallows than on the improved fallows (Table 46). How- ever, the quality of the dry matter as measured by the nitrogen content favored the improved fallows. At the end of the fallow period, three years later, the ap- pearance (percentages) of specific plant species was estimated and the results are shown in Table 47. Even though there was no significant difference in per- centage of land recovered, the improved fallows had a signifi- cantly higher percentage of legumineous plants (important for soil fertility) than traditional fallows. The production of dry matter and the feeding capacity of the two types of fallows were also measured at the end of the three-year fallowing period. The results are summarized in Table 48. Dry matter production was higher on the improved fallow (1,257 kg/ha) than on the traditional fallows (997 kg/ha). The TABLE 46. EFFECT OF FALLOWING METHOD ON BIOMASS PRODUCTION AND QUALITY OF FORAGE Fallowing method Dry matter Quality of forage Cellulose N P Ca Ash Tons/ha Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Pct. Traditional method I.7 40.9 3.88 0.05 0.85 7.5 Improved method I.I 44.3 6.59 0.09 1.06 7.5 Level of sig. * N.S * N.S N.S N.S TABLE 47. PERCENTAGES OF SPECIFIC PLANT SPE- CIES ON RECOVERED LAND Fallow method Gramineous Legumineous Non-forage Recovered plants plants plants land Traditional method 60 I0 30 79 Improved method 44 42 14 79.3 TABLE 48. DRY MATTER PRODUCTION AND FEEDING CAPACITY OF THE TWO TYPES OF FALLOWS Fallow type Dry matter production Number ofTLU/ha/year kg/ha Traditional fallow 997 0.42 Improved fallow 1,257 0.53 difference in dry matter production of 260 kg/ha could sustain one Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) for 40 days. EFFECT ON CROP YIELDS Even though the yield figures in Table 49 do not show a statistically significant difference between the two fallowing methods, there is an appreciable increase of 30% (431 kg/ha) in yield for the improved method. It is possible that the effect of the improved method will become more apparent over time as the plots are returned to fallow. The fallows were planted to sorghum. Despite the unavailability of results for post-fallow soil test to confirm the restoration of soil fertility, there has been a positive trend in the production of biomass and the quality of the ensuing forage. In addition, the absence of significant treatment effect on yield does not negate the positive aspect of the improved fal- lowing technology. A yield increase of 30% as noted above is a big contribution towards the attainment of food self-sufficiency. This technology is economically feasible even at present lower than expected yields. Mulch can be used to reduce surface run-off and increase water infiltration into the soil. However, crop residues such as those of millet and sorghum add very little to soil fertility. As was the case with organic manure, the major constraint to this technology is availability of mulching material. Crop residue available after harvest is often used either as livestock feed, fuel source or construction material. This has limited FSR/E 37 Yarming Systems tResearck hand Extension in M Jali-1986-1994 TABLE 49. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF FALLOWING METHOD AND/OR FERTILIZATION ON SORGHUM YIELD IN Two OHVVILLAGES Item Fertilization TI T2 T3 T4 Dalacana Total yield (kg/ha) 1,054 1,646 1,670 1,798 Adjusted yield 948.6 1,481.4 1,503 1,618.2 Value of production 2 99,603 155,547 157,815 169,91 Total costs O0 12,000 12,550 24,550 Net benefit (NB) 4 99,603 143,547 145,265 145,361 Increase in NB - 43,944 45,662 45,758 Marginal rate of 366.2% 363.8% 186.4% return (MRR) Return/person day of 3,662 3,815 additional labor Niaganabougou Total yield 1,603 1,427 1,982 2,004 Adjusted yield 1,442.7 1,284.3 1,783.8 1,803.6 Value of production 151,484 134,852 187,299 189,378 Total cost 0 12,000 12,550 24,550 Net benefits (NB) 151,484 122,852 174,749 164,828 Increase in NB -28,632 23,265 I 3,344 MRR 185.4% 54.5% Return/person day of -2,386 I, I 2 additional labor Average of two villages Total yield 1,328 1,536 1,826 1,901 Adjusted yield 1,195.2 1,382.4 1,643.4 1,710.9 Value of production 125,496 145,152 172,557 179,645 Total costs 0 12,000 12,550 24,550 Net benefits (NB) 125,496 133,152 160,007 155,095 Increase in NB 7,656 34,5 II 29,599 MRR 63.8% 274.5% 120.6% Return/person day of 638 2,467 additional labor ,TI represents traditional fallow with no fertilization;T2 represents traditional fallow with fertilization;T3 represents improved fallow (15 kg/ha of at 4000 CFA/kg) without fertilization while T4 is improved fallow with fertilization (fertilization consisted of 300 kg/ha of PNT and 50 kg/ha of urea). 2 Adjusted yield multiplied by the average sorghum price which was 105 CFA in 1992-93. 3 An improved fallow can be put into cereal production for a maxi- mum of five years hence the cost of fallow improvement is amor- tized over a five-year period. 4 Adjusted yield multiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer cost (in 1992, a kilogram of PNT and a kilogram of urea cost 47.4 and 156.2 CFA respectively. research effort in this area. Moreover, the residue does not provide sufficient nutrients to enrich the soil. Mulching has also been observed to reduce available nitrogen in the soil (Pieri 1985). Very little mulching is presently done in the OHV zone, however, with increased crop production through other soil and water conservation techniques, availability of mulching mate- rial is expected to increase thereby permitting more farmers to use it. On-station and on-farm research results have demon- strated a significant yield increase from plowing and other soil preparation practices. Over 70% of farmers in the OHV zone practice some form of soil preparation either with draft animals or with hand tools such as "daba." However, often the plowing is very shallow or superficial because of the need to sow imme- diately after the first rains at which time the soils are still hard and difficult to be worked sufficiently by the draft animals which are already weakened by the long dry season (FSR/E Volet OHV, 1988). In addition, the application of green manure can in- crease soil fertility and water retention capacity of the soil. However, the application requires a lot of labor, hence only farmers possessing draft animals (about 30% of farmers in the OHV zone) to perform this function can easily adopt this technology. LABOR-SAVING TECHNOLOGIES A study of the effect of migration on agricultural produc- tion was conducted in 1990-91 to have a better understanding of the use of migration as a family strategy. On one hand, mi- gration was found to be a source of labor shortage during the agricultural season, but it was also a source of income (through remittances) for agricultural investment. Over 95% of the households interviewed had at least one migrant family member and these migrants were mostly men and about 56% of the households reported being remitted. Migrant family members are sometimes a source of information on new pro- duction techniques. Over 60% of the farmers in the OHV zone practice ani- mal traction. The use of draft animals for other cultural prac- tices such as seeding and weeding is rare and this results in small holdings per farmer since labor for weeding and sowing is severely limited (DRSPR/Volet OHV 1988, 1989). Yield in- creases and profitability of animal traction (Table 50) are evi- dent in literature (Binswanger, 1978). This technology is used by the farmers at varying degrees of intensity with the marginal rate of return increasing with increased intensity of use. What is needed is an intensification of information dissemination, farmer training and improved animal feeding and health care in order to increase rate of use and its profitability. Herbicides have the potential of alleviating the labor shortage bottleneck of production in the OHV zone especially for sowing and weeding. Herbicides are largely unavailable outside the distribution network of the development organiza- TABLE 50. ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF ANIMAL TRACTION IN THE SOUTH OF MALl IN FCFA (1978) Variable Users of Non-users of animal traction animal traction Net revenue per farmer 1,406,252 21 6,794 Net revenue per hectare 95,859 74,756 Net revenue per farm worker 84,984 54,267 Source. Pingali P, Bigot Y H.P Binswanger 1987. I Ilc~ IC-UY\ rU Yarming Systems llesearch and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 tion and their use presently is limited. The preponderance of crop associations in the farmers cropping systems also makes the application of herbicides difficult due to the different ef- fects on different leaf formations. Economic analysis in the north of Nigeria showed that weeding done manually or with animal traction was more profitable than herbicide application. Research work by FSR/E showed that a combination of manual weeding and herbicide application was more profitable than manual weeding only (Table 51). Herbicide application was profitable with acceptable risks at the given values of the economic variables with a marginal rate of return exceeding the minimum acceptable value of 100%. It has a higher minimum average net benefit and even though the variation between farmers is higher, it has a lower variabil- ity index. No financial losses were accrued by any farmer. Research results obtained by FSR/E show that a hectare of maize requires a total of 220 person days to perform all the TABLE 51. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF HERBICIDE APPLICATION ON MAIZE IN TINGUELE, IN THE OHV ZONE (1990-91) Item Treatment TI T2 Total yield in kg/ha 1,673 2,934 Adjusted yield 1,506 2,641 Value of production in CFA 75,300 132,050 Total costs in CFA 0 13,405 Net benefits 2 75,300 118,645 Increase in net benefits 43,345 Marginal rate of return 323% Standard deviation 41,778 52,519 Variability index 3 55.5 44.3 Minimum net benefit 23,850 32,945 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 TI represents the farmer practice of manual weeding and T2 rep- resents a combination of manual weeding and herbicide application (this treatment combination was necessary due to the poor weeding done by the farmers before applying the herbicide). Net benefits = the adjusted yield x average grain price for maize (50 FA/kg in 1990) less herbicide cost (3.5 litre per hectare of Primagram at 3830 CFA/Iitre). 3Standard deviation divided by the average net benefit x l00. necessary farm operations from plowing to har- vesting. Using a daily wage rate of 500 CFA, this correponds to 100,000 CFA per hectare. Analysis has also shown that the application of herbicide reduces the needed labor by 50% or 50,000 CFA which is therefore opportunity cost of labor. Allowing for this reduction increases even further the net benefit per hectare of her- bicide application. Sensibility analysis of prices does not result in changes of technology choice. Even with a 20% reduction in maize price or doubling of her- bicide price, the marginal rate of return is around 239 and 112%, respectively (Table 52). Even though over 25% of the farmers in the zone can use this technology at present time, more re- search work is needed. Results of agro-economic studies have shown that weed- ing consumes over 50% of the labor time available to farmers for agricultural activities. This test was initiated to find a weed control technology which was suitable and economical to re- place the preponderance of manual weeding in the OHV zone. The choice of sorghum/millet was based on the dominance of this association in the area where weeds and labor shortage were the most severe. Two different combinations of weeding methods were considered; mechanical/manual weeding and chemical/manual weeding. Fertilization consisted of the ap- plication of 300 kg/ha of PNT and 50 kg/ha of urea against a control of no fertilization. The two groups of treatments were combined to assess their interactive effects. Agronomic results are in Table 53. Results of the two-year test show no significant difference in yield. Both mechanical and chemical weed control meth- TABLE 52. EFFECT OF PRICE CHANGES ON THE PROFITABILITY OF HERBICIDE APPLICATION ON MAIZE ATTINGUELE (1990-91) Item Treatment TI T2 20% decrease in price of maize Total costs 0 13,405 Increased costs I 3,405 Net benefits 60,228 92,219 Increased net benefits 31,99 I Marginal rate of return 239% Pct. of farmers losing money 0 100% in herbicide price Total costs 0 26,810 Increased costs 26,810 Net benefits 75,285 105,220 Increased net benefits 29,935 Marginal rate of return 11 2% Pct. of farmers losing money 0 TABLE 53. SORGHUM/MILLET GRAINYIELD FOR DIFFERENT WEEDING METHODS AND FERTILIZATION Year Treatment TI T2 T3 T4 Sorghum Millet Sorghum Millet Sorghum Millet Sorghum Millet Crop yields in kg/ha 1992-93 328 56 758 107 392 74 666 178 1991-92 697 301 930 408 664 382 782 405 T I is a combination of mechanical and manual weeding without fertilization;T2 represents a combination of mechanical and manual weeding with fertilization;,T3 is a combination of chemical and manual weed control without fertilization and T4 represents a combination of chemical and manual weeding with fertilization (fertilization: 300 kg/ha of PNT and 50 kg/ha of urea; chemical: 4 liters per hectare of propagard at 4390 CFA/lt). 