..

A WORD WITH THE EDITOR
I \ P~ICTURE ix xxiii Lit atihoitxanid xxititi a ilook it Liie actutti obtl t ~i (x tilt xholdi beiixc moiiiri i cduCilCttttlil ix Cit tatiix tru in exThat i

use 6teuw~dcee

1)r.iti J1ep. Icssorof itr Pol

iixnc
cn

cc i

_51 tlt ix

xx :As it of

Pm-ix u
oip s-i i

aii~iin

195.3 xx\

in 19pi tlomtpilet\x c Ph. 1i in i oi

ti it' ng i'i , olo t itheLi ai'ii

tyaik thtioughi thx aro t
n itii iitxx4i
pt . Mx a

ot Lfinttpii Cii x onsii coixi

xin s,

spiiiitx food ai

als

otn

st i,

r scix
sW

(~iilliili

i acti
illtiati

d e

mLa in

toi~thei fatiadi'n
utwedcnto

to miiidiniiigx,

sIties pri d tg

x exx lttxdii CvIltitixi Reaingtathricd cel

rtn

irtatl x.Nt

iit

Liid rciti'x

whe

anti xxiiinro acua

lo

s

v

LiiuratFyel,' ititi t tChitrig re at uitxx

n hoxldt fiC' iii ldti'

cc

acrossithe Statc lu

eratsbttin rprsoffninsp

n

xtaix tin'dxlaii sit tour Itrughu rstacirtsitic Sxxtu'tii that reszluii lxtom tixrixi of..STVNO

h

ligcm

SPRIN 1986

Vol 33, Npoin1e

tutu

iix itin

iesakcherst

findit 'uixiiith o

'ii'tut

x

ti

i-gi

I~~~~tdjnc

..

AssittitN t iitan

it/f ins

Oli i

mportt

ntuxxhiii t res
xadop ti

res 5

xarc aied

iii2ti''ttg

txt

u

t

andi ii
xi. ii

xi

x9: Pta ptotedi

/ tx/t Asoit u

Pt o-X

\litsCis

2. arly

Iof

Biau' Bch t lgty

ii

ti Jt

tt

Ki t i Xe titis R andtti faisxciat i/eli

iseir/i

Awiii tif it f/ t etists in xhi Xxxiabamai

Aiitt
iii
iit

ulturaI~tti, I nf xn. -\ Stiaitt i nci cii N Xx P ii/t'.x, xiihe has / Sgan itrntinal
n
ox hasi

re.1'gSit i foN iswrkottNunl+;

il Apilt til

rl of poutry~ tise ss 'Chttt ttti t t Ih

I litiC'

(:

fi

cid DaL

wr

osa

PanSbsain.C

nln

Ju

( ' rnl

iel

aBakRhSbttoMro

ucin

lanid.

Augusiit ,AXuguixt 2-

.Aii ( 'utnitditx

F'iiii Dax, Sand Mottuntin Stbitatitoi,
tax x

Crossxx

Fieid Cropsi Flixc'tll Dax, Vt iii

Siulixtat I Ii ad iii iton.

ii

Low Levels of Aflatoxin Safe for Young Turkeys and Chickens
J.J. GIAMI3RONL, U.L. DIENER, N. DAVIS, VS. PANANGAI A, and FJ. HOEKM

/9

Ni4

_ua tv ofill ( Mich ill pouIt v AIII(mI, FI.A"fO.AI\S IN, dalna(r llvcl Fh:1":l) 11111iardrd r( 11111,(. .( 'I,1vvtll rate- impaired I.("(I eomrrsioll ,111(1 tists rIflit(t olii ll r I iai ou tiol d1 pr(.~111,1 of hir(Is natural inlmunitc ac aiII I Turkei illI hicken xiilsed in tli \]iLi ii rr ui Ii,( :(s(. 5111(.( allatovi]] c)it al IIinatio]] of I I ho11-1 t"st. I, i c 111brd(1rlp 11ach1 lI of11 I-

t111,(
]]I
topic

I( i p iI ciu si ts

II t

i

ti

iiiIi s a ii

"iuliips.

(ris

leioiins
i ii

conisistiint

xxit

ialia
'uxiii

tuimli

tiom(

it\ xxi r x c

uitt

iii

ciciisi

Tail) is lI previll( Ile :LIT iIIIport:(it

problem, this co]]lin11( .1 ( 1 our r("scurh.

attiiiiit I

I cItitl Iiir tl IT(I

fix lik i

v

-Il

Much of the rc"s( arch preciously I("porl( II (hunt allahlyin and po11llly hits IrrclI with (11-,titlA artificidlV contalllinatc"d VA ith I pcs of aflA(I\iI I not prodocc"(I u]](lcr uatluill ( )nt;lnlioation. In mhIItion. contaminatioll II"v( Is \\crc IIsnit II hi(11 ("I thall those noIIli'd \ fo nut in conmirrcial nl,]]-ket gain- 'Ihcrclow, resl'arch \,,as hrt"lnl at till' :Uubalna \t;I I( 111turid IypcrI lnrnl Station to edicts of allltoviit prodrlcrd in nat]]Ill

110 Ix ii ii i ] I iiilii l it p~ lGlvin M t>

ii ill. t tt tv "( I

oi1
-

il illi talhit l fi i
llili

vi(i

Ii
p

fi

it Ittttit

slii l biird i t 1111
IItIiC

ti

>

cut ii I III Iii

l

p

ii

xiauii

dii fl - tlit iii

itte for

brl

rii

tit l i it

iif

xx it

I

I(

iit

-Iii~x it (I.

