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SUMMARY
The Fisheries Resource Service of El Salvador has made
considerable progress since 1971 when the Auburn USAID
Project was set up. The more than 
tenfold, real-term in-
crease in the fisheries budget from 1972 to 1977 illustrates
the government's commitment and interest in the
program. The Fisheries Resource Service has excellent ex-
periment station facilities and hatcheries 
with other ap-
purtenant infrastructure to enable a favorable long-term
impact on the nation's economy. New credit availability
and new information opportunities through extension
should widen market opportunities for the fisheries sector
of the economy. The Service still has many opportunities
for improvement to better serve the populace of El
Salvador.
Significant problems remain in several areas as follows:
1. The manpower of the Service is sparse, both for
ongoing experimental work and for extension.
2. The mean production of fish per hectare in both
communal ponds and private farm ponds is low in com-
parison with the potential.
3. The total volume of aquacultural fish production
needs to be increased to bring about a more efficient
market system in fisheries.
4. The price of high-quality fish is still too high for pur-
chase by the rural poor.
5. Personnel who are highly trained in the scientific
aspects of fisheries spend large proportions of their time on
administrative duties, which leaves little time for con-
tributions in their own field of endeavor.
6. Aerial application of pesticides continues to interfere
with the functioning of fingerling production in the Santa
Cruz Porrillo area and endangers breeding 
stock of the
experimental unit.
7. Fisheries law enforcement 
needs to be enhanced to
curtail illegal capture activities.
The following recommendations are made with respect
to the Fisheries Resource Service.
1. Training in fisheries development and management
should be intensified, especially at the lower levels of the
Service. Every effort should be made to keep aquacultural
and fisheries scientists as close as possible to the work for
which they were trained. Use of personnel trained in
fisheries for teaching purposes seems to be a valid
allocation of resources.
2. Extensive economic studies should be 
made a part of
all programs involved in fisheries development in El
Salvador. This action would be in line with recommen-
dations by officials of the Latin American Bureau and
Technical Assistance Bureau of AID, the Inter-American
Development Bank, The Banco de Fomento Agropecuario,
the World Bank, the U.S. Department of Commerce, and
others.
3. Outside expertise probably will be required in setting
up theeconomics division under a proposed "directorate"
organization of the fisheries program. The plan should be
designed to include micro- and macroeconomic analyses
with the intent of optimizing in the allocation of the coun-
try' socioeconomic goals. The economics group should
be sd organized that it provides input to project and policy
changes before they are effected. All experimental work
should be done under a framework which is amenable to
the extraction of economic data useful in decisionmaking
and policy analysis. Opportunity cost of the nation's
scarce resources should be considered in all major project
CONTENTS
Page
SUMMARY ........ .......................................... 2......
INTRODUCTION ................ ................................... 3
THE SURVEY............ ........................................ 4
Background............ ............................... 4
Field Observations ........... ............................. 
4
FISHERIES RESOURCE INVENTORY ................................... 6
Aquacultural Programs ..................................... 6
Capture Fisheries ........................................ 7
GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT, FINANCING, AND POLICY CHANCES ...... 8
Budgets and Financing ..................................... 8
Institutional Changes ............ ......................... 10
RECENT PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS ...................... 10
New Facilities and Programs ................................. 10
Extension Programs in Farm Ponds .......................... 11
The Peace Corps ............. ............................ 12
FISHERIES PROGRAM APPRAISAL ................................. 12
General Im pressions ................ .......... ........... 13
Problem A reas ................ ............................. 13
Recom m endations . ............... ......................... 14
PUBLISHED 2/78- 1M
Information contained herein is available to all without regard to race,
color, or national origin.
expenditures. Social costs and benefits should be consider-
ed in impabt analyses to the extent of data limitations.
4. The USAID should seriously consider the possibility of
providing additional assistance to the Government of El
Salvador in various program areas including extension
and economics. Training opportunities in academic and
practical fisheries programs should also be provided for
selected staff of the Fisheries Resource Service of the
Ministry of Agriculture.
The Socioeconomic Impact of Fisheries Programs
in El Salvador
Donald R. Street*
INTRODUCTION
SEVERAL PROGRESS REPORTS on the Auburn-El Salvador-
AID Project have been published, and this report will not
attempt to duplicate these works. Some of the data will be
updated to 1977, and new projects, installations com-
pleted, and 
programs 
begun since 
the last progress 
report
will be indicated as accomplishments of the overall pro-
gram. Some of the data from past reports will be used as
trend bases and for comparative baselines in policy-
change determination.
The fact that El Salvador has a protein-deficient diet has
been well documented. This report will not dwell on the
obvious need to remedy this deficiency.
The present survey was completed during a 3-week
period during August 1977.' The limited time and travel
opportunities did not allow consultations with all agencies
of interest. The persons involved in fisheries also had their
own jobs to do and sometimes could not supply all of the
information at the time and in the form requested.
On-site visits were made to experiment stations, com-
munal ponds, farm pond installations, private cage fish
culture operations, cooperative cage fish culture
operations, brackish water experimental programs, and
other facilities. New construction in progress was observed
at several sites. Research underway included fingerling
production, feeding studies, fertilization rates, stocking
rates, hybrid fish culture, shrimp studies in brackish
waters, and types of cages for aquaculture.
In addition to the people involved directly in USAID and
the Fisheries Resource Service, interviews were held with
banking and financial institutions with an interest in
fisheries, other agricultural officials, private fisheries per-
sonnel, and Peace Corps volunteers.
The Government of El Salvador (GOES) has become
vitally interested in enhancing the welfare of its populace
through fisheries improvement. This change in interest
and attitude is manifest in several ways. One measure is
the change in monetary input to the fisheries program.
Personnel changes and institutional changes leading to
new laws and credit structures are other indicators of
government commitment. The degree of concern leading
to better statistical data availability is further evidence of
the government's interest. Changes in the bureaucratic
structure of the fisheries related programs are also in-
dicators of commitment.
Monetary and personnel inputs to the various fisheries
programs are costs and make no implication with respect
to benefits. A complete cost-benefit analysis could bring
about sizable reallocations of resources within an oppor-
*Associate Professor, Department of Economics, School of Business.
'Actual dates in-country were August 8-26, 1977.
tunity cost context. As the programs become well
established, new analyses will be necessary on feasibility.
A related matter which leads to complications in
measurement is the fact that some of the benefits from
economic development are of a public type or include
social spillovers beyond the private market sector. These
types of returns call for public subsidy to enable an op-
timum allocation of private and public expenditures in the
programs. The majority of the benefits are probably of the
private nature, however.
The fisheries program in El Salvador entered the 1970's
at a low level of development. In 1971 Moss completed a
survey and made certain recommendations for a develop-
ment program. While of necessity the program em-
phasized the production aspects of fisheries in El Salvador,
Moss' report stated: "It is important that field studies be
oriented toward assessing the economic aspects of the
fisheries and delineating the status of the harvest." All
economic problems are people problems. A survey of
resources is a prerequisite to awareness of the populace on
the potential to be developed. Optimum exploitation of the
inland waters could furnish a sizable increment to the diet
of a protein-short population. In many instances, the
resources in fisheries may have few alternative oppor-
tunities. Any gains in such a setting are a net.addition or
have a zero tradeoff with other enterprises.
