INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR AQUACULTURE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY
GALE A. BUCHANAN. DIRECTOR AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SERIES NO. 28 CONTRACT: AID/DSAN-C-0053 NOVEMBER 1980
REVIEW OF
AQUACULTURE
DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES IN
CENTRAL AND WEST
AFRICA
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African women fry fish in palm oil for street vending.
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS......................................... 4
LIST OF TABLES................................................ 4
INTRODUCTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 5
Purpose ................................................... 5
Summary of General Observations ........................... 5
Country Synopsis ...................................... 6
Zaire .................................................... 6
Cam eroon ................................................ 6
N igeria .................................................. 6
Liberia .................................................. 6
Recommendations .......................................... 7
COUNTRY OBSERVATIONS........................................ 7
Introduction .......................................... 7
Economic Overview ........................................ 8
Summary of Economic Considerations ...................... 8
Socio-Cultural Overview .................................... 9
Cultural Factors Influencing Fish Culture Development ...... 9
Agricultural Skills - Gardening and Animal Care...........10
Concepts of Land Ownership .............................. 10
Theft and Poaching ....................................... 11
Social Liabilities for Host Communities...................12
Use of Profits from Fish Culture ........................... 12
Sex Roles and Fish Culture Development..................12
Distribution of Food within the Family...................13
Z aire ....................................................... 13
Project Review ........................................... . 13
Technical Evaluation ...................................... 15
Economic Appraisal ...................................... 15
Socio-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development ........ 16
Cameroon ........................................... 17
Project Review ................................... ....... 17
Technical Evaluation ................................. 19
Economic Appraisal.................................. 20
Socio-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development........ 21
Nigeria....................................................22
Project Review.................. ................. 22
Technical Evaluation............... ............... 22
Economic Appraisal.......................... ............ 22
Socio-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development ........ 23
Liberia............................................. 24
Project Review.....................................24
Technical Evaluation.o. ........................... 24
Economic Appraisal.o................................25
Socio-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development.........25
CONSIDERATIONS FOR PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION .................. 26
Socio-Cultural Considerations and Recommendations.........26
Program Design and Administration ..................... 26
Training........................................... . .. 26
Program Implementation..............................26
Information Efforts.................. ................ 27
Project Evaluation. .......... ...... .......... 27
Public Health and Environmental Discussion................ 27
Shistosomiasis...................... .. ..... 27
Malaria............................................28
River Blindness (Onchorcerciasis).................... .28
Sleeping Sickness..................................28
SELECTED REFERENCES............................................ 29
ITINERARY AND PEOPLE.......................................... 31
PUBLISHED NOVEMBER 1980-1M
COVER PHOTO. Fisheries Station at Foumban, Cameroon.
Information contained herein is available to all without
regard to race, color, sex, or national origin.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AID............ U.S. Agency for International Development
FAO ... Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations
GOC ....................... Government of Cameroon
GOL .......................... Government of Liberia
CON ......................... Government of Nigeria
GOZ....................... 0**'000*Government of Zaire
OXFAM.........*0. Oxford Committee for Famine Relief
PC ................................ U.S. Peace Corps
PCV .............. ....... U.S. Peace Corps Volunteer
USAID ........ U.S . Agency for International Development
(Country Mission)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Socio-economic Data for Cameroon, Liberia,
Nigeria, and Zaire .......................... 8
Table 2. Revenue and Costs for a One-tenth Hectare
Pond by Country in West-Central and West
Af rica..................................... 8
Table 3. Gross Domestic Product of Cameroon by Sec-
tors 1963-64.................. **.....*20
Table 4. Crop Areas (in Hectares) in Cameroon by
Region........................... 20
Table 5. Farm Area and Family Size in Cameroon by
Province..................... 20
Table 6. Average Yields of Selected Food Crops in
Cameroon .............................. 0'20
Table 7. Average Yields of Selected Cash Crops in
Cameroon......................... 2
Review of Aquaculture Development Activities
in Central and West Africa
JOHN H. GROVER, DONALD R. STREET, and PAUL D. STARR*
INTRODUCTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Purpose
FOR THE PAST 40 YEARS there has been a general feeling
that aquaculture, or fish farming, offered considerable potential
in Central and West Africa for the production of nutritious food
needed by local populations. As part of development programs
in their African possessions during the mid 1940's, for example,
the colonial governments promoted extensive fishpond con-
struction and encouraged village farmers to raise fish. In more
recent years there have been several multilateral and bilateral
assistance projects to promote basic fish farming in the various,
now independent, countries in this region. In spite of these
external efforts and a variety of national support programs, fish
farming presently is not widely practiced and after project
support has ended, has not become a part of the way of life in the
area.
This study was commissioned by the U.S. Agency for Interna-
tional Development (AID) to determine why fish farming devel-
opment efforts in the Central and West African region have not
had more impact and to suggest what form, if any, new develop-
ment assistance projects for fish farming might take. The analy-
sis was to include technical, economic, and social evaluations of
past and current projects so that the experience gained could be
used in assessing new proposals. The team was asked to visit and
develop case study profiles in the countries of Zaire, Cameroon,
Nigeria, and Liberia.
Significant points from observations made during the study
are summarized in the introductory section, followed by a more
detailed description of past project activities and an analytical
discussion of observations in succeeding sections. Most of the
information in this report is of a subjective nature and comes
from various reports and interviews with people associated with
different projects and country programs, as well as from
firsthand observations. At present, however, much of the data
and analyses needed for a complete review of such efforts
simply does not exist and would be impractical to generate.
Fish farming is but one form of agricultural development
which has been attempted in Central and West Africa. To
understand the why and how of fish farming development is, in
a limited sense, to also comprehend the development needs of
diverse and complex societies. The recommendations of this
report are obviously not able to do this. Yet, these recommenda-
tions may help designers of future fish culture development
programs to understand more clearly some of the underlying
considerations and enhance the achievement of development
objectives.
*Respectively, Associate Professor, Department of Fisheries and
Allied Aquacultures; Associate Professor, Department of Economics;
and Associate Professor, Department of Sociology.
Summary of General Observations
First attempts at fish culture in West Africa involved little
more than seeding shallow ponds with native fishes and gleaning
the resulting production after a period of time. Much of what is
done in the name of fish culture is still practiced at this same
rudimentary level, which is consistent with other animal
production practices. Harvests are small, but costs and effort are
negligible so operators get something for almost nothing. Efforts
of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Peace
Corps (PC) have focused on enriching ponds with manures or
composts and supplemental feeding, along with the stocking of
more productive, lower trophic level species such as Tilapia
nilotica. These more recently introduced techniques do give
significantly better results, but they generally require a degree of
management discipline, government extension, and hatchery
support that has seldom been forthcoming. Common carp have
been introduced in a few places, particularly where altitude and
cooler temperatures suppress tilapia growth and reproduction.
Common carp, however, will not reach high standing crops
without substantial inputs of feed that are usually beyond the
economic capacity of small farmers to provide.
Profit seemed to be the prime stimulant for fish production.
Communal fish farming schemes, however, evidenced little
history of success and were not regarded with enthusiasm by
those interviewed in any of the countries visited.
Once harvested from ponds, fish generally go into the family
soup pot. Unfortunately, pregnant and lactating women and
newly weaned children, the prime targets for protein and
nutrition programs, typically receive only meager amounts of
fish. Fish produced in excess of family consumption is readily
sold.
Fish were well accepted as food by the vast majority of the
population in each country visited. There was uniform agree-
ment that a considerable quantity of fresh fish could be mar-
keted in almost any area where they could be produced, and that
marketing, distribution, or preservation did not constitute a
constraint to production. In coastal areas where there were
significant landings of marine fish, cultured fish are not highly
competitive.
In general, large fish of 200 grams or more were preferred.
Smaller fish, although readily saleable, frequently were substan-
tially discounted. Prices of fish were good but usually below that
of a comparable quantity of beef, chicken, or other meat.
Fish farming was generally considered a cash crop enterprise
and within the domain of the male in village society (possible
exceptions existed in Liberia). This condition may be one reason
why fish farming has not become well established. Typically,
livestock have not been well tended in African villages and
men give priority to other cash crops, such as palm fruits, coffee,
or cocoa, over fish production. Changing attitudes about fish
production or any other modernization of agriculture must be
regarded as a long-term process which cannot usually be
accomplished within the life of a brief foreign aid project.
Health and environmental problems did not appear to be a
significant factor in fishpond development, with the possible
exception of the disease schistosomiasis. Specific information
about this disease for most localities seems to be unreliable. A
monitoring component should be included to document pre-
and post-project incidence of schistosomiasis and a public edu-
cation and sanitation effort should be a component of any pond
development project.
Every country visited had at least some land area with suitable
conditions for fishpond development. Many of the resources
adaptable for fish culture had virtually a zero opportunity cost
and should be put into production alternatives. Higher-placed
officials in the government ministries were also generally
receptive and sincere in their desires to support fish culture
development. In turn, little was seen to inspire confidence or
give encouragement at government fish hatcheries or demon-
stration farms. Economically feasible, field level operations on
the part of government organizations were not apparent. Most
hatchery or farm managers are not technically qualified nor
sufficiently analytical for their applied functions. None of the
fish culture development efforts studied has really had the finan-
cial support and stable economic-political environment re-
quired to facilitate complete success. There is an unlimited and
all too familiar litany of frustrations associated with almost all
the projects. Clearly, future projects should seek ways to insulate
programs from political change and at the same time stress the
public accountability of each program.
In spite of the interest expressed in West Africa, the study
team found little good production data involving local
conditions upon which reasonable development programs
could be based. As an example, the feeding of cassava leaves to
tilapia is generally considered useful, but no one knows how
many kilograms are needed to produce a kilogram of the
different species of fish, or the most effective nutrient and
species combinations. Similarly, information is lacking on the
use of crushed agricultural limestone to correct acid water
conditions.
Country Synopsis
Zaire
The continuing AID-assisted Peace Corps (PC) effort in Zaire
is impressive in several features. Farmer demonstrations have
given good fish yields, some exceeding 2,000 kilograms per
hectare per year in selected small ponds stocked with Tilapia
nilotica and using composts or manures with cassava leaf, rice
bran, or other feeds. Peace Corps volunteers have operated at
the village level and have been extremely dedicated in their
efforts. Small fish are readily accepted by the rural population
and the profitability of pond culture is obvious under the current
harsh economic conditions. Fish culture is a relatively flexible
production system that appears more adaptable to the rural way
of life than other animal improvement schemes that have been
attempted or contemplated. There is some indication that the
experience gained by improved fish culture techniques may
open the way for the adoption of other improvements in agri-
culture.
Counterpart government participation with the Peace Corps
fish culture program has been negligible. Interest among rural
people is running high, however, and social and economic
conditions seem favorable for fish culture to expand. Hence,
modest USAID support for this program should continue as an
experiment to learn whether fish culture will spread without
reliance on significant government support.
Government programs in general are mistrusted and it may be
advisable not to insist on a governmental presence at the village
level. Another few years of investment would seem a modest
cost considering the few available alternatives for increased
food production.
Cameroon
The Peace Corps in Cameroon also has been the main force
behind fish culture development efforts. Production
demonstrations have been less dramatic than in Zaire, possibly
because of a slightly cooler climate. Economic conditions are
different in Cameroon and the strong grass-roots interest in fish
culture that was noticed in Zaire was not apparent. The
dedication and commitment of Peace Corps fisheries volunteers
was obvious and impressive. As in Zaire, their impact to date and
their sphere of influence on actual production is small. A modest
input by USAID could be justified to determine if such efforts
can eventually lead to meaningful production or nutritional
impact on a large scale.
Nigeria
The agricultural sector in Nigeria has generally fallen behind
in the economic swirl associated with the petroleum boom.
Large quantities of food are now being imported to feed
Nigeria's population, which is estimated to be about 80 million.
Government strategists recognize the need to strengthen
domestic food production, but support efforts to date have not
been substantial.
There is a semblance of a fish culture extension and fingerling
distribution system in Oyo State and possibly elsewhere, but the
impact of these programs did not appear to be significant.
Indications of a well-planned development effort involving fish
culture were almost completely lacking.
The Bendel State has supported a large land clearing and fish
farm development scheme managed by expatriates employed
by the United States-based Tiffany Farms. To date, 320 hectares
of delta land have been cleared and 40 hectares of ponds have
been started in common carp production. An effort of this scale,
particularly when projected with an annual 30 percent return on
investment, has generated considerable interest among other
states and large-scale investors that may signal further similar
development schemes.
Liberia
Little, if any, fish culture is taking place at the village level in
Liberia, nor is there any significant infrastructure, such as
functioning hatcheries or extension biologists, to support a
development effort. Earlier efforts to gain support for fish
culture have largely failed because the marine fishing, fish
importing, and distribution systems within the country have
been controlled by a single influential company. This company
has recently developed a large integrated farm with livestock
and poultry operations that includes 140 hectares of fishponds
and the services of a Chinese fish production manager. Such a
large-scale production unit has considerable potential to supply
significant quantities of fish. The integrated operation system,
once demonstrated to be practical, might possibly be scaled
down to smaller farm units to meet local market demands.
The current USAID proposal to strengthen the Central
Agricultural Experiment Station at Suakoko seems worthwhile,
and fish culture should be one of the farm activities studied with-
in the Experiment Station program.
Recommendations
I .T tie (I tii e st i oni , ' Is aquIiacuiltusre (I x tli ient an1
approrirate All) ,ittix Its hi (entrail mid~ WXest Africa""', tihe
llixS\\'l is xi's. Alia('uiltllre has tile poite'ntiali to lilliri fill uitilize
as a ilahic Ia 11( an \\( 0 ,ter re'sou ir'ces and suibsecii en tI proxvidte
boith fouid and filcone fur rural x iliage tldeles. Aquaclitlire
g~iellt'yi~ has noi tcionflict wxith other agricultuiral prac'ti'ces and~
stipporiit shiiild rout focu'is on large-scale iir iighlx ilitelsix e fish
proidiuctioin xx steins, lint rather' on small-scale efiirts that canil he
liiailljt~lli'(l ajt hissr e'lst xx itli aj lillimioIl iif (lepenidencee onl
2.IThis li'gii oif Africa (diies noot List' a tratditiion iof
ai iiat' tltutin and f ('xx loical peo 1ple are t rai ne'd in p rac(ti cal fi sh
ge'netrationl of noirt' practical rt'silt (Icillnstratili expieriencee. It
is uiponl such e'ffiorts that c'are'fiil 'coiinomiic ft',sibilitN stuiesic and1
:3. Fish c'ultueerln'x 'iplii'lt efforts shiiuild stalrt xxith .a 'irefiul
resourct's tii asse'ss teach area's sliitaililitN and axvailability for fish
ciultiiri. If re'souirce's art' ade'quiate' anid a firii ('ollliiitliillt is
apaj iri'nt on1 tile pairt of tile holst gos trilit'l tllt'i smnall
TIhesi' ci'ntt'rs shld h lochiated wh iere proispects for xsucc'e's are'
bt' St ,ili(i Ilax m ilix j\e rt'liaibiiit itiin 
iif esistinig filiitics. Eli'
mt't ert' ('ojIi lt haxe :301001ff siiiail poinds xxhere adaI~ptixve x it'd
hut fuinctiounal lailiiratiirx jid trainling fatilitit's associaited xx ith
Ilt'vel's. lbe m'I acro le\' t'I reconize~lus soiaiil ii iiii rt Iinit\ xciosts in the~
rec(ipietnt tiountrie's. Suippiirt fur tht' 'eniters niteeds tol he lng
ter ii, bult xxithi adeiqui at e rt'v5iewx pro cedures(' to en'lsulre pirac(ti cal
aplica'itionl of thet xxoirk piroigriami It is miolre impoilrtanlt to have5 'a
smnall, priip'rlx fundued andit iipierationl ce'tntt'r than tol havixt
tljinlx spJread~ hblt le'ss efft'ctiv e naitioli priogramn. Preferabix , it
fish clture' tielo'pimiienit center xxoildt bt' intt'gralted xxith iitheir
riural Ide'\ ten pmien t p ro ject s ioi a gric'ultiural expjienrimien t s tatioiil
ac(tivxitites.
4. All) is in a goodit poisitionm tii addl( coimpilemenltairy suppoiirt tii
e'xisting pirogriamis reteisving help frini F XO, Peace ('orps, andit
aigencie's is to lie encouiraged( for aiq iat'iiIt irc slilp port. A ii) caln
prox idlt training funds, skilled technical assistance, eqipm~iient,
or ev en capital for inifrastruictuire dev elopmient that mnight not he
avaiilalet frin1 host coiintrx resources or other donor1) pirogramsi.
.* Aifuacuitlire deletIopmlient efforts should he initegratedI
wxith apipropr iate health education prog-ralis that \\ ili
emnphasize the role of fish in faloiIN Ilitrition anti the neetd for
aipprop~riate' sanitarN piractices to control schistosoloiasis.
COUNTRY OBSERVATIONS
Introduction
In the followxing coimntrx hb\ -ointr\ x iierx ations of the four
naitionls \ isiteti, the Zaire section is Iliost compillete hi'caiist' this
ciiliitrx xxas x isitedl first. (bserx ations hose niot heeni repleatetd
in tdetail for other countries xx here conditions xx ere simiiilar.