Iini xilA11 i tiui iiii ll tiixii
lit

111 tIii

l2xxk o

xx ( 'kdi o]]l_ ti ] hloiItc iiiill

drtert11i11c

\hiItlti c sh

vi( It t ii iltttt
atvr,

i i I x\ i lif
touti xIi

ollt-

hrcaks.
Corn cootaillirlt( aflatoyill produced by a natural outbreak of .kite rrillus %larrly the ]]lost (onl]]Iollk occurrint( Im((It n\iIt on Corn. wits used to Ilwasurc the eft(ct o0 t;rovyth aril health oI turkeys and chickens IhroiIcrsl. Lrve11 ul ont:o11inalion trlr(I

xli pxii r(c t

ili hith

i

x

itlx i lu

ix ii
kr i .i
tut~

ii

Iils
r lxxs

t hii

Ii.ini 1 of

F(

(it fii

c (tiill litiu 111 it ixisi I (i ii nix i

br,

l

it0 (A11

1(,(1i

i 1111 1 u.r :11(I t i

itcd rit t

ci ii

lt ill

1 111-i

k
ii

iithe I

.S.

Food

iix

till itl ii (_I

i i

ix o i

ti
1 nt

o ii

to1

ili]]till toi lix rni
Corn 11 i iit

111 piii i stu
till > ) itl in
x(

b
itli

stateli
iiic( it ll

i1111 )l
i

liili' ll VA

tt>

xliii11,1li

(i I

v

i

N

x\il

th 1)11 xxd 1 ill

p.Iii

ofli i

b

11111ii ii t

\vrrvLix
xiiiI it \Iltl

to xx I(t

irin aoii (i' (Iui loo stiii till

(.v
\lorlalit \ \\cil;ht I;ifn Pccd
co11\.

hi )II(I,
Micro. (:cos, M, )I
liltb A

lesions

Icinns talit\
lit II

I i

lii

t

\ii th tiiil ll.

isIt

>1

11

Mild
ix iilat

Il

il

l1l

11111
Illxild

II ii
ii mild oi

siV xtIi

I)utt fur 10mth mo.k. b(.( mc ill Ilir(1, (hod II(.tvyc(.Ii foul III and fifth vy(.ek,

lluuuu .lXr, i"lttol

1 ,xIpilmIon o Station

VLIER, M.H. HOLLINGJSWOIRTH, and J.W. KNOWLE

I

dappropiriate( One-half busihel of' thei

xol

N RIECENT PER~S coiixideirable inter-

1berrie's

in A Ilbama. The xsirxvival ad girowAth of lii' bl'eriesI are grealter AAheni the sol is
lis reeom The geinitrai mei dation to)amend tih' of' Awith 1/8 to 1/2 [liii. sol in a plantiing 1h1l11 ])ca mioss. Dutie to ther cos)t of' Peat imoss, t 1 or woldit like to) uis'e it'ess\expensive o.'ii'

~

and 12 iii. tdtt'p. xin' planit was eixs'tabilise i tihe xpini g ing 'Thel of' 198-4 ait thie Nortih Alabamaii~ Horticltulre'
AAithi al pH hll

The trealtmlents xwere c aluiated f1or effcts v plaint surial ixigori height, wAidth, and shoot girowthd. Thet A i(oi of the plantx as hteiiig subijectitiNl ratdt'l wAith a iratiiig of 1(0
oii

of 4.9. Plotx

Awtr'

Alo livAitde'd

that

wAIrt' miied'o

AAithi 6 in.

of1 hull'xsiraw

Therie wAerie no treatmniit ei'ects on plaint lost iii this st itl. vxal; lxw p)lanits wAetre td Aeilte ini adimeiiinet tirtatmniits The 'oil
suiii
gireateri pilnt A igori niCA shoolt growxAthi anid

study.IAnX thie all wasdappie'd tol plaiitx iii
ei
itter'ic

An Albama Agrieultural Experimt'nt Stasil admieint maiteriials ad uliiching oni

l

viivekiIAI del

gl

Ilf ateri pe'i

thani fiir thit piine baiik or aigedi sadus(hit
lltlect iig MuIlcin hadno
1)n

the extalisximint an d grow~t h of' raldi ex e type biiluerriex. The treatmen'its c'onsxixted of1: (1) peat mossx, (2) fiue grouniid pine bark, ()aged xawvdusit, and (4) no) sol amineiinit.

the Tlueii t'Aari'tx, Avigo ofi

the grow~t h ainid lAA tal e 2. tI CAer,

T ABLE 1. TliE Errt 'r OF Soil
Soil amnendmients Planlt height C.limoax Tifluie In. In.

AiFNDMAi

ON BLU Ei Aidlth w Tifluie

T1ll PLASA \((il

ANiD (ROWA

ratiiig and( a AAider' pidint Alidiththani tht iionplanits. Tlhe ine'w shoolt le'igth was 11lelinn C'i lix plintsA gre'ate'i oni thle ni)in-i

iiiiich('

Plai
Cimax In.

Shoot lenigth6
C limoax In. 10.4 Tiflue In. 12.01

Plaint

A igoi

rating

Ini suimimdia

giroAAth

adi

Avigoi AAe'rt

Climoax

Tillie

In.

27.6 3.0 P'eat moss ........ Pine hark.........29.9
No aiieiidmenit Aged sawdusxt. :30.5

29.7 :36.8 3:3.4
.32.0

27.1 3:3.7 :30.0
.30.8

28.1 :34.:3 :32.0
:32.1

4.4

1.

