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44
CO0N TE NT S
Page
INTRODUCTION............................................ 3
SITE SELECTION........................................... 3
SITE DEVELOPMENT...................................... 4
HEADQUARTERS........................................... 5
POND CONSTRUCTION..................................... 6
WATER SUPPLY............................................ 8
ACQUISITION OF FISH STOCKS............................... 8
FEEDS AND FEEDING..................................... 9
REPRODUCTION.......................................... 10
PRODUCTION............................................. 12
INDICENEOUS SPECIES................................... 13
Tilapia and Native Fish............................ 13
Heterosis nilotica.................................... 13
MARKETINC.................... .......................... 13
AN ASSESSMENT OF COMMERCIAL FISH
FARMINC IN NIGERIA................................... 14
PUBLISHED MAY 1983-IM
COVER PHOTO. Net of harvestable fish grown in production ponds
at Bendel Tiffany Farms being prepared for market.
Information contained herein is available to all without
regard to race, color, sex, or national origin.
Commercial
Fish Farming Project
in Nigeria
MALCOLM C. JOHNSON*
INTRODUCTION
THE MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RE-
SOURCES of Nigeria's Bendel State (formerly Mid-West State)
contracted Tiffany Industries Americas Corporation (a subsidiary of
Tiffany Industries, Inc., St. Louis, Missouri) to develop and man-
age a large-scale mechanized row crop farm and a commercial fish
farm. Subsequently, the International Center for Aquaculture
(ICA) at Auburn University was subcontracted by Tiffany Indus-
tries Americas Corporation to develop and manage the commercial
fish farm component, 
which became known 
as "Aviara Fish Farm"
of "Bendel Tiffany Farms." The term of the contract with ICA was
April 1, 1974, to December 31, 1979.
Malcolm C. Johnson, ICA Associate Professor of Fisheries, was
assigned project leader. He, along with specialists in land de-
velopment and agriculture, traveled to Nigeria on June 19, 1974, to
make preliminary evaluations of potential sites from which the final
farm sites would be selected.
The project leader returned to ICA in July 1974 to outline a
commercial fish production project plan. This included project
design, specifications and sources of commodities, and budget
preparation. The planning results are reported in detail in "De-
velopment of a Commercial Fish Farm in Mid-Western State,
Nigeria", a 1975 publication by Johnson.
Additional complementary information may be found in the
following internal ICA reports: "Nigerian Fish Farming Project
Report, April 1, 1974, to December 31, 1977," and "Nigerian Fish
Farming Project Report, January 1, 1978, to December 31, 1978."
The project leader traveled with family to Nigeria to establish
residence on June 16, 1975.
SITE SELECTION
Land having potential for a fish farm site was identified between
the village of Aviara in Isoko Division and the Ase River in the 1974
survey. However, during June and July 1975, an effort was made to
locate a site that was accessible by better roads and nearer to an
urban center. The criteria for site selection were (1) relatively
impervious soils; (2) smooth, sloping topography; (3) underlying,
water-bearing sands; (4) good accessibility; and (5) availability of
land that provides adequate area to develop a fish farm.
Soil quality was surveyed in an area of the Niger Delta south of a
line extending east from the town of Sapele, figure 1. The Ase River
formed the eastern boundary of the area surveyed; the Forcados
River, a major Niger River tributary, formed the southern bound-
ary; and the city of Warri was on the western boundary. The site
most nearly conforming to the above criteria, with the exception of
accessibility, was located 1 3/4miles south and east of Aviara Town in
Isoko Local Government Area (formerly Isoko Division).
Aviara is 60 miles east of the nearest commercial town and
*Associate Professor, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures.
FIG. 1. Map showing location of fish farm site in Isoko Local
Government Area.
seaport, Warri, which is reached via a poorly maintained, two-lane
highway. Average travel time was 90 minutes, but it varied with the
season and road condition. Until suitable housing could be con-
structed at the site, the project leader resided in Warri and com-
muted daily.
Aviara is an assemblage of nine villages of one clan in an area of
about 10 square miles. Aviara Town is the home of the king and is
the center of clan affairs. Land under control of the clan is assigned
to families on a progenitorship basis and is subject to removal or
redistribution by the council of chiefs and the king. Once the site
was identified, the clan was advised and in a public meeting voted
to contribute the land to the Bendel State for the development of a
commercial fish farm. Compensation for existing crops was to be
made to each farmer by the Ministry of Agriculture, and the
dispossessed were to further benefit through employment guaran-
tees, increased trade, and other benefits resulting from develop-
ment of commerce. It was agreed that project jobs would first be
offered to qualified clan members, and would only be offered to
outsiders when necessary to obtain qualified workers.
On December 31, 1981, there were 38 fish farm employees,
approximately 32 of whom were recruited locally. Technical people
whose home villages lie outside of Aviara were required to move to
Aviara. The resulting cash flow in the magnitude of 8,000 naira (N)
1
(U.S. $12,000) per month has had an apparent impact on the village
economy. This impact should continue to grow as farm develop-
ment progresses. Additional skilled and unskilled workers will be
required in the future.
The site chosen, figures 2 and 3, was vegetated with tropical rain
forest, except for a few small family plots of cassava, yam, bananas,
and cola nut trees. The dimensions of the site are 1 mile wide by 1.7
miles in length. The total area is 960 acres, with approximately 500
acres targeted for development into fish ponds.
At the highest elevation the soils are a relatively coarse sand
overlain by a thinner layer of sandy loam. The extent of this soil
type is approximately 80 acres. Due to favorable topography and
well drained soils, this area was readily adaptable as a headquarters
site for shops, warehouses, fuel dump, fish holding shed, and
housing. It will also accommodate an airstrip for executive type
aircraft.
This sandy ridge slopes to the southeast into a low swamp of
alluvial clays. The topography is rough, but it is suitable for the
construction of commercial fish ponds of the type found in the
Mississippi River delta of the United States.
Floodwaters from the Niger River inundate this area during
mid-September to mid-November each year. The height of the
flood varies from year to year depending on the rainfall in the upper
Niger valley which extends hundreds of miles into Niger and Mali.
Local rainfall is also a contributing factor. Since 1969, flooding has
not been excessive, perhaps due in part to the stabilizing influence
of the Kaingi Dam on the Niger River, which was completed in that
year.
Official statistics on local floods were not available for past years.
Information was obtained by interviews, by examination of old
watermarks, and from data for other locations in the same river
system made available by Shell Oil Development Company, Ni-
geria Limited.
'Naira: U.S. dollar ratio varied from 1:1.45 to 1:1.88 between June 1974
and December 1981. All costs/prices represent the exchange rate current at
the time of the transaction.
FIG. 2. Enlarged area of site showing location of Aviara Town and
the site for fish farm.
*P
N.'.
. . } ? -,,) , ~~~1 4.. - _ ,. . . o. . . . . . ,. ,,
FIG. 3. Sketch of 960-acre site to be developed into commercial fish
farm.
SITE DEVELOPMENT
Land clearing was scheduled to begin with the advent of the dry
season in January 1976. However, machinery was not available
until February 6, 1976, at which time one D-6 Caterpillar tractor
began operations. Between February 6 and April 15, 1976 (the
beginning of the rainy season), several D-8 caterpillars became
available. Trees were felled on 200 acres of land and piled on 60 to
80 acres in the proposed pond area, of which about 30 acres were
burned. The headquarters site was cleared, piled, raked, burned,
and graded. Land clearing operations were considerably slowed
due to intermittent early rains, and by mid-May were completely
halted for the duration of the rainy season. By late December,
floods had receded and portions of the pond site were dry enough to
begin final clearing, grading, and preparation for pond
construction.
By May 31, 1977, 850 acres had been cleared of trees, 450 acres
burned, 150 acres cleaned of debris, 70 acres prepared and sur-
veyed for pond construction, and 31.6 acres of ponds constructed.
By the end of 1981, approximately 100 additional acres had been
completely prepared for pond construction and a total of 130 acres
of ponds completed and operational.