)x erall, a remlarkable siinilaritx existedl ini thie structure of
illage life ini the couintries \ isltedl
Tr aditionial life stx les and faliil patterns, food pirodluction
.sN stemis, cash crops, Inarkxtilg' l110th0(k, anid experiences wxith
lite \\ a gri ci i It i ralI techn i i gtices I ha (I inalm chiaract eristics in
co'iiiion. P~easanlt farmiers g~eneralls cling to tradlitional lainds
iild itse tilie unix en miethiods to raise Iinillfrox eli crop) x arieties
\x itli little uTse of chemlical fertilizer s, pesticidles, Ileax N
miechanization, cooperatix e planning, or other teclmilogical
aids. \\omien are gyeneralls responisible for famnily food
produictioni, andi~ diets are based o) (ass~ix ai or other tubers, 
rice,
iniz e, or hanan as. \\1 Iilf e foo)0( rexsou1rces ha x e beci line
(lepleted and lmiitl fol rotaitional cuiltix iltioli arc being Ililire
freipientlx and intenisix cl\ croippfed. P~lanitatin crops, such1 as oil
paIliini Iubher, anti ('offee, are subjec'(t to wxid~e p rice flu ctuiati ons
aind giovxerm ient Iinllnipu ilaitii n of inarkCTy ('til g i st ribuiit ion. All
o)f the couiintri es stud~liedl are ex\pen en ('i ng thie ra pid( gri ix tli of
c'itie's anid dlifficuilty in huilding domeiiistic agricuiltuln
lpriolictix itx, either o f cropfs for domestic use or expor~t.
E~l icational and1( ecoinoi ic asp iratioils xxere 1) cilig keenly felt,
i11( traiditional religions Ulid trihaliSlil \x ere in conflict xxith
forices of imodernization. Noss ere is there' ani abndanIce Of
trainied a gricul tuoral techiician s or a fuilis ef fectivxe agriculmtutral
es ten1si in pri gnaii. WXi th the iexcep tio 11oif ('a in enion, each iof
tte ('iitrics hadI itlcrgiine somei relatix el\ recenit (lisrllptix e
ecolnomiic iir political exvents.
Cooked bananas and powdered cassava root are staple but low
protein foods in West Africa.
';oo
IJ
Economic Overview
It is a well-known fact that incomes in Africa are low by
accepted standards. Although all of the countries in the survey
have had per capita incomes in the $100 to $300 per year
category during recent years, changes can take place rapidly.
Such was the case in Nigeria as the petroleum export market
developed recently. Similarly, recent sporadic conflict in
southern Zaire affected the country adversely as production was
interrupted. Dependence on one or two export items in world
markets can also change the direction of an economy in a short
time. Zaire's dependence on copper gave the economy a jolt
toward the mid 1970's as world prices plummeted. Data
reported in table 1 illustrate income positions of the four
countries in 1974. Such data are of questionable reliability
because of rapid changes caused by political events or natural
causes, and should be used with caution. Revolutionary instabil-
ity, market changes, governmental realignments, weather
changes, and other catastrophies have been fairly common in
Africa in the immediate past. Unstable monetary conditions
could be added to the above list, along with other poor planning
which has led to varying degrees of inflation in the different
countries in question. International Financial Statistics of the
International Monetary Fund show consumer Price Index num-
bers for Cameroon, Liberia, Nigeria, and Zaire as 145, 124, 179,
and 768, respectively, on a 1975 base of 100 for late 1978 and
early 1979 for the four countries in question. An inflation of 668
percent in 3 plus years, as occurred in Zaire, can have disruptive
effects on an economy and on incentives to lend money for
investment purposes.
TABLE 1. Socio-EcoNoMIC DATA FOR CAMEROON, LIBERIA, NIGERIA,
AND ZAIRE, 1974
Per capita Area in 
Population
Country Per capita m i
2 
Population density per
GNP km mi km
2  
mi
2
Dol. Thou. Thou. Thou. No. No.
Cameroon ........ 268 458 183 6,282 13.0 34.3
Liberia ........... 256 108 43 1,669 15.5 38.8
Nigeria..........201 893 357 61,270 68.6 171.6
Zaire. . 143 2,263 905 24,222 10.7 26.7
Source: Political Handbook of the World 1977. pp. 585-587
Various post-colonial slumps, price controlling mechanisms, a
lack of government accountability, and general poor planning
have held many countries back during the past 20 or so years.
Nationalization programs in some cases have also driven out
expatriate expertise, thereby damaging real output in certain
countries. Bureaucratic redtape within some countries is a
further deterrent to economic progress because of the
discouraging problems to foreign companies willing to make
investments.
Aside from the low per capita income discussed above, it is
also true that a severe maldistribution of income exists in these
countries. Overwhelming proportions of the populace live in
rural areas - often on severely limited incomes at the
subsistence level. There is a strong attraction for rural dwellers
to move into cities, further worsening social problems that are
practically unmanageable.
Summary of Economic Considerations
The economic summary for the four countries, with simulated
cost-returns data on fish culture, was calculated by methods
detailed in the Zaire discussion of the main report.
In general, fisheries at the farm level are so infinitesimal as a
fraction of the total economy that they can be ignored from a
tradeoff standpoint on resource use, employment of labor, and
on competitiveness with other enterprises of an agricultural
nature. High rates of unemployment, ranging to 50 percent in
urban-type industries and services, also illustrate a lack of
conflicts of employment in fish culture with other non-
agricultural enterprises.
The market for fish is generally good in the areas of Africa
surveyed, but larger size fish are preferred in some of the areas
covered. Part of the fish are sold and part are consumed by the
family. An educational effort is needed to accompany produc-
tion development to assure meeting nutritional needs of chil-
dren, lactating mothers, and others with the severest deficiency
problems. The use of cash income received by the operator was
not known in general, but in some instances farmers indicated
that the extra money would be used to pay for education of their
children or to buy small tools used on the farm.
Fresh fish in the economy had the advantage of being salable
locally without the use of elaborate transport and cooling
infrastructure. No new marketing and processing facilities are
involved, and the community has an opportunity to improve its
economic welfare through the fish culture option.
Simulated cost and returns data for a 0.1-hectare pond are
given in table 2 for the four countries, based on local prices for
fish and labor, and on production data in the area or in a similar
area. Nutrients were plant scraps, cassava leaves, and locally
available manures. The economics of intensive feeding
operations were not studied in detail, but indications were that a
heavy feeding operation entails importation of feeds.
Productivity is generally proportional to the intensity of nutrient
input; however, only by-product manures and nutrients from
animal by-products and residues are available, with high quality
feedstuffs being generally unavailable.
TABLE 2. REVENUE AND COSTS FOR A ONE TENTH HECTARE POND BY COUNTRY IN WEST-CENTRAL AND WEST AFRICA
Country
Variable 
Zaire 
Cameroon 
Nigeria 
Liberia
1st 2 Later 1st 2 Later 1st 2 Later 1st 2 Later
years years years years years years years years
Costs*
Water system + 2 ........... $ 20.00 --- $ 43.20 --- $ 82.40 --- $ 37.00
Pond construction + 2 ....... $ 25.00 --- $ 54.00 --- 
$103.00 --- $ 46.25---
Operating labor ............ $ 16.00 $ 16.00 $ 34.56 $ 34.56 $ 65.92 $ 65.92 $ 29.60 $ 29.60
Fingerlings.................$ 20.00 $ 20.00 $ 20.00 $ 20.00 $ 20.00 $ 20.00 $ 20.00 $ 20.00
Total .......................... $ 81.00 $ 36.00 $151.76 $ 54.76 $271.32 $ 85.92 $132.50 $ 49.60
Total revenue. ............. .$305.00 $305.00 $139.58 $139.58 $245.70 $245.70 $113.75 $113.75
Residual ...................... $224.00 $269.00 ($12.18) $ 85.20 ($25.62) $159.78 ($19.10) $ 64.15
Price of fish................. $3.35/kg $1.92/kg $2.70/kg $1.25/kg
Productivity of fish ........... 910 kg/ha/yr 727 kg/ha/yr 910 kg/ha/yr 910 kg/ha/yr
Prices of labor ............... $1.00/day $2.16/day $4.12fday $1.85/day
*Labor assumed was 40 days for construction of the water system, 50 days for the pond construction, and 16 days for operation.
Examination of peanut oil cake that may have local fish feed
potential.
analss in tht' foulr coIuntrites is the lack (If a hotdx (If prodtucitioni
tdata toI xxhich t'ctnomiic tdata tan he attachet't for po(licy
Pulrpo~ses. T'his lack (If tdata toldt be solv ed by a xx steiitit
app~roath toI experiimeintal xxo(rk in govxerinmlent facilities aIs xxetll
asx by gatht'ring texpetrimetal tdata fromt c(oi~erating farmners ill
extensioIn jprlgralils. T'he tdata hase ix so thiin aint unireliable in
inllst instancles thait this impoI(rtaInt liink iilist bt' xtrelg tllenetl
before aiv itlassi x t int'x (ij)jr(Ich tol pond1t fishl cultuire is
estabhlisht't. Peace Corps xvoluinteers havixe no(t bleen traiint't to he
st'isitiv e toI the economI~iic iiiijlic(ItiInx aIt all lexvtls (If' tile
jlr(graill. OjI portliiity c(ost app~jraisal seeiiix haza/(rdouIs alt best
(Intl ilist be gixvt'n inlrt' tconsidetraltioln in the future. Bt'lt'fit-cost
ainalyxsex (It tile iilacro lt'xel (Ire coiiiletelx lacking, anidt so~cial
ol)Irtuniit\ tcost (If tile t'lliitrx 's resoulrtes seeis ilot tol haxvt
bt't'i colnsitderetd. Ii short, tilt three coulntries xxhere the Pt'ace
((Irp5 (Ij~erlates tlo ilot appt'ar tol haxve Ill adlequlate ba(st' on
,w hich to buildi appr(IPriltt tdexvelopmeint'il tlities.
Socio-Cultural Overview
Cultural Factors Influencing
Fish Culture Development
T'here are fexx spt'cific cuiltuiral conistrainlts w icih imilpetle fish
c'ultuire tdexvelopmnlmt ill Wetst Africa. Fishl is a highly sought after
footd throughout the region, alilt fresh fish is generally p~referreti
ove tr simokt'd ori salted xvarieties. TIhose xwhtl (1o mot ealt fish are
lcljllt' wxho caInnolt affortd it tor xx ho liv e in aireas xxht're it is not
ava (ilaIble. Fish is commolnt~ly jlerteixeti as a tdelicacy that oInly a
Tlhree culltuiral conistraiints wxere foundi tol specificaIlly conc'ern
the ctonsliIjtioni tor cultivation of fish. In solile Ilirts (If WXext
Africa, a1 ft'xx xsinall religious grollus haxve nlrins ~rex t'itirlg the
tcon~sumpjtiton (If c'trtalin ty pes (If fish, usuallx caltfish. Other sillall
iminllrities believ e that (oe should noIt eat fish untder certain
coInditiolns, such aIs xxhIile untdergoiing trt'atmetnt ftor Ilarticlllr
afflictions. Tht' precise inatuire (If thlest' belit'fs xaies according
tol tribe or alreaI, but the belief applears nolt toI le wxidiespreaId (Intl
should nolt be regardet't as a seriou~s barrie'r to fish culture
dt'xeltljinent.
Thie third sp~ecific conlstralint conlcernis tile attitudes (If fariiiers
who had o1(1 ponds that \\ ere built somne Necars ago hx their
ancestors. Somne fariiers refused to tdestroy or iiiake significant
changes in their ancestors' ponds exven if it pr-exented the
creat ioln of a in i mhl nprovxeti facilit\ . Thlei r re fusal wxas (i c to
thec belief that su chi poIntl 1ati a special, ali1110t sacred character
because they wxere built by their forebears. Tisa belief is fullx
congruent wxith the fornis of annoistic religioni found throughout
WXest Africa, involxviog (ditterent t\ lies of ancestor wxorship oftten
iii c omhin atioI n wxit eiithe1r Chiri sti an or Msl
1
emI p ratctices. M an\
of the indigenous religions regard different natural objects, such
as trees, ponds, anti other wxater sources, as being a hiaxven for
spirits.
More significant are the inore general cultural factors xwhich
call prex ct (or ilnletie an interest iii implroxving olneself
ecooi1cal ly th rolughl fish farinin g o r other endteaxvors. T hese
factors con111(in dx j ixvolxve the t stat us o(I n occuIipies ill a larger
so cial oIrdIer that ix (If fund a mntal hi umportaince to thle person.
Conv xen tiol v xilla(ge rles prvide\It the in dixvidtua I wxithl
111111ortanmt, 11111tuialy bind(inlg rexxarchs for "aj I) proI ri aite" c(Indtl t
antI puiil shillent for becha\ x Ir xx 11i cl dIexviatesx front that wh11ichl is
exIlettetl and( xvaluetd, These clusters (If illrilis andx1( c\ttiils
canl xvarx cllisiterahlx front xvillage to x illagt' accortdinig toI
tthnic-tribal groulp, bult share m~anyx comonii features.
Tlhte basic character (If the solcietx remiains strolngly influencetd
bx tratditionuis te% tx o peth o\ tr teintuies (I o hntiing, gathierin g,
anti the cultixvatioIn (If sinmple' footix ill xxhat xxetrte Ofteni hlarshi
t'nxi irolinients. The actixvitx and1( status (If 111(1 cetettrtet alrountd
tilt hlliltiilg (If xxilti gaimle, xx hiile thost' (If xx (ilit'i t'iii)liasi/'t tile
stet'uring (If flod tllr(Iih gathering and1( cultiv ation.i 'I' fact that
wxiltd ganit stolcks haxve bleen tdrastically tdtpletedt xwithiin thet last
fexx tde'tatit' has posedt sevxetral st'riousi IrIohlI'iis toI tratditionial
xxayxs oIf life. \hanN \N est Africans are still copjinlg xx ith
funtdamnital changes antI haxve xyet toI stittessfll rt'sol t' thltiil.
Somiie aIrguet thalt tile loss (If gamne has hatl its grt'atest inmpact oifl
tht' rolet (If iiien in ruiral WXest Africa, creatinig a v acluumi in tht'ir
soIcial lift' xxhichl has xyet toI be atdequ~atelx fillt't ailt is at thet root
(If ilail\ x tIIiii in lity soIcial jprtbleins .
TypIically , ilen xxo(rk xxith cash cropis, sucth as colffee, (oil Jaliil
nult cluisters, or miaizt', xxhilt' xx (Ii(n are respo(nsiblte fo~r tile
proIil ttio(n (If food1( for ho(Ius ehol (1o1nsumpii ltionil. I mIo(st
communiliiities, xx tilltn haxve a substantiallx greater rt'splilsihihity
for tile weltl-bteing (If their chiltdreii than tio iiien. Thlis is
particunlarlyx truie iml pioixga ini(1 fanmili es (units in xxh itch one
hulsblandt has txo oI(r iil(re xx ixex), a coiiii(n foril (If Illarriage in
WXext Africa. WXithI txx totr mort' ft'males secuirinlg footd for tileir
children andl C(IilllIr spouise, the hulsbandt ilas lt'ss neetd anld
incentixve to eingage iml jlrlltictix t labori. Inlstabilities andt
unicertainties inlfluiencinlg tht' x ane (If tcash cro~ps oxvtr the 1l1st
fexv years ihave further tdecreasetd the inceiitixve (If inanx ilI'i tto
cuiltixvatt' themn, alloxxing the p~otential cultixvato~rs to tdexvote a
colnsidetrable alilllnt (If adtditional timelt tol otht'r pastiimes,
inclutding the solcializinlg xxith xvillage Peers~ antl enjoy\inlg locally-
illlte paltil wxine. In) inany cast's, a great jprtoj~rti(In (If the
ty pical v illage ilale's xxetek traditionallx has c(Iiie tol he dexvotetd
to tdrinking pahill wxine xwhilt' socializing wxith kin amnd xvillage
assoctiatt's, bult iiiterx iexx suiggt'st that the tilii inv5esteti has1
inctreasetd in l)r(IL)(rti(Ii toI the tulme releastet fromt the p~roducttioIn
(If cash crolps.
Infolrmial soIcializing and relatetd attixvities plax a central rolt' in
the t(Iiiunitx life of mnalt's that shultd Ilot he undlterestimai(ted
centering aroulntd tht' tapping aIlit use (If palin xxiilt, for t'xampille,
serxve as illechaiins to(I r(IiI(Ite t'(Iilliiiiation aril(ng xvillage
mnen, provxitding ail arena for the cultivation of t'conoici
exchange, rnatchiiiaking, and social coIntroIl through g(Issi) (Intd
jesting. Group processes can serve to reconcile differences and
resolve disputes. The custom also serves to unify the participants
and give them a common identity that is expressed in their
conversation about non-participants in the area or "outsiders"
from other extended family groups or villages. In some
communities, those who work in another's field are paid in palm
wine and some men collect wine for cash sale in a local market.
There is usually at least one family in every sizable village which
earns whatever cash it may have through the collection and sale
of palm wine.
An individual male who wishes to devote his time and energy
to economically productive activity in a village which has norms
resisting such activity may have to pay a "price." The price in this
instance refers to the penalties the individual pays for breaking
out of an important system of social relationship that may be,
after the secret societies, the most important male institution in
the village. In some cases, the farmer who wishes to take fish
culture or any other innovation seriously will be regarded as a
kind of "deviant" who is violating the largely implicit norms
about what it means to be a "good fellow" among the men in the
community. He may be gossiped about or joked about in his
presence. In some instances his tools or possessions may be
misplaced and his ponds vandalized, or, more rarely, even
poisoned. "If you succeed, beware from whose glass you drink"
goes a traditional proverb.
The good things in life are not commonly seen as a zero sum
game in which there is only a limited amount of good that is
received by some at the expense of others, but those who do
engage in "too much" productive activity may often do so at the
expense of good social relationships with other village males.
