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Project Special Report
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May 1985

Southern Region Cooperative
Research Project S-168
Annual Report 1983
Warmwater Aquaculture
R. Oneal Smitherman, Chairman
Genetics and Breeding Committee
and
J. Larry Wilson, Chairman
Technical Committee

COOPERATING AGENCIES AND
PRINCIPAL LEADERS
Agricultural Experiment Stations
STATION
Alabama
Arkansas
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi
North Carolina
Puerto Rico
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virgin Islands
REPRESENTATIVE
R.T. Lovell
S.H. Newton
K. Bondari
M. Cremer
J.W Avault, Jr.
R. Reagan
R.G. Hodson
A.S. McGinty
J.W. Foltz
J.L. Wilson
R.R. Stickney
J. Rakocy
Others
Memphis State University
University of Southwestern Louisiana
Southern University
Tennessee Valley Authority
U.S. Department of Agriculture (CSRS)
U.S. Department of Interior (FFES)
Administrative Advisor
B.A. Simco
M. Konikoff
J. Huner
L.L. Behrends
R.O 0. Smitherman
H.K. Dupree
G.A. Buchanan
CO0N TE NT S
Page
PROGRESS OF WORK AND PRINCIPAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS..................... 7
CULTURE SYSTEMS........................................................ 8
WATER QUALITY.......................................................... 18
GENETICS AND BREEDING................................................ 21
AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH ................................................ 26
NUTRITION ............................................................... 31
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ........................ 35
PHYSIOLOGY ................................. ............................ 38
ECONOMICS AND MARKETING ............................................. 40
PLANSFOR 1984................................................... 42
APPENDIX 1. OTHER PARTICIPATING TECHNICAL COMMITEE
MEMBERS ............................................................. 43
APPENDIX 11, PU BLICATIONS .............................................. 44
PRINTED 5/85; 1.5M
All programs and publications of the Southern Cooperative Re-
search program are available to all potential users or recipients with-
out regard to -race, color, religion, sex, age, national origin, or physical
or mental handicap.
PROGRESS OF WORK AND
PRINCIPAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS
The S-168 Technical Committee was organized to provide re-
search information aimed at solving the common goals of warmwater
aquaculturists in the Southern United States and adjacent regions.
Major emphasis of the Technical Committee has been placed on the
sharing of research findings and, where possible, the implementation
of cooperative research projects among the various experiment sta-
tions and other agencies and institutions involved in the S-168 Proj-
ect. In addition, the research plans of each unit 
involved in the
Technical Committee are discussed at annual meetings. Discussions
of future research plans provide a means by which duplication of ef-
fort can be avoided and related research can be coordinated to pro-
vide better use of funds while increasing the amount of useful
information that is derived.
The stated objective of the S-168 Warmwater 
Aquaculture project
is to develop and advance methods required for the rearing, pro-
cessing, and marketing of warmwater aquatic animals with economic
potential. Emphasis is being placed in the disciplines of culture sys-
tems, water quality, aquatic animal health, genetics and breeding,
nutrition, economics and marketing, product development and qual-
ity assurance, technical assistance, and extension education pro-
grams.
In addition to providing research information through the tradi-
tional scientific literature, the S-168 Technical Committee is involved
in the preparation 
of state-of-the-art 
publications 
which will be 
pub-
lished as a part of the Southern Regional Cooperative Research Bul-
letin Series. At the time of this writing, there are bulletins being
prepared on various culture systems, and a previously published bul-
letin, "Nutrition and Feeding of Channel Catfish," is being revised
and updated. Subcommittees assigned the task of preparing addi-
tional bulletins will be formed during the course of the S-168 Project.
The S-168 Project was implemented in October 1981 and is sched-
uled for completion in September 1986. This report covers the ac-
complishments achieved under the project during 1983.
[7]
CULTURE SYSTEMS
Alabama
Mean net production and feed conversion ratio (FCR) for channel
catfish grown in four 0.5- to 1.0-ha watershed ponds at 10,000/ha
were 4,938 kg/ha and 1.81, respectively. Hybrid carp (bighead x sil-
ver) in polyculture at 625/ha produced an additional 1,220 kg/ha,
without affecting yield of catfish. Three-year production of catfish
from an 8.9-ha pond was 49,245 kg (trapping) and 19,397 kg (drain-
ing). Additional yield of hybrid carp and paddlefish was 10,422 kg.
Pond-matured and wild paddlefish females were equally respon-
sive to inducing ovulation by injection; LHRH analog was more ef-
fective than paddlefish pituitary for ovulating females, and 1 million
fry were produced. Food conversion ratios in polyculture ranged
from 1.75 with catfish alone to 1.25 with catfish plus carp plus tilapia.
Pelleted feed improved survival of Macrobrachium rosenbergii lar-
vae 14 percent and growth 17 percent; survival was not affected by
polyculture with tilapia. Growth of Tilapia nilotica was superior to
that of T. aurea in both polyculture and monoculture ponds receiving
swine waste; monoculture yields reached 2,156 kg/ha in 90 days. Sil-
ver carp stocked at 10,000/ha yielded 1,209 kg/ha in 150 days in ponds
receiving treated domestic waste water. Adult T. nilotica gained 56
percent in a tank at 60/m
3 
during 134 days; only nutrients from plank-
ton in water from a catfish pond were available. Incubation of T. au-
rea and T. nilotica in cones and bottles indicated tripled water flow
(0.5 to 1.4 1/minute), improved hatching rate, and allowed increased
egg number. Food habits and morphology of bighead carp, silver
carp, and their reciprocal hybrids were compared. Stomach contents
of the parent species reflected a selectivity based on size of plankter;
morphological characteristics and food habits of hybrids were inter-
mediate to that of parents.
Arkansas
Adult Tilapia aurea were stocked in catfish production ponds to
provide forage to the catfish in the fall. Catfish production in these
ponds was higher than in control ponds, but catfish food conversion
ratios were poorer. It was felt that by late summer the young tilapia
grew large enough to consume catfish feed, and subsequently grew
too large to be consumed by catfish.
Production of adult tilapia in ponds was compared with that in cat-
fish monoculture ponds. Nine 0.1-ha ponds were each stocked with
[8]
1,000 mixed-size channel catfish in April. Three of these ponds were
each stocked with three pairs of adult tilapia on June 1. Three other
ponds were each stocked with six female and three male tilapia on
July 6. The remaining three ponds served as catfish monoculture con-
trols. Catfish in all ponds were fed to satiation up to a limit of 4.5 kg/
pond/day, 6 days a week, with a 32 percent protein floating feed.
Ponds were flushed with well water periodically. All ponds were
seined at monthly intervals and enough larger catfish removed to re-
duce the standing crop to 2,270 kg/ha, based on an estimated 1.6:1
FCR.
The catfish monoculture ponds were harvested on November 9
after feeding had ceased. Production averaged 3,984 kg/ha with an
FCE of 1.56:1.
A 1.6-ha pond was refilled with ground water during June, and two
experiments with caged tilapia and catfish were initiated in July. In
an 11-week study, blue tilapia were either fed to satiation 6 days per
week or allowed to feed by means of demand feeders. Satiation-fed
tilapia exhibited a significantly (P = 0.05) better FCR (1.6), but sig-
nificantly lower weight gain (57 g) than demand-fed fish (2.3 and 98
g, respectively). For all cages, fish survival was high (92-100 percent),
independent of feeding method.
Cages (lm3) were stocked with 200 and 400 channel catfish finger-
lings per cage and fed a 32 percent protein ration to satiation 6 days
per week from July 20 to October 25. Weight gain, FCR, and fish sur-
vival were not significantly affected at final average biomass of 34 and
65 kg/m
3 
attained at the low and high densities, respectively.
Performance of fingerling and stocker size channel catfish fed with
two types of pellets (25 percent protein) or not fed was examined dur-
ing the 1982-83 winter season. Both sizes of fish performed best with
a steam extruded pellet which was stable.
One-year-old bigmouth buffalo and their hybrids with smallmouth
buffalo (BM X SM, SM X BM) reared together during 1982 were sep-
arated and restocked for second year grow-out at 250/ha in polycul-
ture with channel catfish. Hybrid buffalo identification, based upon
external morphology, was about 75 percent accurate for fish of 20 cm
total length.
Three ponds, after 2 years of fish production, were planted with
Centennial variety soybeans in July. Yields averaged 1,956 kg/ha after
131 days, with irrigation added before pod set.
Six ponds, planted with soybeans in 1982, were planted with La-
belle variety rice in May. Red swamp crawfish broodstock were
placed in these ponds during June at 67 kg/ha. Rice yield averaged
4,900 kg/ha (18 percent moisture) after a 141-day growing period.
[9]
Crawfish reproduction occurred in all ponds, which were flooded in
October after rice harvest.
Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) may be commercially produced
under monoculture or polyculture pond systems. Multiple harvests
resulted in increased total yields compared to a single harvest and
also provided fish when needed for mosquito control. Multiple 
har-
vests of mosquitofish significantly affected numbers per kg, 
size dis-
tribution, and sex ratio. Total fish/kg and female to male 
ratio
increased during the production season. Intensively managed 
mono-
culture ponds with multiple harvests yielded 450 
kg/ha. Mosquito-
fish yields in polyculture with channel catfish, bigmouth buffalo, 
and
grass carp are approximately one-half those of monoculture 
systems,
but with an additional production of 2,000 kg/ha from the 
companion
species. Greater mosquitofish yields may be obtained 
in polyculture
systems stocked with catfish over 150 mm, due to greater 
predation
by 50-150 mm size catfish. In aquaria, the average gestation 
period
for mosquitofish was 26 days and brood size was 40 
fry. Females can-
nibalized 73 percent of their brood within 24 hours in 
aquaria.
Mosquitofish survival during 
transportation in tanks was 
accom-
plished by use of pure oxygen introduced at the rate 
of 2 1/minute,
adding 0.2 percent NaCL by weight, and avoiding water 
turbulence.
Twenty-four-hour air shipments at 50 g fish/1 water 
in plastic bags
with oxygen are possible for adult mosquitofish. Mosquitofish 
were
found to be highly efficacious on larvae of Psorphora 
columbiae,
however, little efficacy was noted against Anopheles quadrimacula-
tus in tests conducted in commercial rice fields.