The next step after the resource inventory is develop-
ment of an infrastructure to enable the populace to make
use of the productive potential. Demand for the product
should be increased in step with capital accumulation and
increased productivity to help prevent serious inflationary
problems. It is of paramount importance to plan critical
paths to avoid large new spending without any new 
con-
sumer products.
Fisheries development starting from the level of El
Salvador's program calls for the creation of a complete
self-supporting system. Maximum effectiveness in one part
of the program can only be attained if complementary in-
frastructure changes are made in other parts of the
rogram. The raw products are of no use unless they can
e transported (or grown) where the people are. The
populace will not purchase the products unless sufficient
information is ma de public--there must be an awareness of
the product. Sufficient financing must be available to en-
courage producers to take on private capital requirements
for the job at hand. The most important prerequisite for
development is the attitude, encouragement, and com-
mitment of the government itself--reflected in other parts
of the system as promoted by official action.
2Moss, J.D. D. 1971. Inland Fisheries Survey Report for El 
Salvador.
Project AID/csd-2270. International Center for Aquaculture, Auburn
Univ. (Ala.) Agr. Exp. Sta., Auburn, Ala.
The fact that a resource inventory has been taken is an
indicator of the new concern in the government. This type
of policy change can affect the economic well-being of the
country in at least three ways: (1) it allows unused resour-
ces to be put to use, (2) it allows a reappraisal to determine
if land and water resources are being put to their "highest
and best use," and (3) it allows a more sensible
reallocation of other resources leading to employment of
labor, for example, which had no work opportunity in the
absence of opening up the complementary resource base.
THE SURVEY
The author was given the opportunity to work with
other fisheries officials and related economic development
and financial professionals as a part of the background to
the present study. In-country travel also complemented
that phase of the study.
Background
In anticipation of the study in El Salvador, the author
had a 1-week orientation trip to the University of Rhode
Island, the World Bank, the Inter-American Institute of
Agricultural Sciences, the Inter-American Development
Bank, the Technical Assistance Bureau and Latin
American Bureau of the U.S. Agency for International
Development, the National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration of the U. S. Department of
Commerce, and the Environmental Protection Ad-
ministration. Interviews were held with economists and of-
ficials in the International Marine Resource Development
Center at the University of Rhode Island, as well as with
economists in the ,Jniversity's Department of Resource
Economics. The author sought views of the interviewees
on need for economic analyses in development programs
involving fisheries and related resources in their respective
domains of service.
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A part of the summer was spent in reviewing literature
and talking with professionals who had experience in ad-
visory capacities in El Salvador. Technical advisors from
Auburn University and the Peace Corps who had served in
El Salvador were included in this group.
Field Observations
Observations were made by the author during the 4 days
of field trips in El Salvador from August 15 through 18,
1977. The author was accompanied by a guide from the
GOES at all times.
The first visit was to experimental communal ponds at
Huerto Escolar in Ichanmichen in the Department of La
Paz. The Communal Pond Program is supported by a
government self-help group, Fomento y Cooperacion
Comunal por Esfuerzo propio y Ayuda Mutua (FOCCO).
Four ponds comprising a total area of 3,600 square meters
were examined. A group of high school students study fish
culture at the ponds, which are stocked with tilapia
(Sarotherodon aurea) and guapote tigre 
(Cichlasoma
managuense). A total of 28 students work in the project at
maintaining and cleaning, sampling, and feeding of the
fish. This project was formed jointly by the Fisheries
Resource Service and the National Movement for Juvenile
Service of the Ministry of Education.
A trip was made to the National Fisheries Station, Santa
Cruz Porrillo, in the Department of San Vincente. Inter-
views were held with the senior administrator of the
Station, then experimental ponds and fingerling produc-
tion facilities were examined. The Station has well-
equipped laboratories, numerous experimental ponds,
fingerling production facilities, an aquarium, offices,
meeting rooms, warehouse and storage space, and other
apparatus necessary for a successful research, production,
and demonstration operation. Problems of fish mortality
due to insecticides have been publicized in previous
documents. Cotton enterprises and aerial insecticide ap-
. -
4:'*
Brackish water ponds and canal at Puerto El Triunfo on Jlqullisco Bay.
plications have damaged fingerling production and en-
dangered breeding stock of some species which require
several years to produce. Fingerling production is lost 3
to 4 months out of each year. Attempts to extend a protec-
tive belt immediately surrounding the Station from 500
meters to 1,000 meters have failed.
Interviews were held with Lic. Juan Bautista Ulloa, the'
technical manager at the new Marine Experiment Station
at El Triunfo in the Department of Usulutan. The Station
is located on the Bay of Jiquilisco and has a canal of
brackish water to the pond and building locations. Six new
experimental ponds had just been built on the location
having an area of 2,000 square meters of surface water in
each one. Plans for next year include 18 new ponds for
brackish water experiments. Shrimp culture experiments
were in progress in one of the ponds of the site and other
ponds were to be stocked with tilapia on August 16, 1977.
The program at El Triunfo also includes preservation
and research and conservation efforts 
on sea turtles and
other marine and brackish water fauna in addition to the
shrimp and tilapia experiments in the future. A sizable
new building has been constructed with provisions for:
A wet laboratory
A biology laboratory
A conference room and library
Two dormitories for technicians
A kitchen and dining facility
Storage space
The fisheries program has been criticized for being slow
to get equipment and accompanying facilities needed to
operate the respective station installations. The building at
the station in El Triunfo had not been furnished with
equipment and library materials, but hopefully progress
will be made in this phase of the work in the near future.
An interview was held with agronomist Rene Salgado
Flores at the new Fish Hatchery Production Unit at Izalco
in the Department of Sonsonate in the southwestern part of
the country. This station is located adjacent to the Juvenile
Center of the Ministry of Justice, which houses homeless
boys mostly between the ages of 14 and 18 years. The
fisheries station contains 19 experimental ponds of 400
square meters of surface water each. Water is obtained
from a river through a canal system. At the beginning of
September 1977, about 300,000 Sarotherodon nilotica
fingerlings were to be available from this station for
distribution to private ponds.
Plans have been made for construction of an office and
laboratory building at the site of the Izalco Station. New
water supply canals were being built at the time of the visit
and six workers had been promised for cleaning and
trimming around the ponds. The Izalco Station will even-
tually assume a major role in supplying fingerlings to
compensate for downtime of the experiment station at San-
ta Cruz Porrillo due to cotton poisoning.
Classes in fish culture are held on a regular basis at the
Juvenile Center next to the Izalco Fish Hatchery for selec-
ted students. This activity serves as one method of
providing trained workers to handle some 
of the jobs in the
isheries service. A part of the students attend high school
and a select fraction could be sent to a university for fur-
ther specialized training. The Juvenile Center is essentially
a detention home and for that reason may not supply the
best student prospects.