17.3 15.7
11.9
iIi

15.,5 1:3.6
12.7

6.7 5 .5
6.1

6i 6 .5.4
.5.5

greater Alitlh pea~t imoss asthe' soil adiimeinlit bairk thain AAith p~int' or agedi sadusit. T'e digireat anti imay ferenies,' however, AAere noCit xl Al t't'e inot hjlstihAtde'addiitiol~a cost.Xi a te't re'sxl iin gire'ate'i i ii amendmen t t reaitmen tsA resAponmse to lack of1
iiiiilching prbal

i

w))) Aax

Txto F. 2. TiiF: EFFECT OF MU(LCHi ON Hi I FIF 110 PL AN ir \ Mllh treatmen'it Plant height TIifluo Climoax

ANT) GHC rHA turi

o bC uselA( di p irrigtionii

Plant widthi Tifbliie Cliiax In.
:33.3

Shoot lenigth C liiiax T Iifbl'

Plaiit xigor ratinig
Climiax Tiflueo
D~ozili ix

In.
:30.3 Muilch ........... '.on-milch.......31.2

In.
:31.7

In.
:31.2

In.
14.0

In.
1:36 6.2 .5.5

Pi iltxxiii

of I

irtiiultuiircIlolliigxisT
a Ies'a'irchi

34.4

27.5

:32.0

15.2

1:3.3

5.1

5.6

Subsltation; andil Knle tiullii AssocIiaite' of I Ioriticilturic.

Alabama Agricultutral LYxp('rimti'nt Stationt

D
dl] I'

gidili

13(. (I

ofi poliii etil t

I

Ut 1' 13\N( I
x

xlanting datI'Ii

xx litc

xxi I(

1a

iti dxx

ti (1(1.ii t
'

mdi
cIli

l1 i

ilidlf)1dl

H.H. BRYANT, J.1 TOUCHTON, and D.P MOORE
'ht~ir: 1.Gtici

i) 1111iilt

ii

till.'xl.'

mtl dl

grin.t'

Sorhum 4111 'tIrhxlI

Ciiles i.. d

tlt ixe xx .l

Som

11

'ix1 i In'is HiII1) xi) \Ixl I \1

,1\1_Pits

\1

Seeding ra t r m re

lueldi 1

d111 x appintx

nX

Alrt'rt ch i 9Xp 9

1h
'N o.

13(14

,o.

B1.

Xii o. 12,000I 59 (0(I0
635(0(10

131. u

I

1311.

tll.

to111

'ltlanting

date (oi

nc

and1ll lj

ix.

6( ,00 10 , 0 1 140,00 15 0 ( I

... .. ... .. . . .. . . . ... .. ... ..
... .. ... ..

35,000((
15,0001(

58,000( (49,(100(

6.5 67 65

66 ,(10
9100 125,000(

82
S(1( 5 9(1

47
67 69

417,0 69, WOI 5100

:111 39
15

71

1.55000I '\BI
lI

91

S.0001)1

7.5

10(2,(A)
Ii)~r xxA'P~tli~ TU Dxi(N, ir

46 45

wdie ro1 ii
lc.id '16 i11

(11)to 6 . 1, xx kx
dt l dil. if

d hdhplan 2. (.Rxi So10.111 xi X1 Jilvx A\ 11)"r11 Ii) I'i
fiel'd pe1 acre1 ilx MaII 19 Apr 19 )
pxc

l~ podution xxes

ltel

in

a~ poor tilt'x

es1ti 4 popul'atill'

(3 lid

iloxx xx dlii

\ilxc 2(0

jlin'

21

Bu.
sul~t xxitii lilt' pti ilx ng rex l i te sils in at pltii exelet . g

Bu. 9:3 100, 91 107) ST (S1 T 93)

1314. 71 (621 (15 51 64 i54-l 5:3 4W

B31 V) 169) 11 467) 5 466) -124631

The Apil l
op ltin

IS i1 . 24 in. . :30) in. 36 in .

75 (53) 6(5 1.5) 6.3 13) . 1, 42 5

(ablci

861 l oII th

s'ex' 1di I

l xrit li.

i

ih (clxx

xencct

Statl~ion xiixii

ic

ild 13 lxlin'C

11

1(1(1

potenltiais kxili piroblyi v (I row' wi1Itlid with l''tl

not) ill

iilix

ex-

pressedt bog

xidc( as 3(0 to :36 V.
pop-d\1)

it I

toXI som

~lts.

Fo

thel

londi 11

Iin.drlith

planting1(11dates: and lant

uilaltions4 liceltl'
lant.inixxx 1111 til xx opui latio iltlx xx ge 'llxl ,eiouit in a11 ild

510,000 riiductIions1 1)11

perl~i lditnlnx c

not with.

c~r (I

561.hc fii thi

Xhighs 1iul~g drate to7"( ti.ts ii1
mcllid Prds

foi t of,1 \ilili' Slro as l\lt as~' gr11at wuithcrd.