Kentucky
Winter culture trials with rainbow trout were begun in November
1983 in private farm ponds. Twelve thousand trout were 
stocked in
floating cages to examine growth potential of two length groups 
at
two stocking densities.
Louisiana
In crawfish studies, rice, volunteer vegetation, alligatorweed, 
and
their combinations were tested as crawfish forages. Yields 
(kg/ha) of
crawfish were: rice plus alligatorweed, 2,852; rice only, 
2,652; and
rice plus natural vegetation, 2,117. Three studies with 
prawns were
completed: (1) Juvenile prawns were stocked into 18 
ponds at 2,471/
ha. Catfish fry were stocked into prawn ponds at 
98,840/ha and
197,680/ha. Catfish fingerlings were stocked in prawn 
ponds at
[10]
37, 065/ha and 74,130/ha. Catfish were fed daily in all ponds, but not
prawns. Prawns fed on wastes and natural pond organisms. Dis-
solved oxygen levels were significantly (P=.05) lower in polyculture
systems stocked with high densities of catfish. The pH, carbon diox-
ide, total ammonia nitrogen, and nitrite-nitrogen did not attain toxic
levels in any ponds. (2) Juvenile or post-larval prawns were stocked
into replicated ponds at 4,940/ha with catfish fingerlings at 7,410/ha.
Catfish were fed daily. After a 106-day growing season PL's had 89
percent survival and averaged 33 g. Juveniles had 82 percent survival
and averaged 39 g. (3) Four crops-rice, catfish, crawfish, and
prawns-were grown in one plot in one year's time. Prawns stocked
at 6,795/ha had 93 percent survival and averaged 41 g after 122 grow-
ing days.
Eighteen artificial baits were prepared and tested against shad in
commercial ponds. Baits included various combinations of attrac-
tants including catfish meal, catfish protein hydrolysate, catfish oil,
and menhaden meal; the binders were wheat or soya flour; the filler
was bagasse, sand, and rice bran. Overall, the single best bait con-
tained 12 percent catfish meal, 35 percent wheat flour, 27 percent ba-
gasse, and 28 percent sand. This artificial bait caught an average of
470 g of crawfish for each trap set; shad caught 455 g per trap set. Of
the 18 artificial baits, 12 caught an average of over 400 g per trap set.
All baits pelleted easily since only one test bait contained catfish oil.
When baits contained oil up to 15 percent, pelleting was difficult.
The cost of artificial baits (ingredients only considered) ranged from
$0.12 to $0.30 per kg. The cost of shad was $0.33 per kg.
Mississippi
Channel catfish culture research at the Mississippi Agricultural
and Forestry Experiment Station, Delta Branch, Stoneville, Missis-
sippi, has centered on the effects of stocking density and the com-
bination of different size groups of fish on single season fish
production in commercial fish ponds. All studies were conducted in
1.6-ha ponds. Fish were fed to satiation daily with a 32 percent pro-
tein floating fish feed. Dissolved oxygen (DO) was monitored closely
and paddlewheel aerators were used whenever DO decreased to 2
p.p.m.
Single season production results were obtained for: (1) ponds
stocked with fingerling catfish at densities of 10,000, 15,000, or
20,000 fish per hectare, (2) ponds stocked at a density of 15,000 fish
per hectare with either fingerling catfish alone or in combination with
subadult catfish and, (3) ponds stocked at 3,750 fish per hectare with
[11]
Age Group II channel catfish raised during their third summer of
growth.
An increase in stocking density from 10,000 to 20,000 fingerling
fish per hectare increased total production from 5,150 kg/ha to over
7,950 kg/ha and decreased the average fish weight at harvest from
0.59 to 0.45 kg. Feed conversions were 2.0 for all densities with con-
version calculations including feed allotted on a winter feeding
schedule of 1 percent estimated body weight, 3 days per week, from
November 1982 to March 1983. At stocking densities of 15,000 and
20,000 fish per hectare, 25 to 40 percent of the fish stocked did not
reach a harvestable size (0.34 kg) in a single growing season when 15-
cm fingerlings were stocked in the spring.
Ponds stocked with 15,000 fingerling catfish per hectare yielded
5,850 kg/ha compared to 5,145 kg/ha for ponds stocked with finger-
ling and subadult (0.25 kg average weight) catfish. Competition be-
tween size groups for available food, a poorer feed conversion for
larger catfish, or a combination of these or other factors resulted in
an average feed conversion of 2.1 for production 
ponds stocked with
both fingerling and subadult catfish and grown through the entire
growing season. This compared to a 1.6 feed conversion for fish
stocked as a single size group (fingerling) at the same density
Age Group II channel catfish stocked at 3,750 fish per hectare
yielded an average production of 2,745 kg/ha with a 2.2 feed conver-
sion. More than 50 percent of the harvested fish attained a size of 1.4
kg. Voluntary feed consumption expressed as a percent of the esti-
mated standing weight decreased from approximately 1.25 to 0.75
percent over the growing season.
Puerto Rico
The effects of initial size on final size and the competition between
various size groups of all male hybrid tilapia were investigated at the
Lajas Aquaculture Center. Triplicate ponds (0.07 ha) were stocked
with either a single size group or mixed size group of fingerlings at a
rate of 3,986 per hectare. The single size group was composed only
of fish of 11-12 cm total length, while equal numbers of fish of 7-8
(small), 11-12 (medium), and 15-16 cm (large) made up the mixed
group treatment. After 111 days, the average gain per fish for the sin-
gle size group treatment was 286 g, while the small, medium, and
large fish in the mixed size group treatment gained 215, 387, and 292
g, respectively. Growth curves, fish coloration, and condition indi-
cate the "medium-single group" and "large-mixed group" fish con-
sumed less food and/or expended energy on breeding behavior
[12]
during the first and second month, respectively. Such behavior re-
sulted in depressed growth. These initial results indicate stocking
mixed size groups may actually benefit the smaller fish rather than
the larger fish as is the case for most other important cultured fishes.
If this is true with other tilapias as well, stocking a few large males
may improve yields of the other fish.
Production of prawns at 51 larvae/liter resulted in 55 percent sur-
vival to postlarvae. Stocking acclimated postlarvae in water with pH
from 7.5 to 12.0 indicated that successfully higher pH values would
kill the postlarvae. Further experimentation should prove a basis for
predicting when to stock ponds with postlarvae.
Polyculture of 86-day-old Macrobrachium rosenbergii and rice in-
dicated prawns would grow and mate in the rice ponds, but are dif-
ficult to harvest (25 percent capture). Yields of prawns stocked at 700
or 1,400 per hectare were not different.
Queen conchs were reared 
from eggs collected in 
the field. Larvae
were cultured utilizing techniques adapted from bivalve culture by
feeding phytoplankton cultures of Isochrysis, Tetraselmis, and Thal-
assiosira. Larval period varied from 12 to 22 days and length at met-
amorphosis from 1.1 to 1.8 mm. Juveniles were fed macroalgae in
shallow pools initially. and in troughs with flowing water. Maximum
growth rates of 0.4 mm/day were recorded over a 200-day culture pe-
riod.
Wire cages were more effective for holding juvenile spiny lobsters
Panulirus argus than were tire cages. Average percent mortality was
1.8 ? 0.3 percent in wire cages, 26.7 ? 2.5 percent for horizontally
placed tire cages, and 12.5 ? 0.7 percent for vertically placed tire
cages.
Tennessee
Data collections from a study to evaluate polyculture of crayfish
and tilapia indicated no adverse effects on growth when cultured to-
gether at different densities. Mean weight increments for tilapia were
also not significant (P= .05). Behavioral interactions of crayfish, ti-
lapia, and freshwater prawns were predominantly intraspecific; sur-
vival of crustaceans appeared to increase as their densities
decreased. Predation of tilapia on crayfish was not observed; all mor-
talities of prawn and crayfish were attributed to cannibalism subse-
quent to molting. Further analysis of the data from the investigation
of heat production from composting and its use in small-scale aqua-
culture indicated the steel heat exchanger extracted more heat from
the compost than the copper exchanger. The design and fabrication of
[13]
the two heat exchangers were not comparable, thus accounting for
these two metals-functioning differently than anticipated. In addi-
tion, at flow rates of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 1/minute, water in the steel
heat exchanger increased an average of 8.1, 4.5, 3.2, and 3.2 C, re-
spectively, while the increase for copper was 5.9, 3.1, 1.9, and 1.6 C,
respectively.
A study was initiated to compare a commercially prepared fish ra-
tion to bermudagrass pellets (and possibly alfalfa) as the sole diet for
the herbivorous white amur. A comparison of protein composition of
each diet will be made along with the costs per unit production of fish
cultured.
Texas
A 3:1 ration of Penaeus vannaemei to P. stylirostris in 0.1-ha ponds
yielded a mean of 1,968 kg/ha. Of tested salinities, 25 p.p.t. was best
for both species and 5 p.p.t. was the least favorable, especially for P.
stylirostris. Damselfly larvae can be a significant predator of young
shrimp.
Virgin Islands
Production of 397 kg was obtained when T. aurea were stocked at
a rate-of 1,200 in closed recirculating systems, containing 14 m
3 
of
water, and fed for 177 days. Total production was equivalent to 8.4 kg/
1/minute of flow and 30.6 kg/m
3 
of gravel biofilter volume. Total water
and electrical consumption was 1231 and 8.7 kw-hr per kg of net pro-
duction. Seventy-two tomato transplants, consisting of six hydro-
ponic varieties (Vendor, Dombito, Jumbo, Laura, Perfecto, Tropic),
were planted in the biofilters in each of six systems. No significant
differences were obtained for treatments consisting of no nutrient
supplementation and two levels of nutrient supplementation. Poor to-
mato growth occurred as the result of insect damage, early blight,
high ammonia levels, and stem damage (girdling) caused by the ac-
tion of wind and the gravel. Insect damage was eventually controlled
by Orthene (acephate), an organic phosphate that is relatively non-
toxic to fish. The tomato yield per system was 34 kg, of which 37 per-
cent was marketable. Fruit cracking was the major problem. Vendor
produced the highest yields.
T. aurea were stocked in cages at a rate of 400 fish/m
3 
and fed for
145 days either manually twice a day or with demand feeders of 6 kg
capacity Demand feeding produced a significantly higher net yield
(137 kg compared to 119 kg for manual feeding) and a significantly
[14]
lower feed conversion ratio (1.48 compared to 2.05). The demand
feeders were refilled an average of 34 times compared to 285 manual
feedings, which is equivalent to an 88 percent reduction in labor with
the use of demand feeders.