Given the pressure to conform to what is (in relative terms) a
largely unproductive routine, it is clear that innovative and
serious fish farmers would, in many villages, be unusual and
highly independently motivated individuals.
Clearly, the best targets for extension work would be those
who are interested in fish culture and who have already
demonstrated their independence and managerial skill. This
includes individuals with some degree of aptitude and
experience outside the confines of the community, such as those
who are or have been teachers, government workers,
policemen, soldiers, or who have been employed in urban or
industrial enterprises.
Norms can also be developed and promoted to encourage
productive activity in fish culture and other agricultural pursuits.
This is one of the most difficult goals of any village level
development project. Incorporating an improved method of
production into the routine way of life of a community and
bringing about the institutional supports that will give the new
method some momentum is a great challenge. It is a goal which
is seldom accomplished during the experience of any Peace
Corps volunteer (PCV) or change agent, and by its very nature a
goal which requires a considerable investment of time.
In the case of fish culture, promoting such norms requires the
creation of a critical mass of farmers who are well motivated to
practice good management, who learn from one another, and,
most importantly, who provide one another continuing social
support and positive reinforcement. In its most obvious form,
such relationships are formalized through local voluntary
associations of farmers which have leaders and a regular
meeting schedule. Ideally, these associations provide a forum
for the exchange of ideas and experience, involve mutual
assistance among members, and serve as a way by which
farmers can acquire and share tools and other materials. Efforts
to create such organizations are typically premature and usually
fail, however, because there is no informal structure of
communication and reciprocal relationships upon which to
build a more formalized organization. Hfligh priority should
always be given to the cultivation of informal norms and social
patterns at the village level rather than to the more formalized or
bureaucratic modes of organization, most of which have been
ineffective in Zaire and other places in West Africa. To put
things in an overly simplistic way, it is the long-term task of any
village level fish culture development effort to get villagers to
evaluate one another and themselves in terms of their
productivity as fish farmers rather than in their role as hunters of
(now depleted) wild game and providers of wine.
Agricultural Skills - Gardening and Animal Care
Although communities and tribal groups differ considerably
with regard to their success in agriculture, the greatest source of
variance encountered concerned the relative incentives that
were present. Communities in which reasonable profits could be
made growing and selling things had many individuals who
were engaged in such activities. In areas where the economic
rewards were scarce or essentially absent, few people were
active farmers. With some important exceptions, however, the
rural communities visited were lacking in effective farm
management. Some tribal-ethnic groups successfully specialize
in raising cattle, but most rural communities had few large
animals. A few pigs, goats, chickens, and even a rare rabbit were
seen, but it was apparent that few people effectively "raised"
animals; the vast majority of animal owners just "kept" them.
Goats and chickens were expected to fend for themselves and
would be consumed or sold for cash for a holiday, special event,
or emergency. Varieties kept were traditional types selected for
their hardiness rather than growth efficiency. Clearly, the rou-
tine care of animals for effective production is not consistently a
part of most West African cultures. The same is true with regard
to horticulture, with the exception of systematic cassava and
yam production in some villages. It is not surprising that those
with the best management skills in other forms of agricultural
production tend to be the most successful fish farmers. The lack
of such skills and the appropriate attitudes that accompany them
will remain a barrier to progress for some time to come. The
team believes, however, that fish culture is one of the more
effective ways of demonstrating the rewards of systematic care,
planning, and management in general agriculture.
Concepts of Land Ownership
The prevailing unit of both production and ownership of
property throughout West Africa is generally the individual.
Brothers, children, and kin may assist with production, but the
individual continues to be the possessor. The individual owns
the things he has created, such as his house, the lands he has
cleared, or the ponds he has made for his fish. The land used for
such activities, however, may belong to the extended family or
kin group at large or possibly to the whole community or village.
If the land is the property of his larger group and is not being
used, the potential user gains access to it by informing other
family members, primarily as a matter of courtesy, that he
intends to use it. In the rare case that the land is presently being
used for other purposes, he must seek the consent of the senior
members of the family. An individual can also use land owned
by others as long as it is not being used and he secures the
permission of the head of the household that does own it. The
approval of the owning family is generally granted unless the use
entails a long time period, such as for the building of a
10
4
4
4
4
Private fishponds developed in narrow valley in Zaire.
penrnanecut hioiuse or the plan tinig of cotftee or palm trees. The
longer the proposed use, the greater the p)otential depriv ation oif
the oxxners or their descendants. Less p)ermianent actix ities, such
as fish farming and] grow ing xvegetahles, corn, or cassaxva, arc
generally approxved xxith little difficultx because the oxxners can
easilx retriexve their lot in thme future. It is also possible for a newxly
arrixved pecrsoun to gain the use of unmused lands, but such requests
are unusual.
Generallxy, there has heen little competition for access to lands
suitable for fishponds. The land has little alternatixve use, excep~t
p~erhapmls for sonmc rice growing, and is usumallx located at the
hottomn of a xvallex axway from1 preferred lix ing areas. It is riot
commmon for a person to requmest use of land oxxned bx another
famiilx for fish culture, but it has been done. Rieportedly , the
construction of such ponds on another's land is riot seen as a
pedrmneint change, hut only an alteration ouf property that is not
in current use and xwill continue to he the propertx ouf the owsners.
1mm situations xwhere the land is oxxned by the xilla ge, the
prospectixve user should secure the chief's approxval.
No exvidence indicated that communally organized fish
culture p~rojects haxve succeeded in XX est Africa . Somle haxve
failed oxver dlisp~utes concerning the rights of xvarious contributors
to the harvest. Usually little management input can he sustained
in communal fishponds because of a lack of incentixve.
Although und~er cuirrent laxx each goxvernmnent retains title to
all unsurx eyed land, the realities of tradition prexvail and there is
considerable consensus on the xvillage lexel about xx ho oxs
wvhat land. O)nly a sinll proportion of the land in WXest Africa has
been suirx ex c and registered, and the goxvernments in the area
haxve confined their claims to urbani arid mining areas or to road
or publlic serxvice projects.
Theft and Poaching
The stealing of fish from p)onds occurred wxith v arving
frequiency in the areas v isited. Estimates of the fish reinoxed
wxithouit perisio fromn ponds range from v irtually none to as
high as 40 pe(rcenit.
G;eneradlly, oniy four measures could he taken to prevent theft:
1. AX fence could he constructed around the pond area. This
\\ as rareix done, howexver, as it is expensiv e and could easily he
cros sedI.
2. The farmer could moxve his house close to his ponds.
Although a few haxve done this, most ponds are located at x alley
bottoms, sonc distance from the residential clusters of the
village. As most families enjoy liv ing next to their neighbors and
kin and such p~roimity entails several social and economnic
benef its, the idea of moxving closer to ponds is not p~opular. Twxo
instances we rc encountered in xx ich xx ix es returned to their
original house and refused to lixve in nexw houses huilt hy their
hushands near the ponds.
:3. The area could he guarded, either frequmently' or near
harxvest time. One xay of doing this has heen to hire a guard. For
small farmoers, the cost of hiring a guard wxouild he greater than
their entire profit from~ a sale.
4. An other method involxves placing "inagic" dexvices around
the pond to xvard off thiexves. Its effectiveness is not known, hut
the method does haxe the confidence of miaux.
The miore xvaluahle fish are in a community and the greater the
rnced for food, the greater is the prohahility of theft. Regardless
of theft frequency , hoxvxer, it has rarely deterred a faniner from
continuing to practice fish culture.
In addition to the praedial larceny that takes p~lace amnong
xvillage communities, there is a certain amiount of "official" loss
B
r
of fish. For example, stories were heard about soldiers stationed
near a village marauding ponds and taking fish, or of local
officials accepting "gifts" of fish when ponds were harvested.
This latter example is more typical of government-owned
production units or hatchery ponds where facilities are
frequently operated for the private gain of those who supervise
the operation of the ponds. A government official who is
profiting from the sale of fish produced in a hatchery pond is not
easily persuaded to use the pond to produce fish fingerlings that
are to be given to deserving farmers.
Social Liabilities for Host Communities
Although information was sought concerning the problems
brought about by fish culture at the community or higher levels,
no serious liabilities or threats of future problems were found.
No instances were encountered in which fish farming
interfered with other forms of activity that are generally
considered to be productive or beneficial. Successful fish
culturists, as is generally the case with other good farmers, spend
much less time socializing than nonfarmers or those with little
productivity. A village in which a number of men started serious
fish farming could expect an overall increase in the amount of
time used in productive activity.
A few villages have become known for the production of
baskets and pottery for cash sale. The income produced,
however, is modest and barely makes the effort worthwhile
economically. Should fish farming become a more profitable
pastime, those traditional forms of production would
hypothetically decline. In short, no social dislocations of any
negative sort have occurred in any village where fish culture was
being practiced.
Use of Profits from Fish Culture
There was substantial agreement among interviewees,
including farmers, Peace Corps volunteers, and government
specialists, about the uses of money earned in fish culture. Most
of the money was said to go for school fees and/or medical
expenses. Some was used to pay required bride prices, buy salt,
and meet unanticipated emergency expenses. Actual behavior
seemed to confirm this with one exception. Although some
harvests were accomplished just before the start of the school
year to enable the farmer to earn money to pay his children's
school fees, other harvests were made before a major religious
holiday, Christmas for Christians and the end of Ramadan for
Moslems. This pre-holiday harvest indicates that at least some of
the profits were used for feasting and other social obligations
associated with religious holidays. Some fish farmers regard
their ponds as they do chickens and other forms of livestock, as a
modest form of insurance or "money in the bank" to be tapped in
an emergency or for a special occasion. This attitude is one
reason why some farmers will put off draining their ponds for
some months even if the fish have already achieved their
maximum growth . Meat prices in local markets are commonly
higher during festival days, but the farmers would make more
money by harvesting more often.
Sex Roles and Fish Culture Development
The division of labor on the basis of sex tends to vary by ethnic
group and local community. In general, however, women are
primarily responsible for the production of food to be consumed
by the family, while males are concerned with cash crops.
Conventionally, this has meant that the bulk of routine
agricultural work has been the wife's domain. She usually
accomplishes this by cultivating cassava and other tubers. In
some communities, the husband will aid with the initial planting
and later harvesting. In areas where cash crops have been less
important or in decline, the daily agricultural work of the male
has been correspondingly less. Even when such cash crops as
coffee beans, tobacco, and cocoa are actively cultivated, the
male's routine tends to be more seasonal than his spouse's work.
This division of labor has been influenced by the hunting
tradition. When wild game was abundant in the past, men
devoted a good part of their energy and skill to hunting. Women
remained at home working at routine tasks, either cultivating or
collecting edibles, while taking care of children. Again, although
there has been a rapid drop in wild animal populations and
hunting cannot produce much food, a way of life which evolved
over several centuries continues to influence contemporary
practices.
These roles are instilled in young people from their earliest
years. A mother usually has a son help with some of the family
food production or preparation, such as grinding cassava flour.
Upon early adolescence, however, he will be replaced by a
younger brother or a sister. Girls are commonly responsible for
taking care of their younger sisters or brothers and routine
household tasks, often up to their marriage. Among the least
involved in productive activity in the village are adolescent
males. Many attend elementary school, but many spend most of
their time in less productive pastimes. Most aspire to leave the
village and live in a city.
Given these social patterns, fish culture in West Africa has
been and promises to remain a male domain. Although a good
part of the fish is eaten by the farmer and his family, it is
regarded as a cash crop. Almost all family ponds are dug by the
individual farmer, sometimes assisted by kin. It is not often that
anyone is hired for the job. The filling, stocking, feeding, and
harvesting are carried out by the male. In unusual instances
where fish are sold at a marketplace, a wife may do the selling. A
few fish farmers are women, usually prosperous widows who
use resources inherited from their husbands, but these are
unusual exceptions. Like most differences between the sexes,
the roles are cultural and social. There is no fundamental reason
for women not to become active in fish culture, but there is little
doubt that the current sex role differences in West Africa will
persist for some time.
Distribution of Food within the Family
In polygamous households, each woman has been basically
responsible for the feeding of her children and for providing
dishes for her husband. Wives may borrow from one another
and sometimes share foods, but the general pattern is for each to
prepare an individual dish for the husband's main meal that is
usually taken in the evening, or for each of the wives to be
responsible for feeding him on certain days. Typically, the
husband or his guest has first choice of the food, followed by the
wife and then the children. Generally, the more and higher
quality of food available to the family, the better the nutritional
status of the children. The team encountered no instances where
parents routinely deprived their children of food, but it has been
demonstrated in other research that young children and
expectant women are among those who bear the brunt of food
shortages in West Africa. Even when food is plentiful, however,
it is apparent that a large proportion of the rural population does
not understand the basic elements of sound nutrition. Although
there is a general lack of information about health and foods,
only one specific cultural practice was encountered that was
directly concerned with food distribution: the belief that
children should not be given eggs because it would tend to
12
spoil thetin andlc bring dlisappointmen'tt xx len they groxx ip) IIII
fewx areas such later diep rixvation wt xas th outght to lead t I(
frtustratedi one ito a "life of crie." No suirvey 
has hb't'i
conducted 00l hoxx wxidespreadi tli i\\ s jt'xx ibuht thi'x% pe~t
ill ilocal folklore.
Zaire
Project Review~
giti sotught to secuire the strategic restttrces coming frtoit the.
Zaire Riegioni, partictilarlx copper and uiraniuimi, for use h\ the
Allies. TIhe peoptle inl the area felt the imopact ot the wxar, particui
larlx ax mneat sutiliies and other foiidstuffs traditionalIx im-
pttrted froio souttetrn Africa wxere di\ erted for trtoop lse. As
restilt, the Belgians. attemipted to increase loceal agricuilttiral pro-
dutictivity, incituidinig thte constructio n itf fi sitpiinci, to hell) pro-
ide f or the peoptle. T his effort cionti tiued thrououitt thie
rem ainder of thiec BelIgi an colonial p erioitd.
Thel( Belgzian ( iingii \% ax div ided into sx state', each 
ttt \\ iie
had a directttr ttf fisheries and t\\ oi or three fish fingerling
plrodtictioni statitons. \\ ithiti each statte there wxas a lyritli tof
Belgian fishler\ officers wxho stipervs ied tisheries dex eloptoent
and trained loical miontitors or extensioni agenits. F'armters 
x\ ire
encoiutragedl, iii somile cases exven coerced, toi hiild sitall ponds~i itt
taindem fasitiotn alontg the bottoitis of sutall \ allexs t\ pical 
otf tile
agrictultuiral ciittt sile and to stock thtese potnds wxith fisht fromi
goxvernmeint hatciteries. Inl tis mtauiler, sex eral thotisand ponids
\\ ere coinstrtictedi. A 1957 estimiate clainited 9:3,766 ponds~i \\ itit a
coitbined area ott almiost :3,9753 hectares. isih diistribuitedl ttt the
p oci xxere Vet t ralkl Ti/itpill ittacro citir andc Ti/ip ia 
ri tI 1(1/i
(earlier called '. m l/opi'f/eura) I It'' txo si p.eies are'
lterl)ix tires, it i cultire' p)ra ct ict's g enc' eralIx inso 
iix d
recomitimendiationis toi growx xvegetalets besidet pondlcs, chotp tilt tile
leats matter, antd feedt it to the fisht )~ i'ldx miin thix s t('l \x crc'
xeldiiin itore tihait a fewx huncdred kiloigramsi per hectare, antc thte
reiquireci feeclit iffort x\\as cioisicderabile. Extensiion x'rx ic's,
cx en xx ith Itcalix traiteciag4ents. xetiiieitacietxeitr
thtall a coit p eraiti i ic han ge.
\\ ith inciependtenmce atnud the chtaos that foilloxwecd, mosit otf the
Euiropean techtnicins left Zaire anlotcal techniicians x\ ere lost
tritti serx icc. W\ititittt direct eitcotirageieitt and a siippti 
ott
fingerlings, motst itoics fell intii cdistise tor rexvertecd tittalN tii
ntatutral coiitcitionstx Noex ertheless, thei mnemolry iif these 
pndtcs
anid earlier pirodiuctiont efforts still remiaintx andc there ix a gec'icral
posxitixve feeling aboutt fish culture aitiog tihe rural poipulation.i
t' PF:A('l: (J'0)S FISiH ('1 liT H. PROGRA M. Thet
Peace (>irps/xZaiie ittitialix begant reseiarching tile possxibilities ott
ilitellsixe fish cuilturii ill the Btiiuini tegioni inl 197:3. Betxx ceu the
timie the ciitiitrx gained itx incdepeitdeince trii Belgiumn ilt 1960)
aidc the initial I'eatct Coirps fceasihilitx stuidx nit significantt fish
culture effoirt had buen itace. Sponsoxureid xwith thle c'oiperationt
otf thce Oxfoircd Commtiittcec fur iFaiiic l1c'licf (OXFAM).t,\ andtc
iiircctc'ci h a toritir i)( 'friii Ctiiit'roiiu.thic' tiicix iticcatedi
titat anl area iut Biiliigti xx ith a high deixitx ott piipiillatiiiit out
minlln possile piiiii Sitex oiffe'rced tilt greatt'xt pi~otitl Ilt Sip-
temtbier 1973, txx () P(iC\ wxxere aissigned'i tio tite Kikxx\ it aieai to
ititiate piloit pirojects. In1 1974, a I~cce ( >irps staff iiielithir \x ax
s.ent tio Kikxx\ it toi protx icic techniicatl stipport andc e'tcoutragt'
Govxerintment otf /aiic' jCOZ) xtuppoirt. Stubseiquint initilrie's
rc'portedi that thte .( ) wxxouilcd he xwilliiig to suippoirt thec projtect
andc coillaiborati x\ itit tiht x oltuitc'crx hx proiiliIg resoutrces anic
P'(:/Zairc' Fixsheriesx I~rigra,tiu hixxcxir, siiuport friiii tiht (.( )Z
xxas x rttuallx itil. 'lT' initial hoipe thtat the rt'xpoliiiiilitx fir tilt
the~ (OZ xx\,oilc(] unixide needed consutxtc'tiion imaterials toi
4bi'
Compost pile in corner of private fishpond as nutrient source sug-
gested by Peace Corps volunteers in Zaire.
rebuild a loceal fish statiton at N ,iitca has nex er hetit realizecd.