A private fish farm operation was visited near Son-
sonate. This installation has 15 ponds with a total area of 4
hectares of surface water. Sarotherodon aurea have been
produced there since 1976 and are marketed directly with
Pavos, S.A., a commercial operation which deals mainly
in production and marketing of turkeys. The installation
includes 4 ponds for production of tilapia and guapote
tigre fingerlings and 11 ponds dedicated to commercial
production. Average fish production reported was 2,500
ilograms per hectare per year, with turkey manure serv-
ing as the principal nutrients.
A second fish farm installation was visited in Nueva
Concepcion in the Department of Chalatenango. This
farm included three ponds which were being operated.
The ponds average 300 square meters of surface water.
The fish were sold directly to consumers at a price of ? 1.25
Private fish farm at Nueva Concepcion in Chalatenango.
FISHERIES RESOURCE INVENTORY
Tilapla produced in private cage culture operation in Lake Ilopango.
per pound. The owner was planning 
to build more ponds
or future operations.
A visit to the Fish Culture Center at Atiocoyo in the
Department of La Libertad allowed examination of three
new experimental ponds of 2,500 square meters surface
each. Final construction work was in progress on the canal
and conduits for the water delivery system. Plans call for
the construction of eight additional 2,500-square meter
ponds in the latter part of 1977.
At Lake Ilopango, cage fish culture operations were ob-
served for fisheries cooperatives and for the Fisheries
Resource Service experimental cage operations. The
government operation included 
27 experimental cages,
each with a volume of 1 cubic meter. Tests were involved
with feeding pellets to tilapia with different shapes of cage
structure. Seven commercial cage operations belonging to
the Fisherman's Cooperative of Ilopango were observed.
These cages had a volume of 30 cubic meters each.
Production averages 27 kilograms of fish per cubic meter
per year. The cage structures are made of steel angle and
nylon meshing.
During the previous week a visit was made to a private
cage culture operation on Lake Ilopango. It was reported
that as many as 900 pounds of fish per day were sold at
harvest time until the 5,200-pound supply was sold out.
Security is a significant problem for cage culture
operations. Thefts are fairly common in installations
which are too small for a full time watchman. Location of
the facilities is of extreme importance for this reason.
'One colon = $0.40 U.S.
An inv entory of the major fisheries 
resources will give a
better perspective to the overall 
operation of the program
in El Salvador. The marine 
waters, freshwaters, and
brackish waters afford opportunities 
for aquaculture and
capture fisheries.
Aquacultural Programs
Aquacultural programs 
have been small in El Salvador,
but they have a considerable 
potential for the future. Total
combined production of private 
and communal ponds
reported in 1976 was 37,388 pounds'. 
The private ponds
had slightly more than twice 
the production of the com-
munal ponds. One observer thought 
the above figures were
too low, since his company 
handled 24,000 pounds 
of
aquacultural fish products and 
he knew of others involved
in similar programs. Opportunities 
exist for exploiting
unused resources where new 
ponds can be constructed at
low cost, for using previously 
built ponds for multiple
purposes involving fish culture 
with other enterprises
where costs can be shared 
or are already "sunk" for other
purposes, and for increasing productivity 
by changing to
the most up-to-date methods involving 
higher productivity
of the resources. Results of recent 
fisheries work in Brazil
may be relevant to the latter 
opportunity. The 70 com-
munal ponds in existence in 1977 
had an average size of
2,000 square meters of surface water. 
There were ap-
proximately 500 private farm ponds in existence in 
1977.
A potentially valuable resource for 
future aquacultural
use in tilapia production is 
the salt pond installations in El
Salvador. A large area is available 
for a 6-month growing
season for tilapia, allowing 
production of a marketable
product for low- and middle-income 
families. Ap-
proximately 1,000 hectares are 
available for this purpose.
The ponds purportedly are unused 
for salt production
during the wet season, nearly 
6 months, and they have a
zero opportunity cost for all practical 
purposes since their
costs have been sunk and 
are being amortized for other
purposes. Any return above additional 
costs of the project
are essentially free and should 
be explored and exploited
pending adequate cost and returns 
analyses. The produc-
tive capacity could be much greater 
than that of other
types of investment in facilities 
which must bear all of
their own costs, either privately 
or socially, in terms of op-
portunities foregone.
Hughes' reports productive 
capacity of salt ponds of
1,000 kilograms per hectare per 
year based on experimen-
tal work done in 1975. He also 
reported several problems
in the tilapia production trials 
because of broken screens
that permitted entry of 
predators and extraneous
organisms into salt ponds. It seems 
that further trials on
the salt ponds would be feasible 
in view of the protein-
short diets, lack of fish in the 
family market basket, and
the shortage of other fisheries 
related resources for the
country.
Cage production in 1975 amounted 
to only 4,347
kilograms, all at Lake Ilopango. 
Slightly over half of the
'SERVICIOS DE INFORMATICA y RECURSOS PESQUEROS. 1977. "Anuario
Pesquero de El Salvador, 1976". Direccion General 
de Recursos
Naturales Renovables, Ministerio de Agricultura 
y Ganaderia, San
Salvador, El Salvador.
Hu(GHES DAViO G. 1977. Progress Report on Fisheries Development in
El Salvador, August 1974-May 1976, Project AID/la-688. International
Center for Aquaculture, Auburn Univ. (Ala.) Agr. Exp. Sta., 
Auburn, Ala.
Private cage culture facilities on Lake IIlopango.
production was by a private company, while the remain-
der was from the Fisheries Resource Service, Ministry of
Agriculture and Livestock (MAC), and artisanal fisheries
cooperatives. A representative of a private company in-
volved in cage production reported an unlimited demand
for fish products from cage culture and other aquacultural
production. (Caution should be used in making inferences
based on a few examples, however, since such a large
demand might be expected to cause the price of fish to 
rise.)
His company would be willing to buy large quantities 
of
fish for resale pending availability Researchers from the
area reported that on occasions after running ads in local
papers large numbers of people came many miles on buses
and purchased as much as 1,360 kilograms of fish in 
2
days at one sale point. The fish seem to be hightly accep-
table to the people who are aware of them. The cage 
type
of fisheries affords a product mix of small fish that poorer
families could purchase to increase consumption of high-
quality protein, while the larger, more expensive fish
wouk appeal to the higher income groups. It was
estimated that 10,000 pounds per month could be 
moved
easily on a regular basis by one company with a much
greater amount around Easter and other holidays.
One problem with the communal pond program is that
there are not enough ponds (only 70 have been completed).
The communal ponds are financed by the government
through FOCCO. Participating employees divide the total
production according to how much work time they have
contributed to the operation. A high demand for this type
of installation is natural from the low-income populace,
which the ponds serve, a group with practically no re-
sources. The fact that they are highly subsidized by govern-
ment financing does not necessarily mean the facilities
are not economical, pending social benefits to the
economy at large. According to data furnished by fisheries
personnel, the 70 communal ponds in existence serve an
average of 20 families with a mean size of 
six. This in-
vestment gives direct benefits to 8,400 persons 
in the
respective areas. The communal ponds also serve 
as a
useful demonstration device for the private sector in
aquaculture. Spillovers in terms of the demonstration 
el-
feet to potential fish farmers complement 
research and ex-
tension efforts which need to be bolstered.