tciidths onl grill hlt

widCths d1c1a14 i'llm
pcill.' ti.1iI m 11 d

:31'1

n.aa

x

i1 inceae x xt

seed1i ngIl tesi lxx

NW

C0
J.RP. BOLTE and D.T. HILL

For converting swine waste to methane gas
open foam-type support material, high bacterial concentrations can be retained inside the fermentation vessel. The result is faster conversion rates of organic matter to methane, enhanced capabilities for effectively utilizing dilute wastes, and generally more stable reactor operation. Since bacteria are fixed inside the reactor vessel, washout problems are minimized. This allows reduced hydraulic retention times (HRT's, the average amount of time feed material stays inside the reactor) and reduced reactor volumes, important economic considerations since initial reactor vessel cost constitutes a major portion of the investment required to set up and operate a fermentation system. Thus, because of their capabilities for effective conversion of dilute wastes at short HRT's, these reactors appear to be well suited to treatment of flushed livestock wastes and integration into refeeding/energy production systems. To evaluate the performance of these reactors using flushed swine waste, four 1.3gal. suspended particle-attached growth anaerobic reactors were set up and operated for a period of approximately 4 months. The reactor volumes were filled with reticulated open-cell polyurethane foam blocks (1/2 x 1 1/2 x 2 in.) and needle-punched nylon pads (3/8 x 1 1/2 x 2 in.) in equal portions to provide support surfaces for biofilm formation. These support particles were retained inside the fermenters using screens placed over the inlets and outlet ports of the reactor vessel. Two of the fermenters were operated at 130°F and two were operated at 95°E To simulate conditions encountered in a refeeding/energy production swine waste management system, flushed swine waste was screened to remove large particulate solids using an 18-mesh vibrating screen separator. This allowed the solid portion of the waste to be used for refeeding, with the liquid portion available for anaerobic fermentation. Previous research at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station has shown that approximately 50% of the potential methane present in the flushed waste remains in the liquid portion after screening. In this study, the screened swine waste liquids contained approximately 1.2% total solids, of which approximately 80% was organic material available for conversion to methane. The remaining 20% of the solid material consisted of inert ash. This flushed waste material was considerably more dilute than the 5% solids level generally considered a minimum for conventional anaerobic fermentation. The fermenters used in this study were operated over a 4-month period at a variety of loading rates. The thermophilic (130°F) fermenters were started at a 5-day retention time (HRT) and reduced progressively to 3, 2, and 1 day HRT's. HRT's for the 95°F reactors ranged from 10 to 2 days. These values can be compared to values of 5 to 20 days for conventional anaerobic fermenters. Data were taken at each HRT for gas production, gas quality (percent methane), and influent and effluent chemical parameters. The fermenters performed well at all the HRT's examined, although effluent quality began deteriorating at the shortest HRT's (highest solids loading rate). The data collected indicated that successful attachment and colonization of the support media by methane-producing bacteria occurred, and that these bacteria could be retained inside the fermenter vessel at concentrations substantially greater than in conventional anaerobic fermenters. Additionally, these reactors displayed remarkable stability, rapid response to changing loading rates, and extreme tolerance to operational upsets. Several times during the study, the entire fermenter contents were accidentally drained from the reactor vessel; however, upon recharging the fermenter with fresh waste,
both 130 ° and 95 ° fermenters showed essen-

cess of converting organic wastes, fermentation such as livestock manure, is the prointo methane gas, a valuable energy resource. Since the oil crisis of the early 1970's, this process has received considerable attention as a means of providing both a stable, on-site energy source and an effective waste treatment alternative for livestock producers. Conventional anaerobic fermenters consist of an airtight vessel, generally containing a mechanism for mixing the reactor contents (i.e. motor-driven paddles or recirculation pumps) and provisions for adding influent feed material and removing treated reactor effluent. The conversion of organic feed material to methane is accomplished by a diverse microbial culture termed anaerobic bacteria. These bacteria have relatively low growth rates and are sensitive to temperature, pH, and toxic materials. These characteristics have made conventional anaerobic fermenters susceptible to failure due to overloading of feed material, washout of bacteria at a rate faster than they can reproduce, or rapid fluctuations in reactor operating conditions. Additionally, influent solids concentrations of 515% are generally required for efficient conversion of organic wastes in these reactors. Unfortunately, many of the waste streams encountered in agricultural production systems are of a dilute nature (0.5-3%), and as such are not readily amenable to fermentation in conventional anaerobic reactors. Examples include animal manures collected with flushing techniques where considerable amounts of water are added to facilitate waste transport, the liquid portion of separated manures where solids are utilized for refeeding, and food processing plant wastes. This is a particular problem in swine production facilities in the Southeast, since approximately 70% of these facilities employ flushing systems for waste collection. To overcome the problems associated with conventional anaerobic fermentation, research on a new reactor technology is being conducted at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station in Auburn. These "Suspended-Particle-Attached Growth" reactors employ reticulated open-cell foam or needlepunched nylon particles contained within the reactor vessel to provide support surfaces for anaerobic bacteria to attach to and colonize. As the bacteria grow, they secrete a gelatinous polysaccharide material which forms a "biofilm," a thick slime layer of concentrated active bacterial mass. By trapping these bacteria in the biofilms contained within the

ANAEROBIC

tially no adverse effects and completely recovered within 12 to 36 hours. The results of this preliminary study indicate the suspended particle-attached growth fermenter is ideally suited for conversion of dilute animal wastes to methane gas. These fermenters were successfully operated at hydraulic retention times approximately five times shorter than those considered minimum for conventional anaerobic fermentation, which translates into smaller fermentation vessels and lower initial costs for fermentation systems. The fermenters used in this study showed a rapid start-up time and displayed extreme tolerance to operational upsets and rapid response to changing operating conditions. These characteristics indicate that suspended particle-attached growth fermenters can be successfully integrated into flushed waste and refeeding/energy production systems, providing smaller reactor vessels, enhanced stability, and adaptability to fluctuating feed scheduling and waste variability.

Bolte is a Research Associate and Hill is Alumni Associate Professor of Agricultural Engineering.