When the land was acquired, the entire site was covered by
forest except for several small plots that had been hand-cleared and
planted in local crops. A small percentage of the growth was giant
trees with fluted or buttressed bases. These trees had diameters of
8 to 10 feet at ground level and towered well above the canopy of
the forest. No effort was made to identify tree species. Tree height
was not measured; however, the buttress trees towered to 100 feet
or more, and trees of the forest canopy from about 60 to 80 feet,
with diameters at breast height of 1 to 3 feet. Many large vines with
diameters up to 6 or 8 inches entwined themselves through the tops
BENDEL TIFFANY FARMS
AVIARA FISH FARM
BENDEL STATE
960 ACRES
4f
ung sI
S Sand
] Clay
NEWA
POT
of' tirees and throuigh the heavy undercov ei of brush extending to
the ground.
The timbered story immediately belowx the main caniopy wit
comp)osed of'smnaller recruits of the samne species. Thle unlderhruLsh1
wats composed of a var iety of shrulbb\1 plants from knee height to 10,
12, or 15 feet. The root sy stem of'all trees wxas near thle surface.
Track-tx pe cateirpillai tractors with wxhatesvei ty pe blade the\
were equipped wxere used to fell trees. Dirt lblades, root rakes, or
Roitie K/C ti ec cutting ty pe blades sxerie iraised to the ilaxiliuill
travel of' the tiractor's C-frame fir lexveirage and the trees pushed
over, carry ing their shallows ioots wxith them. Buttiress trees we rc
cuit at gi oiind lex el wxith K 1; blades and the stumps dug uip wxith
dirt blades. Hoot rakes and K/B blades wxere then uised to pile thle
trees into xxindross s for buring. It is estimated that piling and
burning inl this imaniiei irequires txxo or three times the iuimbei of'
tractor hours per acre ats felling. WXork-time studies xx crc not mlade
because of enratic fperf'Ormance s of' the pioor
1 
yiaiiitaiiued
Machines.
The project leader considers the abov e desciribed method of
felling tirees to be morec efficienit iii fuorests of'this ty pe than) cuitting
the trees at ground lexvel and then digging the stumps inl a sepalrate
opcratiowi.FThe Rome K/G blade appear s best suited to x mud-
roxx ing, although iroot rakes perform this fuinction wxell. Thbe root
rakec is inilispen silile for sxx cpiullg the( giond( of' simall logs, roots,
and stumps, and for i epiling the biurning xx indrosss.
Any iremainhing debris xxas picked upt bx hand(] collected into
smnall piles, and Iburined. Fimnally, a heavy ground breaking disc xxas
used to lowux the remaining orgaitic miater ial iiito the soil. It xxas
dliscoxvered that more complete burning could lie acco~mplished l it
shor ter time if the felled tirees xxc c lft iul place until their foliage
had( dtried 1befoure xxindrossin g. Followxing this procedure, not olxl
(to the leav es turn to tinder and burmor iinicatlilx after piling,
igniiting the coarserminater ials, buIt the limbs, holes, ald othei
xx odNx m ater ials dix \I better andu fast(,]-. iDumring the dry seaxi ) I
felled green trees could often bie lburned ctimllctclx inl 2 to lxx ck.
HEADQUARTERS
The headquarters5 site is at pleasant sandy
1 
ridge area located xxell
abox c all floonds, at least inl the( moemory of the oldest x illagers. The
short armoi of thle boomerang-shaped ridge parallels the cast xx est
trans-\ il lage iroad for abo~ut 1,500 feet tbc liiingem armi is at iright
angles to the road aim] ins more or less cast and xxext a distance of 1
mile. I leax x clay soils suitable for ponds lie at a losse ci cxationl
xxithinl thle angle of the boomleranig al cont11inu xouthxx ard and(
eastwxaird for 7 to 10 iles 1beyon d the headlquarter s site.
The headquarteri facilities consist of' a large (30 x 160 feet)
fish -holdi iig and hatcbery building, figure 1. 'I'he building is cli
closed at one end xwithI altuiiiin ituii sidi iig. 'I'hi s ci clostimme ho uses the
oficc, the xx et-lab, anjd storage for small hardxx arc and supp)Ilies that
require shelter. It also houses four conceme tanks (3 x :3 x 23 feet)
that arc to be utsed( foi indloor breeding and fr-i lcam ing puirposes
and other specialied hiatchin g anid ii mcobatPii facilities.
The rest of this structure is anl open shed inl wxhinch there are I11
fush holding tanks mecaxuring 4 x :3 x 4.5 feet. Each tanik has anl
indlependent xx atem supply and drain, and at xx alkmx ax along each
side to facilitate fish seinling, tireatiient, size girading, and othei
proceduires.
Tlhe enitimre btuilding is supplied xxater bx steel hines embedded inl
the concrete slab). WXater uif lox hardness is sup)plied f'rom at bore-
hole or xxelI at a rate of S8t) g.p. m The submersible wxell pumuip is
poxxeredl by at 240\ x nt generatori rated at 162 1A A 129 KXX ) poxx ci
output. \N atem is discharged into a .3.000-gallon c ated( xuirge
tank, fr om xxvhere it flowxs lbx grax itx to the( tacilit\ . WXatei lexvel ill
the( tank is con tr(olled b\ an au toinlat it 11nCrcul- rxsxxitch. Thiso sxystemii
xxill also fiuli mush wa ,ter to thle hoiusing. shops, ilud \\oi k area.
FIG. 4. TOP-fish holding and hatchery building; BOTTOM-close-
up showing fish holding tanks in foreground and office in back-
ground.
Thte cons truiction of the fish holding hatcheryx building is that of'
conusen tional pre falbiicated in etal bilmd in gs, xx i ti a tilh concrmiette
stlb floori. A 6,000-squaw -fuiut slab could be ptired inl oime piece inl
one dax b\ consven timonal1 equipmincnt and iiieth uods iii the Uniiitetd
States., W :it onlx one( 1/4-cubic x ai c conucrette mixer ax ailahile at
the project site, it xxas possible to piiur only onje strip 10 feet xxidle
across the .50 fot dimension tf thle buildling perci t\ . TIhis ireqthired
1.5 "coldji nts" iii the( oxveral I Itigt h of' thc stll)i Inl orider to
stirengthen and enhance the integi itx of' the slab), the normal
price'dur i c tifnin iiin dixvid1ual slabs byli sinoth liiitt s xxas iio difi ed.
W~od Iplali ks i tlax uig 2.3 x 2.3 fucel cs ai 1(] suspt'iitled 4.3
inches aboixe theI giond wlxere uased
1 
foir tht- f'm fon the( 7-ii ch thick
slat)i rather than t x 6 inch planks resting edgess ist' uponi thc'
ground. The( 6 x (5 inch mnesh xx irc used toi strengthen thle concrete
sl ab x\-ias ex\tended'c t undler aiil 10 in che s hex u mid the 2 .3 inch liirii
Rt'mnfiircmng bars (3/8-inch)x c'rc tot intii 2 fiiuit leng'iths and ixsertedt
at imtt'xalx uif :3 fee't, 1 foot into the 1'i cslilx pureid't concree thle
tother ftiot tif reinfoirmg bar e'xte'ided iiito the areta to be' poturedc thle
foilloixxmg daxy. Thic f'rc'sll poure'd Concite wa~s thenl alloiwedc to
flduxx liii tlt antI abouiit 6 inches 1 idSnt the 2.3 x 2.5.3inch xx outdem
foirm re'sulting mul a sloped leadinig edge'. \\']hell thc' xx todeni f'oirmn
wxas inciinx edl tt', rexult xxas at lock joint t\ Ile intrifacing oif the' set
don crete xxit h co n crcete pouri o'l i the f uol oItxin g tlax. 'lb txll)m
interfaces were held tightly together by the reinforcing mesh and
bars embedded in each slab.
Concrete holding tanks were constructed on the finished slab.