The Fisheries Service plans to build 15 hectares of com-
munal ponds next year, and at least 500 new ones 
(100 per
year) during the next 5 years. The average size 
of all com-
munal ponds is planned to be 2,000 square 
meters. Some
observers think the communal ponds are 
not economical
because of their small size. Others object 
to the idea of
communal ponds, arguing that no one person 
is really
responsible for the operation and management 
and that an
incentive for efficiency is lacking. One financial 
official
noted that communal pond productivity 
in conjunction
with the experiment station system should not be 
used for
making inferences on productivity of communal 
ponds not
closely associated with the well-managed ones at the re-
search stations.
Capture Fisheries
Capture fisheries have probably been exploited 
to the
maximum feasible extent, and may have been 
over-
exploited. More research is needed on yields 
and opti-
mum harvest rates. The estimated quantity harvested 
in
the four principal rivers, the Lempa, the Jiboa, 
the Grande
de San Miguel, and the Paz, in 1976 was 1,904 
metric tons
with a value of c2,513,940 at c0.60 per pound. 
Purpor-
tedly, farmers, low-income residents, and others 
have used
dyfnamite, rotenone, and illegal diversions for capturing
almost the entire fish population at once in certain 
parts of
the streams. More strict enforcement of the 
fisheries laws
should ameliorate a part of this problem. Lengths 
of the
7
-~CPs
respective principal rivers available for exploitation by
local fishermen are given below:
constant colones using consumer price index data for El
Salvador (column 3):
River
Rio Lempa...............................
Rio Paz ................................. ....
Rio Grande de San Miguel...................
Rio Jiboa ...................................
Length, kilometers
295
75
65
20
Artisanal fish catches in the principal inland lakes of
Olomega, Guija, El Jocotal, Ilopango, and Coatepeque
totaled 1,032 metric tons in 1976 with a value of
01,561,246. Fisheries experts report that 
the volcanic
lakes are not fertile enough for rapid fish growth. Cerron
Grande is a recent man-made lake in the country. The area
of each of the six lakes is given below:
Lake
Ilopango ...................................
Coatepeque ...............................
G uija ................... .....................
Presa 5 de Noviembre .........................
Cerron Grande ................... .......
Olomega ................... ....... ..*
Area, hectares
702,000
24,000
35,000
14,000
135,000
242,000
Artisanal catches going through the cooperatives at
Puerto El Triunfo, El Tamarindo, La Libertad, Acajutla,
and La Union were more than 780 metric tons and had a
value of o1,103,318. Production from the principal
estuaries of Jiquilisco, Jaltepeque, Barra de Santiago,
Tamarindo, an La Union was about 754 metric tons and
had a value of ? 1,867,662. Some double counting is ap-
parent here since some 
of the estuary catches go 
through
the cooperatives.
Coastal areas dedicated 
to shrimping operations 
to a
depth of about 63 meters total about 12,209 square
kilometers for El Salvador. This resource is the source of
some lower quality fish taken as byproducts of shrimping
operations. Some observers object to the purported serious
waste of this byproduct fish due to lack of 
care and lack of
storage tacilities, commenting that this component of the
shrimping catch could be very valuable to the lower in-
come groups in El Salvador. Lack of economic feasibility
of collecting these byproducts on a regular basis seems to
be an impediment to their retention.
The fact that a considerable amount of fish is imported
to El Salvador is not necessarily a problem in all cases, but
should be examined carefully in terms of the nation's
balance of trade and foreign exchange situation. Com-
parative advantage and specialization often necessitate
trading of this type. This question should be considered in
view of the purported wasting of byproduct fish by the
shrimping fleet in the off-coast waters.
GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT,
FINANCING, AND POLICY CHANGES
Several indications of progress in El Salvador's fisheries
program are evident. Monetary input for operation and
investment is one important indicator. New policies and
attitudes are also apparent from changes in programs and
personnel in the fisheries operations.
Budgets and Financing
The budget of the Fisheries Resource Service is given
below in terms of current colones for each year from 1972
to 1977 (column 2) and the same data deflated to 1972
Year Current amount Current 1.
1972 .......... ? 124,858 ? 1
1973 .......... 517,755 4
1974 .......... 450,670 3(
1975 ......... 612,709 4
1976 .......... 1,677,952 1,0C
1977 .......... 2,438,250 1,42
'One colon =$0.40 U.S.
2
Projected value based on inflation 
rate from 1975-1976.
972 amount
24,858
86,612
62,275
13,713
57,977
5,1092
Inflation has been a fairly serious factor in recent years
as the data indicate. The wholesale price index made a
much more drastic jump from 1975 to 1976 than did the
consumer price index. This result is a warning about
future inflation, since the wholesale price index generally
leads changes in consumer prices. The wholesale prices in-
creased by 34.8 percent from 1975 to 1976, while the con-
sumer price index increased by only 7.1 percent.
Comparisons of 1977 values before and after deflation
show that over ? 1,000,000 of purchasing power was lost
to inflation when expressed in 1972 terms. This result is a
serious problem for planners in times of severe inflation.
The problem is worsened as the lag times increase from
project plans to project initiation and completion.
An abbreviated fisheries budget of AID for September
1971 through April 1976 is given below:
Line item
1. Salaries.....................................
2. Fringe benefits .............. .....................
3. A llow ances ......................................
4. Travel and transportation .........................
5. O ther direct costs .............. ...................
6. O verhead ......................................
7. Equipment ..................................
T O TAL .............................. ..........
Total budget
$ 64,072
9,318
11,178
25,356
4,294
21,495
25,627
$161,340
Auburn University was the vehicle through which the
AID investment was made. Auburn contributed to the
project by providing technical direction plus various
services and through personnel support.
The Inter-American Development Bank (BID) has
initiated a loan of $5,300,000 for fisheries development.
The project has matching funds from the government in
the amount of $1,435,000. This loan was approved in May
of 1976 and supports two projects, one for five
cooperatives at Acajutla, La Libertad, Puerto El Triunfo,
El Tamarindo, and La Union. Loans are administered in
cooperation with the Banco de Fomento Agropecuario
(BFA), and the MAG Fisheries Development Office of the
Government of El Salvador. The cooperative loans are
used for better boats and equipment, cooling facilities,
marketing, and transportation.
Inland fisheries loan programs are planned, mainly for
tilapia production, to include 100 ponds. A goal to be at-
tained, according to Sr. Hugo Jordan of BID, is to increase
fish consumption of the populace from 0.8 kilogram per
person per year to 2.0 kilograms per person per year. He
warned that it is difficult to change consumption habits,
noting that it took 30 years to raise fish consumption from
3 kilograms per capita per year to 18 kilograms per capita
per year in Chile.
Specific difficulties mentioned with respect to fisheries
were the technology jumps entailed in going from
relatively primitive equipment to that with modern
design. Fishermen who shift from a ?1,000 tree-trunk boat
to a ?135,000 boat encounter serious adaptability
problems. Changing consumer habits to include fish was
te other major 
problem indicated. 
There also 
needs tobe
a leveling out of the supply of fish during the different
seasons of the year. It was pointed out that the middle and
low-income population must be reached in the outer rural
areas as well as in the cities.