6

Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station

LIABILITY, family strife, uncertainty about distribution and future use of property, and excessive probate and administrative costs are common problems associated with estate transfer. Many of these problems can be avoided, however, if farmers develop estate plans that take advantage of existing laws. Advantages of effective estate planning showed up in a recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study of farm estate transfers. A detailed examination was made on the transfer of 10 actual estates over the period 1968-82. The study identified estate planning tools currently available for transferring a farm estate, and compared results with estate planning results during the early part of the study period. Findings of the study are illustrated by one of the estate transfers, which took place during 1977-81 under regulations of the Tax Reform Act of 1976. The example farm was a cattle and row crop operation with 2,235 acres of land. Three major objectives were addressed in the estate transfer plan cited as an example: 1. Provide for wife until her death-accomplished by leaving spouse half ownership in the land (fee simple) and a life estate in the other half. 2. Provide an inheritance for children that would be equitable and escape taxation at death of the surviving spouse-accomplished by naming children as equal remaindermen to the spouse's life estate. 3. Save taxes-accomplished by using the marital deduction, employing current-use valuation for the real property, and taking advantage of any unified credit that might be available for the estate. Provisions for "current-use valuation" of farmland allow valuing land at its value for agricultural use rather than "highest or best use" value. Use of this provision in the example estate transfer resulted in considerably lower value of the real estate portion of the estate. The result was large tax savings, table 1. The major requirement for the current-use provision is for the farm to be operated by a qualified heir. The marital deduction was another valuable tool used. This is basically a credit against the taxable estate for property which passes to a surviving spouse. Its use is spelled out in the will, with the amount of deduction determined from the amount of property passing to the spouse, in complete ownership, under the will. At the time of this farm transfer, the marital deduction was limited to $250,000, or one-half of adjusted gross estate value, whichever was larger. Another major tool utilized was the unified credit provision. At the time of transfer, this amounted to $47,000 which could be used as a direct credit against the amount of tax due for the estate.

TAX

EFFECTIVE ESTATE PLANNING PROVIDES ECONOMIC BENEFITS
W.J. HARDY, JR., and S.C. BELL

rr~irr rr rr E

TABLE 1. ESTATE TRANSFER UNDER TAX REFORM ACT OF 1976

Item

Results under different provisions Current-use Fair-market . Dol. 710,810 250,262 251 000251 1,212,072 (-) 400,933 (-) 32,153 778,986 (-) 389 493 389,493 118,228 (-) 47,000 (-) 6,464 64,764 71,228 Dol. 1,310,810 250,262 000 1,812,072 (-) 400,933 (-) 32,153 1,378,986 (-) 689,493 689,493 225,912 (-) 47,000 (-) 17,580 161,332 178,912

Real estate (2,235 acres) .......................... Personal non-farm property....................... Personal farm property ........................... Total gross estate ................................ Debts, mortgages, liens ........................ Administration costs ........................... Adjusted gross estate ............................ Estate marital deduction ....................... Taxable estate .................................. Tentative gross estate tax ......................... Available unified credit ........................ Credit for Alabama death tax .................... Federal estate tax due ........................... Total estate tax due ..............................

.

TABLE 2. ESTATE TRANSFER UNDER EcoNoMIc TAX RECOVERY ACT OF 1981

Item

Results with and without estate plan With estate plan Intestate (no plan) Dol. 572,160 250,262 51,000 1,073,422 (-) 400,933 (-) 32,153 640,336 (-) 791,822 -00(-) 96,300 0-0-0Dol. 1,200,195 250,262 251 000 1,701.457 (-) 400,933 (-) 32,153 1,268,371 (-) 659,186 609,185 196,198 (-) 96,300 (-) 14,367 85,531 99,898

Real estate (2,235 acres) .......................... Personal non-farm property........................ Personal farm property........................... Total gross estate ................................ Debts, mortgages, liens ........................ . Administration costs ........................... Adjusted gross estate ............................ Estate marital deduction ....................... Taxable estate .................................. Tentative gross estate tax ......................... .Available unified credit ........................ Credit for Alabama death tax ......................- . Federal estate tax due ........................... Total estate tax due ..............................

The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 offers even greater opportunities for savings in estate transfer, table 2. Savings resulted from lower land value under current conditions and larger allowable marital deductions. Under the latest law, the full value of all property transferred to the spouse will qualify for the marital deduction (an "unlimited" provision). This provision can be used to eliminate all taxes at the death of the first spouse; however, care needs to be exercised to ensure that the surviving spouse's estate does not become excessively large.

The limit on "unified credit" also was raised by the latest law, making $155,800 the

total available for 1986. This will exclude an estate of up to $500,000 from federal estate tax liability. As indicated by data in table 1, the farmer was generally successful in accomplishing his objectives for estate planning. The newer laws would allow even greater success, as indicated by data in table 2. Hardy is former Graduate Research Assistant and Bell isProfessor of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology.

Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station

ooooq 0PTgoT

WERENQ off o00 00 000 0000

It'-4

l 4

d 4 '

. "..r. :....ate ..-.. _..,

__....,.. .,,..:.

-

I-

J.D. HARPER, G.R. STRUIHER, M.L. MARVEL, and J.T. EASON

The spnty schedule used tut all treatments was: one application when first tassel shoots duinllg this ('rop. IThis cails for timlYli uise of' appeared, it spray :3 days later, and fis c conan effeetiS e insetcticide, applied w5ithl i sccutiyc daily spray s beginning at carp silkspraye15r that p~ro)Iides good0(pLlIt coI(S rage. ing followed by sprays on alternate days until Air-blast spraer aI.' ppe'ai Suitt'( for- grouiiid harvest. )'sing this schedule, it total of 16 apapplicationl of insecticides to swt ttrn. A co plications was made beginning Junc I; and mI achin oit'fth11isfli S 11 (t1('t typ wa in labamai~11 ending July 17. Plots wcrc harvested oil .1111\ 1 Agicltura t~l E xpe)rimenItllt StaItion1 re'stearchi IS. "Tell curs were picked front alternate rosys l ast x ear aIt the Sand1 Mo1011nta~in Subs',tation,1 in each plot to estimate the level of control across the entire width of each plot. Each car vyas shucked and cxaurincd fur insect (Iamis pow~ter-take-11ff (iriS ('I' n is tiractorage, and cars were rated as either perfi'cth mounilited unit is con~isidiered to he tell sitedi clean or insect damaged. 0auiage included fin Irc getaile produci tion b tecauIse' of' its 111,11 presence of' insects or signs of any yisiblc insize, flexibhih andI~ 1115 ct't. It set''msl espesect feeding.
dIam age by in~sects c'an be tole'rate'd wthen pro-I fields like those fildi area. F'ieltd plots werte establishied to dieterm~line sp~raySer c'an1penietr ate and(p~roIIie acceptablie inIsect (c01ntrl (2) the it'vel of corl coItm-1 (1 fparetdt~ to ilS net'ii ll hiilghl clearane iln tile Sandt Moutini

SS

ilemishW EE CFi'(O mu(st bIncar b l~I ial f1 ('t to ihe HN 1 tabilit actcep' commerc
miarkets. Thierefore,
's

per acre mule the high clea rance sprayer dcIk Bred 20 gal pet acre.