Altltiotii thte PC' project succi'sstfilly cdcimonstrate'd tiht fe'tiibil-
itx of fisit culture inl the Buiitiigi area, it attrated'i Iii G )'
Riathuer titan cdepcend ii inefficient fec'ciig itheh itir o iiu
fishtes ax thtt ciiliisits hail t'ciiiitiieutclec tilt Petace' C irpx
helpc'c iittrodccc the plainktonittltering Ti/opio tili/iit andc
ec'icuitratg'c tarnicrx toi enrichl pondtcs xx itit comitposxts anic
ioaitniit to stimutttec plaitktiiti grixx tit 'I'iti' rc'xiltx xx tet' becttcer
y ieldsx xx iti liess cia\ -toii ai ittentioni ntedccec thtn xx as rt'qtiircec
bx thec tarlier herhix trtoix fixst prodcutctionu sx ste'mst. Thei sx steinl
did cetate anl initial nlet'c ftti /'i/opto Iti/oica xS'e'd xtick and,
therc'fotre, gox eriuient hatcheie ts. C )ce a farmier had stic'k, thc'
fixsh xx otilti gtierallx ititltipix itt ittincs for tih' stibsequtt
rc'xtic'kitg ott ftirtiter priocdtctioni effoirts.
F'artmitr detmonsiitrationsi mntittit'red ibx ltace t irpx iiut'r
taxe ixi ell gotodc rc'ttirnsx, ttt'ti'tlx xx itit antiialit'cl x iccix ill
excessx ofi 2 tt00t kiloigramsx per htectare'. 'isx rextult ix particularlx
trot' xx itir' fairmtcrs Itax tbeen''i atttii c toi tilt dirictionti gix eil
jiritciutaccouiti c'axxaxva leax es ihas been piracticed.c littili iof
ciipet'im ttt aritttrs xxhecre' tihesxt practicecs xx ere ht'iitg iilliixxec
I~eacci Cop ' \i ti xiliiitc'crx artgit tihat participiatiiii b\x tilt ( )V
thc'ir dirt'ct ib'nec'it tit thc' ftriiitrx kx tutitigit to ixtitx thit effourt,
independeniii'tt ott xx iatex cc giix\ eit uitit ciiuiltc'ipait xx xtiii uiiiglt
mercit, iaitictiltulx itl x i'xx ott ctirreitt ecc'itiimlic atndc political
xIuIc't'xttl adcopitt'rx fuinctioingiti, xii that thec xx stiti spretadsx oil its
iixx ni appeal,~ intc'ludiitg xsomet protduicers taikinig it tih' xedc
Ipricuc timit titd fariiier icu'ttr titictittits tha~t it\x e' ibc'c
othu'r\\sx x tltiiiigiit of ax gioix t itttlt fillictiiittx.
Itt 1975, tilt firxt g~riuip (If tigilt I~'M fixh citlti i' itt'ttxiiii
xxrikt'tx xx asx itri cc''c Into x artulti xitex ilt tlut' Bliiiiiiii aicaI.
'This tittttiti xxax itncreased' to 1:3 itt 1977, antd thtt projtect
Company-developed conmercial 1.sisponds near Lusange, Zaire.
(Indiota, Cunger, anti Masi \lanimiba) and txso zones of Kasai
Occidental Region (1 shikapa and Luiza)
Th le eight v olunteers wxere proxvided with modest sup~port in
1975 andl nomninallyv attached to a functioning local organization,
such as a mnission-sponsored agricultural program. OXF'AMI and
All) Self-Ihelp grants later helped proxvide svoliunteers 'with
motorexcles that made it possible to transport fingerlings for
stocking ponds and for xvoluinteers to traxvel more in their
extension efforts. ONFA NI also prosvided badlx needed tool kits
to indixvicdual xvolunteers for aid to farmers.
In 1978, U.SAID/Kinshasa completed a plan that proxvided for
substantial resource support and the expansion ofi the Peace
Corps effort. The project also included funds for increased COZ
participation (PID 660-0801). The number of sites for volunteers
xxas expanded in hoth Bandundu and Kasai Occidental and, for
the first time, included Sites in Kasai Oriental. '[here are
currentlx .30 v olunteers participating in the programn wxith anl
additional 20 being prograiimied for FY 80 and F Y 81.
Although the 1..SAID project also included prosvisions four
training Zairian extension agents, 12 fingerling production
centers, short formal training Courses for farmiers, and a
substantial increase in AOZ p)articipation, there is little
likelihooud ouf these uutpcts actually being produced. '[he current
status of Zaire's economny and the ohsvions inefficiency and
confused character oif goxverment operations makes the
attainment of these goals appear oxverly optimistic. It is also clear
that niune of these goals could be obtained wsithouit the diligent
efforts ouf Peace Corps xvoliinteers and staff.
Gixven the prexvailing economuic crises in Zaire, the Peace Corps
fish culture effort has been successful in promoting the diffusion
of prodiictixve fish culture iuiethods among the rural farmers in
sexveral areas. The contributions made by the PC program can be
attributed to the skills and talent of the indiv idual xvoluteers, the
effectixveness of the PC/Zaire organizational structure, and the
larger socin-cultural context in which the program has been
operating.
Clearly , the dedication and intelligence of the Peace Corps
xoulinteers wxorking in the fish culture programn hax e contributed
to its success. The xvoluinteers tend to learn local languages
rapidly and haxve been eftectisve iii building goodc rela tioiislips
xwith their clientele. 'The attrition rate of fishery v oliinteers is loxs
antI the' propocrtion ouf those ciuntinuing for second tours is quite
high. These facts reflect the giiod morale and satisfaction amng
xouinteers ssho haxve proxvided an imoportant serxvit'e ton their host
commuiinities and xxho are generally appreciated fur it. 1Thex
appear to he wxell in tcune cuiltuiralix wxith xvillage lift' and find it
both attractixve and challengiiig, A less haxve married into local
famuilies and sought to ciontiiueit their wor wixxith fish cultuire
projt'cts in the rural areas, both ssithin and out of Peace Corps.
There Lire probably less urcgrauins inxwhich [he sex o~ral goals and
ideals oif the Peace Corps hixve been so wsell pursued.
T'he organizational structure of the Zaire prograii has sexvcral
features that haxve contributed to its effec'is eTess. 'ike mans,
oitheur Peace Corps efforts, it is 1both decentraulizecd and flexible t'o
alliuss considerable discretionm on the part of the \ oluicteers, each
of xxoi wm xorks in a cuniclue setting. The ads antages cuf the fish
culture program hasve been recognized by both Peace Corps and
1.8All) administrators \x oi hasve gixven the program a
reasonuable priority . Gaiimng this support has been a long and
hardh focight battle by proiponents, one that has drained mouch of
the humian energx axvailable for project implementation.
A pairticiilarlx imaportant featcire that has both ad"s antages and
disacls antages is the relatis ely small role the prougraim has played
and is currentlx expected to plas xwith regard to counterpart
training and co ordination. Foir all practical puirpoises, the only
c'ointinuiing cocinterpart relations are on the national lesvci. The
field or extension wxork is basicalls' accomplished by PC\ s
wxorking independently froum the COZ. It is the consensus of
those Zairians and PCVs interx iess ed in small comumunities that
the GOZ is currently in no position to prosvide arnywxhere near
adequate extension serv ices and that goxverment programs in
general are held in suspicion by local residents. Yet there
continues to be a need for prure Ti/opio nilotico stock. ornd
gos emninent centers, some astebyhePeace Corps, are tmeu
programmied socirce of this stock.
There were reports of technically aware people leaving cities
after being disappointed with current hardships of urban living
and seeking a new life in the country. Some of these people had
tried the improved fish culture methods and met with such
success that an interest was kindled in other improved
agricultural technology. Although such observations are limited
in number, the resulting interest in other improved agricultural
methods is an interesting aspect of the impact of fish culture
which bears watching in the future.
Also, some consideration is being given to using fish culture as
a famine relief tool in the drought stricken Bas Zaire region near
the mouth of the Zaire River. The idea appears to be another
application of the Belgian approach to local food production
schemes in the copper producing areas of Zaire during World
War II, but the strategy may still be useful. There is no question
that food is needed, and sufficient profit is possible to reward
successful fish culture efforts.
Technical Evaluation
The Peace Corps in Zaire appears to have done a good job
with the GOZ in selecting areas of the country where fish culture
will work best. Selection of the areas of concentration has been
done with proper regard to soil conditions (not too sandy or
acid) and other conditions. The plankton system for the
production of Tilapia nilotica seems well suited to the
environmental conditions. No other system of fish culture
appears to be more satisfactory under the circumstances. Fish
culture systems based on intensive feeding of fish are not
recommended for Zaire at this time. The dramatic increase of
harvest production that farmers can see over natural levels when
they enrich ponds is strong evidence that the plankton system
works. The missing link is reliable experimental activities that
could help workers better understand the cost-benefit
relationships of the numerous variables available to fish
producers. Specific information is needed about the benefit of
compost and feed materials and expected fish production and
growth with different stocking rates and species combinations.
The benefits of liming also need to be evaluated.
The genetic purity of the Tilapia nilotica will likely decline in
time as stock is mixed with other closely related species. There is
a continuing need for a few central hatcheries where pure stocks
can be maintained for distribution.
Mobility of extension agents, such as is provided by the motor-
cycles used by PCV's, seems essential to distribute pure fish
stocks and to visit dispersed cooperating farmers. Unfortu-
nately, even with this mobility the actual production area served
by any one fishery PCV is small, usually less than 3 hectares in
composite. Good pond sites appear to be widely scattered and
not extensive in any single locality.
Economic Appraisal
LAND. Rice is the main competitor with fish for land use. In
many areas, rice growth and ponds are contiguous because of
the similarity of terrain required. Other than growing rice, the
land often has an opportunity cost of virtually zero. Land to be
used in fisheries must be located close to a water supply. Not all
villages can be expected to have suitable land with an adequate
water supply. Clay bottoms and dams are necessary to hold
water, and sizable parts of the country have sandy or porous
lateritic soils. The allocation of land to fisheries and rice is
therefore determined largely by costs of preparing the land for
respective uses and the value of returns when all costs are
included. Integrated agriculture is the rule in Zaire in which land
use will bewill be diversified by various subsistence or cash crops,
vegetables, and some animal husbandry. When local manures
are available on the farm along with vegetable and other by-
product wastes, there is an incentive to use these resources in fish
production. Costs and transportation difficulties will preclude
long-distance transfer of other by-products to the land.
LABOR. Labor in Zaire has several alternative uses depending
on the mores and customs of the community. Fishpond
construction is typically men's work and the cultivation of
cassava is typically women's work. Fishpond operation and
construction are therefore predominantly noncompetitive with
cassava cultivation, but could be competitive for labor on land
clearing for the cassava production. In some areas the men
seemed to do little physical labor. Opportunity cost is not out of
the question - these men have decided not to go into the fields
to work with wives and other family members. Their labor has
potential alternatives in cultivating coffee or cocoa, gathering oil
palm fruit, hunting, or seeking cash employment on a casual
basis.
Unemployment and underemployment are elusive concepts
in a culture in which the above work attitudes and traditions
exist. Although unemployment rates of 50 percent are reported
for parts of the country, they have little meaning in an area that
has traditions in which men do little work, women do little work,
or in which neither works on particular tasks that might be
perfectly acceptable in another culture. The idea of a backward
sloping supply curve for labor was suggested several times in the
communities we visited. In its simplest context, if the price for
labor (wage rate) were doubled, certain workers with limited
material wants would only work about half as much as before.
To varying degrees, this phenomenon seems to exist in the
largely non-market areas of the backcountry. Similar results can
exist with respect to particular harvests of crops - when the real
price increases, giving the people an increased real return for
their efforts, there is an incentive-destroying effect leading to
less, not more, work.
This phenomenon is sometimes further complicated by peer
pressure not to be "too successful" above the mean of the village
in which one lives. (See following section on socio-cultural
factors.) Villagers may be subtly castigated or ostracized by
fellow villagers when they succeed to inordinate levels. The net
result is a set of thresholds within which the family entrepreneur
might wish to remain - high enough to meet minimum physical
needs of the family, but below the level which may bring on
adverse peer reaction.
Another factor which may reduce the incentive for hard work
is the extended family arrangements leading to sharing the fruits
of one's labors with relatives. Such practices can reduce the
incentive for the relatives to work and, at the same time, reduce
the incentive of the entrepreneur to work hard for goods from
which he himself will derive minimal benefits.
Labor incentives are probably further constrained by the
consequences of becoming successful enough to attract officials
who may take a rakeoff in the form of a fraction of the returns in
illegal taxes, outright bribes, extortion, and other forms of
coercion. This type of action is common in areas where civil
servants and the military are not paid or are so poorly paid that
they must secure resources the best way they can. The more
channels the product passes through and the more official
personnel come in contact with the entrepreneur, the more he
loses. The entrepreneur can be pressured into low-profile
bartering and largely non-market activity in order not to attract
attention to his economic endeavors.
Other things held constant, labor should be directed to the
highest-return alternative available. Palm oil operations seem to
be the main hired-labor alternative available. Some of these are
15
closing down in the area, and few other opportunities seem to be
available. There appears to be plenty of labor, limited only by
the will of the owner and his family to work.
The irrational pricing policies of the Zairian Government
could be changed, bringing about different opportunity costs in
terms of producing other commodities. The price ceilings for
commodities at the farm level are generally so low that farmers
are unwilling to produce them. This attempt to artificially bind
prices at a low level in favor of city dwellers has discouraged
production and fomented a sizable black market trade. Freely
fluctuating prices or a reasonable level of prices at near
equilibrium could change the appropriate use of labor for the
entrepreneur. Coffee prices paid to the farmer have been forced
so low that farmers have abandoned their plantings. If prices for
coffee or other cash crops should increase, certain farmers with
appropriate land and capital for cash crop production might
consider a change in their labor allocation.
CAPITAL. Little capital is in evidence in Zaire's village life.
Capital consists of resources combined with human labor to
entail stored up productive capacity. Simple implements, dams,
terraces, and ditches are the main examples in common use. The
only capital equipment used in construction of some of the
ponds are shovels and hoes, and in some cases a wheelbarrow.
Most ponds use bamboo pipes although a few have plastic or
metal components. Monks and valves can be replaced by cutting
temporary trenches through earthen dikes or by harvesting fish
with nets rather than by draining ponds. Capital is therefore
small in amount, although extremely important. The lack of
good shovels has been reported as an impediment to pond
construction in many areas. The locally produced shovels seem
to be almost worthless for this purpose.
Allocation of capital among uses does not seem to be a
significant problem since the time-sequencing among
enterprises is fairly flexible. Hoes and spades can be used in crop
production as well as pond construction and maintenance.
COSTS, RETURNS, AND MARKETS. In the following anal-
yses, a common format was used to suggest possible returns
from fish culture based on the price of fish locally and corre-
sponding local labor costs, table 2. Data were reported on a
0.-hectare basis for all countries since this size pond is near the
maximum that it is practical to build with hand tools. Standard
amounts of labor were attributed to the construction and opera-
tion of the ponds, including 40 work days to build the system for
handling water, 50 days for the pond construction, and 16 days
for operation including harvesting and preparing the bottom for
the next crop. A standard cost of $20 was used for fingerlings in
each of the countries. The waterway and pond construction
costs were written off equally in each of the first 2 years for the
various countries, leading to a smaller residual at this time than in
following years. No charge was made for capital since the dam
and a few simple tools represent the basic requirements, and the
cost of the dam is written off according to the labor it entails. No
rent was charged on land, since it had little if any opportunity
cost in most situations and rental of land is not common in the
areas studied.
In Zaire, returns of $224 were calculated for the first 2 years in
which construction costs were written off, then the amount
increased to $269 for following years. The labor was valued at
$1.00 per day and the fish were valued at $3.35 per kilogram, the
going rates in the area. If the owner's labor has no opportunity
cost, the pond could show a greater return, since the owner's
labor was imputed at $1.00 per day cost, the same as other labor
for the above calculations.
These data should -be viewed as exemplary, but should be
used with extreme caution since conditions vary greatly from
area to area within a country and the available data were from a
few market examples and a few construction experiences. A
moderately low level of management was assumed in the
analyses. It was further assumed that feeding with local wastes,
scraps, and manures occurred in all of the countries studied.
In Zaire, the government had price controls on various
commodities, including fish, but black market prices seemed to
be the rule except for token amounts sent through official
market channels. Coffee growing was being abandoned,
purportedly due to low government price ceilings imposed for
the central buying authority. Changes in price controls could
shift opportunity costs significantly, thereby changing optimum
enterprise mixes for farmers.
Socio-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development
GENERAL BACKGROUND. Zaire conforms to the pattern
of life found in West Africa generally as described in the "Socio-
Cultural Overview" section, with some exceptions. The more
serious economic problems of the country have substantially
reduced the incentive to grow cash crops for market and also
encouraged many experienced people with various skills to
return to their home villages and attempt to improve their
standard of living.