It was reported that the technical aspects of the fisheries
cooperatives were good, except at Acajutla where there are
no good places for building port facilities. The BID had
rejected a cage culture project 
which was considered to be
infeasible. Technical problems have been worked out, but
the economic problems have not been studied enough, in
the opinion of the financial officials. It was felt that the
cage technology was too complicated for the low
educational level of some of the cooperative people.
An executive level advisory was 
created in the govern-
ment to assure compliance with loan requirements 
from
the BID. A feasibility study must be made on all pond loan
applications, which will force participants to get better
data. Loan proposals are not considered in areas where
cotton is produced in large quantities.
With respect to foregone opportunities, Jordan and
Peace Corps volunteers mentioned the improper care for
byproduct fish taken from shrimp boats. This product
represents a potentially valuable commodity whic could
be dispersed to the poor population if a collection system
could be devised that would prove economically feasible.
Jordan warned that fishermen were difficult to deal with
in changing customs and technology. An example was
related in which an educational program was held with
farmers in a concentrated area by the Centro Nacional de
Tecniologia Agropecuario (CENTA). After 15 years, a sur-
vey showed that 80 percent of the producers were still
using methods practiced 50 years ago. He advised going
slowly with technology 
changes and indicated 
that some
of the cooperative aid programs were designed without
consulting their participants. He recommended a plan of
preselling to the cooperatives through better education.
Jordan thought the Auburn Project should have a second
phase related to the economics of fisheries.
A technician will be hired by BID to manage its fisheries
projects. The BID had cooperated with FAO on studies
which were precursors to loan programs. Sr. Oscar
Morales Boni la is project coordinator from Fisheries
Development of the Ministry of Agriculture of El Salvador.
The BFA reported handling the following marine
cooperative loans through their organization in
cooperation with BID:
Area
A cajutla ................... ........
El Tamarindo .......................
La Union .........................
Puerto El Triunfo ....................
El Pacificio .........................
Amount Interest rate,
percent
060,000 6
74,000 12
80,000 12
69,000 12
61,000 12
Acajutla got its loan first, before the cooperatives were
required to pay the so-called commercial competitive
rates. The minimum time for payback is 5 years and varies
depending on time and conditions of the loan.
The BFA was organized from the older organization,
Administration of Campesino Welfare (ABC), in 1974.
Only one loan was made between 1967 and 1974. This
was for P81,000 in La Libertad, financed by First
National City Bank. About 80 percent of the loan was for
construction work. The BFA studies feasibility of loans in-
cluding complementary transportation and other needed
accompaniments.
The Fisheries Development Office of the MAG
organizes and promotes fisheries cooperative development
and advises in their management. It also helps with
marketing, credit, and accounting methods for the
cooperatives. Its inland fisheries program is expected to
begin in January 1978. Many of the potential inland fish
consumers were reportedly reluctant to eat fish due to bad
quality commodity experiences and the image of spoiled or
improperly handled fish from the past. There is a great
need for education on handling and consumption of fish to
have a sizable demand in the remote areas of El Salvador.
With the higher quality and 
higher volume of product 
in
the interior, the agencies hope to lower the price of fish by
30 percent. The BID recommends and approves consulting
firms which advise irinfisheries.
According to a news release on June 18, 1976, the
Canadian economic development group CIDA contributed
a 65-foot marine fishery vessel to El Salvador as a part of a
$3.8 million training project begun in 1973. The fishing
boat was valued at $1.2 million and would be used for
training high school students in naval mechanics, fishing,
navigation, and processing and storage of products. A
coordinator andfiveinstructors were provided for4years.
Each of the Canadians had a counterpart who would even-
tually take over the teaching tasks. The author did not
have time to include the CIDA operation in the busy travel
schedule, but such an operation should be useful in
stabilizing the overall fisheries program in El Salvador.
Several contributions were made to the El Salvador
project through travel of outsiders on tours of the Fisheries
Resource Service and through workers from El Salvador
visiting other countries. Dr. David Bayne and David
Hughes, as resident advisors, have made valuable con-
tributions which have already been made explicit from the
progress of the program. Dr. D. D. Moss visited El
Salvador before the start of the Auburn-AID program and
visited three times since, amounting to 32 days total. Dr.
Bryan Duncan, of Auburn University, visited for 6 days
during 1976. Dr. Harlan Lampe, of the International Cen-
ter for Marine Resource Deve opment at the University of
Rhode Island, made three visits to the Fisheries Resource
Service entailing 4 to 5 days each. Dr. John Sutenen made
five similar visits of 4 to 5 days each, according to
Fisheries personnel. Jose Cabrero studied in the United
States long enough to earn the Ph.D. degree in fisheries and
Cesar Abrego was in the United States long enough to get
the B.S. degree in fisheries. Both studied at Auburn
University. Dr. Cabrero spent 1 month studying fisheries
programs in Ecuador and 1 week in Colombia for similar
purposes with the United Nations Development Program
(PNUD). Mauricio Ramirez spent 1 month in Ecuador on
the same program. Rene Salgado studied fisheries for 2
months in Israel. The above types of contacts are in-
valuable in broadening the scope and depth of the person-
nel in fisheries. It is impossible to put a money value on
such ventures, however.
Institutional Changes
The basic laws relating to fisheries are those contained
in Circular #03 of the Ministry of the Interior, dated
August 29, 1967. While these laws are specific on banned
practices and capture methods in the inland fisheries, en-
forcement seems to be a severe problem. It was reported
that a large number of enforcement personnel were needed
to make possible the optimum development of the nation's
water resources in fisheries.
On October 22, 1974, Executive Order Number 96
creating the National Fisheries Commission was signed in-
to law by President Arturo Armando Molina. This Com-
mission is charged with general policy determination con-
cerning protection, conservation, and exploitation of
fisheries resources, with the objective of promoting the
development of fisheries related programs. The Com-
mission is composed of the executive secretary of the
National Advisory of Planning and Economic Coor-
dination as coordinator, with other members consisting of
the ministers of Foreign Relations, Economics, 
Education,
Defense and Public Safety, and Agriculture. This Com-
mission represents efforts made to attack resource
development from a more organized standpoint through
establishment of a basic infrastructure.
Executive Order Number 18, of February 
7, 1975,
created the Technical Fisheries Committee as a consulting
group to the National Fisheries Commission. This Com-
mittee was charged with conducting studies for deter-
mining general features of fisheries policy, suggesting
means for promoting national fisheries development,
promoting conservation and rational development of
fisheries resources of the country, and formulating
recommendations of El Salvador's participation in inter-
national fisheries events and organizations.
The two committees above give an adequate integration
of fisheries officials and other governmental sectors for the
establishment of an overall development effort. The six
organizations involved in the national Fisheries Com-
mission will name the members of the Technical Fisheries
Committee. The overall planning efforts should eliminate
problems of independent sectoral planning, which could
promote conflicting goals in the economy.
An important indicator of progress in fisheries develop-
ment is represented by the setting up of a stronger statis-
tical reporting system leading to the publication of the
Anuario Pesquero de El Salvador in 1974. One observer
noted that a decrease in production of fish was reported
from 1975 to 1976, a factor which may add credibility to
the reporting service. The statistical work and the initial
reports were compiled by Lic. Mauricio Machon Corea.