Southern University
Current research involves laboratory studies of burrowing activity,
long-term survival without food, and dietary vegetation preferences
of newly hatched and small juvenile crawfishes, Procambarus acutus
acutus and P. clarkii. Both species eat newly sprouted rice and rye-
grass as well as alligator weed. Alligator weed is normally preferred
over smart weed. Procambarus clarkii readily consumes water prim-
rose but demonstrates no strong preference for it over alligator weed.
Tennessee Valley Authority
Two studies were conducted to evaluate corn stillage from an al-
cohol plant as a fertilizer/feed source for producing tilapia. Study I
revealed that whole stillage fertility rates ranging from 7 to 14
g/m
2
/day (dry matter basis) were sufficient to produce 222 to 228 g
fish/m
2
/day during a 46-day trial. Conversion of stillage dry matter (7
g/m2/day) to fish was 
1.45/1.0. During Study 
II, whole stillage was
screened to produce solid and liquid fractions. At fertility rates of
10.5 g/m
2
/day, net fish production averaged 3.51 and 3.23 g/m/day for
the solid and liquid fractions, respectively. A feed control (Purina
trout chow) yielded 6.3 g/m
2
/day. In the stillage treatments, net fish
production was correlated with net primary production.
Prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), channel catfish, grass carp,
hybrid carp (Aristichthys nobilis x Hypophthalmichthys molitrix),
and tilapia were costocked into four replicate earthen ponds at den-
sities of 20,000/ha, 10,000/ha, 125/ha, 500/ha, and 2,500/ha, respec-
tively. Feed (32 percent catfish chow) was broadcast into the pond
once a day at 1500 hours throughout the 133-day trial. Feeding rate
was increased daily up to a maximum of 65 kg/ha/day. Net production
(range, kg/ha) and survival values 
(range, percent) for the five costock
animals were: prawns (316-533, 72.4-88.5 percent); channel catfish
(1,154-1,719, 79-100 percent); grass carp (94-151, 100-100 percent);
hybrid carp (481-580, 88-100 percent); tilapia (597-745, 92.5-97.5 per-
cent). Total net production (mean ?_ 1SE) was 3,182.2 kg/ha ? 191 kg/
ha. Feed conversion was 1.17/1.0.
Tests were conducted to determine the effectiveness of two types
of chicken manure, chicken litter from broiler operations and liquid
[15]
manure from caged-layer operations, as fertilizers for producing ti-
lapia. The highest rate of chicken litter, 12 g/m/day, produced 86.1 g
tilapia/m
2 
during the 30-day trial. This level of tilapia production did
not differ (P > .05) from a fed control receiving a pelleted 37-percent
protein ration. Fish production increased as fertility rate (broiler lit-
ter) increased from 1.5 g/m2/day to 12 g/m
2
/day. However, tilapia
yield per unit of fertilizer input decreased as fertility rate increased.
Similar trends in fish production resulted in treatments receiving
caged-layer wastes. Net primary production, expressed as g 0j2/2
day, was also monitored in these tests.
Six 1.5 m
3 
round tanks were stocked with 800 rainbow trout that
averaged 45.0 g and 16.5 cm total length. Harvest density 84 days
later was 73.8 kg/m
3
. Fish averaged 145 g and 25 cm total length at
harvest. Growth rate and survival were adequate, but food conver-
sion and condition factor were less than satisfactory. It was concluded
that sublethal levels of gas supersaturation caused chronic stress re-
sulting in depressed performance.
A preliminary study on gas supersaturation involved two raceways
stocked with approximately 10,000, 7-cm channel catfish at 0.23 fish/
m
3
. One raceway received gas supersaturated water (heated ef-
fluent), the other received water passed through a vertical packed
column which removed supersaturated gases. Survival in the de-
gassed raceway was significantly higher.
Approximately 10,000 white x striped bass averaging 4 cm were
stocked in two raceways and two tanks at densities of 0.15 and 0.28
fish/m
3
, respectively. After 93 days, 5,842 fish (80 percent survival)
were harvested from the raceways and averaged 45 g and 15 cm total
length. Tank fish were not harvested, but sampling indicated that
they were twice the average weight of raceway fish; survival and food
conversion were also enhanced in tanks.
A study is currently underway on the winter growth of white x
striped bass in round tanks. Approximately 600 fish estimated at 340
g average are being cultured at temperatures from 12 to 18 C using
a trout diet.
One hundred twenty-six paddlefish averaging 5.2 g and 10.0 cm to-
tal length were polycultured with 5,200 channel catfish fingerlings in
one 17.1 m
3 
raceway.
Fifty-eight paddlefish averaging 103 g and 34 cm total length were
harvested 112 days later after being fed an artificial diet by hand and
automatic feeders. Most mortalities were due to paddlefish sensitiv-
ity to recommended chemicals and treatment levels for channel cat-
fish diseases.
[16]
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Southeastern Fish Cultural
Laboratory)
Gas supersaturation at very low levels has recently been impli-
cated in loss of fish in some hatcheries. Total gas pressure was mon-
itored in the morning and afternoon at the surface and bottom of
warmwater ponds in Marion, Alabama, to determine the extent of gas
saturation under natural conditions. Total gas pressure averaged 110
percent in the morning at the surface of non-aerated ponds and 110
percent in the afternoon in ponds with airlift at the surface and bot-
tom, morning and afternoon, in both aerated and non-aerated ponds.
No evidence of gas bubble disease was found in striped bass stocked
into these ponds as 15-day-old fry and cultured for 42 days.
In other studies, researchers have compared oxytetracycline, Mi-
crotaggants, rare earth elements, and binary-coded wire tags for
marking striped bass. Marking striped bass with oxytetracycline ad-
ministered in the diet has not been effective. The mark cannot be
consistently detected by fluorescence nor have 
reliable extraction and
assay techniques been developed. Microtaggants have been with-
drawn from the market by the 3-M Company and additional research
on tagging striped bass with Microtaggants has been deferred. Rare
earth elements administered in the diet are still under investigation,
but it appears that background levels of rare earth elements vary lo-
cally and will have to be taken into account before this technique can
be recommended. Retention of binary-coded wire tags in the nose of
striped bass has been very poor; however, when placed in the cheek
muscle, tag retention was 100 percent.
[17]
WATER QUALITY
Alabama
Oxygen-transfer rates for four tractor-powered emergency aerators
were: blower-fan aerator, 12.1 kg 02/hour, Crisafulli pump and
sprayer, 12.3 kg 0
2
/hour; Airmaster aerator (centrifugual pump and
sprayer), 21.3 kg 02/hour; paddlewheel aerator, 26.3 kg 0
2
/hour. Times
required for aerators to homogeneously mix salt in a 6,000-m
3 
pond
were: blower-fan aerator, 96 minutes; Crisafulli pump and sprayer, 94
minutes; paddlewheel aerator, 53 minutes; and Airmaster aerator, 38
minutes. The Airmaster aerator and the paddlewheel aerator did not
differ in their abilities to transfer oxygen and circulate pond water (P
> .05); they were both superior to the blower fan aerator and the
Crisafulli pump and sprayer (P > .01).
Propeller-aspirator-pump aerators of 0.38, 1.50, and 2.24 KW
transferred averages of 1.73 to 1.91 kg oxygen/KW-h in standardized
oxygen transfer tests (tap water; 20 C; 0 mg/1 dissolved oxygen) con-
ducted in a shallow basin (1.04 m of water depth). In comparison
tests, spray-type surface aerators transferred 1.34 to 1.41 kg oxygen/
KW-h and a diffuse-air system transferred 1.08 kg oxygen/KW-h.
Ponds at Auburn University, Alabama, stocked with 10,600 chan-
nel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, per hectare that were fed at rates up
to 66 kg feed/hectare per day, received water exchanges totaling 0, 1,
2, or 4 pond volumes between July and September. Although feeding
rate was high enough to impair water quality, concentrations of dis-
solved oxygen, total ammonia nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, and chem-
ical oxygen demand did not differ (P > .05) among treatments, and
fish production was not increased by water exchange (P > .05).
Average depths of 35 ponds were computed by reliable mapping
techniques. Assuming that average depths by mapping were accu-
rate, averages of relative errors by other procedures were: Maximum
depth x 0.4, 12.6 percent; transects, 9 percent; and S-pattern, 5.4
percent. The S-pattern required fewer soundings and was the most
reliable. If mapping is not feasible, 12 to 24 soundings made along an
S-pattern over a pond will provide a suitable value of average depth
for computing pond volume.
Louisiana
Water quality was measured in commercial crawfish ponds planted
with rice or natural vegetation from October 1982 through May 1983.
The pH, nitrate, BOD, total alkalinity, total hardness, ammonia,
[18]
chlorophyll a, total phosphorus, and temperature did not differ
among ponds. The free carbon dioxide, total carbon dioxide, soluble
inorganic phosphorus, and conductivity were greatest in naturally
vegetated ponds. The nitrite, COD, turbidity, total nitrogen, and
dissolved oxygen were highest in rice ponds. Water quality was poor-
est in November, April, and May. Only dissolved oxygen attained
concentrations considered toxic to crawfish. The acute toxicity of am-
monia, nitrite pH, and sulfides to P. clarkii and P. a. acutus are being
determined in laboratory studies.
The insecticide carbofuran was applied at 0.5 kg ai/ha to three,
2.5-ha rice-crawfish plots. Three plots received no carbofuran. Mean
crawfish yield from the six ponds was 2,570 kg/ha (ranges 1,278-4,329
kg/ha). The application of carbofuran resulted in a 942 kg/ha reduc-
tion in crawfish yield (x = 2,100 kg/ha) relative to plots in which no
carbofuran was applied (R = 3,042 kg/ha). Carbofuran should not be
used in rice-crawfish double-cropping systems when crawfish is the
principal crop.