Holes 5/8 inch in diameter were drilled into the slab at the center-
line of the tank walls at 18-inch intervals. Steel reinforcing bars long
enough to reach just 
short of the 3-foot 
high walls were inserted
vertically into the holes and cemented in place. The tank walls were
formed with prefabricated steel forms into which concrete was
poured.
In addition to the main building, there is a tool shed and work
area for heavy equipment repairs, a fuel depot, a pipe yard, a
60-ton-capacity feed storage silo, and a modern four-bedroom,
air-conditioned house.
POND CONSTRUCTION
In 1977, trees were felled on the larger part of the farm site. One
area of approximately 70 acres at the highest level of suitable pond
soils was selected as the site for constructing the first ponds. This
acreage was then cleared, swept, burned, and thoroughly cleared
of debris as described earlier. When all woody material had been
reduced to ash, tractors equipped with dirt-blades leveled the land
roughly.
A permanent bench-mark was established to provide vertical and
horizontal control for site development. This bench-mark was tied
in to a marker positioned by the Nigerian Agip Oil Co. (N.A.O.C.)
in Aviara Town to provide geographical coordinates for future
cartographical purposes.
The principal soil type in the pond area is alluvial clay streaked
with fine laterite. It lies beneath a sandy loam topsoil that varies
from about 1 to 18 inches in depth. The clay remains slightly moist
and plastic beneath the top-soil mulch, but when exposed to the
sun and air, dries to a dense hard crust. The clay is homogenous to a
depth of about 3 feet. At that depth the laterite becomes gravelly
and more pervious. During construction, efforts were made to
minimize penetration into the gravelly clay. However, where the
gravel was accidentally exposed the seepage rate was not great
enough to be a problem.
An arbitrary baseline 1,600 feet in length was established at the
upper elevation of the clay soil area. From this baseline a grid was
established with deviations determined for 100-foot intervals.
From these data, levees and ponds were positioned and designed
on the basis of economy and ease of construction.
Levee height was designed to provide 2 feet of freeboard when
the highest point in each pond was flooded with 30 inches of water.
It was thought that this height was also adequate to keep out
seasonal Niger River flood water for about a 15-year expectancy.
The side slopes of earthen dams were designed at 3:1 and the
top-width 12 feet. Allowance was made for an estimated 20 percent
shrinkage.
All levees were built by Caterpillar tractors equipped with dirt
blades. The soil was excavated as near to the levee base-line as
possible and pushed into place. To avoid excessive borrow-pit
depth and to maintain good interior drainage, the width of the
borrow areas varied with the amount of fill required at each station
of the levee under construction.
Levee construction proceeded as follows: an estimate was made
of the width of the interior borrow-pit that would be necessary to
yield enough soil to build the levee to the desired height and width
at a given point. The topsoil from this area was then pushed onto
one toe of the levee base, leaving the clay substrate of the borrow-
FIG. 5. Aviara fish farm showing individual ponds and acreages with related facilities.
FUTURE EXPANSION
I I
To
Aviara
housing area
To
Araya
I
LEVEE CONSTRUCTION DETAIL
FIG. 6. TOP-upper-cross-section of dam depicting cut (borrow area) and fill area; 
BOTTOM-lower-cross-secton of dam showing detail of
drain pipe design.
pit exposed. Next, a cut penetrating the exposed clay soil to a depth
of about 1 foot was made between the opposite toe and the center
line, forming a shallow core trench. This soil was deposited with the
previously deposited topsoil. The core trench was necessary to
break up soil stratification and secure a seal of clay to clay. Next,
clay soils in borrow areas on both sides of the levee were used to
complete the levee. At least one-half of each levee was of good clay.
Additional topsoil was mixed with clay in the portion of the levee
above the water line to help stabilize the roadways.
While these precautions were advisable, it may have been
sufficient, given the excellent quality of the clay and the thin layer
of topsoil, to provide a shallow core trench and push soil indis-
criminantly onto the levee site from adjacent areas.
A harvest pit about 1/2 acre in size was excavated at the lowest
point of each pond. Pond bottoms and borrow pits were formed to
slope evenly to the harvest pits. The drainpipe used was schedule
80 (5/8-inch wall), 12-inch PVC pipe with cemented joints. The
drain mechanism was a fabricated steel swivel to which was welded
a 12-inch steel stand-pipe of the exact length to establish the pond
water level when upright. This device was fastened to the PVC
horizontal drain pipe by means of a 12-inch Dresser coupling. Each
pond drains as an independent unit directly into a central drainage
ditch that was constructed to approximate the course of the natural
drainage for the site. This ditch runs east and west thus bisecting
the site. It will drain all of the ponds as well as taking care of
drainage runoff of the headquarters site.
Two adjacent production ponds with one common levee were
constructed in 1977. Measured from center line to center line of the
levees, Pond I was 13.6 acres and Pond II 18.0 acres (Ponds T-1 and
T-2, respectively, on figure 5). The maximum height of fill in Pond I
was 9.2 feet and the minimum 4.5 feet. The total volume of fill for
Pond I was 26,613 cubic yards, which includes all the material in
the levee common to Pond II. Pond I was built with two D-8 and
one D-6 Caterpillar tractors in 14 days. Total D-8 tractor hours was
280, and total D-6 time was 140 hours. At an operating cost of
N50.00 per hour per D-8, and N40.00 per hour per D-6, Pond I
cost N1,876.90 (U.S. $2,871.66) per acre to build. Maximum
height of fill in Pond II was 9.6 feet and the minimum 2.6 feet. The
total volume of fill was 24,866 cubic yards, not including the
common levee which was calculated as fill for Pond I. Pond II was
built in 8 days using two D-8 and one D-6 Caterpillar tractors. Total
D-8 time was 160 hours and total D-6 time was 80 hours. At the
same unit costs as for Pond I, Pond II was constructed for N622.00
(U.S. $951.66) per acre.
The average cost per acre for the two ponds was N 1,249.45 (U.S.
$1,911.66). It should be noted that an almost equal volume of earth
was moved in Pond II as in Pond I, but in about 40 percent less
time. This was the result of training the relatively inexperienced
tractor operators.
The combination of two D-8 and one D-6 caterpillar tractors, one
instrument man. one rod man, two chain men, and two men to
remove roots, stumps, or other material that was missed during
land-clearing is an effective work unit. One instrument man and his
team could service two such tractor units working near each other.
In land formations such as the one under discussion where the
gradient is rather steep, it is often necessary to move soil long
distances from the upper levels to the lower to balance the dirt
budget without having excessive shallows or depths. Dirt scrapers
with an aggregate capacity of 20 to 30 yards pulled in-line behind a
suitable crawler tractor were obtained for this work. Sheeps-foot 
or
other type compaction machinery may also be helpful, however
early construction compaction did not present a problem because
placement of soil by dozer blade and tractor was done properly.
Details of levee construction and drain-pipe installation are
shown in figure 6. It was not necessary to alter this basic design and
all ponds were thus similarly built.
Seven hatchery and nursery ponds were constructed (ponds H-1
to H-7). Four of these ponds were approximately 1 acre each, two
ponds were 2.5 acres each, and one was 6 acres (measurements
from levee center line to levee center line). Due to the higher cost
of building small ponds, a conservative estimate of the costs per
acre for hatchery ponds is N5,000.00 (U.S. $7,500.00) in the
Nigerian situation.
In 1969, the River Niger flooded the present pond site to a
greater depth than in any year in the memory of the oldest villagers
that were interviewed. Since 1969 there has been no flood that has
risen higher than the design height of the first pond levees con-
structed in 1977. Evidence accumulated more recently than 1977
indicates that the 1975 flood would have rested evenly at the tops of
the levees had they been in existence at that time.
In 1978, 1.5 feet was added to the original design height for all
future levees, and plans also were made to raise the old levees by
the same amount. In determining this height, economy of con-
struction was weighted against the risk of flooding over a reasonable
period of years.