Some beliefs which restricted the consumption of fish were
encountered among small groups in Zaire. In Kasai Oriental and
Kasai Occidental regions, the belief prevails among the apostolic
sect (apostolo) that one should not eat catfish. This group,
however, is a small minority of the population of those regions.
There is also a belief among some in the Gandajika area that
people suffering from a "witch" disease, nteta, should not eat
fish while undergoing treatment. The affliction is indicated by a
temporary swelling of the hands and feet. The problem is
regarded as temporary, however, and only a few are thought to
be attacked by it at any given time.
LAND OWNERSHIP. The few serious land disputes involv-
ing fishponds were related to the construction of ponds on
parcels that had two or more owners. Once fish culture ap-
peared to be successful, the owner of some of the land used to
construct a feeder 
canal demanded 
the product, while 
the owner
of some land that was crossed by the water source did the same.
When the conflict was brought to the local chief for a decision,
he attempted to resolve it by claiming the fish for himself. As a
result, no one is farming the pond. This type of conflict is un-
usual, however.
THEFT AND POACHING. The theft and poaching of fish
from ponds remains a serious problem in some Zairian com-
munities, but only one instance was encountered in which this
reason was given for a person giving up fish farming. Estimates
of the proportion of fish stolen from ponds ranged from 10 per-
cent to 40 percent. The most vulnerable ponds were those
owned by small farmers located some distance from their dwell-
ings. The most common thieves were believed to be young boys
who threw in baited hooks at night to catch the larger fish. Often
the farmer was not aware of his loss until he drained the pond for
harvesting and found only smaller fish and a significantly lower
than expected total harvest weight. Although some of the poach-
ers are apparently adults, only a few instances were reported in
which an entire pond was drained and most of the fish taken.
Observers felt that most of the thieves came from the farmer's
16
village and some were related to him. It is commonly believed
that many in the village know who the thieves are but they will
not tell anyone, practicing a "conspiracy of silence." Of the few
cases that were brought to the attention of the local chief,
however, severe fines were given to the thieves identified.
DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD. A substantial proportion (20-60
percent in some cases, depending on family and harvest size) of
the fish produced by small pond owners in Zaire (those with
ponds less than a hectare in size) is consumed by the farmer and
his immediate family. A smaller proportion is commonly given
in small amounts wrapped in large leaves (called "kilos" but
actually about half a standard kilogram) to more distant kin,
neighbors, and those who may have contributed some labor to
the pond or to another of the farmer's enterprises. A few farmers
have informal reciprocating arrangements in which one gives
the other some fish for his family and the other reciprocates
when he later completes a harvest.
Almost all of the fish that are sold are sold for cash
immediately at the pond site. It is not uncommon to have more
customers than can be supplied at going prices, and many
customers walk several kilometers for the opportunity to buy
fish. Some farmers compile lists of advance orders that are filled
first, and it is not unusual to deplete the quantities in this fashion.
A few farmers who wish to maximize their profits by getting the
best price cut down the number of gift fish to extended family
members, and to avoid special pleas by relatives and neighbors
for lower prices, arrange to have a third party conduct the actual
sale. This method permits the farmer to be free to deal with the
mechanics of draining the pond without worrying about
haggling over prices. The farmer may provide the same service
when his temporary "middle man" harvests sometime later.
THE CURRENT ECONOMIC CRISIS AS AN OPPOR-
TUNITY FOR FISH CULTURE. The irony of Zaire's
extremely bad present economic situation is that it provides a
good opportunity for the exploitation of fish culture. The urban-
based cash economy continues to decline and is in disarray.
Government ceilings on many farm commodities have made
them unprofitable to produce, and people, lacking incentive,
have stopped producing them. The rural to urban migration
pattern in which many young and better-educated people relo-
cated to urban areas has been reversed with many Zairians of
varied skills and experience returning to their home villages.
This is the context in which people in Zaire may do things out of
near desperation that could lead to improvements in rural well-
being.
The need for food is great, but cash resources are limited.
Transportation is extremely difficult and expensive. Building
supplies and other commodities are scarce and available only at
highly inflated prices. Price gouging is common and frequently
severe. People need food that they can raise themselves to feed
their families and make a profit by selling the surplus to others.
In most cases, the only resources the people have are their own
labor and experience, access to land, and a small amount of cash.
Fish culture should not be regarded as a panacea for Zaire's
problems at present or in the future, but fish culture can provide
rural people with a starting point to control, improve, and
benefit from their environment using their own resources.
Hopefully, the economy of Zaire will improve and the
agricultural sector will expand in different ways, opening up
better opportunities to the rural poor. Should that improvement
take place sometime in future years, fish culture will probably
not be as attractive as other alternatives. In the meantime, a fish
culture development effort may be one of the best matches
between available technology and present community needs.
Cameroon
Project Review
THE FRENCH FARMING EXPERIENCE (LATE 1940'S).
The French introduced fish farming to Cameroon in the late
forties. Their work consisted of encouraging farmers to build
ponds and constructing fish stations for basic infrastructure
support of the program. The stations served as fingerling-
supplying outlets and furnished technical assistance for thou-
sands of ponds in Cameroon. As was true of several other
countries in West and Central Africa, activities leading to inde-
pendence and the coming of independence itself led to a devas-
tating decline in fisheries, with a collapse of infrastructure
support and the accompanying disappearance of technical
assistance and fingerling supplies. Although the French system
was based on a relatively inefficient technology which
employed run-through ponds and sometimes had a poor selec-
tion of species, it did leave some ponds that could be renovated
and provided experience that can be useful for persons who
might return to pond fish culture in the future.
Some of the ponds were ill planned and not worthy of
renovation. In many instances, it is easier to build a new pond
than to renoyate an old one. Some of the fishery stations have
been improved and are presently used for fingerling production,
fish production, or for training purposes. The Fishery Station in
Foumban is an example.
Species reported in the French program included Tilapia
nilotica, T. zilli, T. rendalli, Heterotis niloticus, and Hemichro-
mis sp. The ponds in the East were largely of the barrage type
with a mean size of about 0.1 hectare. Other areas had "deriva-
tion" ponds with a smaller mean size.
FAO FISH CULTURE PROJECT (1973-76). In May 1973,
FAO initiated a program to assist the Government of Cameroon
(GOC) in organizing two fish culture demonstration centers for
commercial type production and for the training of fish culture
extension workers (monitors). The program was also intended
to conduct fish culture experiments and related scientific
research. The original program planned two centers, but only
one was activated. In pursuit of the above goals, the FAO staff
moved to an existing fisheries station in Foumban that had been
constructed by the French during the colonial period. During
the early part of the effort, 16 additional production ponds were
dug, and improvements were made in existing ponds, canals,
and buildings. To facilitate training, the FAO improved access
roads, renovated and equipped laboratories, and built and
equipped living quarters, dining, and service areas for 20
extension worker trainees. The Peace Crops/Cameroon also
provided services of a volunteer to aid in the Center's training
program.
FAO ended its program in October 1976, and its staff
departed. The station has been continuing its activities at a
significantly reduced level, staffed by GOC personnel. Its most
important function has been to provide the facilities for a 6-
month monitor training program that is now conducted solely
by the Peace Corps.
Of the three main goals of the FAO project, the one that was
most successfully accomplished dealt with fish culture
experimentation and research on different types of fish suitable
for production in Cameroon. Several useful studies were
completed on the propagation, growth, and production of
Clarius, Tilapia, and carp species. Important observations about
fish pathology were also made.
The goal to demonstrate the feasibility of industrial-scale
ponds in Cameroon was pursued with less success, but useful
17
V
tm M
VA
Foumban Training Station, Cameroon, showing fishponds inte-
grated with chicken and pig culture.
dlata concerning the economnic relationship) betwxecn feeds and
fish produlction we re acquired. T1he inform ation gathered
indicated that commiiercial fish culturre could succeed in the area
only xx ith a sub1stantial increase in pond surface area and the
growinug of carp sustained on inexlpenSix e organic fertilizers.
The least successfuli par of the FAOX( programn concerned the
training of extension wxorkers. MIost of the difficulties
encountered byx the FAO( training effort continue to plague the
current Peace Corps mlonitor training programi. In b~rief, the
FA() effort wxas hampered by a training period that wxas too
short (:3 miouths), haxving to organize a curriculum for both
l'rancophonecs andl Anglophones with limited staff 
resources,
and by the enrollment of studecnts wxho v aried considerably in
age (16 through 45), formnal eduication, and aptitude. There xx as
also no p~rocedure hN xx ichi a failing student could be renmovecd
fromi the programn, barred fromn gaining a certificate, or
p)rev'ented from securing a gov erment post. The oxverall
performance in the field by the trainees xvas judged by the FAO)
staff to be unsatisfactory , primarily because better candidates
xwere lacking.
The Foumnban Fisheries Station nowx prov ides a smnall supply
of fingerlings to local farmners and serves as the facility for the
monitor training lprograin conducted by the Peace Corps. The
structures b)uilt hx the FAO( remain inipressiv e, hut they no~
longer hav e functioning research eqjuipmnent and hav e not had a
director in place for somne months. The station's p)otential
remains, but it serxves p~rimnarily to indicate that the (X)C has not
sought to build on F XO's xx ork and has apparently gixven onlx
moderate priority to fish culture programns.
PE ACE CORPS PROGRAM (1969-PRESENT). Peace Corps
xvoliunteers haxve becen wxorking xx ithi fish culture in Cameronn
since 1969.'Their initial programn xxas iii the xwestern Anglophone
area, hut in 1974 assignmnents wxere extended into eastern Fran-
cop~hoine areas. There are currently 26 xvolcinteers in the 
country,
not including 15 nexx xvolunteers in the final stages of their
training (hy Noxvember 1979 there should be 30 actixve fishery
xvoluinteers in-countrx ). The Peace Corps xvoluinteers are inte-
grated into programis admriinistered by the Mlinistry of Agricul
ture. Initially they xx orked xxith the Dep~artiment of 
WAater,
Forests, and Camne (Dept. Faux et Forets et C'hasse), but in 1974
most of the fish culture activ ities xx crc shifted to a newlyx created
parastatial organization, the National Fund for Forestry and
Fish Culture (Fonds N'\ational Forestier et Piscicole). There is
current talk of putting the Office of Fish Culture in the Ministry
cof Animal Industries.
Tlhe general objectiv es of the Peace Corps fish culture support
haxve been to imp~rov-e family nutrition and farm income. The
main thrust of Peace Corps efforts has been in the area of farmer
extension outreach, but there has also been a significant
inoxvernent xx ith counterpart dev elopment and renoxvation of
goxvermnent fingerling production centers. There is a current
shift of emphasis to cash-sale operation of ponds rather than
those intendled exclusix elv for faunilx use. All of the xvoliinteers
learn French or Picdgin English, and most are xsvorking at the
~ , ~ai,
grass roots xvilage lexvel. Thec are generallx equtiIppedl xxith
offroad inotorcycles and hixve a sp~ecific area assigned to serxvice.
\Voliinteers generally xwork with counterpart fish ciulture
extension agents. The monitors iisiuallx knoxx the local (lialects
aind can serve as translators for the xvoliunteers xwhere needed. In
the course of 4 or 5 years, sexveral districts once serxved hs a
xvoliinteer haxve been tlirne(1 over to local monitors who miax or
inax not be backstopped by a regionalix based volunteer.
Oxverall there are about 100 fish monitors xx ithl the National Fund
for Forests and Fish C'ulture. Assignment of monitors andl PC\ 's
is indicated fromn Yaounde and is subject to political as wxell as
resource comnsidlerationms.
A ty pical established xvolunteer wxill be wxorking wxith ahoiit .30
farmers at anx gixven timie and each farmner xwili haxve one or txxo
pondls, each 200 .300 square iiieters in area. \Volunteers are gener-
ally recommending a p)roduction sx steiii based on Tila pin nilot-
Wca and enriching p~onds wxith compost piles mutch the samne as in
Zaire. A txypical production cy c takes 8-12 inmths and iiuight
yield 600-900( kilograins per hectare om an annual basis. Annual
yields in excess of 2,000 kilogramns per hectare are possible in
mmaini areas wi th piropem miamageiimint. Success wxithm ('laris lot-
era has been liimited, hoxsexver, because of a lack of fingerlings
for stocking. Carp) wxere introduced for use in the cooler, high
altitude areas. Pond spaxxning and artificial hatching of these
txxo species has occurred, but the x olume of suiccessfullx rearedl
fingerlings remains at a fexx thousand each y ear for the fixve or six
goxverniient stations involxvedl in the propagation of these nexx'
species.
Morale of the xvolunteers has been gou)(. Sex era] haxve
exteinded for a \ car or more and fexx has e terminated
Iprematuirelv. The stuIdx teami generally felt that the ability of the
xvolunteers to relate to and communicate wxith host nationals wxas
excellent.
Ox erali impact of the Peace ('or ps ix olx emerit i> difficult to
,assess, but the nutritional/econominic impact has siirely not been
great. The lore of Peace Corps extension contracts is reLplete wxith
first time successes, but the production cxycle is so long that
contacts are seldom maintained through moore than a couple of
crops. Although xolunteers feel that at least a fexx of their
contacts wxill continue wxith "progressixve" fish culture, there is a
dearth of hard data to substantiate this feeling. Exven (luring the
period of actixve contact, fexw of the cooperating farmers folloxx
adxvice completely and take adxvantage of the full Iproduc'tion
Lpotential possible in their pond. (See the section on socio-
cltural factors for further discussion of this prumblemn.)
Thbe aggregate production area of fishpond> in Caimeroon is
alsou quite smnall, something on the order of 250 .500 hectares.
Some success in strengthening the cadre ouf fish monitors can
certainlx be claimied. i'he ness emphasis toxxards miore
coimmercial fish production inay wxell generate draimmatic
examplles of larger, economically xviable production units. Peace
CorIps xvolunteers argue that moore time is needed for their
programn to achiexe the (lesired impact.
Technical Evaluation
As in 'Zaire, the use of Ti/a pia nilotica seemns app)ropriate to
Cameroon. Cam in on carp) and C/arias sp. are not likely to
produce comparable yields wxithout significant feed inputs that
appear iiopracticai hecause of expense and] limited axvailabilitx.
Thew species (10 haxve soic( potential in mnixed species poly culture
sy stein>. Tilapia grossh wxxill not he as good xx here temperatures
are cooler.
flatcherx efficiencx is not particularly good; some
knoss ledgeable technical assistance could significanutly increase
the inumber of fingerlings produced for distrihution wxithout
significant enlargement of facilities.
Fishponds on privale farm in Cameroon.
4'
47
'/ W?~
5,l
4
4 it4a WI
Economic Appraisal
Cameroon is typical of equatorial1 Africa in many respects, but
shows progress beyond several other countries in the area.
According to Surveys of African Economies from the Interna-
tional Monetary Fund, it has had a gross national product almost
equal to that of the Central African Empire, Chad, Congo, and
Cabon combined. The country has a poor transportation system
through its difficult terrain, and a small percentage of the popu-
lation is in the industrial sector. Its population growth rate has
been in the 2 percent range in recent years. The country has a
relatively well-developed educational system.
Agriculture has been the predominant element in the
economy in Cameroon in the past in terms of gross domestic
product, table 3. The economic structure is quite slow to change
in such areas, although agriculture has been declining as a
proportion of the total. Table 4 shows amounts of crops grown
primarily f or domestic consumption in the mid-sixties. The main
export crops are cocoa, cof fee, cotton, bananas, palm oil and
kernals, rubber, groundnuts, and tobacco.
Although Cameroon had a small fleet of deep sea fishing
vessels with a catch of 10,000 tons in the mid-sixties, and coastal
and inland artisanal catches of 46,000 tons (estimated), imports.
of fish reached almost 1,700 tons in 1964. The apparent need for
fish and its corresponding demand leave a significant potential
f or aquaculture.
LAND. Land suitable for fishponds seems rather scarce in
some areas of Cameroon, and apparently there are quite a few
alternative uses for land. Cof fee is the predominant agricultural
TABLE 3. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT OF CAMEROON BY SECTORS, 
1963-64
Sector Percent of total
Agriculture................................. 
41.3
Manufacturing and construction................. 
12.5
Commerce..................................25.
'Transportation ............................... 4.3
Other services ............................ ... 5.1
Public administration.......................... 9.6
Wages of domestic servants..................... 
1.7
TOTAL............................................ 100.0
Monetary sector .......................... 76.5
Subsistence sector......................... 
23.5
Private consumption .......................... 
72.9
Government consumption...................... 
14.1
Cross investment............. ............... 11.0
Plus exports ................................. 22.7
Minus imports........... .................... -20.7
G Ros DOMESTIC PRODU1CT--------------------------100.0
Source: Surveys of African Economies, (Washington, 
D.C.: Inter-
national Monetary Fund, 1968, p. 57).
TABLE 4. CROP' AREAS IN CAMEROON By REGION, 1964-65
Crop Hectares 
of crops by region
East West Total
Thou. Thou. Thou
Maize ........................... 232
Millet and sorghum................... 632
Paddy............................ 13
Yams and cocoyams................... 36
Sugar cane.......................... 20
Beans............................... 53
Taro ............................ 127
Cassava ................... I
Potatoes, plantains, vegetables......... 307 84 39~1
TOTAL...............................1,522 250 1,772
Tree crops........................ 615 229 844
Total area cultivated ......... 2,137 479 2,616
Source: Surveys of African Economies, Vol. 1, (Washington, DC.:
International Monetary Fund, 1968, p. 61).
interest and will displace other uses when put on a competitive
basis, i.e., when the resources are adaptable. Fishponds may
provide a way to use other agricultural wastes in the normal
operation of the farm enterprise. Rice would be the main direct
competitor for land and, in certain instances,'rice and fish may
be grown on given resources at the same time. The relatively
high elevation and cooler temperatures of a part of Cameroon
limit fish growth in comparison with other areas of the country.