An elaborate fisherman census has been set up with data
handling and analysis to be done by computer.
RECENT PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT PLANS
Several new facilities were recently put into operation
by the Fisheries Resource Service and plans are in hand for
further expansion to meet anticipated needs.
Organizational restructuring of the Fisheries group is also
anticipated.
New Facilities 
and Programs
The new hatchery and experiment station at Izalco were
recently put into operation. The facility will relieve part of
the burden of the Santa Cruz Porrillo Station. The Izalco
Station will concentrate on production of hybrid tilapia
fingerlings. The fishery officials assumed that the two hat-
chery facilities could take care of needs for fingerlings for
about 3 years. A new building for laboratories and offices
will be built on the site in the near future.
At Atiocoyo, three new experimental ponds were com-
pleted and will be used in work with hybrid tilapia
production. Several additional ponds will be built there in
the future.
A complete new unit was built at Puerto El Triunfo in-
cluding ponds, canal installations, and a building to
enhance the brackish water research in aquaculture and
related work. The laboratories, library, and other facilities
had not been equipped at the time the author visited. Six of
the ponds were to be stocked at mid-August 1977. A siz-
able expansion of the number of ponds is anticipated.
Several new communal ponds have been built, giving a
total of 70 in operation. Experiments are in progress at the
Ichanmichen communal pond project. While the average
productivity of communal ponds has been low, fisheries
researchers report rapid fish growth in the experimental
communal ponds.
According to Dr. Jose Eduardo Cabrero, the new
President of El Salvador, Carlos Huberto Romero, is ex-
tremely interested in fisheries programs for the country
and is committed to their continued improvement. The
f t that 1 fi heri' m1n ,D - r , isthVe ln % Director
A X" -o
4
Water supply conduit system construction at the Fish Culture Center at
Atlocoyo, La Llbertad.
of Renewable Natural Resources gives fisheries and
aquaculture an opportunity for a hearing with someone
who at least understands their problems.
Several new operations are proposed, along with a
reorganization of the fisheries part of Renewable Natural
Resources which affords opportunities for continued
progress. The proposed reorganization, shown in the
organizational chart, requires three new divisional direc-
tors, each of whom would receive a salary of ? 1,800 per
month. In 1977, the 15 technical personnel had a salary
fund of o 150,000. The restructuring would require asking
e80,000 more for reinforcement of personnel. The com-
plete 1979 budget including the new directorate
organization would require a 30 percent increase.
It was thought that streamlining of the program and its
elevation to a "directorate" level would allow a more ef-
ficient attainment of goals which previously were subject
of the Fisheries Resource Service. It was felt that the
change was justified in view of the importance of technical
assistance to increase the economic base through produc-
tion of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, the goal of protec-
ting the aquatic fauna by legal means based on proven
conservation policies, and the high level that fisheries has
reached as an agricultural sub-sector in producing prod-
ucts containing animal protein.
In the new divisions proposed, the aquacultural group
would include the Department of Fish Culture and the
Department of Marine Culture. These two departments
are concerned with the culture of fish, crustaceans, and
mollusks in ponds, cages, and raceways in inland and
estuarine waters.
The Capture Fisheries Division would handle all matters
relating to artisanal fisheries through one department. It
would deal mainly with technical assistance to artisanal
fishermen. The Department of Fisheries Biology would
study natural populations of fish, crustaceans, and
mollusks in lakes, rivers, estuaries, and the ocean. The
Department of Industrial Fisheries would study applied
technology and its effects on marine populations.
The proposal for an Economics Division indicates that
economics is recognized as being vital to the resource
development of the country. According to the proposal,
the Fisheries Economics Department ". . .deals with
studies on production, marketing, feasibility studies....
Little attention was given to macroeconomics in the
economic structure proposed. The macroeconomic phases
of fisheries have not been developed, but more attention
should be given to those areas of the economy involving
dynamic spillovers affecting the aggregate economy.
Specific questions of concern are the multiplier effects of
new investments in fisheries and the effects of new con-
sumer expenditures in the economy on income and em-
ployment. Addifional work is also needed in the areas of
external economies and the opportunity cost of resources
used in fisheries.
The Department of Fisheries Promotion and Develop-
ment will aid in cooperative development and related
education of artisana fishermen as well as consumer
education on fish for the consumer.
The Fisheries Resource Service has tentative plans for
four new demonstration centers to be completed within the
next 5 years. Three of the projects would be related to
freshwater fisheries and the other would be concerned
with marine fisheries. The installations would include
demonstration ponds, buildings, offices, packaging and
processing operations, fish drying machines, fish feed
preparation equipment, and marketing study demon-
strations. These centers would allow a complete demon-
stration synthesis from starting with fingerlings to getting
the fish in the consumer's hand in good condition.
Significant financial and technical assistance will be
needed to bring the centers on line within a reasonable
time period.
CIDA from Canada has made a contribution to the
marine fisheries development in El Salvador as indicated
above. In September 1977, two fisheries biologists with
MS. degrees wereexpected to begin work on research in
Lake Olomega and Lake Ilopango. This type of aid should
hel stabilize the research efforts of the thinly staffed
Fisheries Resource Service.
Extension Program in Farm Ponds
The extension program in fisheries is small at present.
Progress has been made since 1972, however, when exten-
Proposed "directorate" reorganization of the Fisheries Resource Service in El Salvador.
11
Eosuting ommittee
Y
sion work was not permitted to be carried out within
fisheries. The Extension Service of the Fisheries Resource
Service aids aquaculture through 11 technical assistants -
9 for communal ponds and 2 for private farm ponds.
Seven persons give technical and social work assistance to
inland lake cooperatives. Eleven workers also participate
in technical and social work programs with the marine
cooperatives. The program of technical assistance was
started in 1976.
During the past 4 years, 866 people have attended con-
ferences which were held by fisheries extension workers.
About 250 personal contacts were made in the field each
year for a total of 1,000 visits during the last 4 years.
Twenty short courses of 15 days each have been held. The
total attendance at these sessions was not recorded.
Fisheries extension personnel have participated in
agricultural expositions at the National and Central
American levels. Talks were given to various high school
and farmer groups. Fishing equipment 
was exhibited and
literature made available to persons attending exhibits.,
The Extension Service participated in five agricultural ex-
positions in different parts of the country from January
through July of 1977.
In the communal pond program, fish production was
250 kilograms per hectare per year in 1974 and 1975. In
1976 and to mid-1977 production had increased to around
615 kilograms per hectare per year. In 1974 and 1975 an
average of 25 families participated in each communal
pond program but the average fell to 20 in 1976. The
average amount of fish available was 14.74 pounds per
person per year. The Extension Service furnishes technical
assistance in construction of ponds for fish culture and
provides advice for the proper management of ponds.
According to fisheries research personnel, the Extension
Service needs equipment in the form of mobile
laboratories for water and soil analyses, equipment for
measuring oxygen and temperature, chemical reagents,
and engineering equipment.