Pf'-RI'\l Icsoui I)
fil(-: ISINI 1m

sentijal

ly

no

I i I\ Sn(I I O m\I' s 7111st I (151 IS loe IsI

Puois
( I

Cos

i(hoi ('l

... .. 3 High clearance spray~er Air-hlastt~t srae
. . . 95 ILunatIt( .42
ys ... ....

. ..97 ...95 9-4
.. . .S

. . . 7S 9-12 inItilt 21-rot'
plolts 'it'il Str tilt zont (If'

The degree of spray penetration by the airsprayer was determined by statisticalh comparing the damage front the outer 4 rows of all plots, then the outer S, 12. 16, and 20 ro\ys. In this \yay it was possible to determine

blast

spllayS r

11(1S

tide' tilt 9 to tilt c'ter' '

c'nitionis oIf tilt

:32-

(If' this test. and1( 4tt-row

( I) daluagc at various distances into each plot, (2) the point at which protection dropped, and (3) the importance of overlap of sprays di-

In11) (u

tthis st,

hstt'etm('lit ill

resul

ei I'in

rected into each side of' the plots.
aplie
Sth with it

Fa1nt'cty(l

iln

ltol it'S

h'ile (41it'Stis (If con-I

Motde \ le

:3004

spr1ax er. 'lest

plots wSere' 50 ft. long, w5ith i the(r S, 16, 24, :32, or 40 rowSs (:36-inI. ros).L Pen'Itrbiliity of, tilt air last wasI~dtetri~ned( b spray ing into each21 plot from boIthl sidets . A5 ste'cond1( test uised

8-row plolts to c'ompaI~rt' a Super Bilt' Box 60WX
hligh-lt'earance sprayetr wtith thlt air-iliast spaer.

11'(fital

ts ompareil +

air-b Iflst c.tive

aplicatiLois

1ba11 o(0.1

0.

.j l

o' 2(I 24-ro(('. Stidt dcl(Icred 1t0 gal. it'lS

Comparison of' the tvvo application 11Wthods in the table shows that the air-blast sprayer protected corn ill plots that were o-), 16, or 24 rows wide as well as the high clciu'ance sprayer protected S-rosy-wide plots. Furthcruane, the 21-row plots treated vyith the contbinalion of P\drin and Lorsban were as well protected as the 2-1-row plots heated with Launatc. The outer eight rows were well protected in all plots, all .sho\ying 95or greater clean cars. Rows 9-12 were similarh protected in the 24-rosy plots, but in the :3?or 40-ropy plots, protection dropped helo\c
90% dean cars. This den onstrates that rows

inetrl

(5fst'abo st('

fav b((((I((n

5 r \or

tigoos f'Sn

t

1it'i(I ilt St

'ulttions

ofti~ststtir

fpllots. Thi1r-ila.st sprae

vNI NIt~ IN high
NilI(,
wiit

\

\I

ii
-lis
croips.

I

itm

!

per acreFnt tCt
freshi

tihatart'pi>
IlIIN cN i

Nt'getaiiit

iiighi iitiri

of pritt

aiid

ild

Nat iaiiity

ai

relt'Litd income listF
\iain

kN.
N (l.ctaiii

Aliaiiia
Ntiatl'g prduer ilitNare

c) prtodicers ii Na
Cl

ketitig
iiigix

to

Ntell

produice, but iiiti
tuning tn

nitioni,(

i'tii

iit

growlN i

in tihe alta,
aiid

ani

aiialiN NiN

f Idc111

Njing-Ntiiiiiiil'

it0 fll

croips NNA s N
aii-xpi'i

takeii

bN

tiie Aiaiiiili

Agicu lltul

(iiI 11

AD['RIAN
crop p)1oduciltion doe
iurlci

mTin Statio C i N( cojucin i '
NN I

witlithii

iTe ('esi

Ville't

\'gitbdue Samai.i
oppo)uniitities, fii i

A

tiitv' .''iiti'Nld i

ini Alabaia xi cts

o~ld )( ho taii

nmar kets c'iiinati.

(Atlanta, Baltimiore
NcNN Oila
aIndiit.

Chillcago. C inLtuis)li wNcrc t

iip adi fi 11it ix keepin g N 111(1'

dowti n.

avll hi lc

pr~ icl-iost tifi pNducioi il)

Soli'

N tal N ti

rall, pronducers ini Alabiama alt in atpo
t capturii tihl

crIops

Niri

C(Naiiiati't 1)f

oni

till

bisI

of pr icC

Nrrli Ncostiit itN.

proucltioni

atid

pieit

i Ai l-

s itio 11

hightr

pice

seen N'in

i tihe

Iionlit' yie(1 ld l

ist

3di

IwNaemln i100tiii( ll Nh
declied igiica Pi ith i I

ithe pecen( agt' ofiw'Al ki t

pr ice q11uotat

1insat

il,ut

p1ietl red 'ii titne pridcer

Nctin. \NNI'i

Nit iti

i.a

t higiteN

ra] S.,.