BENDEL STATE, NIGERIAAVIARA FISH FARM
2 0 0 1
BORROW 
AREA
I
STAT. 0 + 17.99
3o.o57.5'
WATER SUPPLY
A well had been bored and tested by June 7, 1977. In the Aviara
area, there are about 90 inches of rainfall per year. Pond draining
and filling, however, will occur in the dry season during which
there is practically no rainfall. Water requirements for this oper-
ation will thus be available from wells.
The well is 250 feet deep and has a 13 3/8-inch casing and 52 feet
of 10-inch stainless steel Johnson well screen. Water production is
in excess of 40,000 gallons per hour (about 700-750 g.p.m.). The
test pump was replaced in September 1977 by a 50 h.p. electric
submersible pump. At this time the well became a functional water
supply. The well pump is powered by a 144 KVA (115 KW)
generator driven by a diesel engine, and can supply 100 acres of
ponds with water.
A water supply line was buried to a depth of 20 inches along the
center line of the levees that paralleled the upper (shallow) end of
all ponds. Inlet pipes were provided from the main line so that each
pond could be watered independently. Schedule 40 PVC pipe was
used throughout the pond watering system. Thinner PVC is avail-
able (schedule 20), but it is too fragile and should not be used for
this purpose.
A pressure relief mechanism was incorporated into the water
supply system. A 12-inch steel pipe was welded to a 24-inch steel
pipe in such a way that the entire structure was a telescope shaped
chimney about 15 feet high when resting on the larger pipe and
standing upright. The top of this device was left open to allow the
escape of air and the overflow of water. The well discharges into the
lower 24-inch section of the standpipe. The water then flows under
its own head into the supply lines to the ponds. Care must be taken
to see that water is being discharged into the ponds in great enough
amounts to utilize the entire bore-hole production or the stand pipe
will overflow and waste water.
ACQUISITION OF FISH STOCKS
There have been negligible studies of life habits and suitability
for cultivation of most indigenous west African fishes. The notable
exceptions to this are the Tilapia and Clarias species. The former of
these is considered the most desirable food fish. Clarias (catfish)
cultivation will require additional research before commercial-
scale production is possible in Nigeria. The well known propensity
of the tilapias for over production resulting in large populations of
small fish precluded their initial use in our project because Ni-
gerians prefer large fish. Therefore, it was decided to import the
known and proven technology of mirror carp for commercial
culture.
The Oyo State Ministry of Agriculture has a small, 5-acre fish
culture station in Ibadan. The principal species with which they are
concerned is the mirror carp. This station is fairly well planned and
constructed. Carp culture techniques and probably the original
broodfish were obtained from the Pan Yam Fish Farm near Jos in
Eastern Nigeria. Arrangements were made to secure 200 fingerling
mirror carp from the Ibadan Station. These fish were to be grown to
a large size and suitable age for spawning in a 3-acre pond that had
been built for that purpose on the already cleared row-crop farm
near the village of Agenebode in the northern part of the state.
It was anticipated that by the time land was cleared and spawning
ponds completed at Aviara, a ready stock of brooders would be on
hand. However, almost all of the juvenile brooders were lost to
predation by crocodiles, which are revered by the animist residents
of the Agenebode area and thus uncontrolled. The surviving brood
fish, four in number, were subsequently transferred to Aviara, but
due to lack of isolation ponds, lost their identity when additional
carp were imported. It had been hoped that two strains of common
carp could be kept separated and their growth compared.
Early in 1977, arrangements were made with Auburn University
for their fisheries staff to spawn and rear to a size suitable for air
shipment, specimens of mirror carp, largemouth black bass, chan-
nel catfish, and fathead minnows.
These species were selected for the following reasons: carp as the
most promising commercial species; channel catfish as a possible
supplement to carp for the gourmet or carriage trade; largemouth
bass for biological control in future attempts at raising tilapia; and
fathead minnows as forage for bass and channel catfish brooders.
The last three applications would depend on the development of
dependable methods of spawning bass, catfish, and minnows.
The carp were shipped in sufficient numbers to constitute a
semi-commercial crop when reared to marketable size. From these
carp the foundation brood stock was selected, and the remainder
used for consumer acceptance and marketing studies. The other
species were brought only in sufficient numbers (1,000 each) to
establish a population of brooders. Careful preparations were made
for the safe conduct of these fish from Auburn University to the
Aviara Fish Farm. The fish were packed in heavy-duty styrofoam
packing boxes. The number and weight of fish per bag were based
on 100 percent survival for 48 hours in pre-shipment trials at
Auburn University. Due to the uncertainty of the fate of air freight
in some international airports, the fish were transported by ac-
companied luggage. A large number of styrofoam boxes were
involved (about 50), so two Auburn University personnel were
assigned as couriers.
The proper import permits were obtained from the Nigerian
Federal Department of Fisheries. Nigerian customs and quar-
antine officials were enlisted to expedite the removal and clearance
of the couriers, their baggage, and the live fish at planeside.
According to plan, the fish were to be transferred to two char-
tered twin-engine aircraft, flown to Warri, off-loaded either onto a
flatbed truck still in their own containers or, depending on their
condition, released to swim freely in a tank on a conventional
live-fish transport truck. Either way, the final leg of their journey
would be overland by truck from Warri to Aviara. Total scheduled
time enroute from Auburn University was to be less than 48 hours.
Departure from Auburn was at 6 a.m., August 2, 1977.
Due to mechanical difficulties, the flight arrived in Lagos about 3
hours late. This was past the final legal take-off time for Warri
bound aircraft. The fish, still in their boxes, were held overnight in
Lagos in an air-conditioned workshop. The following morning,
one-half of the fish, still in boxes, were flown to Warri by a
chartered aircraft; the fish in the remaining boxes were released
into a live-fish transport tank on a truck that had been dispatched to
Lagos as back-up in case of just such an emergency. The air-lifted
fish arrived in Warri at 8 a.m., August 4. They were left in their
containers, transferred to a flat-bed truck, transported to Aviara,
gradually acclimated to the pond water conditions, and released by
12 noon, August 4, 1977. These fish were in transit from Auburn 56
hours.
The remaining fish left Lagos by truck in a live tank at 8 a.m.,
August 4. They arrived in Warri at 8 p.m. the same day. One
hundred and ten-volt agitators were substituted for the 12-volt
ones used in transit and the fish held overnight in Warri. By 11
a.m., August 5, these fish had been transported, tempered, and
released in the pond at Aviara. The fish had been in transit from
Auburn about 75 hours. This latter group of fish was much stronger
when released than those that were airlifted in plastic bags, despite
the fact that their total time enroute was approximately 20 hours
longer. This emphasizes the need for properly designed transport
units and the construction of a good live-fish holding and receiving
facility prior to handling fish for any purpose at a new station. The
existing one at Aviara had not yet been constructed at that time.
Although fish in some boxes suffered 100 percent mortality,
overall mortality did not seem excessive in view of the unex-
pectedly long time in transit. Approximately 60 percent of carp, 75
percent of largemouth bass, 40 percent of channel catfish, and 95
percent of fathead minnows survived the trip. All survivors were
released into an 18-acre pond partially filled with rainwater.
While still in the United States, the carp fingerlings had been
found to be infested with Lernea sp. They were treated con-
ventionally for this parasite while being held for shipment. No
parasite, nor symptoms of their development, has been observed
during the 5 years the fish have remained in Nigeria.
Samples were taken of the imported fish with seines at irregular
intervals. Samples were examined for rate of growth and symptoms
of parasites or diseases.
Both the largemouth bass and the channel catfish grew at an
extraordinary rate. The catfish weighed about 6 pounds each and
the bass about 3 pounds each at the end of 18 months. No attempts
were made to induce spawning in either species. As new ponds
became available, brood stock were isolated and furnished nesting
opportunities that are conventional in U.S. hatcheries. There was
no reproduction and most of both species have since succumbed to
predation, theft, or natural mortality. Fathead minnows were not
seen again after the day of their release, although they were strong
when released.