39 arming Systems IResearck hand Extension in Mali-1986-1994 ods gave similar yield results regardless of the level of fertiliza- tion. The application of rock phosphate did not significantly increase millet yield but its effect on sorghum was significant. Yields from fields that recieved PNT confirmed the hypothesis that sorghum responds to the residual effect of the rock phos- phate better than does millet. Second year sorghum yield was 36% higher as compared to only 23% for millet. Cultivators (multiculteurs) and animal traction (draft animal plus equip- ment) are the main forms of mechanical weed controls. These are relatively more expensive than chemical weed control. The application of herbicide costs on the average 17,560 CFA per hectare as opposed to 30,000 CFA which is the opportunity cost for family labor needed for weeding a hectare. These con- siderations make chemical weed control an optimal choice. CROP VARIETY IMPROVEMENT TECHNOLOGIES Research results on the production systems of farmers show that the level of collaboration by farmers declines with the number of technological or cultural changes they are asked to make. With this in view, FSR/E initially concentrated on soil fertility improvement and soil and water conservation tech- nologies. Efficiency of the adoption of new crop varieties are enhanced after soil and water management technologies are in place. Consequently FSR/E has very limited research results from on-farm trials. Thus this section of the document pre- sents an overview of the different crop varietes in the OHV zone followed by highlights of the few results available from on-farm trials. A brief list of the existing crop varieties are given in Table 54. All these varieties have characteristics potentially benefi- cial to farmers as indicated in the annual reports of ICRISAT- MALI (IER/ICRISAT MALI 1988, 1989). Only a small percentage of the farmers in OHV zone use improved crop varieties. On-station research results show a significant increase in yield for some crop varieties but a wide gap exists between on-station and on-farm research results es- pecially for sorghum and millet. The yield differences are less pronounced for the local crop varieties than they are for new improved ones (Matlon 1985). Yields from on-farm tests for improved maize, sorghum, and cowpea varieties rarely exceeded those from local varieties due to the better managed and con- trolled environment at the stations. FSR/E started conducting on-farm trials on rain-fed rice and the highlights of the results are summarized in Table 55. The process of selection of a suitable rice variety for the OHV zone has been characterized by the tremendous variation of yield performance and the level of annual rainfall. Rice yield is very sensitive to soil moisture conditions as evidenced by the figures in Table 55. In 1988-89, a year of better-than-average rainfall, the variety IRAT 144 gave yields that were much higher than those for Dourado but lower than those for the farmer variety when fertilization was applied. This yield result together with the poor taste of IRAT 144 made it less acceptable to the farmers. Hence in 1990-91 this variety was replaced with IRAT 147, but yields were again lower than the farmer va- riety with fertilization. This was a poor rainfall year. Thus it appears that the problem was due more to soil moisture management than variety. TABLE 54. ExISTING PRINCIPAL CROP VARIETIES IN THE OHV ZONE Crop varieties Sorghum Millet Maize Peanuts Cowpeas Tiemarifing Souna Tidmant6 47-10 TVU 76-07 S-34 Sanio 28-206 Amary sho ICSV-1063 Boboni 55-437 KNI CSM-388 NKK KVX 30-305-3G Sako6ka Synthetic II Shotely Malisor 84-1 Synthetic I 6 TN 88-63 Malisor 84-7 PN 4 Bimbiriba 81 BHT TABLE 55. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF RAIN-FED RICE VARIETY IMPROVEMENT TEST Item Treatment, 1990-911 TI T2 T3 T4 At Balanzan Total yield 575 I, 103 291 470 Adjusted yield 2 345 662 175 282 Value of production 61,410 117,836 31, 50 50,196 Total costs 0 26,530 0 26,530 Net benefits(NB) 3 61,410 91,306 31,150 23,666 Increased NB 29,896 -30,260 -37,744 Marginal rate of return 11 3% (MRR) Return/person day of 2,491 added labor Pct. of farmers losing 0 money Av. of 2 villagesTreatment, 1988-90 Total yield 1,540 940 1,360 Adjusted yield 924 564 816 Value of production 157,080 95,880 138,720 Total costs 26,530 26,530 26,530 Net benefits (NB) 130,550 69,350 112,190 Increased NB - -61,200 -18,360 MRR Return/person day of -5,100 -1,530 added labor Pct. of farmers losing money In 1990-9 I,TI I farmer variety, (Lengu*) without Fertilization,T2= iarmer variety with Fertilization,T3 = improved variety, (IRAT 147), without Fertilization and T4 = improved variety with Fertilization. For 1988-89,TI = farmer variety (Lengu*) with Fertilization;T2 = improved variety (Dourado, which is an early maturing variety) with Fertilization and T3 = improved variety, IRAT 144 with Fertilization: Fertilization = 50 kg/ha of urea and I00 kg/ha of ammonium phos- phate). 2Yields were were adjusted downwards by 40% to represent harvest and transformation losses. Average price of a kilogram of grain rice was 178 fcfa in 1990-91 and 170 fcfa in 1988-89. 40 Yarming Systems tResearc h and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 CROP ASSOCIATION PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT TECHNOLOGIES On-station research has shown significant yield increases from cereal/legume associations, especially from cereal/cowpea associations. Unfortunately intensification of cowpea produc- tion often leads to increased insect attacks requiring insecti- cide application. On-farm research has identified insufficient moisture and soil fertility as the principal constraints to the performance of cereal/legume associations. FSR/E research ef- fort in this area has concentrated on fertilization and planting arrangements and some of the results confirm the above hy- pothesis. For example, in the north of zone OHV, where mois- ture and soil fertility deficiency are the most severe, the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) for millet/cowpea association is less than 1.0 (0.52) whereas in the more fertile and moisture-rich south, the LER for cereal/cowpea assoication is over 1.55 (DRSPR, Volet OHV 1987). A ratio of less than 1.0 is not acceptable to the farmers in attaining their objective of cereal self-sufficiency. Another aspect of cereal/legume intensifica- tion is the resulting increase in the labor need for sowing and weeding (DRSPR, Volet OHV 1989). Highlights of the FSR/E research results in alleviating some of these constraints follow in this publication. Cropping density, arrangement and fertilization baseline data collected in 1988 and 1989 indicated that the cropping system in the OHV zone is dominated by crop associations (over 70% of total area cultivated, DRSPR/Volet OHV 1989, 1990). The same data revealed poor yields for the individual crops in the associations. Research work was initiated to improve yields through crop density and arrangement adjustments and soil fertility enhancement. A sorghum/cowpea association test was begun in 1990. The goal of this research was to attempt to increase sorghum yield without reducing that of cowpeas. However, the results show that the best performing technology depends on the indi- vidual crop in question. Increased sorghum grain yield was obtained only at the expense of cowpea grain yield. Despite this increase there was only a small significant effect of cultural practice and fertilization for sorghum yield. This might be at- tributable to the nitrogen-fixing qualities of cowpeas present in all treatments. On the other hand, cowpea grain yield was highly responsive to the improved cultural practice and fertilization. Treatment In 1990, the control treatment and the application of 300 kg/ha of PNT gave PNT Urea A similar yield results for sorghum. How- 0 0 fa ever, the second year results (1990-91) in 300 50 fa 0 0 Table 56 show an increase in sorghum 300 50 yield of 36% from PNT application as against fields that re- ceived no fertilization. It must be noted that ammonium phos- phate was applied only once, hence in the second year moni- toring was included for the delayed effect of fertilization. Thus the increase in yield from fields that received PNT confirms the expected second year effect of PNT. On the other hand, cowpea yields show no significant difference between PNT fields and the other fields. Also cowpea yield appears to increase with density, a phenomenon not observed with sorghum. Economic analysis showed that alternating-lines plant- ing with PNT and Urea fertilization dominates the other treat- ments with a marginal rate of return of about 273%. The results from the 1990-91 season confirm farmers' fear that increasing cowpea density, i.e increasing the number of grains per hole, reduces sorghum grain yield (Table 56). Thus even though the alternating-lines technique has several ad- vantages, the farmers recommended a planting density some- where between their own low level and what has been recom- mended by research. The results of 1991-92 showed a marked decreased in sor- ghum yield due to the effect of the alternating-line planting as compared to the farmers' planting arrangement. This was con- trary to the objective of increasing sorghum yield. However, this reduction was compensated by an increase in the yield of cowpeas. The 1992-93 season was the last year of the test and the results are given in Table 57. The return to the additional person days needed ranges from about 460 CFA to over 1,500 CFA (Table 57). Averages, very often can hide important characteristics of production sys- tems modifications. For example one can obtain high averages at the expense of stability, thus, information on standard de- viation and index of variabilities of net benfits are essential. Figures in Table 57 show that modifying the cultural practice and applying fertilizer give very stable net benefits. Other test results on this topic can be found in FSR/E annual reports (DRSPR/Volet OHV 1992, 1991). . EFFECT OF PLANTING ARRANGEMENT AND FERTILIZATION ON SORGHUM/COWPEA GRAIN YIELD (1991) Grain yield, kg/ha Ddgudla Tinguild Average \rrang Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea rmer 810 3I 792 134 80I 82 rmer I,047 22 I, III 175 1,078 99 alter 733 282 63I 252 68I 267 alter 972 413 984 330 977 372 41 IL VL~)~~LILIV ~~ VCI C IVVYUCLL L I 1 r. Yarming Systems tResearch and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 57. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF THE INTERACTIVE EFFECT OF CROP ARRANGEMENT AND FERTILIZATION ON SORGHUM/COWPEAYIELD (1992-93) Item Treatment', 1992-93 TI T2 T3 T4 At Degudla Crop Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Total yield 792 187 813 541 820 344 1,034 389 Adjusted yield 2 713 168 732 487 738 310 931 350 Value of production 101,839 148,233 124,214 151,137 Total costs 0 25,850 13,300 25,850 Marginal costs 25,850 I 3,300 25,850 Net benefits(NB) 3 101,839 122,383 110,914 125,287 Increased NB 20,544 9,075 23,448 Marginal rate of return 79% 68.2% 90.7% (MRR) Return/added person day 1,712 9,075 1,954 Standard deviation 14,255 7,902 21,886 2,163 Index of variability 14.0 6.5 19.7 1.7 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 AtTinguil6 Treatment, 1992-93 Crop Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Sorghum Cowpea Total yield 1,256 28 1,051 336 948 216 1,272 266 Adjusted yield 1,130 25 946 302 853 194 1,145 239 Value of production 127,834 146,122 120,645 159,242 Total costs 0 25,850 I 3,300 25,650 Marginal cost 25,850 I 3,300 25,850 Net benefits (NB) 127,834 120,272 107,345 133,392 Increased NB 1 8,288 -20,489 5,558 MRR 70.7% 21.0% Return/person day of 1,524 463 additional labor Standard deviation 1,704 17,121 22,151 19,597 Index of variability I13.3 14.2 20.6 14.6 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 0 TI is the farmer practice (farmer density and variety without fertilization);T2 is single alternating lines of sorghum and cowpea with fertilization ;T3 is 2 lines of sorghum alternating with single cowpea lines with no fertilization;T4 is 2 lines of sorghum alternating with single cowpea lines with Fertilization; (fertilization - single application of 300 kg/ha of PNT at 47.4 CFA/kg and 50 kg/ha of urea at 156.2 CFA/kg; all cowpeas treated with DECIS (6650 CFA/ha) except forT I). 2 Yield reduced by 10% to reflect harvest and other losses. 3Average price for a kilogram of sorghum and cowpeas were 1I10 CFA and I 39 CFA respectively. ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND LIVESTOCK-CROP INTEGRATION TECHNOLOGIES The technologies developed by FSR/E in the area of ani- mal production and livestock-crop integration include the fol- lowing: improved corralling method, livestock fattening, for- age production techniques, improved honey production, draft- animal maintenance nutrition, monitoring young oxen and vil- lage poultry production improvement techniques (aimed at providing alternative income sources for women). Traditional structures used by livestock owners for corral- ling are either owned individually or are operated on a com- munity-wide basis. The principal objective is to enable farm- ers to obtain animal manure to fertilize their fields. However, the resulting manure is often insufficient in quantity and of poor nutrient quality. The system also requires excessive use of wood which increased the rate of cutting of the few re- maining trees. Despite this apparent ing materials, mainly crop inhibits the adoption of th tility and in manure qualit' formulation of specific rec of manure from improved 1.25% of nitrogen, phosph ing a total of 2.07% of the trary, 100 kg of a comple contains 15% each of nitr 45% of the principal nut same amount of these elem of organic manure, a mini needed. Another aspect o solubility. Mineralization pendent on soil condition aeration, texture, and very FSR/E started research work with the aim of developing a bet- ter structure that will permit in- creased production of better qual- ity animal manure and which will better economize the available woodland. The quantity and quality of the manure were mea- sured. Construction costs varied between villages due to variation in input prices and availability of wood and labor. There is economy of size with the per unit cost declining with the number of animals to be housed. It ranges from 3,340 CFA per head for a herd of 10 animals to only 1,344 CFA for a 60 animal herd. The improved cattle pen technique produces about 643 kg of manure per head as against less than 150 kg/head for the traditional pen. The value of the manure pro- duced was assessed by comparing its chemical compostion with those from a comparable chemi- cal fertilizer. This gives an in- crease in net benefit per head of over 3,000 CFA if construction cost is amortized over three years. The net benefit per additional labor required to feeding is over 2,500 CFA per animal. profitability, the availability of feed- residues and other biomass material, is technology. Variability in soil fer- y across the zone render difficult the ommendations. A sample of 100 kg pens contains 0.61% , 0.21% and )rus and potassium respectively yield- se principal elements. On the con- te fertilizer such as cereal complex ogen, phosphorus and potassium or rient elements. Thus, to have the ients in the soil from the application mum of 2459 kg per hectare of it is f the utilization of manure is that of rate of organic matter is highly de- s, such as acidity, microbe content, often the nature of the organic mat- 42 arnming Systems Ikesearc h and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 ter. Results from the Soil Laboratory at Sotuba show that only 40% of the nitrogen in animal manure is available for plant nutrition during the first year and 8% during the second year. For phosphorus only 75% is usable and of this 80% is available for plant use in the first year. Over 80% of potassium content is available in year one. Thus the efficiency of the use of ma- nure is restricted by the nitrogen component. Only six kg of nitrogen from the 2,459 kg of manure applied will be available during the first year. To have 15 kg of nitrogen during the first year an application rate of at least 6,148 kg/ha is needed. This quantity gives 37.5 kg of nitrogen of which 15 kg is available in the first year, leaving 22.5 kg in the soil for subsequent years. Given that 643 kg of manure can be produced per head using the improved pens, a farmer with about six cattle should be able to produce enough manure to fertilize a hectare. For detailed results on the other listed technologies de- veloped by FSR/E in this domain the reader should consult the annual report of FSR/E (DRSPR/Volet OHV 1988,1989,1990, 1991, 1992, 1993) SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT The OHV/zone has a potential for the profitable raising of small ruminants. However the lack of feed sources for the