Personnel needs include two civil engineers, one for each
of the two zones of the country, and a topographer to iden-
tify proper pond sites and develop construction plans. Two
more technical advisors trained in aquaculture and
fisheries are also needed in the country. This appraisal of
personnel needs seems modest in the author's view. It was
admitted that the extension personnel need more training
in construction and management of ponds.
Data obtained by extension personnel from pond owners
include area of ponds, species of fish grown, production
data, fertilizers applied, feed applied, mean size of fish,
and sale price of fish. Some private construction com-
panies exist for building ponds, but they need the direction
of a fish culture technologist, according to Fisheries
Research Service personnel.
At present the Extension Service shares 18 vehicles with
the Fisheries Resource Service. In 1972 only eight vehicles
were available. Complaints were expressed about un-
dependability of travel due to vehicles being in a poor state
of repair. Purportedly spare parts and maintenance were
problems.
Other organizations participating or cooperating with
the Extension Service are the Institute of Agrarian Reform
(ISTA), the Institute of Tourism, county governments, and
the Ministry of Agriculture. Joint fisheries projects have
been set up with Fisheries Resource Service and the BFA,
ISTA, CENTA, and FOCCO. Under these programs, the
Fisheries Resource Service gets its funding from the
cooperators. ISTA aids in technical assistance and
provides assistance to farmers in getting credit from the
BFA, the Federacion de Cajas de Credito, the Banco
Agricola Comercial, and the Banco Hipotecario.
The Peace Corps
A substantial number of Peace Corps volunteers have
participated in fisheries work in El Salvador. Several of
these were interviewed to get a better overall picture of
their participation. One member of the original team of
four, Gary L. Jensen, is well into a Ph.D. program in
fisheries at Auburn University. Another member of the
original team, Robert Reynolds, works with fisheries for a
private firm in El Salvador. Other workers from the Peace
Corps who received degrees from Auburn are Ralph
Parkman, M.S. degree, and David Dunseth, who received
both M.S. and Ph.D. in fisheries. Additional volunteers
with experience in El Salvador are David Bowman, Ken
Johnson, Steve Hayes, Andres de George, Mike Shank, Jack
obinson, Mark Newman, Richard Ledgerwood, David
Dorman, Jeff Hunter, David and Sharon Wytock, Jon
Cole, and Jeff Hoystradt.
In the present Peace Corps contingent, Steve Drew (B.S.),
Francis Pearson (M.S.), John Leslie (B.S.), Martin Walter-
ding (M.S.), and Anthony Grossman (B.S.) work with
marine and brackish water fisheries. Their activities have
dealt largely with technical assistance to cooperatives,
research with crustaceans, and other biological work.
Keith McBride (B.S.) was working on biological studies in
the inland waters of the reservoir Cerron Grande and
Peter Nevel (M.S.) was involved in research at the Santa
Cruz Porrillo Experiment Station.
Several important studies and surveys were made by the
Peace Corps volunteers with counterparts from the host
country. The author had the opportunity to talk with two
of the present volunteers and three of the previous ones.
Opinions of their service varied. Some thought their ser-
vices were well received and others felt that they were
limited in work opportunities. It was reported that some of
the volunteers sometimes sat around for several days with
no assignment. Lack of planning and equipment were of-
ten blamed for troubles. The Fisheries Resource Service
also reported that some of the volunteers adapted well to
jobs and gave a good performance, while others did not.
The over-anxious volunteers 
facing situations of equip-
ment shortages might be expected to encounter morale
problems in some instances. Travel seems to be a par-
ticularly difficult problem related to a shortage of vehicles
and spare parts. Strong planning on critical paths in
decisionmaking should be useful in increasing efficiency of
the Fisheries Resource Service and its donors. The Peace
Corps volunteers seemed to have a preference to work
more directly with the people than was possible in the past.
FISHERIES PROGRAM APPRAISAL
A broad overview of the fisheries program and
development in El Salvador notes both progress and
problems. Certain acute problem areas, as envisioned by
the author and others, are described, and certain recom-
mendations for future fisheries policy are given.
12
General Impressions
The Fisheries Resource Service has made tremendous
progress since 1971 when the Auburn University-AID
proj ect was set up. The tenfold increase in the budget in
real terms by the Government of El Salvador from 1972 to
1977 is perhaps the best indicator of greater commitment
and interest in fisheries. Experimental facilities have
grown to the extent that benefits may be gained by a large
portion of the people of El Salvador in the years ahead.
New credit availability, new information through exten-
sion, and an expanded infrastructure in fisheries leading
toward establishment of wider markets should afford the
opportunity for significant expansion of this sector of the
economy. Several significant problem areas still exist in
the fisheries sector, however, and should be carefully con-
sidered in the future.
The Fisheries Resource Service has expanded until its
manpower is spread thinly over the working area and sub-
sectors. This fact is of extreme importance with respect to
maintaining projects which require constant attention of
trained personnel. Personnel turnover has been high in the
past, purportedly due to a low salary structure in the Ser-
vice.
In several instances, problems have arisen due to break-
downs by faulty transport equipment which severely limit
the effectiveness of programs. Manpower skills are
sometimes wasted in waiting on vehicles which do not
come. Lack of spare parts is one of the reasons given for
poor performance in t his phase of the program.
The mean productivity of aquacultural fisheries seems
to be extremely low at the communal ponds and low at the
farm ponds. In contrast, the highest productivity was at-
tained at one of the experimental communal ponds-more
than 7,000 kilograms per hectare. The fact that the 70
communal ponds had a productivity of less than one-tenth
this volume seems contradictory. At the farm ponds, mean
production of 2,500 kilograms per hectare was reported.
This is slightly more than one-third of the maximum
produced under more or less ideal conditions.
Production of fish in private or communal ponds should
not be expected to approach that obtained in an ideal ex-
erimental situation in which optimum stocking, feeding,
ertilizing, and harvesting operations are practiced. The
difference in production indicates a sizable technology
and/or management gap, however.
Observations on the demand for fish are difficult to ap-
praise, yet they seem encouraging. The private fisheries
operations report an unlimited demand for high-quality
fish, such as tilapia, in the fresh market. Income is a strong
deterrent to demand growth among the rural poor,
however. Latent demand for the product is manifest by the
fact that some persons take sizable risks with dynamiting
and other illegal means to obtain fish for consumption.
The provision of a large volume of high quality fish may
have little effect on the very poor in some areas. Demand
for fish is, no doubt, highly dependent upon income. In
some parts of the rural areas the per capita income was
around $65 in 1974, according to resident economists.
The large, high-quality fish are not likely to reach this
group through normal market channels, although there
may be a spillover of essentially the market rejects-the
smaller fish-which this group can purchase.
Until a fisheries tradition is created and markets are
firmly established in a country such as El Salvador, it is
difficult or impossible to establish the responsiveness to
price changes and to other variables through elasticity
measures. It is probably preferable to make comparisons
with other countries going through a similar tradition
change until a good data base can be created. Persons
wanting to procure quick numbers may not realize that a
time lapse of 20 to 30 years may be involved in the
creation of new traditions involving customs, mores, and
folkways. For this reason, one of the financial officials
pointed out that an on-the-spot, benefit-cost analysis was
worthless in the beginning of this tradition change.