FEEDS AND FEEDING
Livestock Feeds (Nig. Ltd.), a subsidiary of Pfizer Phar-
maceutical Company, has a modern mill in Lagos and another in
Aba. This farm agreed that a feed formulated by Dr. R.T. Lovell of
Auburn University for carp at different levels of cultivation was to
be supplied by them at our request. This arrangement has proven
almost totally unsatisfactory. Even though fish feed orders were
made months in advance and on a scheduled basis, the Aviara farm
was without feed at times for periods of 2 to 3 months. There are no
other commercial feed mills in Nigeria with feed pelleting capa-
bilities with the exception of a small capacity blending and pelleting
plant operated by the Nigerian Institute of Oceanography and
Marine Research.
The lack of in-country infrastructure for the production of feeds
compounded by difficulty in securing parts, supplies, and other
commodities is the major impediment to development of com-
mercial aquaculture in Nigeria.
Given a dependable flow of manufactured feed, there are certain
other considerations. Due to a domestic deficit in the production of
raw materials, embargoes, import quotas, and punitive duties on
many raw materials, the Nigerian economy is greatly inflated. As of
February 15, 1982, Pfizer quoted over N600.00 (U.S. $900.00) per
metric ton for the "intensive culture" feed formulation. The form-
ulations presented in the table contained primarily whole roasted
soybeans (ground), which were assumed to be available at mod-
erate cost for use in fish feeds. Assuming a 2:1 conversion factor, the
cost of feed alone per pound of whole fish flesh would be NO.54
(U.S. $0.81).
If other production costs were added to the cost of feed, the
product would be priced beyond the purchasing power of the
Nigerian market. It was apparent that acceptable lower-cost feeds
must be utilized even at a per acre production sacrifice to lower the
price of fish in the market. Life Flour Mills, a miller of white wheat
flour, is located in Sapele, midway between Benin City and Warri.
Wheat bran, a by-product of their milling process, is pelleted into
3/8-inch pellets for export. This material was made available to
Bendel Tiffany Farms for N70.00 (U.S. $119.00) per metric ton.
The wheat bran and the Pfizer concentrate, when available, were
blended on-farm in a ratio of 3:1 as the basic ration for fish being
grown for market. Though satisfactory data were not obtained
because of the irregular availability of the concentrate, this mixture
appeared to be an adequate diet for carp. The costs per pound of
whole fish flesh, assuming a 2:1 conversion ratio, would then
approximate NO.18 (U.S. $0.27). The daily rate of feeding was
based on estimated numbers of fish, estimated biomass per acre,
and periodic observations of rate of growth, general appearance,
and feeding activity.
There are two breweries in Benin City. The brewers by-products
are discharged into natural drainage channels in a semi-solid state.
No attempt is made to process or utilize this material for com-
mercial purposes. It has been offered to the Bendel Tiffany Farms
for the price of hauling. In the semi-solid condition, brewer's
by-product would probably be utilized more as an organic fertilizer
rather than a feed. The high content of vitamin B complexes and
yeasts would, however, enhance its value as a feed if provided in a
consumable form.
At one time, Nigeria was the world's largest producer of palm nut
oil. Production is declining, possibly because of the migration of
farm workers to the developing industrial areas. However, there is
a large volume of residue from the oil extraction process that is
largely exported to be used in the manufacture of animal feed,
rather than utilized in Nigeria. This material is available locally
wherever palm oil press facilities exist. One is in Warri. Production
is seasonal and relatively small. Local prices have not been fixed,
nor have available quantities been projected. Protein content is
reported to be 18 percent. The Warri plant, when operating, dries
and pellets this material in 1/4-inch pellets for export. Its value as a
fish feed should be investigated.
A project owned and operated feed mill is to be constructed at
the Bendel Tiffany Farms, Agenebode grain farm, to utilize farm-
grown grains as fish food. Other locally available ingredients, such
as wheat bran, palm kernel meal, and brewers by-products, may
prove to be nutritious and economical additions or substitutes for
these grains.
With the exception of wheat bran pellets and chicken manure,
which is available for the price of hauling, none of the locally
produced agricultural by-products has yet been utilized by the fish
farm.
FORMULA FOR FEEDS FOR FISH
Extensive Intensive Cage
Ingredient pond culture, pond culture culture
25% protein 30% protein 32% protein
Pct. Pct. Pct.
Ground roasted
soybeans ................. 60 60 55
Grain rice, corn,
or sorghum............... . 28 20 20.5
Rice bran, wheat bran,
or other fibrous
ingredient ................ 8 8 8
Bone meal or dicalcium
phosphate................ 2 or 1.5 1 or .75 1 or .75
Binder..................... 2 2 2
Fish meal.................. -- 8.5 13
Fish vitamin mix ............ . -- .5 .75
REPRODUCTION
13N Jiliit 1978, tile small fiiit~t'rliiii.s that had b~eeimported)0 tt'( om
the Un. ite t 'ates inl 1977 I iCa ca'hed anl ax ciage sit' iii 3 [ol~l Ids
M ilt couild beit exp)res sed from som ie ofithe males, ainit thet ab domi iens
of'soi e 11(11 idutaix xerce dlisteCndiedl to it greatei e xte ut ti all o tllcers
tihese xxere tiloligit to he eit'iilits. ()il tis basis, 100 iiidixidtiais
con sidieried to lit fembales wxerte placedil in 1 -aCre ponid andit 100 fis~h
saimt size. Tis sexing p~rocess \\,as reasonaly acciii att' buit as
sexutal mi aturiatin adxvaincud the Ic iiiales couid ble liii)re easily
iden t ified( to the poi int that tile separ atioin of tihe sexe appr~lloachied
100 peircent dee raex Tile tf i/ti eonceuntrate form ulation x\\as
ai 1ili1)11l ill siliall quoan t ities an\itx s i eser xed ats at rat ion fbOr tile
Attempifts at spaxs ilng fishi xxcr ('t'egliil inl late Ma\ 1978. At tilis
tilli C t'e b roo0de'rs xxere apprima l t elx 12 mrinlis oild. A niiuiiber of
femlales andt males xx ere illjectedi wxith (fried xwhlet flit iitai s aiid
relfeastd til iii acr ele 11(. F ild gi asses 5oil the pond~ b aink s ha been iu'i
aiioxwedt to girowx for simx ihig siibstrate, anid tilt ponds xxureC
flooldcd toit a pthf~ that ('05 i itl thetse grasses jist pr ior to intil)
hecim ei t s taiblished. Die sel oii xxits spre ad il thit xii rf ae ofthe
at' thouilght tto lie esseintial tio tcarp fix duriing thie polst ilii al stage.
Iijtectiiin iifa soliititii iifpo\ce c~stitt airp pitliltir- aintd sterile
xxvatt'i was iidtt at thlt ratt ': 3 iiligirams pet~ ft'niaiit ill tit' latte
ex tlliilg. Thei fioxwin~g ilion ilili4 this wxas iep'at'ti \t this tille,
be hst'qiit'iit sx iil at'ilf'mls at ti til anitiltl'\ \x t'i t' \ itt ell
ill tilt fpond~s anit \\xatt'liii'i xxithli liii flit s0 knoxwlt'tge' of sflawn-1
iilg lcitl r oul(f' t'l'[l wetrt' poistt'dl as llst'! 5 ti . 'T'e foiliix ing
hadt pi ito Petacte Corps t'xpt'ieitiie xx itli m~irrori carp~ ili Net'fl. Tilis
xxoirkt'i ieptedtt the plroced'ulre detstcribet't ais c st's ti al tiimes xxithl
simiilar rt'siilts. He also did chict'li ainal\ sis of' thit pillt water
xx ii hiIIatd beent' obltainiitdt from ii thit 250-fiitt-ltt'f xxeill. lit f'oundt
tbthe fi'll w as appiroximia~tely .0 anld that thie hiartdness ap)
W till tn thirotigh retpt'atetd t rials that relatil us ma xiit lliiolits of'i
xxas ilt'ttssar\ to make' oilt' ori miorle additioial applictitions. Afteita
ft'x (lit\ s, thie Pl usuilix stailizelAd at 6.5 to 7 .5. 1 lai tiutss ill-
tirtast't to at least a tftiantitN imeasuirabde wxithl a hasic fitetd type
I Lidh kit, lislialix approa'inig :30) p p il. Friom1 this tdate firxx art
l I aiit ilarilltss xxt'i t' i0iliitl t't ill li Ptonds ii a rtgiiiar basis aiitl
at cotiltillil pitocess ill tilt fprodulictioni polills.
eussf IIf ha~tchlinlg of' carp fix irtsiulte't aiid 1iltiiiiatt'ix 6it) adsvanedt
finlli ii Igs w5t-'rt' 111tailld MotI Ist t'ggs, 111155 cr txI'II'eIl tholst' frini
tlilN spawn f ha apeae ilitixid t'.e o '1b-vla
pl trc oft''thits relitf' ,rchasf iiotis wer xspxeit diiiscusix g lt'te
FIG.7. EFTharvstig fsh fngelins frm "ishseed pod; IG lcting figeruling \ fih from e co reteodin ank rio r to
thur tihe oxlmiiii 'i'xif at'ih's excet foti it f5111* ill'l iii Ictel
stocking grow out ponds.