Coats, sheep, chickens, and sometimes pigs are allowed to run
free on the land, but these animals offer no competition to fish
culture.
Mean size of farms is small in the various provinces and in the
country as a whole, table 5. The cultivated land tenure consists of
79 percent customary, 12 percent squatter, 5 percent rental, and
4 percent titled. Data on average yields for food crops and cash
crops, given in tables 6 and 7, show a sizable variability in
productivity ranges. Although productivity varies greatly from
province to province and within provinces, the data do show
that sizable opportunity costs exist in other enterprises for a part
of the agricultural land. These data also suggest that significant
amounts of proteinaceous foods and high-calorie foods are
available as was confirmed by an examination of markets in the
various cities. This result must also be weighed, however,
against the fact that more than 12,000 metric tons of fish were
imported into Cameroon in 1977.
In the Northwest, West, and North provinces, cold
mountainous grasslands are not conducive to production of
tropical fish species amenable to high-volume., low-cost output.
The Center-South and East provinces have some areas with
TABLE 5. FARM SIZE AND FAMILY SIZE IN CAMEROON BY PROVINCE
Average farm Average family
Province size 
size
Ha No.
North....................... 1.63 4.8
Eas . ... e......... _a -a1 1.81 4.9
Center-South ...... .......... 2.01 5.1
Littoral ..................... 1.48 4.6
West....................... 1.24 5.4
North-West................. 1.21 7.0
South-West................. 1.46 5.2
Cameroon.................. 1.59 5.2
Source: Marcel Ngue, Agriculture and Rural Development Statistics
(Yaounde:. USAID, May 1979, 1.3).
TABLE 6. AVERAGE YIELDS OF SELECTED FOOD CROPS IN CAMEROON
Crop Mean production Range
per ha/year
KgX-
Maize...................... 1,228 625-2,496
Rice (paddy)................ 1,261 269-1,938
Macabo-Toro............... 4,261 964-8,644
Cassava.................... 2.927 716-6,927
Plantain.................... 3,32 2,000-9,368
Groundnuts.................. 499 353- 729
Source:-Marcel Ngue , r-ilture and - Rural.. Development__ Statistics
Some areas do not grow Arabica coffee, tea, or cotton.
Source: Marcel Ngue, Agriculture and Rural Development Statistics
(Yaounde: USAID, May 1979).
20
good fish production potential. Water is a problem in parts of the
Center-South. Coastal supplies of fish limit the opportunity for
aquacultural development in the Littoral and South-West
provinces of the country. Problems related to land use in some
parts of the country are heavy poaching of fish, lack of
management ability, and lack of interest.
LABOR. Fisheries use labor which may be employed in many
other enterprises in Cameroon, but except for the pond
construction time, it may not be competitive with other types of
production. During harvest of coffee and other cash or food
crops, labor would be competitive, yet normal pond operations
require so little labor that the competition may be of no
consequence. Pond construction can also be arranged in a time
sequence in which it has little competition with other farming
activities. Excess family labor, including use of children's time,
may not interfere at all with the breadwinner's main job. Tables
6 and 7 suggest that there are significant opportunity costs in
other cash and food crop enterprises for the farm owner. Each
case must be resolved on an individual basis.
Peace Corps volunteers mentioned conditions suggesting a
backward-sloping supply curve for labor in some areas. This
condition seems to be fairly common in the area.
CAPITAL. The capital used in most pond construction is
minimal. It has competitive uses but is of such small value that it
can be ignored for competitive purposes for the family
production types of ponds. Larger commercial ponds could
require a significant amount of capital whose opportunity costs
in other uses would have to be considered.
COSTS, RETURNS, AND MARKETS. Peace Corps records
on 379 ponds in seven different departments in Cameroon
yielded a weighted mean production of 727 kilograms per hec-
tare per year. The overwhelming majority of the fish were
Tilapia nilotica, but there were small quantities of catfish and
carp. The mean size for a total of 863 ponds was slightly less than
0.2 hectare. The total impact of production is therefore very
small, regardless of input efforts and costs. About 50 percent of
the ponds were fertilized with local manures, and most received
composting of grass, cassava leaves, grain, wastes, and other
available products.
Data in table 2show that during the first 2 years a loss of $12.18
would occur from operation of a 0.1-hectare pond but thereafter
a positive return of $85.02 per year would occur. Specific areas
would yield much greater returns, but care must be used in
selection of species to suit the climate. Labor in construction and
operation was valued at $2.16 per day and fish was priced at
$1.92 per kilogram. Small fish in the market sold for around $1.68
per kilogram, while larger fish sold for as high as $2.88.
Socio-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development
GENERAL BACKGROUND. The potential for the diffusion
and continued use of fish culture technology is significantly less
attractive in Cameroon than that observed in Zaire. This is
particularly the case with the more prosperous areas of the
country (West Cameroon) in which a substantial majority of the
population is located. This lower potential can be attributed to
the higher economic and nutritional status of Cameroonians in
comparison with Zairians, which directly affects their motiva-
tion to engage in fish farming.
It is visibly apparent that the quality, quantity, and variety of
foods available in Cameroon are relatively high. Although a re-
cent nutritional survey conducted by the University of Califor-
nia at Los Angeles (UCLA) indicated that some sectors of the
population are not adequately fed, there is an abundance of
vegetable and animal protein at prices which offer less incentive
to farmers to engage in fish farming. The income available to
many rural families through the cultivation of such cash export
crops as coffee, cocoa, and tobacco is quite attractive and
significantly more than that which can be secured by marketing
fish. Where practiced, fish culture is generally regarded as
supplementary to other agricultural activity and, for some, as a
hobby. "La jelousie" is a part of village life and tends to constrain
those who aspire to, or accomplish, more than those around
them.
Apparently because of the availability of fish and other animal
proteins on the local market, the Cameroonians are more
selective in the types of fish they will buy. Some prefer fish of
500 grams and above. Others have complained of the boniness
of small tilapia. Clarias catfish is the most popular among
consumers. In terms of taste preferences, other freshwater
varieties tend to be favored over tilapia.
The institution of palm wine drinking seems much like that
encountered elsewhere. It appears to be economically more
important there, however, with many village men regularly
tapping their trees to sell wine for cash in nearby local markets.
In general, local village markets are active and sizable.
Traditional culture appears to be more deeply entrenched and
pervasive in rural Cameroon than in the other countries visited,
particularly with regard to secret societies. In communities
without a regular police force, jail, or other forms of modern
administration, which are small enough so that conflicts could
become seriously divisive, secret societies with their supernat-
ural backing, masks, costumes, and nightly operations act as a
deterrent to offenders. An offender or deviant can be punished
by an impersonal and unidentifiable body representing the tra-
ditional interests of the community. The fact that the societies
continue to thrive in many communities suggests that they may
have filled a need and meted out justice in a form acceptable to
the villages in which they persist.
AGRICULTURAL SKILLS - GARDENING AND
ANIMAL CARE. In general, the experience in Cameroon indi-
cates a relatively high level of skill on the part of rural people in
both gardening and animal care. Many farmers have consider-
able experience in basic agricultural methods, particularly the
cultivation of cash crops for export (coffee, cocoa, and
tobacco), which may have influenced or reinforced the practice
of similar skills in other forms of productivity. Some groups also
have lengthy successful experience with the rearing of cattle for
market. There remains, however, only a moderate incentive to
transfer such skills to fish culture.
THEFT AND POACHING. Stealing of fish from ponds is not
regarded as a serious problem in Cameroon and does not seem
to influence farmers' decisions to engage or not engage in fish
farming. Such offenses are regarded as serious and have often
been the object of local tribunals. Those apprehended have been
given harsh fines and reprimands. Estimates of the proportion of
fish lost to poachers range from 10 to 20 percent. Only one case
was encountered of a farmer giving up his fish culture because of
theft problems.
SEX ROLES AND FISH CULTURE DEVELOPMENT. In a
few ethnic-tribal groups, the men take a more active role in the
growing of subsistence foods than they do elsewhere in West
Africa. The only women directly involved with fish culture tend
to be prosperous widows or successful entrepreneurs with other
interests, and these represent less than 5 percent of all fish
farmers. Although wives may aid their husbands at some phase
of his farming, such as during the harvest, the only continuing
21
female participation involves the few wives who sell their
husbands' fish at pondside or at the village market.
Some of the low status assigned to fish farming may be
attributed to the perception on the part of many males that it
does not legitimately qualify as a cash crop (i.e., men's work). If
such is the case, women as well as qualified adolescents may be
the best target group for fish culture. Some Peace Corps
volunteers have suggested that fish culture could be effectively
diffused and practiced by a 4-H Club-type organization
adapted to the needs of Cameroonian village youth.
DISTRIBUTION OF FOODS WITHIN THE FAMILY.
Given the greater availability of food in Cameroon, the general
level of nutrition should be significantly better than in some
other parts of West Africa. More and better quality foods appear
to be be available to the younger and lower status members of
the family. It is apparent that making appropriate foods avail-
able to the consumers in Cameroon and West Africa generally is
only a part of the solution and that an educational and informa-
tion program is required to improve the consumer knowledge
about basic nutrition.
Nigeria
Project Review
Nigeria is a large country in which internal communication
and travel are difficult, so observations were centered in two
areas: Oyo State, where the best organization of fisheries is
reputed to be, and Bendel State, where a large land clearing and
pond development scheme is underway.
Oyo State, with its capital in Ibadan, has a fisheries organiza-
tion within the Ministry of Agriculture. The fisheries organiza-
tion has three functions: operation of government freshwater
production fish farms of which there are eight, operation of four
fish seedling production centers, and management of the cap-
ture fisheries, especially in the 10 large reservoirs within the
state. An American fisheries advisor provided by AID on a cost
reimbursement basis had worked with the Government at Iba-
dan earlier, and several of the staff who worked with the advisor
continue in significant fisheries administrative positions in the
country.
The production farms are first responsible to demonstrate
effective systems and also to serve as marketing centers. Each
farm is reported to have about 12 hectares of ponds.
The fish seedling production centers sell fish fingerlings to
farmers as referred by extension biologists and have also
distributed fish to other states and even to other countries.
Tilapia, Heterotis, and Clarias are the kinds of fish produced.
The center visited at Oyo City had really just started as a project
this year and had an FAO expert assigned with it. To date, they
claimed to have distributed 38,200 Tilapia and Clarias
fingerlings. There were 28 private ponds, ranging in size from 1
to 4 hectares, functioning in their service area. Producers were
told to expect crops of 500-1,000 kilograms per hectare in 9
months if directions were followed, including feeding or
manuring with dining hall scraps, cow dung, cassava roots, and
basic slag. Extension service was provided in a 5 to 50-kilometer
radius and consisted of pond site evaluation, stocking
recommendations, and assistance in purchasing fingerlings.
Bendel State Farm is a land clearing and commercial
agricultural development scheme that includes a large fish-arm
at Aviara. Malcolm Johnson, an advisor from Auburn
University, has helped with the development of the fish project
from the beginning some 4 years ago. The project has been
plagued with difficulties, mostly financial, but now has 320
hectares of delta jungle forest cleared and 40 hectares of ponds
in common carp production with plans to develop 120 more
hectares of ponds as soon as the rainy season subsides. The
advisor reports this to be the largest and best constructed
venture in West Africa. Common carp are being raised because
feeds are available and large fish are desired, which sell at a good
price. Although sales are just beginning, the demand, even by
low income people, is substantial. Return on investment has
been projected at 30 percent per year. Interest in the project by
other states and private investors is high, and a training school
has been proposed as well as a research component to be
incorporated into the farm. Earlier problems with fry
production appear to have been solved with maturation of
breeding stock, although fingerling output still is not as good as
expected. Attempts to feed and grow Heterotis have not been
competitive with carp.
Technical Evaluation
Although Nigeria has a number of fishery biologists and
schools for training, their efficiency needs to be improved to
inspire confidence. It is clear that funds for station operation are
limited and central control creates bureaucratic entanglements
making field operations difficult. Few of the biologists have
actually been trained in aquaculture and have a grasp of the
practical aspects of pond management. Complaints were heard
about foreign experts who were brought in attempting to apply
temperate region techniques in the tropical environment. Other
reports were heard of Oriental specialists being brought in on
projects for which support failed to materialize.
Basic aquaculture will certainly work as well in Nigeria as in
many other regions. Surveys indicate that plenty of sites for
pond development exist. Swamp lands in the Niger delta might
also be used for culture of brackishwater-tolerant species.
The large commercial approach bears watching and may
prove to be the impetus to get fish farming moving. Intensive
fish culture with feeding is a question of economics, and it now
appears that Nigeria has the economic foundation necessary to
make such systems practical on a large scale.
Economic Appraisal
Nigeria has had a great deal of economic progress which has
increased at a significant rate since the oil boom. This substantial
increase in economic activity has, however, resulted in varied
problems for the economy. In 1979, U.S. News and World
Report reported a per capita income of $400 in Nigeria. The
sudden increase in income has strained capacities for various
types of capital improvements, both private and public.
According to the above source, unbalanced income distribution,
corruption, waste, and inflation are still problems. The country
borrowed close to $2 billion in 1978 and its agricultural base has
been undermined. The above results have necessitated austerity
programs, import restrictions, and new taxes on certain imports.
The Wall Street Journal in 1978 reported essentially the same
conditions mentioned above. The government is now
attempting to lower expectations of the populace and to quell
the flow from rural areas to the cities. The push toward going
back to the basics should favor exploitation of non-petroleum
resources, such as are used in fish culture.
LAND. Nigeria has a wide variety of land types, much of
which is adaptable to fishponds. The land in general has positive
opportunity costs, rice being the primary competitor. A multi-
22
$
- ' _
Hand labor is important in pond operation and maintenance
(Nigeria).
plicitx itt 'ashi ttth foum
1 
cropjs is grownit ant] itore aiitial puroteini
xx itul elp fill foodI nleimatnis frotit this restoirce.
LA'i BOR) . 'I' ere sceitis to be a sizable excess of labor inl N igeri it
xx inhi ('001(1 be ciii joy( inl piuti fishi c'ilture. -Ihleri is at
I)ositix i' opportunits ('lst fit soilic itnstainces, illx olxing uise of
labor ill ('rijitg sxstems or onl uitr jobs. Il itntai itistaiwcs the
excess faitilx labor \\ ill lixN c a loss , if not zero, iippotrtuinitx (tist.
CA PITIA L Except for the large cotmmtercial puitill operatiits,
tile c'apitail ins\ olx e(l ill puut(Is is of muinitnlil 
itliujottatine itt N, Ige"
ria. It \N ill noit cuter into c'alcuilationis i c'osts itit rtutrns ill tile
foiliox\ ing anilx six,
CO( STS, RiEl I IIN S ANM) IAliK 17 S. ile jiroiidictix it\ of
poitIs in) Nig~eria xwais assijited to be Hte saiie its iii Zaire, 9111
kiloioats pet liectutrc. 'Ilhc price pter kiloui tail uiseni it) ('tl ilt-
tions \N its $2.71 Moust iif tHe fishi xolitite friotm potis wxits tilipia.
Thel( returns for thec first 2 x ears sltiixs~ ei t liss iii $25.62, hit
folloxx inig x ears shioss eld it Pousitixve t esidlual itt $159.78'. A labor
c'harge of $4.12 pet (fit\ xx its tiseni itt thie calcutlationis, balsed onl
lahorers' xx ages inl tile area (see 1) 16 and( tabhle 2, p). 8).
Soclo-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development
GFN E Al Xl.13X(KG( W 1 tN). As itt othier paurts if fte region.,
Nigerian tatruters tiutnhitiiiitully itx ti tile utse of swatltips atitl
bottouin la(is xx ichli ist e ewe'llent potential for fishl cutilte and
thle cuiltix ittiuui uof soitit't Ilpes itt nttps. Ill sotte (lumilltities.
streamis itinh( tier \\sct areas liax e b~een reguirnienI xxithi xiipersti-
tillt o it s pilaces 55 hitl c spirits Ii 'I' Ilest' il is N\x(Iii' t itlithuti
tllx cittsidcred to be sutcrt'(l. its xx en' somie trees ii(h utlolals.
At prestt Nigeria is one( of tl)e ititst rapidIN lantigiig
~K
societies iX frica, largelx liecalise of the signlificatit increase inl
ilon 15-i eIfont oil exports. Imdustrial expiiiloi ctiitiis
att at rapil] pace, pro\ ixiling intaux w\ ness itphix miett opphortuities
altd altering traditinal social pa~ttterns. Nigeria's cities, aitlad
atiitoigL the contiiitts largest, continlue 
to gross attn attract
pleople' front rural areas. As at result, lons x illagics ate populatedI
b\ tin'\ cr\ ouitg and( the xci er 1(1.i tlosc \x Ito litox e less
opphortiiitx or fintes 't ittll ) in igw to uirbani ceniters. Econtomiic
gi 05o\ tlIi i ii o thIier se ct or s it it(I thIIe ax t ai1abilIi t \ o f 100o(1 itIpIII)or te (I
fromt abroadI (andl paidI for by oil rex\ cones) lots sigitificiltix
renluiceci the incentix e to injrox c x illatge b's el agricultitic. '['le
itiflos\ of oil \x caltit hais apparentix eiteolit tige(l tnanx\ to belie\ e
thiat there is ino dfiiect litnk betwex ciiiicoit atnd thle atliolitt of
labor that one( applies il ii enterpirise. attn
1 
this lots relicell
iiiitiatix e.