Puerto Rico
Six, 0.12-hectare ponds at the Lajas Aquaculture Center were sam-
pled biweekly between June and December 1983. Water samples
were analyzed for ammonia, nitrate, organic nitrogen, carbon diox-
ide, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and turbidity. Ponds with high
feeding rates had poorer water quality than ponds with identical
stocking rates but lower feeding rates. However, at no time during
monitoring did dissolved oxygen concentrations drop below 2 mg/1 in
any of the ponds. In general, the higher the feeding rate, the greater
the COD (maximum value of 102 mg/1), total ammonia nitrogen, ni-
trite-nitrogen, organic nitrogen, and turbidity
Water budget for June 1 through November 30, 1981, and for June
1 through November 30, 1983, were developed for small experimen-
tal fish ponds at the Lajas Aquaculture Center. During the study, to-
tals in centimeters for inputs of water were: rainfall 74.3 and 51.6, and
regulated additions 52 to 83 and 67 to 130 for 1981 and 1983, respec-
tively. Losses of water in centimeters over the periods were: evapo-
ration 52.1 and 52.5; seepage 77.5 to 108.8 and 79.9 to 130 for the 1981
and 1983 periods, respectively. Seepage, the major variable among
ponds, was the most important factor governing inflows required to
maintain water levels. Seepage loss based on 20 small ponds aver-
aged 0.61 and 0.54 cm/day for 1981 and 1983 periods, respectively.
The decline may be related to the increased soil nitrogen content.
[19]
The effects of wind on dissolved oxygen (DO) levels and soil nitro-
gen levels in ponds'were evaluated over a 2-year period. Ponds with
their deep end to the leeward have a higher DO level at the surface
and at 1-m depth in the morning and early evening than those to the
windward when COD's, stocking, and feeding rates are nearly iden-
tical. The transfer coefficient of oxygen was 27 percent greater in lee-
ward ponds than windward ponds. Preliminary studies on soil N
indicate that the percent increase of soil N is less in leeward ponds
than windward ponds even when nutrient inputs are the same, re-
sulting in slightly higher seepage losses.
[20]
GENETICS AND BREEDING
Alabama
Channel catfish broodstock were readied in 1983 for spawning in
May 1984, and facilities were prepared for experimentation during
June 1984 to June 1985 to determine the heritabilities for feed con-
sumption and feed conversion efficiency in channel catfish and the ge-
netic correlations between these two traits, thus enabling the
definition of the appropriate selective breeding program for these
two traits. A cross-fostering factorial design will be implemented, al-
lowing computation of heritability estimates and partitioning of ad-
ditive, dominance, and material components of variation
Isozyme allele frequencies of 16 largemouth bass populations from
the Mobile Bay drainage and from three other drainages in Alabama
indicated that there was a single stock of bass in the Mobile Bay
drainage which was distinct from stocks in the other watersheds.
Allele frequencies at several biochemical loci were different be-
tween eight channel catfish lines selected for growth rate and their
controls.
Communal evaluation in both monoculture and polyculture
proved valid for catfish genetics research. MK-3 and Kansas select
lines were the fastest growing catfish in a cooperative test of catfish
from Southeastern research institutions. Genotype-environment in-
teractions occurred among blue, channel, and hybrid fingerling cat-
fish stocked at varying rates. As the number of plankton-feeding fish
increased in polyculture ponds, the relative growth rate of two ge-
netic lines of Tilapia nilotica changed (r = -0.84) indicating genotype-
environment interactions.
Preliminary results from crossing various color phenotypes of red-
gold tilapia indicated a multilocus, multiallele gene complex for color
determination.
Attempts to sex reverse red-gold tilapia using 17 oc - methyltestos-
terone at 30 mg/kg of feed for 21 days produced greater than 85 per-
cent males. Growth data indicated early transfer from treatment to
grow-out facilities advantageous to prolonged hormone treatment.
Georgia
Selection responses were compared in four lines of channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus) selected for: (1) large 40-week body weight
(W +), (2) large spawn weight (S ), (3) small 40-week body weight
and large spawn weight (W - S +), and (4) large 40-week body
[21]
weight and small spawn weight (W +S-). Single-trait selection for
40-week body weight was most effective in increasing body weight
and total length 9 and 28 months after selection was made. Joint se-
lection for body weight and spawnweight (W + S -) was not as effec-
tive as selection for body weight alone (W +) on improving growth.
Both lines were, however, more effective in growth improvement
than S+ and W- S + lines. Selection for increased spawn weight
(S + or W- S +) reduced subsequent growth severely In another
study, albino (A) and normally pigmented (N) channel catfish were
compared for spawn characteristics, growth, survival, and dress-out
percentages. N fish were superior to A fish in body weight and total
length when cultured in tanks, ponds, and cages. A x A fish required
11 days longer to spawn and produced smaller egg masses that con-
tained eggs of lighter weight with poorer hatchability than did N x N
fish. The A fish had lower survival rates than did the N fish, but
dress-out percentages were nearly equal. The A fish produced from
N x N parents and reared with their N siblings in the same tank were
superior in growth to a fish produced from A X A parents and reared
with their A siblings. However, N fish reared with the A siblings were
comparable in growth to the N fish from the all-N families.
Louisiana
Channel x blue and channel x white hybrids were produced by
handstripping eggs from females. Fingerlings were grown in ponds
and will be used in future growth studies. Selective breeding exper-
iments with crawfish will concentrate on improvement of economi-
cally important traits. Experiments with freshwater prawns will
estimate heritabilities for growth and body size traits.
Mississippi
Evaluation of the effect of inbreeding on resistance to nitrite tox-
icity was completed. No inbreeding depression was noted, but there
was wide variability in resistance.
North Carolina
Genetic manipulation techniques are being employed to produce
triploid and gynogenic striped bass for growout.
[22]
Puerto Rico
The effects of stunting on the growth of Tilapia nilotica are being
investigated at the Lajas Aquaculture Center. Triplicate cages and
two ponds were stocked with equal numbers of stunted and non-
stunted tilapia fingerlings. The stunted and non-stunted fish were
both from the same parental stocks and were 37 and 14 weeks old,
respectively. Stunting was attained by varying feeding rates and
stocking densities as necessary. In the cages, females averaged 15.8
and 17.9 g, and males 18.3 and 19.7 g for the stunted and non-stunted
groups at stocking, respectively. In the communally stocked 
ponds,
females averaged 11.2 and 12.3 g, and males 27.7 and 30.8 for these
respective groups. Feeding rates during the trials were such to max-
imize growth rates. After 112 days in cages, the females gained 138
and 125 g, and males 170 and 181 g, for the stunted and non-stunted
groups, respectively. After 101 days in ponds, females gained 57 and
64 g, and males 218 and 226 for the stunted and non-stunted groups,
respectively. Growth rates were slightly lower for the stunted fish the
first few weeks, but afterwards no difference was found. Compensa-
tory gain by the stunted group was not observed.
Triplicate plastic pools were stocked separately with either Tilapia
aurea, T. hornorum, T. nilotica, or Taiwanese red tilapia fingerlings
(60 fish/pool) averaging 7.3, 5.7, 8.2, or 7.6 g, respectively. Three
other plastic pools were stocked communally (mixed groups) with
equal numbers of similarly sized fish of the above four groups. Fish
were fed 32 percent protein sinking pellets at an initial rate of 5 per-
cent and decreasing to 3.5 percent total body weight daily divided
into two equal feedings. All the fish were harvested after 68 days.
Gains in weight for separately stocked pools were 62.8, 59.8, 69.8,
and 73.5 g, respectively. Males gained more than females for all
groups in separate and communal cultures; however, a significant
group by sex interaction existed. In separately stocked pools, males
gained 23, 119, 76, and 43 percent more in weight than females for
the above groups, respectively Rankings of gains were the same for
separately and communally stocked pools indicating that communal
rearing may be an efficient means of performance testing tilapias.
Memphis State University
Fertilized eggs of Ctenopharyngodon idella were subjected to
thermal shock and chromosomal analysis was done on gill epithelium
of the fingerlings. Diploid, triploid, and mosaic individuals were
[23]
found. The mosaic fish had cells containing both 48 and 72 chromo-
somes.
Tennessee Valley Authority
Two-year-old Tilapia aurea were stocked into five small nylon ha-
pas (1.2 m x 1.2 m x 2.7 m) at a density of 6 males and 6 females/hapa.
Stocking weight of individual males and females averaged 415 g and
225 g, respectively. Eggs and sac fry (collectively seed) were removed
from the buccal cavity of incubating females at 7- to 
12-day intervals
from July 3 to August 23. During the 50-day trial, 62,900 seed, 
rep-
resenting 78 spawns, were collected from the 30 females. This cor-
responds to a fecundity of 9,300 seed/kg of female broodstock which
is comparable to fecundity of channel catfish.
A strain of red tilapia with cold tolerance traits similar to Tilapia
aurea has been developed through introgressive breeding, i.e., hy-
bridization (female T. aurea x F-1 male red phenotype). Progeny 
of
the F-i backcross, consisting of approximately 50 percent normal 
and
50 percent red phenotype, survived for a greater length of time under
conditions of ambient cooling than pure strains of T. aurea and T.
mossambica (P < .05). There were no differences in cold tolerance
between the normal and red phenotypes of the F-1 backcross popu-
lation (P > .05). Reproductive success in the hybrid cross female T.
aurea x male red tilapia (commercial strain) was low, averaging 52
eggs per female during a 28-day period. In comparison, egg 
produc-
tion in the pure strain of T. aurea (female T. aurea x 
male T. aurea)
and the F-1 backcross (female T. aurea x male F-1 red phenotype)
averaged 251 and 352 eggs per female, respectively
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fish Farming Experimental 
Station)
In the spring of 1982, channel catfish eggs were obtained from
stocks located in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, 
Missis-
sippi, and Missouri. The eggs, were hatched and fry were stocked
and reared in 0.1-ha ponds. During April 1983, fingerlings from 
the
six strains were stocked into 36, 0.1-ha ponds at duplicated 
rates of
500, 750, and 1,000 fish per pond. The fish were managed for maxi-
mum gain and survival during the 150-day feeding 
period. The
strains will be evaluated on growth rates, feed utilization 
efficien-
cies, survivals, and dress-out percentages.
In an experiment to study the inheritance of nonspecific resistance
to bacterial infections, serum complement levels have been estab-
lished for two of the strains in terms of complement concentrations 
in
[24]
the serum; a range of 38 to 125 CH
50 
units/ml has been established.
Individual fish with known levels of complement were challenged
with Edwardsiella ictaluri and there proved to be no relationship be-
tween complement level and resistance to challenge in the two
groups.