animals and lack of essential nutrients in their diet have made the realization of this potential virtually impossible. FSR/E research work in this area has therefore consisted of vaccina- tion of animals against botulism and other diseases followed by complemetary feeding of phosphorus and calcium. Significant improvements on the number of gestations and births per ani- mal and a reduction in the mortality rates have been achieved. DRAFT-ANIMALS MAINTENANCE NUTRITION Livestock feeding in the OHV zone is difficult especially during the dry season and as a result draft animals lose weight and are unable to perform at full capacity at the beginning of the agricultural season when land preparation is done. FSR/E conducted research into different ways of feeding the animals in order to maintain their weight at the end of the rainy sea- son. In addition to weight maintenance, the effect of this con- ditioning on manure production and on total area cultivated were also investigated. Three treatments were considered: T1 was six oxen fed on natural pasture, cowpea plant residue and livestock feed (HUICOMA) both at the rate of two kg/animal for 45 days. T2 was similar to T1 except that the feeding period was 90 days. T3 represented the control which consisted of feed- ing only natural pasture. The evaluation of physical condition- ing was based on the that proposed by Pullan 1978 and Van Neirkerk, Louw 1980. This measure ranges from one to 10. The results show a significant correlation between the animal weight and the physical conditioning for the N'Dama breed but not for Mdr6 and Zdbu. There was also significant difference between the three treatments in terms of traction capacity and average weight of animal. The animals under the control, 45-day regime, and 90-day regime had weights of 281, 305, and 329 kg respectively; and correponding draft capacities of 27, 30, and 34 kg of force. However, these figures do not answer several questions that might be important for a farmer in decision making. For ex- ample does the extra four kg in draft capacity gained merit the extra 45-day feeding? How much draft force is necessary for a given area to be plowed? These questions can better be an- swered at research stations. TECHNOLOGIES FOR PROVIDING ALTERNATIVE INCOME SOURCES AND INFANT NUTRITION IMPROVEMENT Specific technologies have been developed by FSR/E to alleviate chronic lack of income source for women and to help in infant nutrition improvement. These include local soap making, the making of soumbala, making of farine for child feeding, and fertilization of women's peanuts fields and veg- etable gardens. The manufacturing of two types of local soaps were intro- duced to the women in the villages to serve as additional sources of income. The first type known as "sodani" is made from the following ingredients: four liters of shea butter oil at 300 CFA per liter, one kilogram of caustic soda at 450 CFA, one kilo- gram of wheat flour at 250 CFA and two spoonfuls of"amidon" at 50 CFA. This set of ingredients produces 35 pieces of soap which sold for between 100 and 125 CFA a piece in 1991. Each production thus, yields a net revenue of about 2,210 CFA. The other type of soap the "koulikoro" also uses two liters of peanut oil and two packets of soap powder "barikatigui" in addition to the other ingredients already listed. Sixty pieces of soap can be obtained per each production and a piece sold for 75 CFA in 1991 yielding a net revenue of 1,230 CFA. The opportunity cost of labor for soap manufacturing is negligible since it can be undertaken at the same time as other household and agricultural activities. "Soumbala" can be produced either from soybeans or from nere (a local shrub), the other main ingredient being potas- sium. It is usually used in sauces. The unit cost of production is lower for soumbala from soybeans than that from n re due to the higher price per kilogram for nrd. The net revenue is over 400 CFA for soumbala from soybeans and only 75 CFA for that from ndrd. It takes about 3-4 hours per production. The main problem with this technique is the shortage or absence of soybeans on the market; the principal reason being low yields. Women often have access to only marginal lands which are relatively less fertile. FSR/E tested different variet- ies of soybeans and also introduced the technique of fertilizing soybean fields in two villages (Tingudk in the east of the zone and Kominta in the west) to resolve this problem. There was neither significant variety nor fertilization effect. However, the application of 80 kg/ha of cotton complex in Tinguilk 43 arming Systems t'esearc h and Extension in M)ali-1986-1994 yielded a net revenue per hectare of over 205,000 CFA whereas at Kominta the application of 300 kg/ha of PNT followed by 25 kg/ha of urea was more profitable (a net revenue per hectare of over 90,000 CFA). Peanut production is a major source of income for the women in the OHV zone. Field area measurements carried out by FSR/E (DRSPR/Volet OHV 1988, DRSPR/Volet OHV 1989) showed that peanut covered 72% of the total area culti- vated by individual farmers in 1988 and 58% in 1989. Peanuts are produced for both auto-consumption and for sale with the income generated going towards the purchase of clothes, other food items and paying for children's education. Soil fertility is the major constraint confronting production since land allo- cated to women is usually of lower quality especially in phos- phatic nutrients. FSR/E initiated research into the economic fertilization of peanuts to resolve this problem in three villages (Y6kdbougou in the west, Balanzan in the south and Gouani in the east of the zone). The results are summarized in Table 58. The results show that the optimum choice of fertilizer depends on several agro-ecologic and economic factors. In ar- eas of good rainfall, as in Balanzan, about 20 to 25% of the nutrients in PNT are available for plant use during the first year (Traor6 A, 1990). Within a given agro-ecologic zone, land allocation plays an important role. In Gouani, for example, women have access to land which often had been in fallow for at least three years, thus being sufficiently fertile for crop production. It has been hypothesised that the presence of a cash crop in the cropping system puts women at a disadvantage since men tend to have a monopoly over this crop. How- ever, in Gouani women have access to land that benefitted from the residual effects of earlier mineral fertilizer appli- cation. This explains in part why fertilization is relatively less profitable in Gouani than it is in the other two villages. Re- turn to the additional day needed for fertilizer application is actually negative for both Simple Super and PNT (Table 58). Peanut yields at Balanzan were relatively lower for all treat- ments, despite good rainfall, because of lower sowing density in the farmers' practice. In such a case, less expensive fertilizer such as PNT is more profitable. The return to the additional labor needed is over 2,600 CFA for PNT at Balanzan but only about 450 CFA at Y6kbougou where planting density is higher. In Y6kdbougou, the return per added person day is over 1800 CFA. Production of vegetables, especially of tomatoes and on- ions, on small village plots is a potential source of extra income for the women. One of the main constraints to achieving this potential has been disease and insect infestations. Late plant- ing appears to predispose the plants to viral attacks. FSR/E started research work during the 1992-93 season in Balanzan in the south of OHV initially to determine the effect of plant- ing date and treatment on tomato yield, and secondly, to deter- TABLE 58. EcoNoMic ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZATION OF WOMEN'S PEANUT FIELDS IN THE OHV ZONE (1989-90) Item Fertilization' T I T2 T3 Yekebougou Total yield (kg/ha) 540 720 620 Adjusted yield 2 486 648 558 Value of production 47,142 62,856 54,126 Total costs 0 4,362 4,240 Net benefit (NB) 4 47,142 58,494 49,886 Increase in NB 11,352 2,744 Marginal rate of return 260.2% 64.7% (MRR) Return/person day of 1,892 457 additional labor s Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 Balanzan Total yield (kg/ha) 221 39 I 452 Adjusted yield 199 352 407 Value of production 19,303 34,144 39,479 Total cost 0 4,362 4,240 Net benefits (NB) 19,303 29,782 35,239 Increase in NB 10,479 15,936 MRR 240.2% 375.8% Return/person day of 1,747 2,656 additional labor Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 Gouani Total yield 858 813 773 Adjusted yield 772 732 696 Value of production 74,884 71,004 67,512 Total costs 0 4,362 4,240 Net benefits (NB) 74,884 66,642 63,272 Increase in NB -8,242 -I 1,612 Return/person day of -1,373 -1,935 additional labor Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 TI represents the farmer practice without fertilization, T2 repre- sents the application of 65 kg/ha of Simple Super and T3 represents the application of 300 kg/ha of PNT for a 3-yr period. Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 10 % to reflect harvest and other forms of losses. Yield multiplied by the average peanut price which was 97 CFA/kg in /990. Yield multiplied by the average grain price less fertilizer costs in CFA (SS was 67. I CFA/kg and PNT was 42.4 CFA/kg in 1990). s Net benefits divided by the number of additional person days neces- sary for fertilizer application which is estimated at 6 person days. Thus, the application of Simple Super and PNT each uses 6 person days. mine the effect of crop rotation and treatment on tomato yield. The treatments in the tomato test consisted of insecti- cide and fungicide application, application of insecticide only, and a control and two planting dates were tested: planting dur- ing the first ten days of December and planting at least one month later. Results indicated that the absence of any treatment re- sulted in significantly lower tomato yields regardless of the plant- ing date. In addition, early planting produced yields signifi- cantly higher than those from later planting. Economic analy- sis is presented in Table 59. 44 arming Sy5stems kResearch a nd Extension in Mali-1986-1994 TABLE 59. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TREATMENT AND DATE PLANTING ON TOMATOYIELD IN BALANZAN (I992-93) Item Treatment' TI T2 T3 T Total yield in kg/ha 9,533 10,866 1,267 2,2( Adjusted yield 2 7,626.4 8,692.8 1,013.6 1,7 Value of production in CFA 739,760 843,201 98,319 170,7 Total costs in CFA 0 12,095 0 12,0 Net benefits 3 739,760 831,106 98,319 158,6] Increase in net benefits 91,346 60,3 Marginal rate of return 60.5% 50% Standard deviation 105,1 34 144,946 70,365 92,6 Variability index 14.21 17.44 I 13.35 1 Minimum net benefit 558,720 639,745 31,040 49,9 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 0 ,TI represents early planting without chemical treatment;T2 represents early p with chemical treatment;T3 represents late planting without chemical treatme T4 represents late planting with chemical treatment; (chemical treatment consi 1.5 liters per hectare of insecticide Decis and one kilogram per hectare of fur Maneb. 2 Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 20% to reflect harvest and other forms of Ic 3 Yield multiplied by the average tomato price less insecticide and fungicide c CFA (tomato was 97 CFA/kg in 1992 and a liter of Decis and a kilogram of I 9975 and 2120 CFA respectively). Economically, early planting is more profitable than late planting with or without chemical treatment and the net ben- efits have lower indices of variability. Without chemical treat- ment, early planting adds over 640,000 CFA to the net rev- enue per hectare and over 670,000 CFA when chemical treat- TABLE 60. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TREATMENT AND CROP ROTATION ONTOMATOYIELD IN BALANZAN IN 1992-93 (FIELD WITH ROTATION) Item Treatment' TI T2 T3 Total yield in kg/ha 5,725 6,300 8,125 Adjusted yield 2 4,580 5,040 6,500 Value of production in CFA 444,260 488,880 630,500 Total costs in CFA 0 9,975 I 2,095 Net benefits 3 444,260 478,905 630,500 Increase in net benefits 34,645 174,145 Marginal rate of return 347% 1440% Standard deviation 73,716 152,507 I 34,01 2 Variability index I5.73 32.58 23.07 Minimum net benefit 372,480 300,425 422,465 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 0 TI represents control (no insecticide or fungicide);T2 represents treatment with insecticide only;T3 represents treatment with both insecticide and fungicide; (insecticide consisted of I.5 liters per hect- are of Decis and fungicide consisted of one kilogram per hectare of fungicide Maneb. 2 Yield is adjusted by a decrease of 20% to reflect harvest and other forms of losses. 3 Yield multiplied by the average tomato price, less insecticide and fungicide costs in CFA (tomato was 97 CFA/kg in 1992 and a liter of ment is applied. The marginal rates of return when chemical treatment is applied are 60 and 50% for early and late planting, respectively. Both of these rates are below the minimum acceptable rate of 100%, 4 making them less desirable. Thus it appears that early planting without chemical treatment might be the 60 technology of choice for most farmers in the OHV 20 zone. 95 25 Results on the test for the effect of crop rotation 06 and treatment on onion yield are presented in Tables 60 and 61. In the presence of crop rotation, the ap- 88 85.43 plication of both insecticide and fungicide produce 85 significanly higher yield than either the applica- 0 tion of insecticide only or the the control (Table lanting 60). The marginal rate of return is over 1,400% nt; and with an average net benefit per hectare of over sted of 630,000 CFA. The application of insecticide only is also more profitable than the control but a move osses. from T3 to T2 yields a marginal rate of return of about osts in 65.8%. Maneb For fields without crop rotation, again the ab- sence of insecticide and/or fungicide results in reduced yields (Table 61) but there is very little yield difference be- tween the two chemical treatments (T2 and T3) indicating that perhaps when crops are not rotated damage from insect attacks supercede those from fungus build-up. TABLE 61. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PHYTOSANITARY TREATMENT AND CROP ROTATION ON TOMATO YIELD IN BALANZAN IN 1992-93 (FIELD WITHOUT ROTATION) Item Treatment' TI T2 T3 Total yield in kg/ha 6,700 7,925 7,350 Adjusted yield 2 5,360 6,340 5,880 Value of production in CFA 5 19,920 614,980 570,360 Total costs in CFA 0 9,975 12,095 Net benefits 3 519,920 605,005 558,265 Increase in net benefits 85,085 38,345 Marginal rate of return 852.9% 317% Standard deviation 153,828 167,616 105,718 Variability index 27.84 26.50 19.34 Minimum net benefit 372,480 409,065 39 1,425 Pct. of farmers losing money 0 0 0 TI represents control (no insecticide or fungicide);T2 represents treatment with insecticide only; T3 represents treatment with both insecticide and fungicide; (insecticide consisted of I.5 liters per hect- are of Decis and fungicide consisted of one kilogram per hectare of the fungicide Maneb. 2Yeld is adjusted by a decrease of 20% to reflect harvest and other forms of losses. 