~l
hapa. Abundant quantities of fine, dried grass stems were placed in
the hapas as substrate for the adhesive carp eggs.
This procedure resulted in heavier spawns of viable eggs, al-
though all of the eggs in some spawns were still infertile. Some
hatches were excellent both in the hapas and in glass aquaria to
which some of the grass bearing eggs were transferred. The aquaria
contained water from the spawning ponds. The fry that could be
easily observed in the aquaria were vigorous, and remained so for
several days until they were tempered with pond water and re-
leased in that pond.
The survival of the fry in ponds was poor. What at first appeared
to be large numbers of 0.5-inch fry became progessively fewer until
the survivors reached approximately 1.5 inches in length, at which
time mortality then seemed to cease.
A total of 13,000 fingerlings representing the F-1 generation of
Aviara carp was produced in 1978. Although the results of attempts
to produce fingerling carp were poor, confidence remained that
this problem was a temporary one that could be overcome with well
planned procedures by specialists in a position to apply full time
efforts utilizing well maintained brood fish and appropriate
facilities.
The same procedures of spawning the carp were followed in 1979
and 1980, but with increased success. Production of 4- to 6-inch
fingerlings totaled 49,000 in 1979 and 78,000 in 1980.
The frog and tadpole populations in the breeding ponds were
negligible. Air breathing insects were controlled by diesel oil
floated on the surface, or by selective insecticides when they were
available. There were no water snakes observed. There was only
minor predation resulting from fish eating birds preying on the
larger fingerlings and stocker fish up to 1/2 pound. Poor survival of
the fry and small fingerlings in 1978, 1979, and 1980 remains a
mystery.
By early 1981, four additional spawning ponds of approximately 2
acres each had been constructed (I-series); these and two of 17.1
acres each were used during the 1981 spawning season. On Feb-
ruary 10, 1982, 30,000 4-inch fish spawned in 1981 were captured
from one of these ponds by seining only the four corners with a
50-foot-long net. The fish were transferred to a production pond to
grow to a marketable size, figure 7. This pond, therefore, was only
partially harvested. Previous samples of all of the reproduction
ponds indicated that this pond contained the smallest number of
fingerlings per unit area.
The total pond area devoted in 1981 to spawning and rearing
fingerlings was 8.4 acres. No fingerlings had been removed from
any of the other ponds as of March 1, 1982. On the basis of the easy
removal of the 30,000 fish mentioned above, sampling judgement,
and experience, it was estimated that the 1981 crop was approxi-
mately 250,000 4-inch fingerling carp as of February 10, 1982.
Possible reasons for increased success in spawning, hatching,
and fry survival are listed below:
1. Adjusting the pH and hardness of the water within the limits
prescribed for the culture of most warmwater fishes.
2. Improved timing in the flooding and fertilization of the hatch-
ery ponds to ensure an appropriate level of food production for the
fry.
3. The use of degradable and selective insecticides and diesel
fuel to eliminate predators.
4. The use of aged brood fish, which had become increasingly
adapted over time to pond conditions.
5. The use of brood fish that had fully matured sexually.
6. Postponing spawning until about September 1, which had
been the most successful time in previous trials.
7. Increased staff experience.
The foregoing statements are largely speculative, based on the
observations of the Project Leader.
The mirror carp is a notoriously poor spawner with low fry
survival in equatorial zones. Although this fish spawns and hatches
freely in the United States and other countries of similar latitudes,
survival of the young is relatively low compared to other cyprinids
indigenous to those areas. This is compensated for by production of
large numbers of fry. The problem then becomes one of producing
large numbers of eggs that are viable. The probability of this
occurring is enhanced if the following conditions are provided:
proper water quality and temperature, natural food organisms,
conditioned broodfish, and timing of natural ovulation using aged
females that are sexually mature. Hormone injections can be
utilized to regulate ovulation within certain limits. De-
chorionization, jar-hatching, and tank rearing of fry indoors may be
an improvement on the use of hapas and straw substrates for the
adherent eggs.
11
PRODUCTION
In 1977, small mirror carp fingerings were brought in by air froml
the United States. The nmolber of fishi that survisved after release
into anl 18-acre pond is unknown; iv seser, fish did survisve in
sulficienlt numibers to prosvide anl adequate stock Of' f6Lundation
brooders wvhen they reached aboult :3 
1
Olnds asverage sseight. in
addition, there were enough suis iors to conduct preliminary
consumier acceptance studies and to test the stabijlity of the market
in the fice of a relatisvely high price.
Except for roughly 200 fish sorted by\ sex and raised in separate
1ponds1 as broodlers, all SUrs isors w5ere reaired in one 18-acre p)ond.
These fish sserc fed clu at a rate svariousls estimated to be
betsween 0.01 and 0.03 of the total biomnass, dlependling onl rate of
grossth and condition of the fishi. Biomass ssas estimated froml
assumed survisval and periodic sweight sampluiig. Phy sical condition
ssas noted at the samec time.
T'o as nid iiscalCUlatioln of' fered requtireimen ts clue to error in
estimating surs is al, altoiiiatic feedeirs made fromi oil di inns swere
p~lac'ed at intersvals around the pond. The fish fed readily f'roiul the
feeders and the assumiption ssas that tfile\, consuiied the prpe
amiunolt required for growvth.
No mecaningful girosvth rates, food consversion rates, or per acre
production rates ssere ob~tained due to unusual circumstances: (1)
the actual inumiber of fish being reared swas unknoswn, and (2)
surir s nsvsere hield b~eyond a normal grossing peiod~ to ensuire
adequate numibems o(f i ooders iii the es ent miassisve mortalities
OCCUrred in the b~rood fish conditioning ponds, and to be used to
exp)lore conum er accep~tance and mairketinig poitential.
The fish grews swelI; somle indis iduals attained ss eights ats great ats
9 )OtL~ds by the end of 1978. Those remosved fot- salt iii other
puhrposes as eraged about 4 pounds after an 18 mnonth period.
Ultimately, 4,344 fish, ssith a total weight of 18,.316 pounds, were
remosved.
Fingerlings from both the 1978 and 1979 spassning seasons swere
stocked into gross out p~oinds to he reared to a merchantable size'.
These fish were stocked at the irate of 1,25t0 pei acmre, anticipating a
prioducltioni of' 1,000 2-poulnd carp (2,000 pounds per acre) in 6
monuths swith Ieas s feeding, figumre 8.
U.~nfoirtunately, periodic shortages ofnmones, inabilits to secure
fish rations, anl I S-nioth gap in supeir\ isioni by flls trained expa-
triate a(ilaeoiltUrists reslting inl some MisnIanagenent, and Sig-
nificant losses of' fish (flme to theft and bruitalization of' fry and
fmngem hungs 1\ Untrained personnel during pond to po~nd transfer
iace adequate imeasuiemients of gross th rate, feed (-oiis ersion, aind
p~ro~ductio~n impossible. In fairness to both the N igcerian scenior and
junioi stall ins ols ed, it shnoil d be in adec cl ear that iinecxpe rienicei itt
neglect nor lack of' dedication. ss as thc' principal reason.