[25]
AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH
Alabama
There were 353 fish cases reviewed for diagnosis. Etiologies were:
virus (22); bacteria (127); fungi (3); parasites (71); and miscellaneous
(130). Bacterial drug resistance was 89 percent for sulfa drugs, 7 per-
cent to 19 percent for the tetracyclines, and 7 percent for nitrofurans.
Pathogenicity of several parasites of catfish was determined. Aero-
monas hydrophila and Flexibacter columnaris were the main causes
of disease in several state fish hatcheries. Seven cell lines were
started from five species of fish with passages ranging from grass carp
ovary in passage 10 to golden shiner ovary in passage 28. A Strepto-
coccus isolated from marine fish has been characterized and deter-
mined to be a new species. Largemouth bass immunized against bass
tape worm showed some resistance to establishment of plerocer-
coids. Average length of plerocercoids in immunized bass was half
that of those in non-immunized bass. Cutrine-Plus used at 15 mg/l
for 1 hour eliminated the cilated protozoan Trichodina from channel
catfish. Catfish exposed to 5 mg/l nitrite in a continuous flow tank
were more susceptible to bacterial infection that unexposed controls;
antibody production was lower in exposed fish.
Average antibody titer of channel catfish vaccinated with Edward-
siella ictaluri and held at 12 C had a peak average antibody titer of
1:70 at day 30; by day 60 the average titer had dropped to 1:14. Upon
challenge, the low temperature vaccinated fish receiving 0.6 mg bac-
teria showed 60 percent mortality. The low temperature vaccinated
fish receiving 0.3 mg bacteria had no mortalities, while the controls
suffered a 40 percent mortality rate. The fish held at the high tem-
perature had 80 percent mortality among the vaccinated fish; the
non-vaccinated controls had 100 percent mortality
A severe anemia occurred in cultured channel catfish in Alabama
and Georgia in 1983; apparently the anemia was caused by the feed.
Although the toxic substance in the feed has not been identified, it
was shown that feeds contained no pesticides, heavy metals, hydrox-
ides, or known mycotoxins that could possibly have caused the ane-
mia. Experimental inducement of severe anemia by the feed was
demonstrated in cage-cultured channel catfish during a 4-week
study. Severely anemic fish had hematocrits as low as 2.0 to 5.0, while
the average hematocrit was 25.8 in 37 control fish. Hemoglobin con-
centrations and erythrocyte counts were lower in affected fish than
controls and clotting time of the blood was greater in test fish. Mor-
[26]
tality during the study was 9 percent in the test fish compared to 0.5
percent in the controls.
Two females receiving virus the day of stocking spawned and two
females were successfully handstripped. To date, no virus has been
detected from any of the offspring.
Several of the broodstock had neutralization against 100 TCIDs
0 
of
CCV prior to injection with virus. Fish receiving injections of CCV
did have increased levels of neutralization against 100 TCIDs
5 
over
time.
One group of channel catfish fingerlings from a CCV-positive sus-
pect female and a second group of fingerlings from a CCV-negative
suspect female were injected with CCV and held at 23 C and 30 C,
with and without aeration. Non-injected fish from each group were
held in similar conditions. Clinical signs of CCV disease developed
in all injected groups at 23 C and 30 C and in aerated and non-aer-
ated treatments, but CCV did not develop in non-injected popula-
tions regardless of the environmental conditions. The disease
developed quickly at 30
0
C regardless of DO, where mortality was 98
percent at 5 days, compared to a mortality of 50 percent after 28 days
at 23 C.
A survey of dry prawns and white sardines, white bait, oil sar-
dines, and Lactarius obtained from the Mangalore fish market indi-
cated that Vibrio parahaemolyticus can sometimes be recovered
from dry fishes. However, under experimental conditions, V. para-
haemolyticus in fish did not survive the process of sun-drying and
survival of V. parahaemolyticus smeared on dry fish appeared to be
less than 2 hours.
A study of 56 samples of raw prawns, 50 samples of processed
prawns, and 57 samples of frozen prawns from five prawn processing
factories around Mangalore for the levels of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
revealed that most of these samples carry a load of < 10/g. None of
the samples had counts > 102/g indicating that the prawn processing
factories are able to meet the ICMBF suggested limit of 102 V. par-
ahaemolyticus/g for frozen prawns.
Proteases of Aeromonas spp and Pseudomonas spp isolated from
mackerel were analyzed for hydrolysis of fish muscle. Both organisms
produced good proteolytic activity Aeromonas produced protease
best at pH 7 while Pseudomonas production was more active at pH
5.2. A temperature of 25-30
0
C was most favorable. Approximately
55-65 percent of fish protein was hydrolyzed within 24 hours.
[27]
Louisiana
Procedures for the detoxification of Aeromonas hydrophila pro-
teases and hemolysin were evaluated using 
formalin, glutaraldehyde,
chloroform, and heat. The proteases required a two-step procedure
with formalin and heat to maintain immunogenicity, while the hem-
olysin could be toxoided by heating.
Scanning and transmission electron microscopy indicated that Aci-
neta sp. attaches to the cuticle of crawfish gills by means of an acel-
lular disc of material distinct from that of which the lorica is
constructed. No host response was evident.
Toxicity levels of several chemotherapeutic agents were deter-
mined for freshwater prawns. Macrobrachium rosenbergii 24-hour
LC,, values were 3.8 and 3.2 mg/l for KMn0
4 
using larvae and post-
larval prawns, respectively, 1.0 mg/l for cutrine using larvae, 0.32 for
copper sulfate using post-larvae, and 260 mg/1 for formalin using
post-larvae. Furanace was non-toxic at doses less than 16 mg/l for
both larvae and post-larvae.
A systemic streptococcol infection in cultured bullfrogs in Brazil
was characterized by vecrotizing splenitis and hepatitis with hepatic
and renal hemorrage. A non-hemolytic Group B Streptococcus ap-
peared to be the cause of the lesions and the stimulus for splenic re-
ticulo endothelial hyperplasia. Stress may have played a major factor
in disease development.
South Carolina
Glass eels and elver stages of American eel (Anguilla rostrata)
were examined monthly for parasites. Glass eels (n = 225) harbored
5 species of parasites and elvers (n - 225) 11 species. Myxidium
giardi was the most frequently encountered parasite in glass eels
(43.6 percent) and elvers (60.4 percent). Percent occurrence of M.
giardi was significantly (P < .05) greater in elvers.
Occurrence (percentage) and intensity (parasites/infected eel) of
Trichodina sp. were 10.7 percent and 3.8 for eels and 17.7 percent and
5.0 for elvers. Occurrence and intensity of Trichodina sp. remained
below levels found on wild elvers and elvers treated prophylactically
with 100 mg/1 formalin for 1 hour before stocking ponds. Prophylactic
treatment with formalin appeared to provide some long-term protec-
tion against Trichodina sp.
[28]
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fish Farming Experimental Station)
Fish and Wildlife Service personnel, working with scientists at
universities, state fish and game agencies, and researchers from other
countries often collaborate in the identification and description of
new species
A visceral microsporean, which causes bulging cysts in fathead
minnows, was recently found in hatchery fish from Colorado. It had
been reported only two other times-in feral fish in Ontario and in
Quebec. Histological and electron micrographical studies in collab-
oration with other researchers showed the parasite is a species of
Glugea-it will be named Glugea pimephales. In another coopera-
tive effort an epistylid protozoan that causes grossly visible lesions in
catfish, bluegills, goldfish, and several other fishes has been identified
as Herteropolaria colisarum. This is a new distribution record for
this parasite.
A new species of Sanguinicola, closely related to S. davisi Wales,
has been found in brook trout. This is the first fish hatchery epizootic
of blood reported east of the Rocky Mountains, and the first epizootic
of this type reported in brook trout.
Hyperplasia of the gills of channel catfish cultured in ponds con-
tinues to cause fish losses in Arkansas, Mississippi, and several other
states. This disease is commonly known as "hamburger gill disease."
Tests to determine whether the disease or condition (toxin or toxin
producers) could be transferred to healthy fish put in contact with
soils from ponds in which the pathology was observed, were incon-
clusive. Histopathological studies revealed small sporozoan-like or-
ganisms in the lamellar and filament tissues--other workers consider
this an early state of Henneguya cyst.
Of the several chemicals tested this year, chlorine dioxide, copper
sulfate, and Cutrine? appeared promising for controlling certain dis-
ease organisms. Chlorine dioxide was tested on tilapia infected with
Flexibacter columnaris. This compound at 250 p. p.m. (active ingre-
dient) effectively immobilized the bacterial cells after an exposure of
1 hour. In 24 hours a few viable F. columnaris colonies were observed
on treated fish, however, reduction in the infection level was evident.
An 18-hour static water treatment using 1.5 p.p.m. copper sulfate
(total alkalinity of water -approximately 200 p. p.m.) reduced the lev-
els of the parasite Ambiphyra on the gills of catfish by about 60 per-
cent. Copper sulfate would be suitable for applications requiring only
a reduction in Ambiphrya load.
A single treatment of 3.3 p.p.m. Cutrine on channel catfish, a la-
beled fishery algicide, was as effective in controlling Ichthyophthir-
[29]
ius multifilis as were four, 1. 5-p. p.im. copper sulfate treatments given
on alternate days in static waters. Savings in the quantity of chemi-
cals required and in the application effort would result if additional
tests confirm these studies.
[30]
NUTRITION
Alabama
Channel catfish of mixed sizes (12-220 g) stocked in earthen ponds
were fed 32 or 36 percent protein diets at restricted or satiation rates
for a 6-month growing season. Protein percentage did not influence
growth rate. Growth rate was less for the restricted-fed fish; how-
ever, feed efficiency was also less.
Channel catfish fed ascorbic acid (AA) deficient diets showed lower
natural immune responses, as measured by phagocytosis and serum
complement activity, than those fed 30 mg/kg of AA. Increasing AA
to 60, 150, or 300 mg/kg did not increase immune responses, but in-
creasing to 3,000 mg/kg significantly increased complement activity
as well as survival against infection with Edwardsiella tarda.
Channel catfish with an initial size of 5 g required 30 mg/kg of di-
etary ascorbic acid (AA) to prevent scoliosis and lordosis but 60 mg/
kg for normal growth. Channel catfish beginning at 25 g required not
more than 30 mg/kg for normal growth and bone development. This
indicates that the AA requirement decreases as fish size increases.
Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) were fed diets contain-
ing 12, 8, 4, or 0 percent fish oil. Those fed 8 percent oil gained most,
probably because this amount supplied necessary fatty acids and the
proper balance of energy with other nutrients. The 0 percent oil diet
was probably deficient in essential fatty acids, as indicated by atro-
phied gills. The 12 percent oil diet probably contained too much en-
ergy and suppressed food intake.
A feeding study has been initiated to determine the effects of di-
etary level of metabolizable energy on food consumption, energy and
protein intake, energy and protein gain, and energy and protein ef-
ficiency in small fingerling channel catfish (< g). Subsequent studies
will be conducted with two larger sizes of fish (10 g and 100 g).
Mississippi
Channel catfish fingerlings, grown in aquaria and ponds, were fed
3 levels of vitamin E. Fish fed 33 g of vitamin E/ton of feed had better
feed conversion in ponds and better weight gain and feed conversions
in aquaria.
Requirements for zinc, selenium, and manganese were deter-
mined as: 150 mg Zn/kg diet, 2.25 mg Se/kg diet, and 2.4 mg/Mn/kg
diet.
[31]
Puerto Rico
Male Tilapia nilotica fingerling were raised to harvestable size in
cages by feeding three times a day a pelleted 
feed at 100, 85, 70, 55,
or 40 percent of satiation. Respective average weight gain-food con-
sumption was 349-465, 313-399, 277-329, 233-251, and 173-186.
Weight gain decreased with increasing food restriction, but not in a
linear fashion. The fish fed at 40 percent of satiation gained 24 per-
cent less than the fish fed 55 percent of satiation; these gained 15 per-
cent less than those fed 70 percent of satiation. Although the fish fed
at 40 percent of satiation had the best food conversion ratio, feeding
tilapia in cages below 55 percent of satiation did not improve weight
gain relative to unit of food intake. Fish fed at the same level of sa-
tiation but with access to natural foods gained more than those with-
out access. This occurred regardless of total nutrient input to the
pond. Changing to a less restrictive feeding program (55 percent
changed to 70 percent of satiation) resulted in faster growth relative
to control fish maintained at the less restrictive level. Tilapia appear
to adapt to restricted feeding by increasing gastric capacity and food
utilization. To maximize weight gain while minimizing water quality
problems, it is recommended to feed T. nilotica at 70 and 85 percent
of satiation in ponds and cages, respectively
South Carolina
Digestibilities of purified carbohydrates by blue tilapia (Tilapia
aurea) were determined in laboratory feeding trials using extruded
diets containing 1 percent chromic oxide. Fish were acclimated to
temperatures of 23, 26, and 29 C. A separate study was conducted to
calculate the error associated with fecal leaching from trough-col-
lected feces. Fecal chromic oxide increased 1.35 percent per hour in
the water. Menhaden meal acted as the carbohydrate carrier. Diges-
tibility of fish meal was 69 percent and did not vary with tempera-
ture. Carbohydrate digestibilities were: dextrose, 98 percent;
sucrose, 99 percent; and starch, 100 percent. There were no temper-
ature effects. Cellulose was not digested, and did in fact lower overall
diet digestibility At 23, 26, and 29 C, cellulose digestibility averaged
-15, -17, and -19 percent, respectively.
Texas
Studies to determine the optimum protein to energy ratio for fin-
gerling redfish have been conducted. These studies indicate that the
[32]
protein requirement for fingerling redfish reared in low salinity
water (5 p. p. t.) is 35 percent with an optimum PE ratio of 90-120 mg/
kcal.
A series of studies to evaluate cottonseed products in channel cat-
fish feeds was conducted. Glanded cottonseed meal, fullfat, gland-
less cottonseed flour, and defatted cottonseed flour and meal were
substituted for soybean and peanut meals in catfish diets. The per-
formance of catfish in both aquaria and pond studies indicated that
defatted, glandless cottonseed meal was an adequate protein source
for catfish. Edible portion gossypol levels are currently being deter-
mined. Similar studies with Tilapia aurea indicated that the cotton
proteins were not as suitable as soybean and peanut meal.
Studies on the calcium requirement of T. aurea in calcium-free
water have been conducted. Under these conditions, it was estimated
that the calcium requirement is less than 0.65 percent of the dry
diet. Growth, feed conversion, and bone composition data were used
to make the estimate.
Feeding studies with brood channel catfish have been terminated.
The final study in which the effects of feeding commercial feeds con-
taining either fish meal or meat and bone meal as animal protein
sources has been completed. The data were inconclusive because of
the erratic spawning behavior of the broodfish. This behavior was at-
tributed to the unusual weather conditions which occurred during
the spawning season.
Several studies on the lipid requirements of channel catfish and
blue tilapia were conducted. Growth and food conversion of blue ti-
lapia fed 10 percent lipid diets were significantly better on menhaden
oil than on beef tallow. Performance on catfish oil did not differ sig-
nificantly from that on either menhaden oil or soybean oil. Tilapia
performed well on fat-free diets, and there was little improvement
when diets containing 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 14 percent soybean oil were
compared with a fat-free control diet. Indications from experiments
run with diets containing highly purified fatty acid esters were that
linolenic acid family acids may not be required by blue tilapia and
that linoleic acid family fatty acids may provide essential fatty acid ac-
tivity. Synthesis of oleic acid de novo was indicated in the latter study.
Channel catfish fry maintained on a fat-free diet from first feeding
to an age of 5 months showed de novo synthesis of saturated fatty
acids and oleic acid. After 10 weeks on the fat-free diet, no docosa-
hexaenoic acid could be detected in the fish. High levels of linoleic
acid were once thought to cause growth depression in channel cat-
[33]
fish. When purified linoleic acid was fed to fingerling channel catfish,
good growth was obtained up to a level of 2.5 percent dietary linoleic
inclusion. Higher levels led to poorer growth, but were somewhat
higher than those which might be found in any commercial catfish
feed. Studies on the vitamin C requirements of blue tilapia revealed
that a level of 50 mg/kg of feed will provide protection against pa-
thology in that species. In order to obtain the desired level of ascorbic
acid in finished feeds, however, it is recommended that formulation
include 400 to 500 mg/kg of vitamin C because of its heat labile na-
ture which subjects it to processing losses.
East Carolina University
Studies underway include effects of protein/energy ratios in diets
of eels and striped bass hybrids.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Southeastern Fish Cultural
Laboratory)
Aplastic anemia, also known as white-lip or no-blood disease, was
reported in about 50 cases in Alabama in 1983. Eleven catfish diets
were tested on channel catfish fry and sub-adults under laboratory
conditions. Anemia was not detected in sub-adults, but did develop
in fry maintained in flow-through tanks receiving 20 C well water
when fry were fed 6 of the 11 diets. The incidence of anemia ranged
from 0.16 to 11.1 percent and anemic conditions (hematocrit 11.7 _
5.2 percent) were corrected (hematocrit 28.3 ? 0.7 percent) when
fish were placed on new diets. The time of day when channel catfish
were fed influences body composition. Visceral body fat was signifi-
cantly greater in fish fed a single meal at 1630 hours as compared to
fish fed at 0730 hours. When fish were fed half of their daily ration at
0730 hours and half at 1630 hours, visceral body fat was intermediate
between that of fish fed in the morning and those fed in the after-
noon. Additional work is underway to further explore the fattening
responses of fish as a function of the time of day of feeding and the
season of the year.
[34]
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND QUALITY
ASSURANCE
Alabama
Channel catfish were collected from 12 ponds in Alabama and from
6 ponds in Mississippi from April through October and evaluated for
off-flavors sensorily and instrumentally. Generally, flavor was accept-
able in fish from almost all ponds from April through July. From late
August through September, approximately one-half of the fish from
ponds in both states had unacceptable flavor. The dominant flavors
were subtle muddiness, mustiness, and sewage (or fecal). Feeding or
stocking rates did not seem to affect incidence or intensity of off-fla-
vor. Both geosmin and 2-methyl-isoborneol were found in the
muddy- and musty-flavored fish.
2-methyl-isoborneol, a muddy-flavored compound produced in the
pond environment, has been isolated and identified in muddy-fla-
vored channel catfish from commercial ponds. Occurrence and con-
centration in the fish are less than for geosmin, which has previously
been identified and associated with earthy-musty off-flavor.
Objective and sensory testing for geosmin flavor in channel catfish
agree very well (R
2 
= 0.70, P < .01). Trained judges could detect
geosmin in fish flesh spiked with geosmin as well as in fish from com-
mercial ponds containing approximately 8-10 mg/kg of geosmin,
which is the level considered unacceptable.
Amount of fat in flesh of cultured catfish was related to size and
feeding method in ponds containing multiple-size fish. Fish averag-
ing 1.1 kg weight contained 12.1 percent carcass fat, those averaging
0.5 kg contained 11.2 percent fat, and those averaging 0.23 kg con-
tained 7.9 percent fat if diet-restricted or 9.5 percent fat if fed to sa-
tiation. Feeding method did not influence carcass fat in two larger
groups of fish.
Radiolabeled geosmin (trans-1-20-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol) will
be used to measure rate and mechanisms of absorption of this off-fla-
vor compound by channel catfish from the water or diet. Storage site
of geosmin in tissues of the fish and rate of release will also be meas-
ured. Relationship between concentration in the environment and
fish can be determined. Geosmin, which is not commercially avail-
able, has been synthesized in the laboratory; the present efforts are
to label one of the methyl groups 
with tritium (H3).
[35]
Mississippi
A study of the effects of stocking rate (10,000, 15,000, and 20,000
fish/ha, packing, and storage temperature (-17C and-12C) was com-
pleted. No differences were found with any variable. The fish were
stable and palatable at the end of 12 months of storage.
Puerto Rico
The effects of post-harvest methods on fish quality were evaluated
for tilapia. Harvested tilapia were placed in a water and ice mixture
or water at ambient temperature prior to evisceration. Tilapia in the
water and ice mixture attained a final pH 18 percent lower than the
fish in the water-only treatment. Organoleptic evaluations revealed a
firmer cooked product for the fish that had a lower pH upon storage.