3Yield multiplied by the average tomato price less insecticide and fungicide costs in CFA (tomato was 97 CFA/kg in 1992 and a liter of Decis and a kilogram of Maneb 9,975 and 2,120 CFA respectively). Decis and a kilogram of Maneb 9975 and 2120 CFA respectively). 45 I 3rming Systems lResearch ndi Extensionl in 1ili-1986-199 In fact application of only insecticide produces a much higher marginal rate of return (852.9%) than that for both ap- plications (317%). The net revenue per hectare is also higher for T2 than for T3, albeit a slightly higher index of variability. Poultry production plays an important role in the attain- ment of food self-sufficiency in terms of serving as a protein source and also income source through sales of birds. Over 80% of the poultry meat in the zone is provided by small rural production systems which are largely traditional and rudimen- tary. FSR/E therefore initiated research into these systems with the aim of improving bird productivity. The use of supplemen- tary feed was the main option given the availability of the nu- trients: maize and bonemeal. The results are summarized in the Table 62. In terms of weight gain, a ration of bonemeal and maize is only slightly more profitable than feeding maize alone, adding 39 CFA per bird for each month of feeding versus 38.6 CFA for the latter. However, there is actually a net loss of revenue from egg-laying for the combination while maize alone yields 13.6 CFA per birds per month. Combining the effects on the two parameters, the feeding of maize alone is more profitable than feeding it in combination with bonemeal. The added net rev- enue per bird for each month was 52.2 and 23 CFA respec- tively. These unexpected results are attributable to the less than significant difference in weight performance and egg-lay- ing capacity between the two rations. TABLE 62. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING OF CHICKENS (AVERAGE MONTHLY EFFECT) Item Treatment' Control Maize and bonemeal Maize only Effect on bird weight Cost/bird 2 0 16 6.4 Weight/bird 1.14 1.25 1.23 Revenue/bird 3 570 625 615 Net revenue/bird 570 609 608.6 Added net revenue/bird 39 38.6 Effect on egg-laying Cost/bird 0 16 6.4 Eggs/bird 2 2 3 Revenue/bird 4 40 40 60 Net revenue/bird 40 24 53.6 Added net revenue/bird -16 1 3.6 Total effect of feeding Added net revenue/bird 23 52.2 The treaments consisted of a control (no feed supplement), a combination of maize and bonemeal and maize only. 2A kilogram of bonemeal was 200 CFA and that of maize was 53 CFA in 1991- 92. Preparation of bonemeal/maize mixture (one kilogram of bone- meal plus one kilogram of maize) at the mill was 10 CFA per kilogram. Each bird was fed 120 gm or 0.12 kg of the feed. 3 A kilogram weight of a bird sold for an average of 500 CFA in the villages in 1991. 4 Un it price of eggs in the village in 1991I was 20 CFA. STECHNICALAND ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF PROPOSED TECHNOLOGIES Tables 63 and 64 give a summary of the technical and economic feasibility of each of the technologies or cultural practices being proposed by FSR/E. In addition observa- tions or comments are made on the principal constraints to their adoption. The sequence given in Tables 63 and 64 hypothesizes that the adoption of technologies will begin with those that allevi- ate the problems of soil fertility and soil and water conserva- tion. However, the feasibility of adoption of these technolo- gies will require the presence of labor-saving technologies such as animal traction. Improvement in the agronomic environ- ment will then permit theuse of improved crop varieties in the intermediate-run and crop intensification as a whole in the long- run. The resulting increase in biomass production will then facilitate the use of mulch and compost and green manure in the long run. The resulting higher natural vegetative produc- tion would also increase animal feed source and, therefore, higher animal productivity as a by-product of which manure availability and traction power could improve. Production constraints, household resource endowment and the decision-making process are very heterogenous, imply- ing the need for differentiating between farmers in terms of their technological needs and the modes of adoption. Thus there is need to develop recommendation domains to orient research, extension and government policy. This section of the report hence deals with the development of recommenda- tion domains based on their production constraints and farmer characteristics and resource levels. In addition the modalities of technology adoption are presented. Data obtained from a rapid reconnaissance survey carried out in 1987 were used for this classification (Valencia 1987). Results of the survey indicated that land was not a production constraint except for the areas around the Mandingo moun- tains and the immediate proximities of the urban centers. How- ever, rainfall levels and distribution and soil fertility vary strongly across the OHV zone. The northern section of the zone recieves very little rainfall and the soils are poor in fertil- ity. The southern portion, on the other hand, has above aver- age annual precipitation with rich soils. Four recommenda- tion domains were delineated based on these agro-climatic fac- tors: i. the south with good annual rainfall and fertile soils. ii. the east with average rainfall and soil quality. iii. the west also with average rainfall but rocky soils. iv. the north, which represents the Sahelian portion of the zone, with low rainfall and poor sandy-clay soils. 46 I rrr . I 3arming Systems IResearch and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 The risk aversion nature of farmers has been very well sure of wealth which is incorporated in livestock possession in documented (Binswanger, 1980; Dillon and Scandizzo, 1978). the Sahel region. The adoption of a new technology is always The amount of risk a farmer is willing to take depends, among accompanied by a certain amount of risk in terms of inability other factors, on the level of resource endowment and a mea- to recover the cost involved in the adoption; for example, due to crop failure or excessive livestock mortality. Another hy- TABLE 63. TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY pothesis is that agricultural productivity depends largely on the OF AGRONOMIC TECHNOLOGIES OR CULTURAL use of the appropriate agricultural tools and equipient. PRACTICES PROPOSED FOR OHV ZONE Based on the above two hypotheses, households from five Technology Feasibility Comments representative villages in the project area were surveyed in 1990 Technical Economic and were grouped in terms of their possession of livestock and Station Farmer possession and utilization of agricultural implements. Thus this grouping assumed that a farmer's ability to use certain tech- Tekhnologiesefor the short-term material nologies would depend on the ability to take risk and also to Dikes/diguettes na +++ material Tied ridges na + * labor execute certain agricultural activities which often require equip- Chemical fertilizer +++ +++ ** cost and risk ment. PNT ++ +++ *** texture, solub. Organic manure +++ ++ ** material, Three groups of farmers were delineated using the method transport of "cluster analysis" (Table 65). These were: Improved fallow na ++ ** duration Animal traction na ++ ** cost Group 1: This group consists of farmers that have a high Pesticides +++ + ** risk risk-bearing ability and are very well equiped to perform ani- Rock bunds na +++ *** materials mal traction and other agricultural activities on time. This group Small dams na +++ *** materials Haie vive na +++ *** environ. constituted 8% of the farmers surveyed. Technologies for the medium term Group 2: Farmers of this second group have an average Improved varieties ++ + - environ. Crop association ++ + environ. labor risk bearing ability and their equipment possession is less than intensification those of Group 1. It contained 20.5% of the farmers. Technologies for the long-term Compost +++ ++ ** material Group 3: This group contains over 70% of the farmers Mulch +++ ++ ** material and they have little or no means of bearing risk in terms of crop Green manure ++ ++ - animal traction failures and are poorly equipped to perform animal traction and Herbicides ++ ++ - more research needed other activities such as weeding in a timely fashion. In 1991, another study was conducted to refine and pro- TABLE 64. TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY vide more descripitve information about the three groups of OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION, LIVESTOCK-CROP farmers. The family structure and ownership of land were ana- INTEGRATION AND WOMAN AND CHILD WELFARE lyzed. The results showed that households in Group 1 were IMPROVING TECHNOLOGIES OR CULTURAL PRACTICES relatively larger than the other two groups, 37 persons as against PROPOSED FOR OHV ZONE 32 for Group 2 and less than 20 for Group 3. This could affect Technology Feasibility Problems the availability of family labor hence the area to be cultivated. TEIn terms of land availability, again, households in Group 1 had Technical Economic more land (40 hectares per household) than those in Group 3 Station Farmer (24 hectares). Improved pens na +++ * cost The distribution of the three groups across the four agro- Improved beehives na +++ *** number per unit area climatc zones form the basis of the recommendation domains. Small ruminant na +++ *** minimum The hypothesis for the sequential adoption of technologies are 47 production Livestock fattening na +++ *** minimum Soap making na +++ ** minimum Soumbala, na +++ *** minimum Cowpea meal 2 na +++ *** minimum Fertilization of +++ +++ ** cost and risk vegetable gardens Fertilization of +++ +++ ** land tenure peanut fileds I This is an ingredient made from either soybeans or from N6rd (a tree that grows in the wild and often on farmers' fields) 2This is used as protein supplement in infant nutrition. It can also be made from soybeans. TABLE 65. Socio-ECoNoMIC DISCRIMINANT FACTORS FOR THE FARMERS OF OHV (1990) Group Discriminant factors Livestock Draft animals Plows Other equipment Avg. Standard Avg. Standard Avg. Standard Avg. Standard I 44.3 12.5 8.3 2.0 3. 1 1.3 3.7 2.0 2 II.3 7.7 5.2 2.2 1.8 0.9 1.9 .5 3 2.8 3.4 1.4 1.4 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.6 ~OMI FEAIBIITY id,,,, escrp,, Yarming Systems Researc h and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 then formulated as summarized in Tables 66-68. Twelve rec- ommendation domains are presented in Tables 66-68 based upon the household characteristics and agro-climatic factors described earlier. Each table gives the potential sequential adop- tion patterns of the available technologies for a recommenda- tion domain across the four agro-climatic zones. The sequen- tial patterns of the technologies for each recommendation do- main are based on the previous discussion of farmers' adoption strategies where technologies are adopted singly or in clusters in a logical agronomic and economic sequence. GROUP 1, NORTHERN PART OF OHV: The use of soil water conservation techniques and ani- mal traction was the best option in the initial stages of the adoption process. However, due to the famers lesser risk aversion and ability to buy purchased inputs, the adoption of local rock phosphate is the logical next step. With in- creased production, due to available soil moisture and fer- tility, the adoption of chemicals will be contemplated. Live- stock acquisition and investment in improved corrals fol- lows making organic manure available. GROUP 1, SOUTHERN PART OF OHV: These are animal traction farmers exhibiting a lower risk aversion and greater ability to buy purchased inputs. Chemical fertilizers and local rock phosphates will be suit- able options for such farmers. Soil and water conservation techniques and animal traction will be options to recover land in the outlying low rainfall areas since land availabil- ity is not a constraint. The increased biomass production will encourage the adoption of improved corral systems since site-feeding will then become feasible. This will lead to the availability of better quality organic manure from the pens. GROUP 1, EASTERN PART OF OHV: The adoption sequence is similar to that in the south ex- cept that the cheaper and less risky local rock phosphate will be a better option during the initial stages than chemical fertil- izers. This is because the rainfall level in this region is lower than that in the south, hence fertilizer use is a little more risky. The availability of organic manure for village fields due to im- proved corrals is more beneficial here since other fields are too distant for manure to be applied. GROUP 1, WESTERN PART OF OHV: Once again, as was the case in the northern part, soil water conser- vation techniques and animal traction will be the best option to recover de- graded lands and improve soil mois- ture. Rainfall levels are slightly higher here than in the north, permitting the adoption of both local rock phos- phates and chemical fertilizers. Cattle corralling and the resulting organic manure will improve soil fertility even further. GROUP 2, NORTHERN PART OF OHV: The adoption sequence will be similar to that for Group 1, northern region with a reduced capacity to take risks and buy inputs. GROUP 2, SOUTHERN PART OF OHV: This group is similar to Group 1 in the south, but with reduced risk capacity and financial resources. GROUP 2, EASTERN PART OF OHV: Similar to Group 1 in the east. They are relatively less likely to take risk, hence will adopt PNT more readily than the more expensive chemical fertilizers. GROUP 2, WESTERN PART OF OHV: Similar to Group 1 in the east with reduced capacity for risk. GROUP 3, NORTHERN PART OF OHV: Given the limited ability to buy purchased inputs and high risk aversion, the initial stages of technological adoption by farmers will be dominated by soil/water conservation techniques such as dikes/diguettes and rock bunds. The use of tied ridges would become more attractive once animal traction has been fully developed. However, the sandy nature of the soil makes the full adoption of tied ridges a little uncertain. TABLE 66. SEQUENTIAL ADOPTION OF TECHNOLOGIES ACROSS AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF OHV BY FARMERS IN GROUP I Northern part of OHV Southern part of OHV Eastern part of OHV Western part of OHV Dikes/diguettes/ Chemical fertilizers PNT Dikes/diguettes/ rock bunds rock bunds Tied ridges/animal PNT Chemical fertilizers Tied ridges/Animal traction traction PNT Dikes/diguettes/ Dikes/diguettes/rock bunds Chemical fertilizers rock bunds rock bunds Chemical fertilizers Animal traction Animal traction PNT Improved corrals Improved corrals Improved corrals Improved corrals Organic manure Organic manure Organic manure Organic manure Improved crop varieties Improved crop varieties Improved crop varieties Improved crop varieties Crop intensification Crop intensification Crop intensification Crop intensification Compost/mulch/ Compost/mulch/ Compost/mulch/ Compost/mulch/ green