Perhiaps thie best target grroujs for sint
11
scale fislt cuiltutre
xx otit] be x illagers tol the poorer' reg.ions of thie coutitr xx ito still
bhxve to cope) xxith Hte annual "iiitgrx season"' (April, \laN andl)(
ltne). thet pertodl ill x\ Iticli thtex% ist liv e off stot ((I foodIs xx ifle
xx iitltg tort awX nes lirx ext, ia those xxhio ie ititetestenl ilt profit
altct ilitix es.
A GIBII(Ct l'' H 1 A S K1I, 1.8 - R 1P) E'N IN G \I)
ANIMAL CAR(XIE. Xlthouiglt the atgricuiltiii-al Skills folund ittong
Nigeriais rutal poputlatioit ire comptiarahble to thiose of the o)ther
counttries \ isited., tliire are attoitobet of suiccessf ul uttediitoi iii(1
lot ge-scatle poiiltr\ atid otlier ag~ricultuiral enter prises. *\ig.erit
also ('tij.ox s aitie11lt Itigltet proportion of tecloticalls tromed
peoiple ill its laboii force. TIilts factor, niititie \\ ithi 'oitjpti-
tioti for hind ait]l tile atioitt of tin'cstittitt reijuit ed fot pond~
cotisti uttioti. sugg"ests thiat tie gi catest potetial for fish cuiltutre
inl toaix arcits iii Nsigerit is wsitli tiiduistiial scatle acttitos.
('()N(l ''ls OFl \LA ) tM\ \fNili ll'. Ritpuid tdusiul
ttttiO l iii )Iuli/atiiiii itl tho' I lugox' lluiiliulittlm otluirpoiuuot'
igt its lots i' ii unit 'sinI tiii coiii iiitio iiiI i liii ii i il ii ilt'e it
IV
difficult for rural farmers to expand their holdings. These areas
are unlikely targets for small-scale fish farming.
As the Department of Fisheries must survey and make a
feasibility study of pond sites before aspiring farmers may
secure government loans, land ownership disputes have been
rare. Experiments with communal ponds have not succeeded.
THEFT AND POACHING. Owners of larger ponds in Nige-
ria can usually afford the services of a sentinel and can also
construct fences to prevent theft. As a result, their losses were
considerably lower.
SOCIAL LIABILITIES FOR HOST COMMUNITIES. Many
villages have had fishponds for 'some years and have become
accommodated to them. The use of better methods to manage
the ponds has brought about no serious problems, although a
few efforts involving communal ponds apparently terminated
with bad feelings among those involved.
Those who are most attracted to new pond development tend
to be the more prosperous villagers, such as the owners of the
local mini-bus service, merchants, civil servants, and well-to-do
landowners. If fish culture in Nigeria becomes lucrative and
widespread, fish farmers who are already financially secure
would benefit the most. This would tend to further accentuate
the economic differences between the villagers.
USE OF PROFITS. Fish culture has not been particularly
profitable in Nigeria. It is regarded as an auxiliary enterprise or
"something extra" by most 
of those involved in other, 
more
lucrative economic pursuits. More prosperous people see it as a
kind of hobby. Smaller farmers use the cash for school fees,
medical care, financial emergencies, and ceremonial obliga-
tions, of which there are many throughout the year. Compared
with other sources of income in Nigeria's economy, the money
earned from fish culture at present is negligible and provides
little incentive for small farmers.
Liberia
The Republic of Liberia, founded in the first part of the 19th
Century by freed slaves who immigrated from America, is a
small country of about 1,750,000 people. Rubber, iron ore, and
timber are its most important resources and exports. Agricultur-
al production has experienced modest improvements over the
last several years, and the country has encouraged development
efforts on the part of AID, the Peace Corps, UNDP, the World
Bank, and other international donors. Because of the long coast
(537 kilometers), indigenous capture fisheries have been a small
but traditionally important specialty of some Liberian seaside
villages and ethnic groups. Over the last 20 years, marine fisher-
ies have been given significant priority over inland fisheries
development, and an efficient fleet of fishing vessels has been
created by the Mesurado Corporation, a large agricultural and
industrial concern.
Project Review
AID conducted a small-scale pond fish culture program from
1951 through 1967. An American technical advisor was provided
to create and sustain research and demonstration programs
based at the Central Agricultural Experiment Station at
Suakoko. Initially, some farmers in the immediate area built
ponds as did the Firestone plantations. Experiments were
conducted on a number of species in cooperation with local
counterparts, one of whom was sent to the United States for an
advanced degree in fisheries biology and who returned to direct
the station in the mid-1960's. AID's accomplishments were
primarily in the establishment of fish station facilities, the
conduct of several experiments, and the training of Liberian fish
culturists. Following the AID project, the Government of
Liberia (GOL) gave rather low priority to fish culture but
continued to staff the station. More recently, the GOL has
indicated a much stronger interest in fish culture. The resources
and staff required to maintain a successful program are not now
available, however. The GOL recently employed a Ph.D. level
biologist from Pakistan to advise and conduct research at the
station, but more resources and trained staff are required to
build a continuing program of experimentation able to provide
important information about the biological and economic
aspects of fish culture under local conditions. The only proposed
non-GOL support will come from the U.S. Peace Corps, which
will shortly place two fish culture volunteers at the station. They
will be responsible for setting up demonstration projects in rural
areas. The volunteers' experience will guide future PC/Liberia
efforts concerning fish farming. If the program succeeds, some
expansion can be anticipated.
A most interesting direction for fish culture in Liberia con-
cerns industrial-scale production. In conjunction with their large
poultry, small livestock, rice, and cassava operations, the Mesu-
rado Corporation is also in the process of developing fishponds
of about 140 hectares next to the country's major highway. With
a future estimated production of 700 tons per year, the Mesurado
ponds could have a significant impact on the amount of protein
available on the market. It is doubtful, however, that it would
have beneficial effects on the diets of the rural poor in many
areas who reside some distance from distribution points and
who have little cash income.
Conditions appear good for the development of community
fish culture in Liberia if it is included in a more comprehensive
rural development and agricultural extension program.
Although previous extension efforts were on a small scale and
incorporated fish farming into the routine of only a few farmers,
there are currently two large-scale integrated rural development
projects in which fish culture could play a useful role. There is
also a project proposal with USAID to significantly expand and
upgrade the capacity of the Central Agricultural Experiment
Station at Suakoko where fish culture systems could be tested.
Over a 12- to 15-year period, it is anticipated that an integrated
agricultural experiment and extension program will be
implemented involving both American experts and Liberians
selected for graduate training at American universities. It would
be particularly useful to include fish culture along with the other
basic agricultural sciences to be involved in the program.
Although such an effort would be premature at present, some
research should examine Liberia's potential for rice-fish
cultivation, a form of integrated production that has worked
well in certain rice-growing countries.
Technical Evaluation
The Liberian fish culture experience is insufficient to give a
sound technical assessment. Ponds that were seen were
generally deeper than necessary and little managed for fish
production. There is no reason to think fish would not grow, but,
as in any tropical country, there needs to be a careful assessment
of the extent of suitable sites for development. A report from the
adjacent Sierra Leone suggests that many locations are too sandy
or acidic, and porous lateritic soil conditions exist that are
unfavorable for good fish production. There are no real
hatcheries or operating test facilities or trained local
aquaculturists in-country, so any efforts for massive fish culture
24
development will have to start from a low level. In turn, the
proposal to strengthen the Central Agricultural Experiment
Station includes some interest in fish. The large integrated rural
development projects might prove to be a vehicle for
distribution of production once local feasibility is demonstrated.
Economic Appraisal
GENERAL BACKGROUND. Liberia has strong ties to the
United States, going back to its settlement by freed slaves from
this country. Its economy is based largely on exporting iron ore
and rubber. Iron ore has had a rather difficult market since the
mid-1970's, damaging the country's economic stability. Other
minerals of importance are gold and diamonds. Rice, coffee,
and sugar are among the variety of agricultural crops that are
cultivated extensively.
LAND. Liberia has some land adaptable to fishponds, but a
high proportion of soils in the nation are gravelly and laterite
types which do not hold water well. Rice is the main competitor
for land from an opportunity cost standpoint.
LABOR. Excess labor seems to be available in Liberia as in the
other countries surveyed. Unemployment and underemploy-
ment are common and the day labor rate was fairly low, as
shown in the data on costs and returns of fish production. Large
rubber plantations have a sizable demand for labor. Mining is
also an alternative use of labor. A large number of crops can be
grown, but these offer little conflict in the labor market because
of the minimal amount of labor entailed in fish farming opera-
tions.
CAPITAL. Capital requirements were minimal for small
fishponds. Large commercial operations require a high amount
of capital, however, but are self supporting and not subject to
needs of government aid on technology management.
COSTS, RETURNS, AND MARKETS. Liberia seems to have
a weaker market for fresh fish in terms of prices paid in the
market than do the other countries in the study. Relatively cheap
frozen fish and coastal proximity seemed to affect prices in some
instances. Conditions for production seem to merit use of a 910
kilograms per hectare rate as in Zaire from pond fish culture
involving tilapia in the majority of operations. At $1.25 per
kilogram, a 0.1-hectare pond would show a loss of $19.10 during
the first 2 years and a positive return of $64.15 thereafter. Large
commercial operations with local manures and good manage-
ment should be able to give much higher productivity than the
small farm ponds.
Socio-Cultural Factors and Fish Culture Development
GENERAL BACKGROUND. Although Liberia has bor-
rowed several features from American society over many
decades, indigenous West African traditions remain active, par-
ticularly in inland rural areas. There are several tribal-ethnic
groups which specialize in capture fisheries, but the vast major-
ity of the population is involved with rural agriculture. Fish is a
popular food, being distributed in smoked or frozen form in all
cities and in most larger towns.
The pressure toward conformity in village life is as great in
rural Liberia as elsewhere in the region, but the schism between
traditional and more westernized persons seems wider. Some
have suggested that many villagers regard those who have left to
seek a better way of life in urban areas as "outsiders" who are no
longer accepted as members of the community. Where this view
prevails, those adopting a different way of life do so at the
expense of their standing in their home communities. Such
difficulties are apparently regarded as being well compensated
for by the advantages, however, and the rural to urban migration
of young people continues to be extensive. As a result, many
rural communities are populated by the very young and very
old and many of the remaining farmers are older people with
little exposure to modern agricultural methods. Plantation jobs
are said to be particularly attractive because they permit
workers to improve themselves without having to share the
fruits of their labor with their extended families. Although wages
are not high, workers do receive free medical care, free
education for their children, and subsidized housing and food,
benefits which cannot be transferred to others.
A related but more distinctive feature of Liberian society is the
traditional differentiation between those who are the descen-
dants of the former slaves from America who founded the
republic and the indigenous people who make up the bulk of the
population. The "Americans" have been active in the diffusion
of Western technology and ideas, and a much larger proportion
of them have been trained in technical fields. Many have been
active in the creation and management of medium- and large-
scale agricultural enterprises. Like most other developing areas,
Liberia faces several dilemmas centering about the develop-
ment of industrial type agricultural projects which offer consid-
erable economies of scale, and those which can serve the needs
of the rural poor who have little cash with which to buy the
commercially produced foods.
A further important difference between Liberia and the other
countries visited is the much greater role of rice in the daily diet.
Rice consumption is as high as anywhere in Asia (much greater
than in the other countries visited) and is by far the most
important crop cultivated by rural farmers. Even those who
make much more money growing cash crops devote a good part
of their labor to the less profitable and highly labor intensive
cultivation of rice. For most, it would be regarded as unthink-
able not to cultivate some rice for family consumption.
AGRICULTURAL SKILLS - GARDENING AND
ANIMAL CARE. There is a considerable range in the level of
agricultural skills found in Liberia. The country has some sophis-
ticated, industrial-scale agricultural projects which promise to
expand. Poultry production is being carried out on a large scale
and is quite successful. Industrial-scale fish culture, initiated
with the help of Taiwanese technicians, shows considerable
potential.
Rural farmers work extremely hard in the cultivation of their
rice, but the labor available for small-scale agriculture in many
villages is limited because of rural to urban migration and the
low status that farming has in the eyes of younger people. The
potential for small-scale aquaculture in Liberia lies primarily
with small acreage, rural landholders who have appropriate
sites and wish to engage in a supplementary form of productiv-
ity. Increased pond fish culture may produce some cash from
local sales, but the bulk of the fish produced would be for family
consumption.
CONCEPTS OF LAND OWNERSHIP. Attitudes and prac-
tices regarding land ownership are much like those observed
elsewhere in West Africa. A study currently underway by the
Land Tenure Center of the University of Wisconsin will provide
an in-depth analysis of land holding in Liberia which should be
valuable in future development plans.
THEFT AND POACHING. As in the other places where
cultivation of communal ponds has been attempted, there has
25
been a lack of consensus regarding harvest rights which has led
to accusations of theft and the prompt failure of some projects.
SEX ROLES AND FISH CULTURE DEVELOPMENT. A
major difference between Liberia and the other countries visited
deals with the division of labor and decision making on the part
of man and wife. The cultivation of other crops, including cash
crops, commences only after the rice has been planted. The
labor intensive character of rice production in Liberia, most of
which takes place in upland areas, requires a much greater effort
on the part of males than was encountered in the cultivation of
other subsistence foods in the countries visited earlier. In
December and January, the men clear the land and burn off wild
vegetation. Both men and women then plant the rice seed.
Women are responsible for weeding. Harvesting is done by both
men and women, who use short knives in cutting one head at a
time.
There is a realistic possibility that village women would be a
much better target group for the diffusion of fish culture than
would men. In some areas, they engage in traditional, low-
productive fish culture in the period following the annual dry
season. It is also true that in many tribal-ethnic groups in Liberia,
the senior wife is the prime decision-maker and manager of
family affairs. She makes decisions about the division of labor,
gives work assignments, controls marketing, and may even
recruit other wives for her husband. In many areas, female
demonstration agents working with senior wives may be an
effective way of promoting fish culture technology and manage-
ment skills.
DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD WITHIN THE FAMILY. Li-
berian practices regarding the distribution of food within fami-
lies followed the pattern encountered elsewhere in West Africa.
It would be anticipated, however, that efforts to improve nutri-
tional practices should, where appropriate, be aimed toward
senior wives.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
Socio-Cultural Considerations and Recommendations
Program Design and Administration
1. Every project should make provisions for an extension
effort, staffed by local people wherever possible, to ensure the
continuation of a fish culture program over the long term.
Without an effective local extension component, there is little
probability that farmers would continue to practice fish culture.
2. Excessive administrative layering of fish culture programs
under other agriculture or fishery programs should be
discouraged, since such organization decreases the probability
that a program will be effective in responding to local needs.
3. Differences between the perceptions of PCV's, AID staff,
and local government officials are common, due in part to
different program criteria and to the fact that individuals in each
organization seek to inform different groups. These differences
in points of view should be considered as inevitable and should
not significantly detract from overall project function.
4. Coercive fish culture efforts, which in the past have
required individuals or communities to construct ponds, have
been significantly less effective and productive than guided
voluntary efforts. They also have created considerable
resistance to the practice of fish culture in many communities.
Compulsory programs should not be encouraged or supported.
5. Efforts to build and operate communal ponds have
generally failed wherever they have been attempted in West
Africa. They should not be encouraged.
Training
1. The training of PCV's and local fish monitors should
continue to emphasize instruction in socio-cultural aspects of
technology transfer, innovation, and social change, employing
case studies or examples from areas similar to those in which the
volunteers will be working. Such training should equip PCV's
and monitors to objectively describe their experience and that of
the people with whom they will be working.
2. With regard to the training of PCV's, local monitors, or
farmers, a small quality program with a limited number of
participants is preferred over a larger but less effective effort of
lower quality.
3. If possible, some experimentation should be undertaken in
which both PCV's and their counterparts are trained jointly in-
country.
4. The language training of PCV's working in fish culture
should include the basic vocabulary of fisheries and pond
construction.
Program Implementation
1. There is a tendency for second "generation" or beyond
PCV's working in fish culture to continue to work with farmers
who in the past have been the most receptive to innovations and
most successful in fish culture efforts. This should not be
permitted. Instead, fish culture programs should seek to extend
the technology to new clients. If no other suitable potential
farmers are available in the area, consideration should be given
to phasing out the program from the community involved and to
monitor the efforts of farmers once the PCV has gone.
2. PCV's and monitors should attempt to identify and gain the
support of influential individuals or interest groups in the
community who may be affected by fish culture projects. Some
contact with such persons, even if brief, tends to be beneficial to
a project. A new way of doing things is often perceived as a
threat to the existing community order simply because it is
unknown.
3. Although both PVC's and local monitors are often
encouraged to work to improve the well-being of the least
fortunate individuals in a community, most successful fish
farmers are those who have been successful in other endeavors
and have other agricultural efforts underway. They should be
recognized as potentially the most receptive target group in
typical communities.
4. Any village-level development effort should consider
"costs and rewards" in relation to the potential fish farmer's
status within the community. The "audience" which the poten-
tial farmer seeks to please may regard increased material
rewards as less important than adhering to traditional or conven-
tional forms of "unproductive" conduct.
5. Instruction and demonstration should emphasize, at all
phases, the ways in which fish culture is often analogous to a
biological system with which the farmer is familiar, such as the
growth of children, the raising of small animals, or the
cultivation of cassava or other crops.
6. Demonstration ponds should replicate the actual
26
conditions and use the same resources available to farmers in the
area concerned. Farmers tend to reject a system which produces
unrealistically high yields that cannot be attained in the field.