Fish quality was evaluated for tilapia that were raised on either (1)
natural foods alone, (2) a pelleted feed alone fed at 100, 85, 70, 55, or
40 percent of satiation, or (3) natural foods at high or low nutrient in-
put levels in combination with the pelleted diet fed at 40 percent sa-
tiation. The lowest mean body weight per 2-cm length group, lowest
crude protein; lowest body fat, and highest moisture content oc-
curred in fish that fed only on natural foods. Weight per 2-cm length
group increased with increasing food intake. However, the fish that
had access to natural food in the high nutrient ponds in combination
with a feed fed at 40 percent of satiation and the fish fed at 85 percent
of satiation showed no significant differences in deheading, eviscer-
ating, or body composition. Organoleptic evaluations revealed no dif-
ferences related to feed type or storage time.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Catfish processing waste utilization studies were conducted.
Freshly extracted oils from raw offal stored for 6 months at 22 C ex-
hibited no change in free fatty acid (FFA) content. Oils extracted
from various stored offal samples contained FFA values of 93.1 per-
cent after 4 days at 22 C, 21.6 percent after 42 days at 4 C, and 12.4
percent after 72 days at -7 C. Fatty acid composition of these oils
showed only slight variance from fresh-extracted offal oil. Oils ob-
tained by several processing methods (rendering, alcohol extraction,
indigenous liquefaction) had the same oils with the highest FFA con-
tent (5.3 percent). In catfish offal enzyme studies, a heterogeneous
protein fraction was isolated that had approximately a 200-fold
greater specific activity than dry acetone-insoluble equivalent frac-
[36]
tion. Acid proteases were found in all visceral tissues, with the stom-
ach having the highest specific and total activity Significant activities
in the liver and kidneys indicate the offal liquefaction by endogeneous
acid proteases is due to tissue as well as gastric proteases. Processing
studies were continued with catfish offal being liquefied in pilot scale
equipment designed and constructed in New Orleans. On-the-farm
simulation runs were conducted. Processing variables were shown to
alter the amounts of free essential amino acids without changing total
amino acid content. Liquefied catfish protein (LCP) appears to be a
good source of nutrients for inclusion in animal feedstuffs. Addition
of molasses to LCP prevented spoilage at room temperature for over
1 year.
[37]
PHYSIOLOGY
Memphis State University
Bony fish produce only the IgM class of antibody A method is de-
scribed for the isolation and purification of channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus) immunoglobulin M from immune channel catfish serum
using a combination of sodium sulfate precipitation, DEAE-Sepha-
cel anion-exchange chromatography, and Sepharose 6B gel filtration.
Specificity of the purified channel catfish IgM was shown by agglu-
tination testing and by immunoelectrophoresis. This should also be a
feasible method for the purification of IgM from other teleost fish spe-
cies.
The influence of the eyes and pineal gland of locomotor activity
rhythms of channel catfish and the extent to which varying light 
in-
tensity altered these activity rhythms were evaluated. Locomotor ac-
tivity was measured in normal, blinded, pinealectomized, and
pinealectomized-blinded channel catfish exposed to a 12:12 light/
dark photoperiod of decreasing light intensities (7,500, 125, and 0.7
lux). Normal, blinded, and pinealectomized fish exhibited nocturnal
activity patterns which corresponded with the exogenous photope-
riod. Fish without lateral eyes and pineal gland did not entrain to the
photoperiod but had arrhythmic activity patterns. Neither 
treatment
nor light intensity affected total locomotor activity 
Blinding or pine-
alectomy decreased the level of dark-period activity at low light in-
tensities, but the effect of light intensity was not observed in 
normal
and pinealectomized-blinded fish. Normal and blinded 
fish under
constant light or constant dark exhibited arrhythmic activity The pi-
neal gland functions as an extraretinal light receptor in channel 
cat-
fish.
Channel catfish were stressed by close confinement in a net for pe-
riods up to 24 hours. Plasma corticosteriod concentrations increased
from 0.8 ?t 0.3 ug/100 ml (mean ?_ S.E.) to a peak of 5.7 ?_ ug/100
ml after 6 hours, then declined by 24 hours. Leucocrit decreased
during the first 6 hours, owing to a decline in lymphocyte numbers,
then increased by 12 hours. Hematocrit did not vary significantly
during the 24-hour period.
Oral administration of 12-B-estradiol or 17-oc-ethynltestoterone to
sexually undifferentiated channel catfish during the first 21 days after
yolk-sac absorption resulted in the production of 100 percent fe-
males. The androgen was effective at doses of 6 to 600 ug/g of feed
but not at 0.6 ug/g.
[38]
Three types of basophils in the pituitary of channel catfish were
distinguished by location; staining, reaction, 
age of differentiation,
and annual change in size. TSH cells were located primarily in the
dorso-lateral proximal pars distalis, differentiated early, and were
largest in winter. Proximal pars distalis gonadotrophs were only pres-
ent in adult fish, were largest during the spring when the gonads
were developing, and were designated maturational gonadotrophs.
Pars intermedia gonadotrophs differentiated in immature fish, in-
creased in cell size during autumn when gametogenesis occurs, and
were designated gametogenic gonadotrophs.
Levels of plasma corticosteroids and chloride were studied in rain-
bow trout (Salmo gairdneri), lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), and
Atlantic salmon (S. salar) after 6 hours of confinement in a shallow
dipnet. Plasma corticosteroids increased more sharply in rainbow
trout than in the other species during the confinement, and returned
to resting levels more slowly. Plasma chloride levels decreased sig-
nificantly from resting levels in both rainbow trout and Atlantic
salmon confined for 6 hours and had not recovered 12 hours after re-
lease from the dipnet; very little effect was observed in lake trout.
Both plasma corticosteriod and chloride dynamics appear to vary
widely in closely-related species. The differences do not appear to be
related to ease of maintaining the species in captivity.
[39]
ECONOMICS AND MARKETING
Alabama
Food size catfish were stored in four, 0.5-ha holding ponds to allow
year-round marketing. A total of 19,530 kg of catfish was sold at
$2.02/kg in the local live fish market. A total of 14,983 kg was sold at
$1.58/kg to live haulers. Mean daily sale (96 days) at the local live fish
market was 202 kg/day. Other species sold were 5,989 kg of Chinese
carp at $1.03/kg, 322 kg of tilapia at $2.20/kg, and 672 kg of bluegill
at $1.19/kg.
Kentucky
A collaborative trout and catfish market survey with the Kentucky
Department of Agriculture was completed and a publication pre-
pared and distributed.
Major activities in 1983 were as follows: mail and field survey ques-
tionnaires were developed to assess fishing activities and marketing
potential at recreational fish-out operations in Kentucky; assistance
was provided by malrketing specialists from Auburn University Mail
and field surveys of Kentucky fish-out operations were conducted
during the summer months; survey work was completed in Septem-
ber. Two publications are planned from this work: a directory of fish-
out operations in Kentucky and an analysis of the potential of existing
pay lakes as market outlets for Kentucky fish producers.
Mississippi
Cash flow schedules were computed for three farm situations and
three financial situations. Analysis could be tailored for individual
situations with specific costs, prices, and financial situations.
Texas
Gulf killifish (Fundulus grandis) grew in 80 days from 0.2 g to
marketable bait size of 3 g in fertilized ponds, but required 100 to 107
days in ponds receiving 33 percent protein minnow meal. Cost of fer-
tilizer ($195/ha) was less than for food ($301/ha), and labor cost for fer-
tilizing weekly was much less than for feeding daily. Mean harvest
averaged 22,795 fish in fertilized-only ponds and 24,420 in fed-only
ponds. At $0.07 each delivered to bait dealers, they were worth
[40]
$15,956 and $17,094/ha, respectively. Shrimp migration from a once-
through cooling lake over a drop structure into Trinity Bay, Texas, was
monitored for a year. Significantly more shrimp passed over the drop
structure nocturnally than diurnally. Although the surface of the lake
was above high tide level, more shrimp left on ebbing than incoming
tides. An estimated 11 million shrimp passed over the drop structure
during the year which would have had a retail bait value of $935, 000.
[41]
PLANS FOR 1984
The 1984 meeting of the S-168 Technical Committee will be held
during June 18-21 at the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, and at
the University of the Virgin Islands, St. Croix. Sub-committee meet-
ings in each of the subject areas identified for research by the Tech-
nical Committee will address current research activities and
directions for future research. A focus of the 1984 meeting will be on
the need for additional Southern Regional Cooperative Research Bul-
letins in the subject areas of tilapia, freshwater shrimp, crawfish, and
chinese carp. Updating of earlier bulletins from S-83 will be consid-
ered; that for nutrition and feeding of channel catfish is underway and
will be completed during 1984. Continuation of the series of SRCR
Bulletins of aquacultural subject matter is an essential aspect of the
Warmwater Aquaculture project. The bulletin provides the aquacul-
tural community the latest available information on a variety of sub-
jects in a concise form.
[42]
APPENDIX I, OTHER PARTICIPATING
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Agricultural Experiment Stations
ALABAMA
R.Allison
C.E. Boyd
R.A. Dunham
J. M. Grizzle
P. H. Klesius
J.A. Plumb
E.E. Prather
W.A. Rogers
R.O. Smitherman
ARKANSAS
C.J. Haskins
WR. Robinson
E.L. Torrans
LOUISIANA
R.P Romaire
R.L. Thune
W.B. Wolters
MISSISSIPPI
G.R. Ammerman
R.L. Busch
WE. Poe
H.R. Robinette
EAST CAROLINA
M. Gallagher
C.S. Tucker
J.E. Waldrop
R.P. Wilson
NORTH CAROLINA
D.J. Delmont
W.W. Hassler
M.T. Huish
J.H. Kerby
PUERTO RICO
J.M. Kubaryk
SOUTH CAROLINA
A.G. Eversole
TENNESSEE
R.J. Strange
TEXAS
D.H. Lewis
E.H. Robinson
R.K. Strawn
VIRGIN ISLANDS
A. Nair
Other Agencies and Institutions
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
D. Freeman
MEMPHIS STATE UNIVERSITY
M.L. Beck
C.J. Biggers
K.B. Davis
D.D. Ourth
SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY
J. Huner
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY
C.M. Collins
B. Kingsley
U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
T. Brandt
D.C. Greenland
G.I. Hoffman
J.M. Martin
A.J. Mitchell
N.C. Parker
D.L. Tacket
[43]
APPENDIX II, PUBLICATIONS
Alabama
AL-AHMAD, THANI. 1983. Relative effects of feed consumption and feed efficiency
of growth of channel catfish from different genetic backgrounds. Ph.D. disser-
tation, Auburn Univ., Ala. 59 pp.