manure green manure green manure green manure 48 Yarming Systems Research kand Extension in Mali-1986-1994 The next sequence of adoption would involve a cash out- lay. Fertilizer is an option, beginning with the local rock phos- phate (PNT) which is relatively less expensive. Chemical fer- tilizers would be an option once soil and water conservation techniques have improved soil structure, leading to better yields and increased income. The southern parts of the region with higher rainfall would be more appropriate. The last step in the sequence would be the investment in new crop varieties and intensification of crop associations. GROUP 3, SOUTHERN PART OF OHV: Farmers in this group could practice animal traction ear- lier in the sequence than their counterparts in the northern section due to relative availability of biomass and water sources for the animals. The second and last stages of the adoption sequence are similar to those in the north. GROUP 3, EASTERN PART OF OHV: The adoption sequence for farmers in this group would be similar to those in the south. GROUP 3, WESTERN PART OF OHV: The adoption sequence similar to that for the north ex- cept that tied ridges can be more efficiently constructed here than in the north. SO INTERMEDIATE IMPACT INDICATORS OF TECHNOLOGIES PROPOSED BY FSRIE In a study begun in 1991-92, the use of new technologies by close to 300 households in five villages in the OHV were monitored. Over 50 different technologies have so far been identified ranging from soil fertility improving ones to those for crop- livestock integration and technologies designed specifically for the welfare of women and children. FSR/E was identified by a number of households surveyed as the main source of knowl- edge for over 62% of the technologies they use. This section of the report highlights the impact of some of the most promising technologies. SOIL FERTILITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNOLOGIES Dikes/diguettes/rock bunds PNT PNT Dikes/diguettes/rock bunds Tied ridges/animal traction Chemical fertilizers Chemical fertilizers Tied ridges PNT Dikes/diguettes/ Dikes/diguettes/ PNT rock bunds rock bunds Chemical fertilizers Animal traction Improved corrals Chemical fertilizers Improved corrals Improved corrals Organic manure Improved corrals Organic manure Organic manure Improved crop varieties Organic manure Improved crop varieties Improved crop varieties Crop intensification Improved crop varieties Crop intensification Crop intensification Compost/mulch/ Crop intensification green manure Compost/mulch/ Compost/mulch/ Herbicides Compost/mulch/ green manure green manure green manure Herbicides Herbicides Herbicides TABLE 68. SEQUENTIAL ADOPTION OF TECHNOLOGIES ACROSS AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF OHV BY FARMERS IN GROUP 3' Northern part of OHV Southern part of OHV Eastern part of OHV Western part of OHV Dikes/diguettes/rock bunds Animal traction Animal traction Dikes/diguettes/rock bunds Animal traction Dikes/diguettes/ Dikes/diguettes/ Animal traction rock bunds rock bunds Tied ridges Tied ridges PNT Tied ridges PNT PNT Chemical fertilizers PNT Chemical fertilizers Chemical fertilizers Chemical fertilizers PNT Improved crop varieties Improved crop varieties Crop intensification Improved crop varieties Crop intensification Crop intensification Compost/mulch/ Crop intensification green manure Compost/mulch/ Compost/mulch/ Herbicides Compost/mulch/ green manure green manure green manure Herbicides Herbicides Herbicides 'The full adoption of animal traction in this group would require some form of credit and training programs by the extension agencies. Contrary to popular belief, chemical fertilizers are used by farmers in the OHV zone on cereals. During the 1991-92 agricultural season, a to- tal of over 40,000 hectares or about 30% of total area allocated to cereal production received some form of chemical fertilizer. The principal fertilizers being ammonium phos- phate used by 23% of the farmers, cotton complex used by over 30% and urea used by about 38% of the farmers surveyed. Impact indicators for ammonium phosphate are shown in Table 69. Principal crops are cereals (sorghum, maize, rice and millet). In the 1991- 92 agricultural season, 36,604 hectares or 28% of the total crop area received ammonium phosphate. Farmers who applied this technology produced an average cereal yield of 1,500 kg/ha as against 800 kg/ha for farmers who did not. The average rate of application was about 87 kg/ha which is slightly below the recommended rate for cere- als of 100 kg/ha. Farmers using this technology produced 130,000 metric tons of cereals, an increase of 25,600 metric tons (25%) attributable to am- monium phosphate. TABLE 67. SEQUENTIAL ADOPTION OF TECHNOLOGIES ACROSS AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF OHY BY FARMERS IN GROUP 2 Eastern part of OHV Western part of OHVNorthern part of OHV Southern part of OHV 49 Yarming Systems lkesearck mand Extension in M ali-1986-1994 TABLE 69. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE ADOPTION (CURRENT SITUATION) Ammonium phosphate: Current situation Main cereal crops affected sorghum, millet, maize rice Total crop area cultivated I 30,730 hectares Total crop area Fertilized 36,604 hectares Total production 130,000 metric tons Change in production 25,600 metric tons Yield 1,500 kg/ha Change in yield 700 kg/ha Pct. of farmers adopting technology 23% or 9,479 households Pct. of users quoting FSR/E as source 8% or 21 households Pct. annual adoption rate I% Net revenue per hectare 38,000 CFA Generated income for all users 1,390,952,000 CFA Constraints to adoption: cost, risk, and limited availability Ammonium phosphate is currently used by an estimated 9,479 households (23% of the households) and thus benefits 274,891 persons. About 8% of the users in villages where FSR/ E has had contact cited FSR/E as the main source of this tech- nology during the 1991-92 agricultural season. This represented 21 households or 615 persons. The increased production contributes to about 44% of the annual cereal needs of the users. The users are self-sufficient in cereal production. The net revenue increase per hectare ranges from about 38,000 CFA or $138.28 for sorghum to over 87,000 CFA or $316.36 for rice producers based on average of 80 CFA or 29 cents per kilogram of sorghum and 150 CFA or 55 cents per kilogram for rice. This corresponds to an overall increase in returns to family labor, the main production input, of over $5.05 million for all users in 1991-92. The above revenue situation is subject to prevailing economic conditions. Should the in- creased production lead to uncontrolled price fall, the net rev- enue increase will fall accordingly even if fertilizer price holds steady. At a price of 25 CFA/kg for sorghum, the farmer will barely break even, reducing returns to family labor to zero. Thus government policies which will increase demand for the out- put either through export or processing and storage would be necessary to forestall such a situation and maintain farmer con- fidence in the technology. Prospective impact in five years for ammonium phosphate adoption is shown in Table 70. In five years 11,539 households (28% of total) are expected to be applying this technology to over 43,000 hectares, thus benefiting directly about 334,631 persons. The total cereal production is expected to be around 134,800 metric tons without further expansion of the total area planted, an increase of about 3.7% over current production. The increase in the value of total production for all farmers using ammonium phosphate is expected to reach TABLE 70. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE ADOPTION (PROSPECTIVE IMPACT IN FIVEYEARS) Ammonium phosphate: Estimated impact in five years Main cereal crops affected sorghum, millet, maize rice Total crop area cultivated I 30,730 hectares Total crop area Fertilized 43,141 hectares Total production I 34,800 metric tons Change in production 30,200 metric tons Yield 1,500 kg/ha Change in yield 700 kg/ha Pct. of farmers adopting technology 28% or I 1,539 households Pct. of users quoting FSR/E as source Pct.annual adoption rate I% Net revenue per hectare 38,000 CFA Generated income for all users 1,639,358,000 CFA TABLE 71. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR ORGANIC MANURE ADOPTION (CURRENT SITUATION) Organic manure: Current situation Main cereal crops affected Total crop area cultivated Total crop area Fertilized Total production Change in production Yield Change in yield Pct. of farmers adopting technology Pct.of users quoting FSR/E as source Pct. annual adoption rate sorghum, maize, millet I 30,730 hectares 24,839 hectares 109,600 metric tons 5,000 metric tons 1,000 kg/ha 800 kg/ha 50% or 20,606 households 3% or 6 I 8 households 2% Net revenue per hectare I 6,000 CFA Generated income for all users 397,424,000 CFA Constraints to adoption: availability and transportation Animal manure is currently used by 50% of the households (esti- mated to be 20,060 households zone-wide) and thus benefits 581,740 persons. TABLE 72. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR ORGANIC MANURE ADOPTION (PROSPECTIVE IMPACT IN FIVEYEARS) Organic manure: Estimated impact in five years Main cereal crops affected sorghum, maize, millet Total crop area cultivated I 30,730 hectares Total crop area Fertilized 37,9 12 hectares Total production 11 2,200 metric tons Change in production 7,300 metric tons Yield 1,000 kg/ha Change in yield 800 kg/ha Pct. of farmers adopting technology 60% or 24,727 households Pct. of farmers quoting FSR/E as source Pct. annual adoption rate 2% Net revenue per hectare I6,000 CFA Generated income for all users 606,592,000 CFA 50 Jarming Systems Resear ch and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 $6.0 million assuming stable prices for inputs and outputs and adequate rainfall. Another soil fertility improving technology in use is the various forms of organic manure of animal and plant sources (Table 71). Principal crops are again cereals (sorghum, maize, and millet). In the 1991-92 agricultural season, 24,839 hectares or 19% of the total crop area received animal manure at an aver- age rate of 2,188 kg/ha. Farmers who applied manure obtained an average yield of 1,000 kg/ha as against 800 kg/ha for non- fertilized fields. Farmers using this technology produced 109,000 metric tons of cereals, an increase of 5,000 metric tons (4.5%) attributable to animal manure application. Animal manure is currently used by 5 0% of the house- holds (estimated to be 20,060 households zone-wide) and thus benefits 581,740 persons. The net revenue increase per hectare is about 16,000 CFA or $58.18 for sorghum and millet. This corresponds to an over- all increase in returns to labor of over $1.55 million net for all users in 1991-92. In five years about 24,727 households (60% of total) are expected to be applying animal manure to about 37,912 hect- ares thus benefiting directly about 717,083 persons (Table 72). This number of users is determined in part by the number of potential owners of livestock. A minimum of six cattle in im- proved corrals is needed to produce sufficient manure to fertil- ize a hectare of cereals. The total cereal production is expected to be around 112,200 metric tons without further expansion of the total area planted, an increase of about 7,300 metric tons (6.5%) directly attributable to this technology. The increase in the value of total production for all farmers using organic manure is ex- pected to reach $2.2 million net assuming stable prices. The available natural resource management techniques include tied ridges, animal traction, rock bunds, dikes/digues, haie vive, and the use of mulch (Table 73). An average of 19% of the households (7830 households) use either tied ridges, rock bunds, dikes/digues, haie vive, or mulch, and 11% of the users surveyed cited FSR/E as their source for knowledge about this technology. Yields of close to 2,000 kg/ha for sorghum and 1,000 kg/ha for millet have been observed with the use of tied ridges. Monitoring of these technologies in the OHV zone is continuing and results will be available in the near future. Close to 80% (32,970) of the households practice plow- ing with draft animals. During the 1991-92 agricultural sea- son, close to 60% of the total area cultivated was plowed using animal traction (Table 74). TABLE 73. CURRENT USE OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES BY FARMERS IN OHV (1991-92) Technology Current use Annual rate of adoption Number Percentage Pct. of farmers of farmers Tied ridges 22 8 <1 .0 Animal traction 209 79 2.3 Rock bands 12 05 <1.0 Dikes/digues 4 02 <1.0 Haie vive 75 28 1.5 Mulch 26 10 1.0 TABLE 74. AREA PLOWED WITH ANIMAL TRACTION IN SOME OHVVILLAGES IN 1991-92 Village Total area cultivated Women's fields Hectare Plowed Hectare Plowed Pct. Pct. Balanzan 345 82 87 25 Land4 270 73 13 5 Mountougoula 122 55 II 9 Kominta 195 49 9 5 Dordbougou 740 40 49 7 Average 334 60 34 10 Despite this high percentage of land area plowed, only about 35% of the households have a full set of plowing equip- ment and draft animals (Volet OHV 1991a). This might ac- count for the low percentage of women field areas plowed since community farms tend to have preference over indi- vidual fields. Policy is needed to permit the acquisition of animal traction equipment. It is also hoped that the increased revenue from the adoption of other yield increasing technolo- gies will help farmers acquire the needed equipment and draft animals. This technology has been available in Mali for decades. The main constraint to its adoption is the high initial cost of investment. In five years the use of tied ridges, rock bunds, and tree planting is expected to increase dramatically due to renewed efforts on the part of researchers and developers. A commu- nity approach rather than an individual farm approach has been adopted to the extent that now whole degraded areas are being recovered instead of individual fields. This will speed up the impact of this technology on agricultural produc- tion. An accompanying social problem is the determination of when to put reclaimed land into use when more than one house- hold is involved. However, this is not insurmountable with adequate community discussions before, during, and after the tests are installed. 