lt;

aiii
at"iat

an

fora g'Iit ill i
Nost

croip II IN thelisig lu

it ll

.e

markt

is

k twtl

ices declN i li

g throuNghoutill I

tile I li iN I~Iti
i Ii I'm, NI NI~ l

IIh

v

pNrouction, trnsptaltiNAion ad cosg' ts l rirsi N
iithe t

iiting mark iitice.~ii) e pr

Ito i

marke lt s

ot

tiN atI 0 l 1

0' ( icNIiN.bu

hov Riull

-vr Nisk \I

rv IN

IJ 5

brekii l itaioi

ranlilt i
NlctIiI 'Iat("L)Nt NNoiit"i vu I1

po~ en11tia INN ptie ti

' ltii

ii

itl igh

1

kii

el. -

Pt. i

t~im' pi I t

uotell si

u i N tiit' ots.~ and7'I'bisi~ idte

bl if
ailAI(HIN

iinia pin
all itis td

tINansioitaitin
ANcitured

i t

nii d toN i (li

ll plN

kctN potential

at iti illlond v~

Ie
iin-

I c

IcNt

I,, I
)ntdi

FIl

an M,fthi

duNct

i

livelN

and.1 il

Nilltit ct

hig

produc-1

SIprinlg F rops~ Snap( III'Iiis

Iris uNdNI

N

c

potaIN esiiId liii to

l

tan~gl iti-

Sxi
Nigic Iii Iew

ut

cor

....

l illil'ii iiiiiilue c

lill l p li

till'c
Coillar igreelns

harvt saso LNich h w

i arci it

o 'allv iNt C

high cos~tN polpjihti of11

iiAniiIllli iicated

Bu

pepei

ll ...

lne squas ili liiif N

it(i sii litg crps

bo11ilth bNicicNNit ailnd

Fall crloNs

CIdi, ii,,

i

'olii iNN

I .i

.Xlnhniii

Xa

IA-i

ulttuiu EXIi irnc111lit /

.Statiiin

Comparison of nutritional quality in new and old tomato varieties
K.S. RYMAL, J.L. TURNER, G.C. BARTLEY, D.A. SMITH, E. CARDEN, and R. McDANIEL leased each year and growers and new tomato varieties are regardeners are faced with a confusing array of literature proclaiming each new variety as superior to all others. In truth, tomatoes that are perfect for all climates and for all uses have not been developed. For this Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study, 11 promising new varieties, which were released in the last 2-3 years, were compared with 7 varieties that have been popular for at least 10 years. The test was planted at the Gulf Coast Substation in
Fairhope on April 5, 1985. Representative samples from each plot were picked at the firm-red-ripe stage and held in cool storage for 2-3 days, then analyzed.

MANY

1 was given to the firmest tomato since firmness is desirable if tomatoes are to be shipped to distant markets. However, firmness may not be most desirable in tomatoes for the home garden. The third column indicates color, based on instrumental readings, with the highest values indicating the deepest red color of the tomato surface. Results indicate that all samples were uniformly ripe and of acceptable color. As shown in column four, ascorbic acid or vitamin C values were also close together, indicating that all the varieties were good food sources of vitamin C. Conversely, total acidity values in column five varied considerably, ranging from a low of 0.435% for Horizon to 0.608% for Bonnie Nematode Resistant. This variety with the highest acidity and one of the lowest pH's had a slightly below average sugar content, which results in a tart flavor. Mountain Pride, on the other hand, with one of the lowest acidity and highest pH and a slightly above average sugar content should be a sweet tasting tomato. The values in the column labeled pH relate to safety for canning, with the lowest values indicating the greatest availability of hydrogen ions (acidity) to combat the growth of spoilage organisms in a canned product. Generally, pH 4.2 is considered a good average for a canning tomato, while tomatoes with pH 4.4 or higher should not be canned
TOMATO VARIETY TRIAL, FAIRHOPE, ALABAMA 19851

Average results of the tests by which the varieties were compared are reported in the
table. Rankings for each evaluation category

are given in parenthesis, with 1 being the most desirable in each case. The first column, soluble solids, indicates the sugar content of the fruit; usually the higher the sugar content, the better the flavor, although the final flavor is determined by the sugar/acid ratio which takes into account total acidity and pH. Tropic and Better Boy ranked the highest of the older varieties and were tied for first place by the new variety Pole Boy 83. Five percent soluble solids is considered good for tomatoes. The second column, labeled Instron, indicates the firmness of the tomato. The rank of

unless some food acid such as lemon juice or citric acid is added. In addition to quality factors, a desirable characteristic of tomato plants is the so-called jointless character (J2). Five of the newer varieties and one of the older favorites, FloraDade, have this characteristic. This characteristic of the plant allows the fruit to separate easily from the vine without leaving a short stem attached to the fruit. The yields (pounds per plant) reported are for these varieties grown with ideal cultural practices which include: use of soil testing recommendations for liming and fertilization, a good spray program of fungicides and insecticides, and irrigation as needed. In some aspects the older varieties outperformed the newer ones. Better Boy, Bonnie Nematode Resistant, and Monte Carlo had the highest index rating (lowest total score) and ranked 1, 2, and 3 on yield per plant. The newer varieties Liberty Hybrid, Suncoast, and Castlehy 1035 also had excellent scores. Overall the newer varieties compared favorably to the older ones, especially considering the additional insect and disease resistance from the newer ones. Rymal is Professor, Turner is Research Associate, Bartley is Senior Lab Technician, and Smith is Associate Professor of Horticulture, Carden is Superintendent and McDaniel is Associate Superintendent of the Gulf Coast Substation.