Ai cexperienccec] expatriatce stall nc'mber swas eiijlos cd iii 1981,
swhich allowecd resumption of sophisticated nuanagc'mncnt anld rc'
cord keceping. Finigerlings of' the 198t0 spawsn 5 ('c as ailable for
rearing.
In thic proforiiia prd'sc'iitltion to the' Bendel State' MIiliistry of'
Agriculture and Natural Rc'sources (NI AN 1) it had becen projc'cted
at the beginning of' the project in 1977 thlat tsso crops of' 1,t0t0t
2-pound carp could be proclcCCd peri acre pc'r year (4,000 pounds
per acm c' cr sc'ar). Tlic oil]\ fic'ld tests in suippor~it of' these pro-
jections to dlate arc tab~ulatecd belows. Thc're arc' othc'r ponds that
replicatc' thc' out' citc'd, but thcx had iiot been'i hai sed to sillb-
stantiate or at least syielcd furthc'r data onl asvcragc' performane whmcn
the repomrt ss as ssriitte'n.
FIG. 8. LEFT-seining operation in production fishpond to obtain fish for market; RIGHT-net of harvestable size fish being prepared for
market.
p
lip,
Actual fish production data
Pond water surface area........................ 7.0 acres
Date stocked ............................. April 25-30, 1981
Stocking rate per acre ............................... 1,078
Feeding schedule ................................ irregular
Date of complete harvest .................. January 30, 1982
Average size at harvest ........................ 1.68 pounds
Total harvest ............................... 11,900 pounds
Production per acre ......................... 1,700 pounds
Total feed.................................. 37,900 pounds
Total feed per acre ........................... 5,114 pounds
Feed conversion ratio ................................ 3.2:1
Survival ....................................... 93 percent
The above data include a 9-month, rather than a 6-month,
growing period. Also, the fish were harvested over a period of
weeks to conform to a sales schedule. For 2 months of the 9-month
period, feed was not available. For at least 2 additional months, the
feed that was available was in the form of mash rather than pellets;
17 percent of the total feed fed was mash. Mash is not readily
consumable by large fish and, therefore, an unknown portion was
not utilized directly as food, but entered the nutrient chain as
organic fertilizer. In fact, the waste was great enough to cause
0
2
/CO
2 
imbalance, and corrective measures, 
such as liming and
mechanized aeration, became necessary. In view of the overall
inputs and lack of inputs, this experience does support the pro-
jections of 2,000 pounds per acre per crop of carp each 6 months,
given the proper infrastructure on a consistent basis.
INDIGENOUS SPECIES
The Nigerian participants in developing Bendel Tiffany Farms
expressed interest in rearing species indigenous to southern
Nigeria.
Tilapia and Native Catfish
Such fish as tilapia and some of the native catfish are already
familiar to the Nigerian palate and if grown to an acceptable size
could be more easily marketed than carp. During one growing
season, a 2.3-acre pond was devoted to the cultivation of tilapia.
Tilapia nilotica brooders were secured from the Oyo State fish
station. These fish were stocked at about 50 per acre in one 2-acre
pond for multiplication purposes. The pond became contaminated
with T. zillii and Hemichromis fasciatas.
When feed was available, it was added to the pond at daily rates
estimated to be appropriate to the biomass.
Both species of tilapia reproduced heavily. H. fasciatas also
reproduced, but in fewer numbers. Due to the press of problems
encountered in carp reproduction and production, tilapia man-
agement was neglected. However, in spite of the presence of large
numbers of H. fasciatas, a predator, the pond became over-
crowded with stunted tilapia.
These small fish were sold to market women, but in small
quantities and at a maximum price of NO.35 (U.S. $0.52) per
pound. This price was considered below cost of production and
harvest. Tilapia of approximately 1/2 pound or more would find a
ready market at a price equal to or higher than that of carp.
Eventually 30 American channel catfish, the only surviving
imports, were added to the tilapia pond in order for them to have
live food and at the same time exercise some control over tilapia
reproduction. All species in the pond will be stored in this manner
until such time as a more systematic approach can be made to their
culture.
Heterotis nilotica
Heterotis nilotica evidently spawns during floods, and large
numbers of 2- to 3-inch fingerlings can be found schooling at the
surface. These fish are easily caught by surrounding the schools
with a small seine. Securing fingerling Heterotis regularly from
wild stocks appeared to hold promise. One major advantage of this
would be to release holding, spawning, and rearing ponds to be
used for the production of market size fish. Furthermore, although
Heterotis is known to spawn in ponds, the levels and cost of
production are not known.
Between October 10 and 23, 1978, 9,783 Heterotis fingerlings
were caught and stocked in an 8-acre pond (987 per acre). Total
weight was 114.0 pounds and average weight per fish was 0.01
pound. An 11-acre pond was stocked with 6,445 fingerling carp (586
per acre) between November 27 and December 12, 1978. Total
weight of these fish was 743.8 pounds and average weight per fish
was 0.12 pound.
The 2,298 fingerling carp that were remnants of the 1978 spawn-
ing exercise had been previously stocked in this same pond on
various dates. Total number of all fish stocked was 8,743 (795 per
acre). The total weight of all fish at the time they were stocked was
877.0 pounds; average weight per fish was 0.10 pound.
The number of Heterotis and the number of carp stocked per
acre were comparable, and rearing techniques were similar. Bio-
mass was estimated in each pond every 2 weeks on the basis of seine
samples. The feeding rate was adjusted at each interval to 3 percent
of the total fish weight in each pond.
By mid-May the carp had been fed for 5.5 months and averaged
1.58 pounds each; Heterotis had been in the ponds approximately
6.5 months and averaged 0.35 pound each. These weights were
calculated on the basis of samples from each pond taken with a
200-foot seine.
On this basis, and assuming 100 percent survival, carp pro-
duction was 1,256 pounds per acre. Complete draining records are
not available to support these data. However, the average size of
the Heterotis remained the same over a period of several additional
months.
It is thought that Heterotis consumed little of the feed directly.
The pond developed a dense bloom of brown microorganisms, but
problems with low oxygen levels were not encountered.
Some local market women purchased the small Heterotis, but at
low prices and in small quantities. Eventually the pond was
drained. The fish that could not be sold were discarded or given to
the farm workers.
Heterotis is not highly prized by Nigerians. However, those few
fish that did grow to 1 pound or more were readily sold at NO.50
(U.S. $0.75) per pound. One hundred Heterotis per acre were
stocked in the 1981 carp production ponds in an attempt to judge
their potential in polyculture. These ponds have yet to be
harvested.
MARKETING
Initially, imported carp were given free to selected people at all
strata of Nigerian society: villagers, fishermen, farmers, skilled
workers such as mechanics and heavy equipment operators,
policemen, civil servants of all ranks, bankers, and upper echelon
military personnel. A number of these fish were served to expatri-
ates of many nationalities at a large fish fry held on the farm site.
While organoleptic tests were not conducted, the general reaction
to the fish was highly favorable.