51 3arming Systems Research and Extension in Mali-1986-1994 SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGY FOR WOMEN AND CHILDREN FSR/E has developed specific technologies to respond to the needs of women and children through the provision of ad- ditional income sources and/or serving as supplementary sources of child nutrition. The main fertility sources for women's peanut fields are simple superphosphate, organic manure and PNT(Table75). Us- ers obtained an average of 1,000 kg/ha of peanuts as against about 800 kg/ha for non-users. In 1991-92, out of a total of 15,256 hectares planted to peanuts, 915 hectares, or 6% of the total area, received one of the above sources of fertilization. Users produced close to 12,386 metric tons with about 183 met- ric tons due to fertilization. About 2% of the households (824 households) fertilize their peanut fields. This technology benefits about 23,900 in- dividuals. Peanuts are produced mainly for the market with the de- rived income going towards meeting food and other needs of the family. The average increase in net revenue per hectare is about 24,582 CFA or $89.39 with an estimated zone-wide increase in additional income of 22,493,140 CFA or $81,793. However, if PNT is used, this benefit is available for a period of three years without incurring additional fertilization cost (i.e an average net revenue of $89.39 can be obtained for each of the three years since the fertility elements of PNT are available to the plant for three years). Prospective impact in five years is shown in Table 76. The principal constraints to the continued adoption of this tech- nology has to do with the fertilization with PNT. Since the benefits of this fertilizer accrue over a three-year period, the farmer needs to have acess to the same piece of land for a mini- mum of three years. However, this is not often the case since the male household heads take the fertilized field from the fe- male operators in order to benefit cereal production. Under this condition, the increase in net revenue per hectare is only 18,970 CFA or $68.98 for each of the three years. Discussions between the heads of houshold and developers will help allevi- ate this bottleneck. Given a resolution of the above cited problem an esti- mated 6,594 production units (16% of the households) will be expected to be applying the technology to about 2,441 hect- ares (an increase of 156% or 1,426 ha from the present area of applicaation) in five years with an overall increase in gener- ated income of 60,004,662 CFA or $218,198. Market gardens have become a major source of income for women in villages close to urban centers (Table 77). One such village is Kominta in the western part of the OHV zone, about 60 kilometers from Bamako. Cotton Complex and or- ganic manure are the main sources of fertility in these gardens. TABLE 75. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR THE FERTILIZATION OF WOMEN'S PEANUT FIELDS WITH SS, PNT OR ORGANIC MANURE (CURRENT SITUATION) Fertilization of women's peanut fields: Current situation Main crop affected peanuts Total crop area cultivated 15,256 hectares Total crop area Fertilized 9 15 hectares Total production 12,388 metric tons Change in production I 83 metric tons Yield 1,000 kg/ha Change in yield 800 kg/ha Pct. of farmers adopting technology 2% or 824 households Pct. of farmers quoting FSR/E as source 3% or 25 households Pct. annual adoption rate <1% Net revenue per hectare 24,582 CFA Generated income for all users 22,492,530 CFA Constraints to adoption: cost, risk, gender, transportation TABLE 76. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR THE FERTILIZATION OF WOMEN'S PEANUT FIELDS WITH SS, PNT OR ORGANIC MANURE (PROSPECTIVE IMPACT IN FIVE YEARS) Fertilization of women's peanut fields: Estimated impact in five years Main cereal crops affected peanuts Total crop area cultivated 15,256 hectares Total crop area fertilized 2,441 hectares Total production 12,700 metric tons Change in production 500 metric tons Yield 1,000 kg/ha Change in yield 800 kg/ha Pct. of farmers adopting technology 16% or 6,594 households Pct. of farmers quoting FSR/E as source Pct. annual adoption rate 2% Net revenue per hectare 24,582 CFA Generated income for all users 60,004,662 CFA The principal crops include potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, onions, and cucumbers. Users of Cotton Complex are able to obtain about 17.5 tons per hectare as against 8 tons per hectare of onions bar- ring disease and insect infestation. FSR/E has begun on- farm trials with insecticides and fungicides on women's fields to control such infestations. However, preliminary results indicate lack of significant effect of these treatments on onion and potato yields. In 1991-92, close to 94% of the households sampled ap- plied either cotton complex or animal manure to an area of about 9.3 hectares (36% of total area cultivated). Over 435 or 30.6% of the population benefited directly from this technology and the garden produce is mostly des- tined for urban markets. 52 7Jcrwning Systems tPesearck and Extension in JVUWli-1986-1994 TABLE 77. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR THE FERTILIZATION OF WOMEN'S MARKET GARDENS WITH COTTON COMPLEX OR ORGANIC MANURE (CURRENT SITUATION) Fertilization of women's market gardens: Current situation Main crops affected Total crop area cultivated Total crop area fertilized Total production Change in production Yield Change in yield Pct. of farmers adopting technology Pct. of farmers quoting FSR/E as source Pct. annual adoption rate onions, potatoes 25.7 hectares onions: 4.6 hectares, potatoes: 4.6 hectares onions: 148 metric tons, potatoes: 343 metric tons onions: 44 metric tons, potatoes: 33 metric tons onions: 17.5 tons/ha, potatoes: 3 1.0 tons/ha onions: 9.5 tons/ha, potatoes: 7.0 tons/ha 94% or 45 households 2% Net revenue per hectare onions: 628,000 CFA potatoes: 542,000 CFA Generated income for all users 5,382,000 CFA Constraints to adoption: market, storage, cost, and risk TABLE 78. IMPACT INDICATORS FOR THE FERTILIZATION OF WOMEN'S MARKET GARDENS WITH COTTON COMPLEX OR ORGANIC MANURE (PROSPECTIVE IMPACT IN FIVEYEARS) Fertilization of women's market gardens: Estimated impact in five years Main crops affected Total crop area cultivated Total crop area fertilized Total production Change in production Yield Change in yield Pct. of farmers adopting technology Pct. of farmers quoting FSR/E as source Pct. annual adoption rate Net revenue per hectare Generated income for all users onions, potatoes 25.7 hectares 25.7 hectares onions: 226 metric tons, potatoes: 400 metric tons onions: 123 metric tons, potatoes: 90 metric tons onions: 17.5 tons/ha, potatoes: 3 1.0 tons/ha onions: 9.5 tons/ha, potatoes: 7.0 tons/ha 100% or 49 households 2% onions: 628,000 CFA, potatoes: 542,000 CFA 15,034,500 CFA The average increase in net revenue per hectare was about 628,000 CFA or $2,283.64 for onions assuming a price of 85 CFA or $0.31 per kilogram, thus yielding an estimated increase in additional income generated of 2,888,800 CFA or $10,504.74 for onion growers. For potatoes, the average increase in net revenue per hectare was 542,000 CFA or $1970.90 at a per kilogram price of 150 cfa or 55 cents. The total increase in generated income for potato growers was about 2,493,200 CFA or $9,066.18. Over the next five years, all households in the village will be using this technology (Table 78). The proportion of each woman's garden fertilized will increase over time. Thus the percentage of the total area fertilized will increase in direct pro- portion to the increase in the number of users and with time. As farmers become more convinced of the benefits of the tech- nology and with the increased income accrued over theyears, more land area will be fertilized by each farmer even if no new land is brought into production. Continued favorable prices are a necessary condition. Over 1,400 individuals will be benefiting directly by applying this technology to over 25 hectares of land. CONCLUSION The population of the OHV zone in 1991-92 was about 1,973,893 persons and annual cereal requirement has been es- timated at 212 kg per person, according to a study conducted by "Direction National de Statistic et Informatique" (DNSI). This implies that the total cereal requirement for the whole population was about 418,488 metric tons of cereals. The ap- plication of ammonium phosphate resulted in a total produc- tion of 130,000 metric tons of cereals, an increase of 25% or 25,600 metric tons attributable to the fertilizer. The total ce- real requirement for the 9,479 households applying the fertil- izer was 58,277 metric tons of cereals (an average of 29 persons per household). The 25,600 metric tons increase due to am- monium phosphate constitute 44% of this cereal need making the users self-sufficient in cereal production. This implies that an increased use of ammonium phosphate will lead to cereal self-sufficiency for the entire zone. The higher grain yield and increased total production would lead to less land to be cultivated once the farmers'goals of food self-sufficiency and some cash for regular daily expenses have been achieved. This would give an opportunity for natu- ral vegetative regeneration, and ultimately ecological stability. The higher vegetative production would then increase animal feed source and, therefore, higher animal productivity as a by product of which manure availability and traction power could improve. Provided prices are favorable (under conditions of local and foreign market availability for cereals), the increase in income would be expected to encourage the farmer to pay for the investment in soil and water management and livestock acquisition. The increased production and subsequent increases in disposable income are expected to increase overall rural de- mand for manufactured and processed goods. Rural industrial- ization in the long run leading to employment and reduced urban migration should be expected. The increased production and the accompanying surpluses will have to be met with increased effort at regional export of cereals and increased government and private sector capacity for storage. These will be necessary for stable prices. A list of identified technologies in use in the OHV zone is given in the appendices. 53 I 117 vw - t1 INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT The [SR/F project hais Contriibted to the dev elopmnent of the natioinal fatrming sy~stem research prognrm thi tugh the development Ot human iesouirces, the acqIusition of' initerials and tinancial support, and the elal iration of Farming( 'Sxysterm Reseatrch ilitliho~dogs_, and executhin. IMPROVEMENT OF RESEARCH CAPACITY The National Firmins, Sv stem Rcsearch (NFV-R0 \\,i i ni- tiated fuli, bx- natitonal research staff. The FSR/E project pro- s ided suppor t to the NFSR and IFR iin general to sti e1tigle its research capic its through (a) the desvelopment of methodolo- (lies tot the [SR pi ogram as a iresuilt Ot the technicall issitince of USAID/Nial i through11- SECI U; (b) cos ering opert iional costs ot the N [SR program so as to heclp the national institute to bear the whol e responsibilits ot iinning the ptt oraml ai- tonomuSis at the end of the pr oject life; (c) suppis in111 ejuip- int so as to increase the investiglative capacit of the insti- rote; and (d ) thi ug1(h publication ot iresearchll methodolOipx and results WxhiCh wxouild improve the infor matton data Vise of the institute inl fat ting( sy stem teseil -ch. TRAINING AND SHORT-TERM CONSULTANTS Ih: he~ia a piroxvision tot the support of nationial staff to pairtic ipate in xxotrkshotps, seminars and Short tetrn training. Thus by injecting technic il, financial and int rmational slip- potrt to the NFSR Pt ott .in, FSR/E (through 1. S AIL) funding) has hielped LER to des elop a selt sustaining, FSR program. The project agreement called for gisin, 19 Nlalians long trtm ti ainin in the United States. The last of the envisaged tri tnees lett tor the US inl ] inuary 1991. A s41umtats report ot the trainling alctis its is gix en in Table 79. All of the partici- pints hiave returned to the coiintrx and has e issiimed positions in I FR and other sectiton,, oif the Gdoverinmetnt of Mali The short-term teaiching had twxo components: ii- couintry trainin, and trainling out'side Ot Nitli. In-ctUintt- rri atg included the tr aming of reseatrchetrs, tield agenlts, and fatrmets in appi opt ile iteas. Fatrmetri tning( consisted tmainly 1 ot visting other fit iners to encourage discutssions in nexx metho ds and piricticecs tt agriculturtal and liv estick Pt odUti t n. Field agents wxere trained to acquitre the neces- 7 1'~ Yarming Systems kesearck hand Extension in M)ali-1986-1994, sary tools for performing field operations such as question- naire administration, area and yield measurements, rapid soil and crop identifications, and exposing them to the use and analysis of data collected in the field to reach certain conclusions. Training in English language enabled research- ers to read scientific journals written in English and also prepare them for future training in English speaking coun- tries. Training in information systems was a regular com- ponent of the FSR/E program. Short-term training outside Mali included visits of re- searchers aiad technicians to other African countries, short- term training in appropriate areas such as computers, statistics, accounting and human resource development in the U.S, and other Third World countries. Experts in various fields were often called upon to pro- vide short-term help to the project either as direct support to research or as a form of on-site training of the national staff. The fields included economics, agronomy, informa- tion systems, animal science, and financial management. In addition, the SECID Campus Coordinator visited the project twice a year to participate in the review of project activities, resolve potential problems, and to provide tech- nical advice as necessary. FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT The FSR/E project had an expatriate financial manage- ment specialist until March 1992 as part of the technical assis- tance component. The financial management unit (FMU) is currently staffed by highly trained Malians both at Bamako and at Mopti. There is close linkage between the two volets with Bamako serving as the main unit. The FMU at Bamako consists of four accountants, a cash- ier and a warehouseman. The unit is fully computerized. Mopti has only one warehouseman and one accountant who also serves as a cashier. The unit here too is fully comput- INFORMATION SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT The project's technical assistance had an information sys- tems management component until March 1993. The func- tions included the installation and maintenance of hardware and software, training of national staff, program design, soft- ware utilization in data processing and analysis, and extended service to other units of IER. Installation and maintenance centered around the regu- lar maintenance and the repair of computers, printers, and other equipment such as transformers and UPS units necessary for the proper functioning of computers. The control and preven- tion of software contamination was an essential component. Training of researchers and support staff in the use of rel- evant computer software was a major function of the computer center. The center conducted workshops in word-processing, spreadsheet, database, and analysis of research and financial data bases. The staff played a supporting role in training the staff of the FMU. A major function of the computer center was to provide data processing services to the research units of the project. The staff assisted researchers in the design of data collection TABLE 79. A SUMMARY REPORT ON LONG-TERM TRAINING ACTIVITY,AUGUST 1993 Name Degree University Year started Year returned Previous