AREECHON, N. AND J.A. PLUMB. Pathogenesis of Edwardsiella ictaluri in channel
catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. The World Maric. Soc. 1983. In press.
BAKER, D.A. AND R.O. SMITHERMAN. 1983. Immune response of Tilapia aurea ex-
posed to Salmonella typhimurium. Applied and Environmental Microbiology
46(1):28-31.
BAKER, D.A., R.O. SMITHERMAN, AND T.A. MCCASKEY. 1983. Longevity of Sal-
monella typhimurium in Tilapia aurea and water from pools fertilized with swine
waste. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 45(5):1548-1554.
BEHRENDS, L. L. 1983. Evaluation of hatchery techniques for intraspecific and in-
terspecific seed production in four species of tilapia. Ph.D. dissertation, Auburn
Univ., Ala. 83 pp.
BONDARI, K., R.A. DUNHAM, R.O. SMITHERMAN, J.A. JOYCE, AND S. CASTILLO.
1983. Response to bidirectional selection for body weight in blue tilapia. Pages
300-310 in L. Fishelson and Z. Yaron, Compilers, Proceedings International Sym-
posium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
BOYD, C.E. AND D.J. MARTINSON. 1983. Evaluation of propeller-aspirator-pump
aerators. Aquaculture. In press.
DOYLE, K. M. AND C.E. BOYD. 1983. The timing of inorganic fertilization of sunfish
ponds. Aquaculture. In press.
DUNHAM, R.A. AND R.O. SMITHERMAN. 1983. Response to selection and realized
heritability for body weight in three strains of channel catfish, Ictalurus punc-
tatus, grown in earthen ponds. Aquaculture. 33:88-96.
DUNHAM, R.A., R.O. SMITHERMAN, AND C. WEBBER. 1983. Relative tolerance of
channel x blue hybrid and channel catfish to low oxygen concentrations. Progr.
Fish-Cult. 45:55-56.
DUNHAM, R.A., R.O. SMITHERMAN, J.L. HORN, AND T.O. BICE. 1983. Reproduc-
tive performance of crossbred and pure-strain brood stock. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
112:436-440.
DUNHAM, R.A. AND R.O. SMITHERMAN. 1983. Crossbreeding channel catfish for
improvement of body weight in earthen ponds. Growth. 47:97-103.
DUNHAM, R.A., M. BENCHAKAN, R.O. SMITHERMAN, AND J.A. CHAPPELL. 1983.
Correlations among morphometric traits of 11-month-old blue, channel, white,
and hybrid catfishes and the relationship to dressing percentage at 18 months of
age. J. World Mari. Soc. In press.
DUNHAM, R.A. AND R.O. SMITHERMAN. 1983. Ancestry and breeding of catfish in
the United States. Circ. 273. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ., Ala. In press.
GALVAO, ITALO. 1983. Responses of variable size catfish to full-feeding and re-
stricted feeding of diets of two nutrient concentrations in ponds. M.S. thesis, Au-
burn Univ., Ala. 35 pp.
GRIZZLE, J. M. AND P MELIUS. 1983. Causes of papillomas on fish living in chlori-
nated sewage effluent. United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-
6001/53-82-087.
[44]
GRIZZLE, J.M. AND E.H. WILLIAMS, JR. 1983. Dermal fibroma in a redband par-
rotfish, Sparisoma aurofrenatum (Val.). J. Fish Dis. 6:205-209.
HALLERMAN, E.M., R.O. SMITHERMAN, AND R.A. DUNHAM. 1983. Expressions of
enzyme activity in development of Tilapia aurea and T. nilotica. Pages 228-236
in L. Fishelson and Z. Yaron, Compilers, International Symposium on Tilapia in
Aquaculture. Tel Aviv Univ., Tel Aviv, Israel.
HANSON, T.R., R.O. SMITHERMAN, W.L. SHELTON, AND R.A. DUNHAM. 1983.
Growth comparisons of monosex tilapia produced by separation of sexes, hybrid-
ization, and sex-reversal. Pages 564-573 in L. Fishelson and Z. Yaron, 
Compilers,
International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Tel Aviv Univ., Tel Aviv, Is-
rael.
JENSEN, J., R.A. DUNHAM, AND J. FLYNN. 1983. Producing channel catfish finger-
lings. Ala. Coop. Ext. Ser., Auburn Univ. Circ. ANR-327. 22 pp.
LEGRANDE, W, R.A. DUNHAM, AND R.O. SMITHERMAN. 1983. Comparative kar-
yology of three species of North American catfishes. (Siluriformes; Ictaluridade:
Ictalurus) and four of their hybrid combinations. Copeia. In press.
LELANA, I.B. 1983. Sensory and objective measurement of geosmin in channel cat-
fish. M. S. thesis, Auburn Univ., Ala. 39 pp.
LIMSUWAN, C., J.M. GRIZZLE, AND J.A. PLUMB. 1983. Etomidate as an anesthetic
for fish: Its toxicity and efficacy. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 112:544-550.
LIMSUWAN, T. AND R.T. LOVELL. 1983. Determination of crude fat in fish feeds.
Progr. Fish. Cult. In press.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. Ascorbic acid metabolism in fish. Proc., International Sympos-
ium on Ascorbic Acid in Domestic Animals, Copenhagen, Denmark, Sept. 11-
14. In press.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. Advances in nutrition of channel catfish. Proc. 5th Ann. Catfish
Farmers of America Res. Workshop. p. 33-38.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. Feed costs can be reduced in catfish production. Aquaculture
Mag. 9:21-23.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. Status of catfish feeding and nutrition in the U.S. (Parts I, II)
Aquaculture Mag. 9(3):43-44.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. No-blood disease in channel catfish. Aquaculture Mag. 9(3):31.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. Off-flavors in pond-cultured fish. Water Sci. Tech. 15:67-73.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. New off-flavors in pond-cultured channel catfish. Aquaculture
30:329-334.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. Determination of crude fat in fish feeds. Progr. Fish. Cult. In
press.
LOVELL, R.T. 1983. Fattiness in cultured fish. Aquaculture Mag. 9:44-45.
McGEE, M.V AND C.E. BOYD. 1983. Evaluation of the influence of water exchange
in channel catfish ponds. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 112:557-560.
MIRZA, J. 1983. Inducement of sex-reversal in silver carp. Ph.D. dissertation, Au-
burn Univ., Ala. 70 pp.
PAESSUN, M. 1983. Tilapia production in a solar greenhouse utilizing recirculating
systems. M.S. thesis, Auburn Univ., Ala. 64 pp.
PETRILLE, J. AND C.E. BOYD. 1983. Comparisons of oxygen-transfer rates and
water-circulating capabilities of emergency aerators for fish ponds. Aquaculture.
In press.
PLUMB, J.A. 1981. Relationship of water quality and infectious diseases in cultured
channel catfish. Pages 290-303 in Fish Pathogens and Environment in European
Polyculture-Proceedings of an International Seminar, National Fisheries Insti-
tute, Szarvas, Hungary
[45]
PLUMB, J.A., T.E. SCHWEDLER, AND C. LIMSUSWAN. 1983. Experimental anes-
thesia of three species of freshwater fish with etomidate. The Progr. Fish-Cul-
turist, 45:30-33.
SIRAJ, S.S., R.O. SMITHERMAN, S. CASTILLO-GALLUSER, AND R.A. DUNHAM.
1983. Reproductive traits for three year classes of Tilapia nilotica and maternal
effects on their progeny. Pages 208-216 in L. Fishelson and Z. Yaron, Compilers,
International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Tel Aviv Univ., Tel Aviv, Is-
rael.
SMITHERMAN, R.O., R.A. DUNHAM, AND D. TAVE. 1983. Review of catfish breed-
ing research 1969-1981 at Auburn University. Aquaculture. 33:88-96.
SMITHERMAN, R.O., R.A. DUNHAM, T.O. BICE, AND J.L. HORN. 1983. Reproduc-
tive efficiency in the reciprocal pairings between two strains of channel catfish.
Progr. Fish-Cult. In press.
STICKNEY, R. R., et. al. 1983. Nutrient requirements of warmwater fish and shellfish.
National Research Council, National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C. 102
PP.
STURMER, L. N. 1983. Evaluation of the rotifer (Brachionus plicatilus) as food for the
larvae of several important Gulf Coast marine fishes. M. S. thesis, Auburn Univ.,
Ala. 74 pp.
ROGERS, WA., J.A. PLUMB, AND D.A. JEZEK. 1983. Effect of the eye fluke, Di-
ploStomum spathaceum on the growth and survival of channel catfish. Ala. Agri.
Exp. Sta. Highlights of Agricultural Research. 30:20.
THUNE, R. L. AND J.A. PLUMB. 1983. Evaluation ofhyperosmotic infiltration for the
administration of antigen to channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). Aquaculture.
In press.
THUNE, R.L. AND J.A. PLUMB. 1983. Effect of delivery method and antigen prep-
aration on the production of antibodies against Aeromonas hydrophila in channel
catfish. Progr. Fish Cult. 44:53-54.
VENUGOPAL, M.N., KARANASAGAR, INDRANI, AND KARNASAGAR, I. 1983. Survival
of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in dry fishes. J. Food Sci. & Tech. In press.
Arkansas
GREENLAND, D.C., WR. ROBINSON, AND S.H. NEWTON. 1983. Size variation of
ungraded and graded channel catfish reared in cages. Ark. Acad. of Sci. In press.
HASKINS, C.J. AND S.H. NEWTON. 1983. Potential for holding underutilized com-
mercial fish for more profitable sale in "off-season" periods. Proc. Inland Comm.
Fish Assoc., 11:56-58.
ROBINSON, WR., S.H. NEWTON, AND MV. MEISCH. 1983. Mosquitofish produc-
tion in monoculture and polyculture ponds. Ark. Acad. of Sci. In press.
TORRANS, L. 1983. Tilapia. Arkansas aquafarming, Cooperative Extension Service,
Univ. of Ark. Div. of Agri. 1 (1) Oct.-Dec., p 1.
TORRANS, L. 1983. Pond design for polyculture. Arkansas aquafarming, Cooperative
Extension Service, Univ. of Ark. Div. of Agri. 2 (1) Jan.-Mar., p 3. In press.
Georgia
BENDER, J.A. AND K. BONDARI. 1983. Fish culture in the urban environment. Proc.
Urban Fishing Symp. In press.
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