7. PCV's should not become involved in repetitive support
tasks, such as supplying fertilizer, food, or fingerlings for ponds,
but should maintain their advisory roles up to their most
practical limit, emphasizing the need for independent effort on
the part of the client farmer. This approach would encourage the
development of behavioral patterns that would continue in the
absence of a supportive PCV.
8. Fingerlings should be sold at modest prices to farmers
rather than given to them without charge. The attitude prevails
in West Africa, as elsewhere, that "something given for nothing
has no value." A modest charge would infuse the fingerlings with
some value in the eyes of the farmer, and his concern for them
would be accordingly greater.
9. During the harvest of their individual ponds, farmers
should be encouraged to have a third party (non-kin) handle the
actual sales. This method would increase profits and the
probability that he would continue fish culture by reducing
claims for gift fish on the part of relatives.
10. If ponds fail or have low levels of productivity, an effort
should be made to identify and disseminate the reasons for the
failure among other potential fish farmers in a community.
11. The role of "magic" in community life should not be
minimized or ignored. An understanding of local beliefs which
can work to promote the success of fish culture should be
encouraged among PCV's or monitors. For example, some
"magic" can be useful in discouraging 
the theft of fish in ponds,
thereby promoting a better harvest.
12. Given the colonial heritage found in many rural areas
which gives higher status to "Europeans" and the accompanying
belief that such outsiders can do things that indigenous people
cannot, model ponds should not be built or managed by PCV's
themselves. The success of a pond solely built by a PCV may be
attributed to his racial status or place of origin rather than to the
methods he or she employed. Although personal credibility is
important, PCV's should emphasize the fact that it is the
methods used which produce success and that any farmer with
the resources can do the same.
Information Efforts
1. Some West African groups give the written word higher
credibility than the spoken word. Ideas or techniques expressed
in French or English are sometimes also seen to be more valid
than those presented in a local language. In areas where such
beliefs prevail, publications in a "prestige" language could be
used to promote a program. The degree of literacy would limit
the success of such materials in some instances.
2. In communities which have been bombarded by extensive
information efforts or well-publicized government develop-
ment programs, a modest or low profile information program to
diffuse information about fish culture may be more effective
than a large-scale, "hard-sell" effort. Over-claiming the benefits
of fish culture should be strongly avoided.
Project Evaluation
1. The criteria for judging the "success" or "failure" of fish
culture projects should make use of conventional measures of
productivity (number of ponds built, kilos of fish produced per
hectare, profitability) but also consider less tangible benefits
such as:
the instruction of local monitors and farmers;
increases in the well-being of the concerned population of a
more temporary nature;
the growth of awareness of the mutual social and economic
interests on the part of the community residents;
the promotion of improved, effective niethods or principles
of production;
the growth of knowledge and habits which may be trans-
ferred to other forms of agricultural productivity (small
animal husbandry, poultry);
the expression of American interest in the rural population
of the country concerned.
2. Any evaluation of the PCV's or monitors should be relative
to what can be realistically expected in a community, recogniz-
ing that great differences commonly exist between villages and
areas (i.e., acceptance of new ideas, level of agricultural expe-
rience, local political structure).
Public Health and Environmental Discussion
The environmental advantages of pond construction in soil
and water conservation are well understood and need not be
repeated in this report. In any event, the scale of expected
development is so small that negligible environmental impacts
are foreseen. The one area of concern is the role of pond
development in the spread of water-borne diseases. A discussion
of the more common water associated diseases follows.
Schistosomiasis
Schistosomes are small parasitic blood flukes that cause a
disease known as schistosomiasis or bilharzia. At least three
species infective to man are endemic to West Africa and are of
concern because of their chronic debilitating effect on the
general health of the host. Schistosome eggs are discharged in
human feces or urine and upon contact with freshwater hatch
into small miracidia that must penetrate the body of selected
snail species if they are to survive. Within the snail, a secondary
host, the immature flukes undergo a further metamorphosis to
larval cercariae that emerge from the snail and may penetrate
the skin of a suitable mammalian host coming in contact with
water containing the cercariae. Once in the definitive host, the
flukes enter the circulatory system where they migrate and may
mature, mate, and produce new eggs. The eggs break out of
capillaries into the gut or bladder or may accumulate in the liver,
lungs, and other tissues causing inflammation, lesions, and
reduced capacity to work and resist diseases.
Increased rate of infection with schistosomiasis has been
associated with some irrigation and water storage projects in
West Africa so there is concern that development of fishponds
will also exacerbate the problem. A few of the Peace Corps
volunteers working with aquaculture in the Central African
Empire have contracted the disease and volunteers are now
generally counseled against activities that might lead to their
exposure. Reliable data about specific distribution and
incidence of infections are generally not available. Most of the
fisheries people who were asked about the disease expressed the
opinion (sometimes erroneously) that, "It is not a problem in our
area." While it is likely true that schistosomiasis is not a problem
in many local areas, infections are widespread enough and
migration of carriers is common enough that any project
development should take into account the risks and incorporate
procedures to minimize these risks.
27
Well constructed ponds should have steep sides and little
shallow area where snail-enhancing vegetation would abound.
Unfortunately, few ponds meet these specifications. All too
many weed-choked and half full ponds were observed in which
snails could proliferate. At least two fish species common in
West African fish culture, Clarias lazera and Tilapia machrochir,
have been claimed to feed upon and eliminate unwanted snails.
Biological control using these fish species or other known
molluscivores offers some potential.
West Africans were not observed to use human night soil in
fishponds, indicating that the idea is not aesthetically attractive
in the region. However, pit latrines and selected direction of
urination away from water should be encouraged. Small
children may be particularly difficult to discipline in this regard.
Treatment of schistosomiasis in humans is possible, but drugs
used are harsh and any one treatment might not be 100 percent
effective. Control of the disease usually focuses on eradication
of the vector snails or education and human sanitation. Snails
favor slow moving or shallow standing freshwater where
attached algae abound, such as when there is an accumulation of
aquatic weeds and dead vegetative matter. It is possible to dry
or chemically treat streams and ponds, but the treatment must
be repeated to control repopulation. Chemical treatment
involves expense and sophistication not thought practical for
subsistence-level farmers in West Africa.
Malaria
Mosquito-borne malaria is prevalant in most of West Africa
and because mosquitoes spend their early life in water, the
concern has been expressed that building ponds will increase
mosquito breeding habitat. Many fish, however, will eat mos-
quito larvae so the concern is not justified provided ponds are
not too congested with grass and weeds that offer protection to
mosquito larvae. On the other hand, pond development fre-
quently involves clearing and use of swampy areas more favor-
able to mosquito breeding prior to development.
River Blindness (Onchorcerciasis)
River blindness caused by the parasite transmitted through
the bite of the bloodsucking flies of the genus Simulium is not
considered related to pond development. The larval flies are
aquatic, but frequent areas of rapid current that generally are
not appropriate for pond construction. Formation of large
reservoirs that innundate stretches of river rapids have generally
reduced the incidence of river blindness.
Sleeping Sickness
Sleeping sickness transmitted by the tsetse fly is also endemic
to much of West Africa and limits areas available for livestock
grazing. Tsetse flies need moist shade, such as found under trees
along water courses in the savannah. One of the control
measures is to cut out trees near which the flies breed. To the
extent that pond development removes trees, there would be a
reduction in the number of flies, but pond development might
also bring people into areas where chances of exposure are
greater. In turn, the fact that livestock cannot thrive in the area
suggests that animal protein coming from fish would be all the
more welcome in the diets of local populations.
28
SELECTED REFERENCES
(1) ACKERMAN, W. C., G. F. WHITE, AND E. B. WORTHINGTON
(Editors). 1973. Man-made Lakes: Their Problems and Environ-
mental Effects. Geophysical Monograph 17, American
Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. p. 847.
(2) AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 1970. AID
Economic Data Book: Africa. Washington, D.C.
(3) ANTHONIO, Q. B. O. AND M. O. IJERE. 1973. Uboma Develop-
ment Project 1964-1972. London: Shell International Petroleum,
Ltd. (Mimeo).
(4) CLARKE, R. C., I. A. AKINBODE, AND Y. O. K. ODEBUNMI. 1967.
Case Studies of Four Nigerian Villages: Western Region.
Ibadan: Department of Extension and Rural Sociology, Univ. of
Ibadan. (Mimeo).
(5) DI PALMA, SALVATORE, JOHN H. GROVER, STEPHEN MALVESTUTO,
KATERINE VANDEMAELE, AND DIANNE BLANE. 1976. Burundi
Highland Fisheries Development. International Center for
Aquaculture, Auburn University, Auburn University, Ala.
(6) DiscussioN PAPER NO. 4/79. 1979. Agriculture Economics.
Ibadan: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture.
(Mimeo).
(7) DODD, P. C. AND P. D. STARR. 1976. The Community in Nutri-
tion. Edited by D. L. McLaren. Wiley and Sons.
(8) DUNCAN, B. L. 1975. Review of Peace Corps Fisheries Program
in the Central African Republic. International Center for
Aquaculture, Auburn Univ., Auburn University, Ala.
(9) ERASMUS, C. J. 1961. Man Takes Control. Minneapolis: Univer-
sity of Minn. Press.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION. 1975. Aquaculture
Planning in Africa. Rome: United Nations Development
Programme.
(11) 1977. Developpement
de la piscisulture Cameroun conclusions et recommendations
du project. p. 32.
(12) GRIVETTI, L. E. 1979. The Rationale, Promise and Realities of
Aquaculture: a Cultural-nutritional Perspective. Unpublished
Paper Presented at Woods Hole Conference. 14 pp.
(13) HOGENDOORN, H. 1977. Aspects of Two Years of Fish Culture
Development in the Republic of the Cameroon. Food and Agri-
culture Organization of the United Nations. p. 57 (restricted).
(14) INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND. 1979. International Financial
Statistics. Vol. XXXII No. 6.
(15) ITA, E. O. 1978. A Preliminary Report on the Fish Stock Assess-
ment of IITA Irrigation Reservoir and the Management
Proposal. Kainji Lake Research Institute.
(16) KOTEY, R. A., C. OKALI, AND B. E. ROURKE (Editors). 1974.
(17)
(18)
(19)
Economics of Cocoa Production and Marketing. Legon, Ghana:
Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research.
LAGEMAN, J. 1977. Traditional African Farming Systems in
Eastern Nigeria. Manchen: Welftorm Verlag.
MOORE, MICHAEL. 1978. Cameroon Fisheries Program
Evaluation and Recommendations.
Moss, D. D., G. B. PARDUE, AND M. J. DANNER. 1969. Fishculture
Survey for West Central Africa. Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn Univ.,
Auburn University, Ala.
(20) OBENG, L. E. (Editor). 1969. Man-made Lake: the Accra
Symposium. Ghana Univ. Press. p. 398.
(21) OFFICE OF NUTRITION, DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT BUREAU, AGENCY
FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 1978. United Republic of
Cameroon, National Nutrition Survey: Summary Report and
Recommendations. Washington, D.C. DN-AAA-222-3,
ARC-CM 64-1A265, 833/79.
(22) OKALI, C. D. OBEN, T. OJo-ATERE, AND T. LAWSON. 1979. An
Evaluation of Farmer's Knowledge and Use of Hydromorphic
Toposequences in the West State of Nigeria: Finding from
Selected Areas in Oshun River Basin. Discussion Paper No.
4/79. Agricultural Economics. IITA, Ibadan.
(23) OLUWANI, H. A., I. S. DEMA, ET AL. 1966. Uboma: A Socio-
economic and Nutritional Survey of a Rural Community in
Eastern Nigeria. London: Geographical Publications, Ltd.
(24) OMOLOLU, A. 1976. Nutrition in Nigeria. Nigeria Nutrition
Newsletter: 1:148-159.
(25) ONAKOMAIYA, SAMUEL O. 1975. International Trade in Specialty
Foodstuffs in Nigeria. Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and
Economic Research.
(26) ONGLA, JEAN. 1972. An Economic Survey of Food Production
Variables in the Zone of Intervention: Yemesson. Yaounde:
Department of Rural Economy, Univ. of Cameroon.
(27) PEACE CORPs. 1975. Peace Corps/ Cameroon Fisheries. Mid-
service Conference Report.
(28) (1978. Liberia Agriculture Extension Project Plan
(Typescript).
(29) 1977. Peace Corps/Zaire Fish Culture Program
Status Report.
(30) SHELL, B. P. 1972. Nigeria, Ltd. Community Development
Projects: Village Study Book (Taaba). Lagos. (Mimeo).
(31) 1973. Nigeria, Ltd. Community Development
Projects Dept. East: Village Study Book (Kpite Village, Ogani
Division). Lagos. (Mimeo).
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Small Farmer Fish Production. Project 631-0022. Washington,
D.C.
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Development. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations. (Mimeo).
29
(10)

ITINERARY AND PEOPLE
Date of first contact
July 23, Auburn - Washington, D.C.
Richard Neal, AID
William Johnson, AID
Winton Fugille, AID
Michael Wiseman, AID
July 24, Washington, D.C. - Rome
Mary Hope Katsouros, National Academy of Science
July 25, Rome
Michael Mistakidis, FAO
Michel M. J. Vincke, FAO
Andre G. Coche, FAO
Ulrich Schmit, FAO
July 25, Rome
Jean Gaudet, FAO
ZAIRE
July 27, Rome - Kinshasa
Harry Rea, Associate Director for Fisheries, Peace Corps/Zaire
J. Hawes, USAID
Mughusu Longani, Director, Fishculture Project, Department of
Rural Development
Also visited the International Fair in Kinshasa and toured the fish
culture display and other demonstrations about improved village
life in Zaire.
July 28, Kinshasa - Kikwit, Bandundu Region
July 29, Misimbi Village and Lusanga
Ed Gerard, PCV
Marina Baudoin, PCV
Cheri MacLean, PCV
Thomas Randolph, PCV
Mark Orlic, Aquaculture Project Manager for Lever Brothers Co.,
Lusanga
July 30, Kikwit area
Citoyen Mamvaka, cooperating farmer
Fred Martin, PCV
Gaby Taylor, Field Director, OXFAM/Zaire
July 31, Kikwit - Kinshasa
Mark Underwook, PCV
Steve Ivis, PCV
Visited Masi-Manimba Department of Agriculture Fish Station and
private ponds
August 1, Kinshasa
Baudouin de Marcken, Director, Peace Corps/Zaire
L. Voth, USAID
August 2, Kinshasa - Cameroon
N. Sweet, Director, USAID/Zaire
W. Boehm, USAID
Fenton Sands, USAID
Ken Koehn, USAID
World Bank Offices
CAMEROON
August 3, Yaounde
Connie Freeman, Director, Peace Corps/Cameroon
Rowland Thurlows, Peace Corps
John Moehl, PCV
Paul Olson, PCV
Eric Witt, USAID
August 4, Yaounde
Visit to native markets
August 5, Yaounde - Bafoussam
Toukan Roger Elei, Chief of Batoufam
Ana Hiott, PCV
August 6, Bafoussam - Foumban
Sarah Cook, PCV
Tim Henry, PCV
Cathy Wanat, PCV
Foumban Fish Culture Center
August 7, Bafoussam - Bamenda
John Barah
Muka Moses
Ku-Bome Fish Farming Station
Bafoussam Fish Station
August 8, Bafoussam - Yaounde
August 9, Yaounde- Mbalmayo
Peace Corps Fisheries Training Group
Mbalmayo Fish Station
"Bishop's" Fishpond
August 10, Yaounde- Douala
Paul McCabe, World Food Program
Mr. Gara, FAO Country Representative
James Williams, USAID Director
John Woods, USAID
August 11, Douala - Lagos
NIGERIA
August 11, Douala- Lagos
August 12, Lagos
August 13, Lagos
M. A. Obakin, Federal Department of Fisheries
A. M. Ajana, NIOMR
Kenneth Davis, U.S. Embassy
Tiffany Industries Americas Corp. Office
Dr. Hank Knipscheer, Agricultural Economist, IITA
August 14, Lagos - Ibadan
August 15, Ibadan
Okigbo, IITA
Durodolo Apanpa, Oyo State Fisheries Division
O. Ojo, Oyo State Fisheries Division
Agodi Fish Farm
Mr. Durodolo Apampa, Department Chieve of Fisheries, Oyo 
State
August 16, Ibadan - Oyo
S. Alabi Ogum, Permanent Secretary, Oyo State
N. I. Oke, Oyo State Fisheries Division
F. O. Olatunji, Oyo State Fisheries Division
Oyo Fish Farm
Mr. A. A. Adetunji, Sr., Fisheries Superintendent, Oyo State
August 17, Ibadan - Benin
Dr. J. K. Olavemi, Sr., Lecturer, Department of Agricultural
Economics
University of Ibadan
August 18, Ibadan - Lagos
Malcolm Johnson, Bendel State Tiffany Project
LIBERIA
August 19, Monrovia
August 20, Monrovia
Jack Cornelius, USAID
Soloman Sherman, USAID
Frederick M. Zerzaby, USAID
J. Elijah Ricks, Ministry of Agriculture
James Stevenson, Peace Corps
August 21, Monrovia - Suakoko
Dr. Jarrett, Ministry of Agriculture
Mr. Jenson, Ministry of Agriculture
Dr. Bhutta, Ministry of Agriculture
Peter Youn, Bong County Rural Development Project
University Farm at Fendell
Central Agriculture Experiment Station Suakoko
Bong County Agricultural Development Project
Baker Farm
Sangai Mesurado Farm Complex
August 22, Monrovia
Dr. Art Haegler, Agricultural Economist, Agricultural Sector Analysis
Project, USAID
31