post Current post Abdoul Kadri M.S. Auburn Univ. June 29, 1988 1990 DRSPR Bougouni DRSPR Mopti Abou Bertha Ph.D. Univ. of Florida Aug. 9, 1987 1991 DRSPR Bamako DRSPR Mopti Adama Coulibaly M.S. Tuskegee Univ. June 25, 1988 1992 DET Minist0re Boubacar Dembeld M.S. Tuskegee Univ. July 25, 1987 1989 IPR IPR Modibo Diallo M.S. Univ. of Arkansas July 7, 1989 1993 DRA Amadou Gakou Ph.D. Auburn Univ. July 25, 1987 1994 DRA N'tarla Dore Guindo M.S./Ph.D Univ. of Arkansas July 25, 1987 1993 DRA Sotuba DRA Sotuba Alpha Kergna M.S. Texas A&M July 25, 1987 1989 IPR Moriba Komakara B.S./M.S Tuskegee/lowa St Jan. 19, 1989 1994 DRSPR Bamako Bakary Kond M.S. Tuskegee Univ. Feb. I, 1991 1994 DRSPR Bamako Alpha Ma6ga Ph.D. VirginiaTech. June 29, 1988 1992 DRSPR Bamako DRSPR Bamako Dramane Mariko M.S. Mississippi SU Feb. I, 199 I 1994 DET Akousso Niangaly M.S. Texas A&M Aug. 14, 1987 1989 DNFAR DNFAR Antimed Sagara M.S. NC A&T Univ. June 29, 1988 1992 DNFAR DNFAR Odiaba Samake M.S. Texas A&M July 25, 1987 1990 DRA DRA Mopti Sind Sow M.S. NC A&T Univ. Feb. 6, 1989 1993 DNFAR MahamadouTangara Ph.D. Iowa St. Univ. July 25, 1987 1992 DRSPR Bamako DRSPR Bamako AboubacarToure Ph.D Texas A&M June 29, 1988 1993 Intsorm(IER) YacoubaTraord M.S. Iowa St. Univ. Aug. 30, 1989 1993 DRSPR Bamako DRSPR Bamako 55 3arming Systems Researck hand Extension in Mali-1986-1994 instruments. After the data were collected, the staff archived software that was better suited to the specific research and fi- the data using a data base management system and provided nancial management needs of the project. the data to the researchers in formats that could be used by All the previously described activities were made avail- their statistical programs. Finally, they provided technical as- able to the other volets of DRSPR and units of IER as needed, sistance as needed to the researchers with their analyses. however, the bulk of the time for the unit was spent at the Program design involved the development of computer project. BUDGET Tables 80 and 81 give an illustration of the budget re- quirements to implement FSR/E activities at the two volets for the 1993-94 research year and a consolidated budget is given in table 82. The total amount budgeted for the OHV Volet 1993-94 TABLE 80. ANNUAL BUDGET: MAY 1993 TO APRIL 1994 (OHVVOLET) Item CFA' Dollars Construction Maintenance 2,050,000 7,593 Commodities 52,108,129 192,993 Transport Equipments 37,100,000 137,407 Other Commodities 9,860,275 36,520 Research Equipments 3,345,000 12,389 Miscellaneous 1,802,854 6,677 Training 18,000,000 66,667 Total Operational Cost 126,715,382 469,316 Personnel 63,721,737 236,006 Travel and Per Diem 8,748,000 32,400 Maintenance and Repair I 6,138,000 59,770 Fuel, Utilities, Rent, etc 14,452,640 53,528 Cooperative Agreements 9,200,000 34,074 Office Supplies and Communication I1I,364,386 42,090 Miscellaneous 3,090,619 1,447 Total Proposed Budget 198,873,51 1 736,569 'The exchange rate used was 270 CFA = $1 (U.S.A.) research year was 198,873,511 CFA TAB or $736,569. Out of this total M amount, $186,316 was for commodi- Item OH ties, $66,667 for training and CFA $469,316 was for operating costs. A ConRe 2,050,000 summary of this budget is provided in Comm. 52,108,129 Table 80. Trans. 37,100,000 Other 9,860,275 The total amount budgeted for Res. eq 3,345,000 the Mopti volet 1993-94 research year Misc 1,802,854 82,494,127 CFA or $305,534. Out Train. 18,000,000 of this total amount, $39,722 was for Tot. Opr 126,715,382 Pers. 63,721,737 commodities and $248,925 was for Travel 8,748,000 operating costs. The requested bud- Repairs 16,138,000 get for training for this volet was in- Fuel 14,452,640 cluded in the budget for the OHV Coop 9,200,000 Supp 11,364,386 volet. A summary of this budget is Misc 3,090,619 provided in Table 81. Total 198,873,5 I Thus the total budget required for the FSR/E activities was 281,367,638 CFA or $1,042,103 of which $226,038 was earmarked for commodity acquisitions, $66,667 for short-term training, and $718,241 was for operational costs (Table 82). TABLE 81. ANNUAL BUDGET: MAY 1993 TO APRIL 1994 (MOPTIVOLET) Item CFA' Dollar Construction Maintenance 3,500,000 12,963 Commodities I11,784,375 43,646 Transport Equipments 400,000 1,48 Other Commodities 7,875,000 29,167 Research Equipments 2,450,000 9,074 Miscellaneous 1,059,379 3,924 Training 0 0 Total Operational Cost 67,209,752 248,925 Personnel 16,803,340 62,235 Travel and Per Diem 6,166,000 22,837 Maintenance and Repair I 1,412,500 42,269 Fuel, Utilities, Rent, etc II1,622,540 43,046 Cooperative Agreements 8,702,500 32,231 Office Supplies and Communication I0,820,000 40,074 Miscellaneous 1,682,872 6,233 Total Proposed Budget 82,494,127 305,534 'The exchange rate used was 270 CFA= $1 (U.S.A.). LE 82. ANNUAL CONSOLIDATED BUDGET: AY 1993 TO APRIL 1994 (FSRIE, MALI) V Volet Mopti Volet Total CFA Total Dollar Dollar CFA Dollar CFA Dollar 7,593 3,500,000 12,963 5,550,000 20,556 192,993 I 1,784,375 43,646 63,892,504 236,639 137,407 400,000 1,481 37,500,000 138,888 36,520 7,875,000 29,167 17,735,275 65,687 12,389 2,450,000 9,074 5,795,000 21,463 6,677 1,059,375 3,924 2,862,229 10,601 66,667 0 0 18,000,000 66,667 469,316 67,209,752 248,925 193,925,134 718,241 236,006 16,803,340 62,235 80,525,077 298241 32,400 6,166,000 22,837 14,914,000 55,237 59,770 I 1,412,500 42,269 27,550,500 102,039 53,528 I 1,622,540 43,046 26,075,180 96,574 34,074 8,702,500 32,231 17,902,500 66,305 42,090 10,820,000 40,074 22,184,386 82,164 I 1,447 1,682,872 6,233 4,773,491 17,680 736,569 82,494,127 305,534 281,367,638 1,042,103 56 crmhning Systems tResearch and Extension in iz}li-1986-1994 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND EXTENSION The OHV zone of the FSR/E project was divided into four principal agro-climatic regions ranging from the humid south with rich and fertile soils to the dry north with sandy soils. The principal crops are millet, sorghum, maize, and rice and legumes, such as cowpeas and peanuts. Crops are grown mainly in associations and livestock consists mainly of cattle, sheep, and goats. Poultry production is limited. Crop production constraints include insufficient soil mois- ture, poor and degraded land, labor shortage, poor quality pro- duction inputs, limited financial resource availability, limited access to credit, and pest and disease attacks. Livestock pro- duction constraints are water and feed unavailability especially during the dry season, and animal diseases. Lack of adequate rainfall is the principal bottleneck of agro-forestry practice. Natural rainfall is not sufficient to support adequate tree growth. Watering of plants is hindered by the absence of sources such as wells, ponds, and streams. Demographic studies showed that there is no correlation between family size and availability of family labor despite the high variation between villages in the same region and across the entire zone. The cropping system is dominated by farms owned col- lectively by the entire household consisting of several families. These farms are slightly larger than individually owned farms. Sorghum is the most important crop both in terms of area cul- tivated and for its role in the diet of the farmers. Among the legumes, cowpea is the most important for the same given rea- sons. Animal traction is the major land preparation technique and labor shortage is most pronounced during weeding. This, in addition to other factors already cited lead to very poor crop yields. Livestock feeding is done mainly through grazing of natural pastures. Very few farmers give nutrient supplements to their animals. Principal diseases include pasteurellosis and gastro-intestinal parasites. Very little vaccination is done as preventive measures against these diseases. An average house- hold possesses 5.75 tropical livestock units with the highest number being in the southern part of the zone. Monitoring farmers use of improved technologies identi- fied more than 52 improved techniques of crop and livestock production and other household management techniques. Among these are fertilization, techniques of soil and water con- servation and infant nutrition improvement technologies. Con- trary to what is widely believed, the farmers in the zone use chemical fertilizers on cereals; the most important being cot- ton-complex and ammonium phosphate. .The first priority of policy-makers, agricultural research- ers and extension agents is to develop technologies capable of increasing the yield of the cereal-dominated production sys- tem of the OHV zone. This effort should concentrate on alle- viating the constraint of poor soil fertility and poor water re- tention capacity of the soils. Chemical fertilizers and soil and water management techniques such as digues/dikes/diguettes, rock bunds and labor-saving technologies such as animal trac- tion are already available for diffusion in most of the sahelian region. The yield-increasing quality of chemical fertilizers are well known, but the rate of adoption is still low as compared to what one would have expected. Different reasons have been given, including the absence of credit for investment, lack of information and the shortage of the products themselves. How- ever, it appears that the principal discouraging factor is the in- herent risk of chemical fertilizer usage. The use of chemical ferilizer needs to be accompanied by an assurance of water avail- ability especially during certain critical periods of plant growth, such as flowering. The adoption of packages of technologies rather than adoption singly or individually has been viewed as a potential solution, but research has shown that farmers resist adoption of several new technologies at the same time. There is a need for the development of rural financial institutions or credit programs for farmers agricultural investment, improve- ment in the information service for the management of the production systems, and the development of markets for both inputs and outputs. Technologies that are more likely to be adopted by farmers ought to be presented to them first in order to provide the encouragement and economic preconditions for adoption. Technologies for soil fertility improvement and those for soil and water retention, such as chemical fertilizers, dikes/ diguettes, rock bunds and animal traction should be used on demonstration farms with farmer participation according to the recommendation domains developed. Government should in- tervene by the construction of dams and big dikes to control the flow of water at the village level. In each region of the zone, each family can construct tied-ridges and/or diguettes according to needs and resources. Extension agents should un- dertake the training of farmers in animal traction practice such as animal health and feeding to sustain effective field work. 57 armikig Systems Researc h and Exteision in Mali-1986-1994 REFERENCES 1. Plan " Long-terme du Volet OHV De La DRSPR: Proposition de Programme (1990-94) 2. Volet Mopti 1993b "Proposition de Programmes pour la campagne 1993- 94" Mars 1993, DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. 3. Volet Mopti 1991 "Resultats de la Campagne 1990-91" Mars 1991, DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. 4. Volet Mopti 1992 "R6sultats de la Campagne 1991-92 " Mars 1992, DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. 5. Volet OHV 1993 "Proposition de Programmes pour la campagne 1993-94" Mars 1993, DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. 6. Volet OHV. 1990. "Resultats de la Campagne 1989-1990", DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. 7. Volet OHV. 1989a. "R6sultats de la Campagne 1988-1989", DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. 8. Volet OHV. 1991. "R sultats de la Campagne 1990-1991", DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. 9. Volet OHV. 1989b. "Document de Synthese des R6sultas du Project de Recherche sur Les Systemes de Produc- tion Rurale et Vulgarisation. DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali" (mimeo). 10. YEBOAH K. Anthony, Amadou DIARRA ; Farming Systems Research Project, Research Programm, 1992-1993 May 1992, DRSPR, IER, Bamako, Mali. APPENDICES LIST OF TECHNOLOGIES PROPOSED BY FSR/E APPENDIX I. SOIL FERTILITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNOLOGIES Local rock phosphate (PNT) Ammonium phosphate Cereal Complex Cotton Complex Simple Super Phosphates Potassium Chloride Urea Manure Improved fallowing method Green manure Compost Potassium Sulphate APPENDIX II. SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES Tied Ridges Animal Traction Rock Bunds Dikes/Digues Haie vive Mulching APPENDIX III. LABOR SAVING TECHNOLOGIES AND IMPROVED CROP VARIETIES Pesticides Guided Straight-line sowing Automatic seeder Alternating pockets sowing Alternating lines sowing Herbicides Improved millet variety Improved sorghum variety Improved maize variety Improved rice variety Improved cowpea variety Improved peanut variety Improved tomato variety Improved sweet potato variety Improved potato variety Improved onion variety Improved okra variety APPENDIX IV. TECHNOLOGIES FOR LIVESTOCK AND CROP PRODUCTION INTEGRATION Improved corral systems Improved honey production method Livestock fattening Deparasitizing Treatment of small ruminants Improved poultry production methods Use of veterinary products Forage production APPENDIX V. TECHNOLOGIES SPECIFICALLY DEVELOPED FOR WOMEN Soumbala from soybeans Farine for child nutrition Improved method for local soap manufactur- ing Fertilization of womens peanut fields Fertilization of womens vegetable gardens Fertilization of womens rice fields. PUBLICATIONS LIST DOCUMENT LIST 1986 SECID Orientation document WORK PLANS 1987-May 1987 - April 88 FSRE team This workplan was supplemented by a global workplan presented during the 1987 in house review. Refer to that report for details. 1988-May 1988 -April 89 FSRE team 1989-1989 - 90 FSRE team 1989-Work Plan for the 1989-90 Campaign. 1990-April 1990 - May 91 FSRE team 1991-May 1991 - April 1992 FSR/E team 1992-May 1992 - April 1993 FSR/E team 1993-May 1993 - April 1994 FSR/E team FINANCIAL REPORTS 1987-Hilarion Bruneau. First year Review, 6-16 May, 1987. 1988-Hilarion Bruneau.Financial manage- ment expert report through Sept., 1988. Re- port date, Nov. 1988. 58 3arming Systems Researc h and Extension in VMali-1986-1994 IN HOUSE REVIEW 1986-Six months progress report. January- June, 1986. 1986-Six months progress report. May- Oc- tober, 1986. 1987-First year review, 6-16 May, 1987. In- cludes: Second six months progress report, Nov. 86 - April 87. FSRE work plan May 87 - April 88. Global plan of work 1987 - 88. In French: Farmer selection process. Protocols for on farm testing (1) diagnostic test for corn in the south. (2) diagnostic test for sorghum in zone A. (3) diagnostic test for peanut in the north. (4) diagnostic test for millet in the north. 