If fish production could be greatl increased, the BID
goal of reducing the price of fish by 30 percent could
probably be attained. At the same time, volume could
probably be increased greatly by bringing fish consump-
tion to some families who were previously unreached.
This result requires an extensive educational program,
which is difficult to execute at the lower socioeconomic
levels of the populace.
Persons who are highly trained in the scientific aspects
of fisheries spend large roportions of their time on ad-
ministrative duties. This leaves little time for contributions
in their own field of endeavor. This situation seems to be
true with Dr. Jose Cabrero, Lic. Mauricio Machon, and
Lic. Cesar Abrego.
Inadequate numbers of trained personnel in the
Fisheries Resource Service may be one reason for the poor
productivity in private farm ponds and in communal
ponds. This problem is also related to the small number of
workers in fisheries. The short time period in which the
Extension Service has been functioning should be kept in
mind, however, when evaluating the effectiveness of the
program.
Problem Areas
Aerial application of pesticides to cotton fields in the
immediate area of the Santa Cruz Porrillo Fisheries
Station is a continuing problem. It has resulted in mor-
tality of fish in ponds. A no-spray zone of 500 meters from
the Station exists, but a 1,000-meter band has been
requested. Strong political forces in the agricultural sector
have prevented passage of a law to give greater protection.
The fisheries officials argue that the experiment station
was in existence before the cotton enterprises arrived,
giving them a prior claim to the land use. Severe pesticide
problems apparently exist in other parts of the agricultural
sector because of frequent and possibly overuse of cotton
poisons. Breeding stock of certain fish species require 2 to
4 years to develop, and the risk of their loss must be con-
si ered in assessing benefits and costs.
One apparent problem exists in the form of a shortage of
trained personnel in fisheries biology, economics, and
other disciplines. Existing research facilities and struc-
tures-laboratory hardware, buildings, complementary
equipment, and ponds and allied structures-are of ex-
cellent quality. Unfortunately, the service does not have
complementary personnel trained to make the best use of
these facilities, in the opinion of this author. A related mat-
ter which may be a significant problem is the increased in-
volvement in administrative duties of personnel trained in
the highly technical areas of fisheries, which may preclude
the "highest and best use" of this form of human capital. A
large part of Dr. Cabrero's time must, of necessity, be
spent on administrative matters since he is the Director of
13
Renewable Natural Resources. This fact does not
necessarily mean that his services are not more effective to
the overall fisheries program than if he were working in
biological or other technical aspects of the fisheries
program. Similar concerns were felt with respect to Lic.
Mauricio Machon and Lic. Cesar Abrego, both of whom
have highly technical skills in fish biology and
aquaculture, respectively. 
A large part of their 
time is
spent on administrative matters not directly associated;
with fisheries sciences.
A related matter is the lack 
of trained personnel in.
technological phases of fisheries biology at the lower 
and
middle levels. Persons from agricultural or other schools
could be trained in 2-year programs or bachelor degree
programs to partly fill this serious void. Personnel 
trained
in this manner would probably be more likely to continue
in the service and mnake a lasting contribution to fisheries
development. Classes held at the Boys Home contiguous
with the Izalco Experiment Station are a step in the right
direction. Only a fraction of the boys (mostly 14 
to 18
years of age) get to finish high school. If a group of these
students was given special training in high 
school for
specific service to the program, it would allow 
useful em-
ployment for a better resource use. Highly successful high
school graduates from other parts of the country could 
be
sent to 2-year, if not 4-year, colleges for special training in
fisheries.
A slightly different type of problem exists in the 
form of
a severe lack of trained extension personnel to 
take known
technology packages directly to the people. At 
the time Dr.
David Bayne of Auburn University was 
advisor to
Fisheries in El Salvador, extension workers 
were not
allowed to participate in fisheries development. 
Present
participation seems inadequate.
The author is concerned about plans to build the four
demonstration projects and the other expansions 
involved
in the proposedFisheries 
Resource Service 
"directorate"
reorganization in view of the limited number of 
trained
personnel available. The trained personnel are thinly,
spread in the present structure, leading to serious problems
in project continuity due to employee turnover.
Although the fisheries law as described in Circular #03,
dated August 29, 1967, from the Ministry of the Interior
seems to make an adequate effort to protect the fisheries
resources, enforcement is a serious problem at present 
as it
has been in the past. Dynamiting, rotenone poisoning, 
il-
legal diversions to capture fish, and other 
illicit means of
harvest are a serious problem in rivers 
and in certain other
waters. There is a need to bring law enforcement to a level
to complement other investments in the country's 
fisheries
development. The law does not permit development of the
brackish waters in coastal areas 
by private enterprise.
These mangrove swamp-type areas are a vapletely 
pro-
tected as natural areas.
Persons who have served in the Peace Corps 
in fisheries
say their services are not being used to full capacity. 
All
but two of the current volunteers are involved in non-
freshwater fisheries and some said they were not allowed
to become properly involved in the work. None of the
Peace Corps volunteers is directly involved in extension ac-
tivities.
Recommendations
1. Intensification of training in fisheries development
and management should be effected at the lower levels.
This could be done by special classes at high schools, in-
creased short-courses and intensive training of workers for
periods of 3 to 5 months in fisheries technology, 2-year
programs in fisheries at the Agricultural College, and 4-
year programs at universities. The large majority of this
training should be at the lower, "hands-on" level of the
program. These developments should be designed to im-
prove efficiencies at the operational and extension levels. A
technology base can be developed only if properly trained
individuals are available for managing and operating the
system. Technology can be transferred to the user only if
adequate extension and other educational programs are
designed for that purpose. Every effort should be made to
keep aquacuJtural and fisheries scientists as close as
possible to the work for which they were trained. Use of
personnel trained in fisheries for teaching purposes seems
to be a valid allocation of resources.
2. Extensive economic studies should be made a part of
all programs involved in fisheries development in El
Salvador. Economic analyses have not been an integral
part of studies commensurate with the technological
developments. This recommendation is in line with
policies recommended by various officials from the Latin
American Bureau and Technical Assistance Bureau of
AID, by personnel of the Inter-American Development
Bank, by the Banco de Fomento Agropequario, by the
World Bank, by the U. S. Department of Commerce, and
others.
3. Outside expertise should be sought in setting up the
economics division under the new "directorate"
organization which has been proposed. This plan should
be designed to include micro- and macroeconomic
analyses with the intent of oprimizing in the allocation of
the country's socioeconomic goals. The economics group
should be so organized that its input is lent to project and
policy changes before they are effected. All experimental
work should be done under a framework which is
amenable to the extraction of economic data effective for
decisionmaking and policy analysis. Opportunity cost of
the nation's scarce resources should be considered in all
major project expenditures. Social costs and benefits
should be considered in impact analyses to the extent of
data limitations.
4. The USAID should seriously consider the possibility
of providing additional assistance to the Government of El
Salvador in various program areas including extension
and economics. Training opportunities in academic and
practical fisheries programs should also be provided for
selected staff of the Fisheries Resource Service of the
Ministry of Agriculture.
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