In May 1978, the surplus imported fish were made available for
purchase. The price was arbitrarily pegged at a level thought to be
well above production costs. This price was N1.00 (U. S. $1.70) per
pound of whole fish in wholesale quantities, and N1.25 (U.S. $2.12)
per pound at retail. There was some initial reluctance on the part of
13
th I w b\ 'I- b)tit thtI ic gh (t iialIit N of the flis I p romIp ted sale of' 127 56
poundits at anl ax crage prie of' NI.15 pci pouind (U.S. 81.95 pr
potind). \Iost fish xx err' solti at pond b~ank, I Ioxxex er, Wset Afiican
Shimips (Nigeria) Ltd a large offshoire traxx ling, procssing, and
sales firm, puorchasedl approximately 2 metric tons of'the(se carp for
resale. Thex fi )tlind a good deinid foi thmese fish frozen dumring
periotds ot loxx suipplics of thec cheaper "trash fish" captured as a
hxy-product of' shrimp fishing,
Both the wxholesale and retail price's of the carp fron 011sulse(lucent
crops xx ere alloxxed to keep pace xxith the rapidly inflating N iger ian
ecoiniNii. By the cetd of 1981, the wxholesale pr ice pci pouind had
lbeen increasedl to N 1.25 (U .S. $1.87) in lots gireater than 500
tpiomits and NI. 50 )U. S $2.25) in lessei amounts. The retail price
xvastuniform at Ni. 75 U. S. $2.62). Theli e xx )as miarket resistaniceat
these lexvels and dioxxnxward adjustments xxer e untiei consideration.
Fish xxvere sold lixve in hoth iretail and wxholesale qfuantities at
pond hank, and later at the lix e holding facilitx onl the f'an), figuie
9. Ceirtaiii hulk custommers, such as restaulrants, catering ser\ ices,
antI iiat retailers, established standing 01rters for scheduled de-
liv ery. A nominal lix e haul charge wxas added to the pirice of tile
fish. All fish wxere priced] and sold lixve or dead, in-the-rounld.
The suri s imlportedi fish had reached] anl axverage xweight of'
about 5 pounds xx hen they xxere mairketed. These fish xxere in high
demnand antI sold irearlys. F-I, -2, -3, and -4 geiieration Ax iara fish
xxer e stocked at ahout 1, 000 per acre, anticipating 2-pouiirh
ax erage-size mnaiket fish.
Due to factors mentioned] ahoxve, it xx as necessary ton puit these
fish onl the muarket at a smaller size. One pound carp xxere not
faxvorably receixved. One antI one-lhalf pouind carp xxere more fax oi-
ahlx receix en, anrl carp xx cighing 2 potiids (approxinmatelx 1 kilo-
grain)i or niore sold readily.
As inland arquacuilture is expanded in Nigeria, the size at )xhich
fish ai e groxx nj for inai ket shoultd he carefullx considered inl pio-
FIG. 9. LEFT-fish are sold live in Nigeria because of higher price
and greater demand; RIGHT-fish are maintained in live-holding
facilities for retail sales at the fish farm.
AN ASSESSMENT OF COMMERCIAL
FISH FARMING IN NIGERIA
The tomntirolledl prorduction of fish in ponds in s iginiifican t q nianl
tities r'oulrd haxvr a fax muahle impIact on thle Nigerian r'fiort towxarrds
self, s mmticiencxN iii the protiuction of foot]. The iajor portion of the
Nigerian lanti mass is geologically and topographically mnsiiited to
the construction of fish farmis onl a lairge scale. IThose aireas xxith
suitahle topo~graphy, suich as the xvast suhb-Samaraii north andr the
saxvannia anti coastal plain regions to the south, are composer]
primarily of saindx soils.
Altliongh rainfall is heaxvx in the rin forest areas of the south, the
north is arid. Subs urface xxater is not al )tnrant in the nor th . Wi th
sonirc excep~tions, exven the larger streamis aire intermnittent in terms
of supplxying atdequiate xxatr for largre irrigation schemes or fish
tarimi coimplexes. Ini the latiturles of' heax\ xiaiif'all, there is anl
ovxera])und tan ce o~f xxatei driming th' irainyx seasni miiuch in f xxiiicli is
lost to runotil' D~tring the dlry season it is not 1unromlnmon fiur tons
and xvillages to hax e' difficulty in nmaintaining an atdequate' suppIly of'
xx atr'r for rdoimestic purposes.
Some geo~gr'aphical arreas in N igreria rio Irond the'mselv es to thre
Iphxsiral tics rhinent of fish pondits onl a mmmaningful commercial
scale. The' flood] plains anti rieltas of the mnajor rixvems, Irinr'iIallx thc'
N iger anti tilt Benuie, are exteniu r renough in place's to accoinino-
(latre lamrge ancr'ages of pontix. Be'cause of'fhr'ir allmix ial nature' thr'x
aire mr'latix r'l flat anti at'( formne ofimmper itmmix compose
1 
of'silts
antI fine clax S. Sum-fact' xxatc'r is readilx axvailable' anti xatt'rhbraring
santis fromt xx hit'
1  
organism tfree xxatr tanl hr' dnxn in qunantity
thrmoum gh hom' holt's air' umsually c'lose to the souiface' figillr' 10.
I I7tII I tI r ditsd of, ti (Ii it Itgr)x sa I Ix d sIix lic ietxx (i t IIci( I~tdI
ridges of' thIu( AtmI ittic ( :oast anld th Ici IaiI I forcx(,t ant(I coast il plain so ii
Of'the miniadl. Theset sxanipsxtn u lt o aliiost the etire u ~hti
of' tile Nitcria sedaboaird. Thie xirfact xx dier is iiioxtlx of, lowx
salinities, except cloxc to th sea. Titdal \ aitatioo is great u'iioiigl to
peXIllit ilattId flooding anti diaioliiig of 1)oodx wxhose bianks can
he butilt of' tie xtfiiintdi x soil. flet i opical and xliihSaliat aii
cliiiates of N igt'ria afford at 12 m1ouith groxx ing xeasonl for both ciops
anld fish.
Froim the p)iceding dixCLIxxion of' tie A\ idia experienceu it is
apparent that tieri arei certainl biological probleimx and piobluills
axxociatted Xxitfi xxdtt'r tqtalitx that iinx1t bet ox rconnc to aflut ta
x iablc aqiacuiltiiial pioctduii c toi N igeiria. TfIcx are not thoughI It to
be inurmuiiouintable, or e\ en xciin piobiiti. Tlke axxiumpitioni is
that the\ can be iiotiutiicl\ xolx d.
Tihe mijni contrai int to medium lltttiiioogx fixii pmotluctuol ill
Nigeria is tiht lack of' an iiiternial iiil axti ucttmre to xuipplx tin
reutiremenuits of tile indiixtrx. Almiost all of' ith haiti anit xoft
comimiod~tititx ori xsome of' thetr toiiploineits must lbe iiiijino tt't.
Tiactoisx titiitkx xpares, fut(tiuffx xptcial fixh him iii uqiilipcmnt,
and manox othitr itemsx airc inl xinoit xuIll)1)lx dt to thit raidtl\
e'xpaniniig Niger ian cconoiox anti hiutrmalization.
Skilled xxiii 1' kt arde i apitlix aitxoib b\ni tiie oil t\floidtioii anti
Piotdictioni complaiescx othiti inttiesmi and comiiniuut. Theri i
inccd lou- iori t unugiix tranilld andiiii' pielmcci a(ilmiacunltiiu-al xc cii-
tixtx, aitnomi tliuuc hax bcein xomie inipr iiitiit ill tis area
tduringt the laixt tdecade.
Tlerm is ix ashoortage of'prixatt sector isk capital ax ailahIc for
uonm iox tox iitumcx, exven timoug~l cetrtainm gox ciiiiiitit pi ogramoxs
CnIcoiiuagt' pm ixate ix cx'tuiicmltx inl agrmculttirc.
'It( ox ui all assxcsxIiinlt lhx the Prmo ict Leuadtruiax to tin potuntial
of couoiitm cial aquiactiiitoic inlN uia aix optimixtic ilt Ax iaid Fish
Fat in coiipaires fax, lomahlx xxitli siiidaau ho inl tiit, I. nutut Stittx
Isratel,i~ ndx clici her. Inl xpitt of olator xiiort fauxl inl tin iiiplitx thle
piroduictioii irtcord is gooti. Thue ciiioiiic shortagex iii loititcx and
xopix)1 shouiltd btcome lexs anti lexx tx crc itx Nigerima's inutrial
anti agr iculturial base xideni.
~PA
FIG. 10. Photograph at Aviara Fish Farm showing smaller hatchery ponds on right with adjacent, larger production ponds on left.