1987 First year review, 6-16 May, 1987. (in French) Includes: Commission technique sur les systemes de production rurale. Document # 3, volet OHV, (a) Test paysan, and (b) enquites suivis. (a) On farm trials, (b) surveys. STRATIEGIE DE RECHERCHE. Commission technique sur les systimes de production rurale. Document # 5, volet OHV, (a) choix des villages de recherche, and (b) enquetes typologie. (a) village selection, (b) baseline surveys. Six months (first) progress report, May 86 - Oct 86. Second six months progress report, Nov 86 - Apr 87. Third six months' Report, May - October, 1987. 1988 Project evaluation, November 1988. 4p. PROJECT MONTHLY REPORTS 1987 September. 1987 October. 1987 November. 1987 December. 1987 July. 1988 April. 1988 May. 1988 November. 1988 December. LONG TERM RESEARCH PLAN IN FARMING SYSTEMS 1988 Programme National de la Recherche Agronomique " Long Terme. Rapport du Groupe Systeme de Production et Economie Rurale. Long Term National Research Plan, Report of the Farming Systems and Ag-Eco- nomics group. 1990 Plan " Long terme: Agro-Economie. Anthony Yeboah et Makan Fofana. Long term Plan: Agro-Economics. 1990 Reflexions et Propositions pour un plan du volet " Long Terme. Programme agronomie. Thoughts and recommendations on the long term plan. Agronomy program. Second draft 12/04/90. 1990 Plan i Long Terme du Volet OHV de la DRSPR. Proposition de Programme. Avril 1990. Long Term Plan for OHV/DRSPR. Proposed Activities. 1990 Programme National de Recherche a Long Terme au Mali. Rapport Preliminaire. Long Term National Research Plan for Mali. by Sauveur Mahotiere, May 1990. 1990 Programme National de Recherche Long Terme sur les Systeme de Production et Economie Rurale. Octobre 1990. Long Term National Research Plan for the Farm- ing Systems and Ag-Economics group. 1991 Plan a Long Terme du Volet OHV de la DRSPR. Proposition de Programme 1990- 94. Version amilior e, Mars 1991. Long Term Plan for OHV/DRSPR. Improved ver- sion COMMISSIONS TECHNIQUES SPECIALISE'E SUR LES SYSTEMES DE PRODUCTION RURALE. 1987 R6sultats de la campagne 1986-87. Volet OHV 1987 Proposition de programme 1987-88. Volet OHV 1988 Resultats de la campagne 1987-88. Volet OHV 1988 Proposition de programme 1988-89. Volet OHV 1989 R~sultats de la campagne 1988-89. Volet OHV 1989 Proposition de programme 1989-90. Volet OHV 1990 R6sultats de la campagne 1989-90. 1990 Proposition de programme 1990-91. version 1, 63 p. 1990 Proposition de programme 1990-91. version 2, 28 p. 1991 R~sultats de la campagne 1990-91. 1991 Proposition de programme 1991-92. 1992 Resultats de la campagne 1991-92. Volet OHV. 1992 Proposition de programme 1992-93. Volet OHV 1992 Proposition de programme 1992-93. Volet Mopti. 1993 Resultats de la campagne 1992-93. Volet OHV. 1993 Proposition de programme 1993-94. Volet OHV 1993 R6sultats de la campagne 1992-93. Volet Mopti 1993 Proposition de programme 1993-94. Volet Mopti. COMITE' NATIONAL REPORTS 1988 Rapport de la commission technique sp6cialisee sur les systimes de production. Report of the farming system research com- mission technique. Internal Reports, Technical Publications and Work Papers. 1987 Robert Chase. Thoughts on the direc- tion of the OHV FSR/E Program. 1987 Curtis Jolly, Alpha M. Maiga, and Millie A. Gadbois. Section III. Preliminary Report of Rapid Reconnaissance Survey: Socio-Eco- nomic Analysis. 1987 Robert Chase. P.R.S.P.R. Trip Report. 7-14 November, 1987 Trip to Dakar and Banjul. 1987 Team. Research Program Implementa- tion, November 87-April 88. 1987 J.C Denis, B. Coulibaly: Informations et Observations sur les Cultures Assocides dans la Zone de l'Operation Haute Vallke. DRSPR September 1987. 1988 B. Coulibaly. Tests en Milieu Paysan: Experiences, Observations et Impressions des Paysans. (Rapport d'une enquete d'valuation, "feed-back" des paysans des zones nord et sud de I'OHV. On farm test- ing: Experiences, observations and feed back from the farmers from the northern project areas. 1988 Boubacar Coulibaly, John Caldwell, Yacouba Traor&: Application des Techinques de Modelation Qualitative pour L'Identification et L'Evaluation des Interven- tions dans un Systame de Production d'une Zone Semi-Aride au Mali. DRSPR, October 1988. 1988 W. Whitney Alexander. DRSPR Com- puter Capabilities: an internal assessment. 1988 DRSPR. Rapport sur les Journdes de R6flexion i Sdlingu. Volet OHV. Report on the project retreat at Sdlingu. 1988 Yacouba Traor6, John Caldwell, Rolf Jensen, Alpha Maiga: L'identification des 59 Yarmning Systems Research and Extension in ali-1986-1994 Domaines de Recherche et de Vulgarisation pour la Fertilization du Mais pluvial au Mali. Present6 au symposium de Fayetteville, Ar- kansas. 1989 W. Whitney Alexander. Observations des Agents de Terrain. Campagne 1988-89. Observations on field agents. 1989 Irma Silva Barbeau and Thomas A Fretz. USAID/SECID/Mali FSR&E Project Partici- pant Training Report 1990 Irma Silva Barbeau. USAID/SECID/ Mali FSR&E Project Participant Training Report. 1990 Bakary Kone and John Caldwell. Test de Conditionnement des Boeufs de Labour en Zone OHV du Mali. 1990 Pierre Rosseau. Trends in the Agricul- tural Sector in Mali. 1990 Caldwell, J.S, Jim McKenna, Haoua T. Sissoko, Anthony K. Yeboah, "Interaction of Farmer Management Level and Applied Nitrogen and Phosphorus on Sorghum/Cow- pea Association in Four Villages in the Op- eration Haute Vallee Region, Mali, West Africa," DRSPR/V, Institut d'Economie Rurale, Ministre de L'Agriculture, Mali. Pre- sented at the American Society of Agronomy Annual Conference, San Antonio, Texas. October 1990. 1990 Kon6, Bakary, Anthony K.Yeboah,, et al., "L'Effet de Fumure de Troupeaux Tran- shumants et de Fertilization Minerale sur le Mil dans une zone Semi-Aride au Mali," DRSPR/V, Institut d'Economie Rurale, Ministre de L'Agriculture, Mali. Presented at American Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension Annual Symposium, East Lansing, Michigan, October 1990. 1990 Caldwell J.S, Haoua T. Sissoko, An- thony K. Yeboah; "Fertilization de l'Arachide comme un Element d'Integration des Femmes dans la Recherche-Systeme dans Trois Vil- lages au Mali," DRSPR/V, Institut d'Economie Rurale, Ministre de L'Agriculture, Mali. Presented at the Americam Association of Farming Systems Research and Extension Annual Symposium, East Lansing, Michigan, October 1990. 1991 Ruth Anne Niles and Irma Silva Barbeau, USAID/SECID/Mali FSR&E Project Participant Training Report. 1991 Anthony K. Yeboah, John S. Caldwell, Makan Fofana. Use of Multiple Classifica- tion Criteria for Identification of Recommen- dation and Research Domains Through Clus- ter Analysis in Central Mali. DRSPR IER/ USAID Bamako. 1991 Makan Fofana: Choix des Villages et Typologie des Unites de Production; Experi- ence DRSPR du Volet OHV, Decembre 1991. 1992 Mopti team. Elements de Reconnais- sance Generale dans les Zones du Seno et du Delta en 5 0me R4gion. DRSPR IER/USAID Bamako. 1992 Theme: Inventaire et Importance des Arbres dans un Village de Recherche du DRSPR/Mopti. 1992 Mme Sissoko Haoua Traord, Anthony K. Yeboah: Prise en Compte des Preoccupa- tions des Femmes dans les Activites de Re- cherche du Volet OHV; Resultats, Difficultes et Perspectives. DRSPR, Mars 1992. 1992 Tagalifi Maiga, Makan Fofana, Anthony Yeboah: Caracterisation Socio-Economique des Units de Production en Zone de l'Office de la Haute Vall e du Niger. Novembre 1992. 1992 Yeboah, Anthony K., Amadou Diarra, Farming Systems Research Project, Research Proposal 1992-1993. DRSPR IER/USAID Bamako. 1992 Yeboah, Anthony K., Amadou Diarra, Farming Systems Research Project, Annual Report 1991-1992. DRSPR IER/USAID Bamako. 1993 Yeboah, Anthony K., Bino Tem6, Farm- ing Systems Research Project, Research Pro- gram 1993-94, DRSPR, IER/USAID, Bamako. 1993 Yeboah, Anthony K., Bino Tm6, Farm- ing Systems Research Project, Annual Report 1992-93, DRSPR, IER/USAID, Bamako. 1993 Irma Silva-Barbeau. The consideration of nutritional needs of children from farm households within the context of the farm- ing systems in Mali. Final Report. Division de Recherche sur les Systemes de Production Rurale (DRSPR). 1993 Volet OHV: Syntheses des Resultats, 1986-1992. DRSPR/Volet OHV July 1993. SHORT TERM CONSULTANCIES REPORTS 1986 Thomas A. Fretz. Student training. Project status and recommendations. 1987 John S. Caldwell. Technical support and training needs assessment. February 4- 15, 1987. 1987 James L. Stallings. Trip Report to Mali for FSR/E Project 688-0232. March 1-16, 1987. 1987 Gustavo Arcia. Trip Report - Farming Systems Research and Extension Project. Agricultural Economic Component. 1989 Gustavo Arcia. Trip report on back- \stop visit to DRSPR. Economic Evaluation and Linear Programming. 2p. 1989 Irma Silva-Barbeau. Report of consultancy to USAID/SECID/MALI FSRE Project. May 8-29, 1989. 1989 Irma Silva-Barbeau. An assessment of the short term training needs of DRSPR and other divisions of IER. 1989 Suchet L. Louis. Animal Science Con- sultant Report. 1989 Charles W. Wendt. Report on Soil and Water Conservation Control Programs at Selected Locations in Mali. September 25- October 6, 1989. 1990 Rolf Jensen. Consultancy Report on Activities from March 12-29, 1990. 1990 Irma Silva-Barbeau. Report of consultancy to USAID/SECID/MALI FSRE Project. May 24-June 11,1990. 1990 James R. McKenna. Evaluation of on farm trials. 1990 W. Whitney Alexander. DRSPR consultancy report. Evaluation of the project computer center. 1991 John Caldwell. Training for the devel- opment of skills in analysis of farmer prac- tices. 1992 Michel C. Bouton. Mission d'appui au projet de recherche sur les systemes de pro- duction rurale et vulgatisation. END OF TOUR REPORTS. 1988 Robert Chase. Chief of Party/Research Manager. 1989 Alex C. Cunard. Agronomist - Chief of Party. 1990 Rolf Jensen. Economist. 1991 John Caldwell, Agronomist. 1991 Glenn Howze, Chief of Party/Research Manager 1992 Hilarion Bruneau, Financial Manage- ment Specialist Other DRSPR but not direct project gener- ated reports 1988 Paul Kleene and Yacouba Kone, Farm counselling as a method for research and de- velopment. Experience in Mali. 1991 Jan Hijkoop, Piet Van Der Poel, and Bocary Kaya, Une Lutte de Longue Haleine. Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER), Bamako et Institut Royal des Tropiques (KIT), Amsterdam, 155p. OTHER RELATED, BUT NOT DRSPR PROJECT GENERATED REPORTS 1981 Emmy Simmons. Budget, expenditure and consumption surveys in developing coun- tries: what, why and how. USAID. 1985 Pierre Rosseau. A case Study-Mali. Results of Agronomic Trials. Training mate- rial, International Fertilizer Development Center. 1987 John C. Day and Marcel P Aillery. Eco- nomic impact of soil and water management technologies: Preliminary Results from a case 1988 Shelly Sundberg, An Overview of the in Mali. Report submitted to USAID/Mali, Agricultural Development Office. March 1988. 60 arning Systems Research a nd Extension in Mali-1986-1994 1991 Curtis M. Dowds. Malian Woodfuels and Vilage Entrepreneur-ship. Project Gemini-USAID, July, 1991. 1992 Purdue University, Niger Applied Ag- ricultural Research Project. Part I: Final Administrative Report. 1992 Purdue University, Niger Applied Ag- ricultural Research Project. Part II: Final Technical Report. OUTSIDE EVALUATION REPORTS 1989 Experience Inc. team. Evaluation of the Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR/E) project. DRAFT. 1989 Experience Inc. team. Evaluation of the Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR/E) project. French version. 1990 Experience Inc. team. Evaluation of the Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR/E) project. English version. 1990 G. Tracy Atwood. ADO USAID, Bamako. Supplementary Comments on Ag- ricultural Research in Mali. PERSONNEL OF THE FSR/E PROGRAM This was the personnel situation at the end of the project. There was turnover in per- sonnel both national and technical assistance over the life of the project. PROJECT DIRECTOR The Department of National Farming Sys- tem Research and Extension is currently headed by Mr. Bino Tm6 who is an econo- mist by profession. OHV VOLET The section below provides a list of Malian Project personnel for the OHV volet. 1. Makan Fofana Volet Coordinator (Agricultural Economist) 2. Diby Diakite Agronomist 3. Mme Sissoko Haoua Agronomist 4. Tagalifi Maiga Agricultural Economist 5. Mme Mariko Oumou Computer Specialist 6. Dioukou Sissoko Agronomist (serves as sociologist) 7. Torade Khib6 Animal Scientist 8. Tahirou Tangar Animal Scientist 9. Mahamadou Soumard Field Research Controller 10 Koni Daou Field Research Controller 11. Moumouni Traore Field Research Controller 12. Sanoussi Coulibaly Field Agent 13. Seydou Dao Field Agent 14. Mamadou Dembele Field Agent 15. Ibrahim Traore Field Agent 16. Boubacar Hafdara Field Agent 17. Cheickna Traore Secretary 18. Ousmane Coulibaly Driver 19. Mme Mariko Aissata Research Assistant 20. Mme Bah Haby Research Assistant 21. Mine Kouyate Sadio Research Assistant 22. Aliou Kouyate Field Research Controller 23. Drissa Diallo Field Agent 24. Sirima Diawara Field Agent 25. Adama Sangar6 Field Agent 26. Aboubacar Kone Field Agent 27. Mamadou Coulibaly Field Agent 28. Habiram Kanout6 Field Agent 29. Yacouba Keita Field Agent 30. Ende Timbin6 Field Agent 31. Matenin Fofana Field Agent 32. Drissa Goita Field Agent 33. Moussa Katilv Office Manager 34. Makan Traor6 Purchasing Agent 35. Kalilou Tigana Computer Specialist 36. Fabou Soumard Accountant 37. Moussa Somboro Accountant 38. Dramane Sidibe Accountant 39. Moussa Camara Accountant 40. Lassina Bagayoko Inventory Clerk 41. Siaka Coulibaly Reproduction Clerk 42. Lassana Sidibv Receptionist 43. Mme Coulibaly Orokya Cashier 44. Daouda Dembele Dispatcher 45. Lassine Camara Driver 46. Moussa Traor6 Driver 47. Mady Kefta Driver 48. Seydou Diallo Driver 49. Nouma Traor6 Driver 50. Moussa Kon6 Driver 51. Ousmane Samake Messenger 52. Moussa Bah Maintenance Chief 53. Ziffau Mounkoro Custodian 54. Chaka Bengaly Custodian 55. N'Tio Coulibaly Guard 56. Cheick Coulibaly Guard 57. Drissa Konv Guard 58. Adama Konare Guard 59. Oyahid Dicko Guard 60. Niamanto Coulibaly Guard 61. Yacouba Yanoug6 Guard 62. Moussa Sangar6 Administrative Assistant Eighteen of the above personnel including the director are paid by the Government of Mali and the rest by the project. MOPTI VOLET The list of personnel for the Mopti branch is as follows: 1.Abou Berth6 Volet Coordinator 2.Mohamadou Abdoul Kadri Agronomist 3.N'Golop6 Kone Animal Scientist 4.Hamadou Malga Agricultural Economist 5.Boutout Ly Sociologist All five are paid by the Government of Mali. In addition the Government of Mali is pro- viding the following personnel: 1.Abdoulaye Sidibe Accountants 2.Moussa Diawara Controller 3.Mamadou Diallo Field Agent 4.Robert Berthv Field Agent 5.Lassine Tour6 Field Agent and the project is providing the following: 1.Tata Sidi Tour4 Research Assistant 2.Mamadou Traore Custodian 3.Mahamadou Keita Computer Specialist 4.Toure Oumou Coulibaly Secreatry 5.Abdoulaye Bore Computer Specialist 6.Youssouf Traor6 Field Agent 7.Belco Keita Field Agent 8.Aly Kouta Field Agent 9.Awa Cisse Field Agent 10.Amadou Ambitigue Watchman 11.Ibrahim Kassambara Watchman 12.Amadou Guindo Watchman 13.Seydou Sanogo Driver 14.Nampe Traore Driver 15.Modibo Doumbia Driver 16.Siaka Bamba Warehouseman TECHNICAL ASSISTANTS 1. Dr. Anthony Yeboah, Economist and Chief of Party 2. Dr. Sauveur Mahotibre, Agronomist, Mopti Volet 61