Disease 4

Variety Variety

Soluble solids

Instron, kg/cm2

Hunter (a)

Ascorbic acid
Pct. 27.5(3) 25.5(5) 24.5(5) 26.5(4) 27.0(4) 25.7(5) 25.0(5)

Total acidity
Pct. 0.525(3) .608(1) .488(4) .555(3) .455(4) .555(3) .565(3)

pH

and insect resistance
VFN VFN VF 2 Tmv VF2 VF 2 VF 2 N VF2 VF

Yield/ plant
Lb. 11.73(2) 9.55(3) NA 10.14(3) 10.34(3) 10.82(3) 10.45(3)

Index rating 5

Pct. Better Boy............ 5.75(1) Bonnie Nematode Resistant ........... 4.98(5) *Castlehy 1052.........4.98(5) 3 *Castlehy 1035 (j0 4.83(7) 2 )..... *Castlehy 1065 (j.) ... 4.58(8) 2 *Celebrity.............5.10(4) Flora-Dade (J ) ........ 4.53(8) 2

19.3(6) 26.1(3) 22.0(4) 22.6(4) 20.6(4) 24.3(4) 20.4(5)

24.2(3) 24.4(3) 23.2(3) 24.3(3) 23.4(3) 21.8(4) 21.7(4)

4.26(5) 4.19(2) 4.21(4) 4.14(1) 4.23(5) 4.21(4) 4.12(1)

3.2 3.1 NA 3.4 4.3 3.6 4.1

Four Way Hybrid ..... 4.85(7)
*Hayslip (j2)...........

*Horizon (j2) ..........

4.95(6)

20.9(4)
22.1(4)

21.4(4)
26.4(1)

27.0(4)
26.0(5)

.450(5)
.445(5)

4.34(7)
4.31(6)

VF

4.48(9)

20.7(4)
27.9(2) 24.4(4) 17.5(8) 17.3(8) 28.7(1) 21.4(4) 19.8(6) 17.1(8)

25.5(2)
21.0(5) 22.9(3) 23.2(3) 20.9(5) 26.8(1) 23.0(3) 21.6(4) 24.7(3)

30.5(1)
26.8(4) 26.5(4) 24.8(5) 24.0(5) 24.0(5) 28.3(2) 25.8(5) 25.3(5)

.435(6)
.590(2) .550(3) .443(5) .505(3) .470(4) .480(4) .460(4) .523(3)

4.25(5)
4.20(3) 4.22(4) 4.36(8) 4.21(4) 4.21(4) 4.26(5) 4.33(6) 4.23(5)

VFz

2

11.38(2)
9.05(4)

4.0
4.3

*Liberty Hybrid (J2) .... 5.25(4) Monte Carlo .......... 5.45(3) *Mountain Pride ...... 5.05(4) *Pole Boy 83.......... 5.78(1) *Suncoast ............ 5.10(4) *Sunny .............. 4.50(8) Tropic ............... .5.90(1) Walter Villemaire...... 5.15(4)
2* = newer variety 3J2 = jointless characteristic. 4

9.39(4)
9.36(4) 12.50(1) 9.89(3) 9.74(3) 7.76(5) 10.95(2) 8.73(4) 8.77(4)

4.3
3.3 3.1 5.0 4.1 3.3 4.0 4.2 4.4

VF 2 VFN VF 2 VF, VF2 VF2 VFTmv VF 2

'Varieties are arranged in alphabetical order.
Disease and insect resistance as reported by seed producers: V = verticillium wilt, F = Fusarium wilt race 1, F2 = Fusarium wilt race 1 and race 2,N = rootknot nematode, Tmv = tobacco mosaic virus.

5Index of ranking, lowest scorer equal top performance.

10

Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station

G
1tii.I)

441) St \l\Ili II( cittle IIl v (I ii

;V\XiS by~iii~ li Ii "t i r l- litx , Sti ii,

Alfalfa and AUI-Lotan sericea produce good summer pastures
')T (HMxlIM) \ C.S. MA( LA\I), I D. l)()NNLLY, antd k.A \1)
xx i t

Kl
oniii

~,I rvi iin il

alfalft :111

Vl -L(Rx

llitti iiii i

liii\'l\;iIiiet ( '1"i s( blii IUS i ith 'I)
It iIt li

-

Si iI I V1 )

Tu

il I l xii

~

/\ t
( \l(lIII (

Xii Ii
II

I

\

Iiif ,aili pei aci ii xxix u Ii IXl I' atili 1(\t iini i

i .

ciut

Ifi

fi ii itticl ttld

2

,)I I/

ti.(

I )Stt

(I" p IIw1 uif~ xIII
IIkII

SiitO ill I J A"

111.((1( xi
an

titiul Itillt II

~

u s II

il- IVII ,

Iain111

l ,tI

ii

Xlix \lix( I
ti.

liiii

Sept.
(i

Itu
I.(I

ixllh

*i

tl t

i acreii t xIi\t u ilu
ll

\l
l

?i

S. 1911

iii Ii si

~ iet
ii

iii (m ;1I
de i

u" sxi ai ici xx l

u l-f

1\1,

1'"

\'5

txill nut

'u0\ lxx

,xI

ilx lit till lii ued

I

olai

X,0 I

iit

\l

LLui

i

\

nhuili r
Nm-i iii s ii

is lilt vi
c 1 Ii

l

st(

-,itiiia

l

Xl lltinll alliil

1.

l It

S iilii r

l x> xxiii(

tl

x1I

1( 1

k if ttt

-)II

h

rv

l

ii

Ill

ihtt i1cii

w tith

iILtha

I ic til

Si1t(

-

l -il L

tIII ititI (i xx)
it, I ii Sc xI

x Is

ixl ii)il
I uxt piiodstx
if

ert

Ii l

1141x

xx

iil

Sattiil iii 11 t 11

iiu I 1

\I IIt,

ii -I ii

xie.1 ii lix

itIxtI i t

lx
it til
i

ite

ti1t 9 2 Ir ise
t
e s 3

1
,li

roie

iie

isnci

Ifo

p
1
opp t -

I
s

txi li I)I \ixt1i 1 i si l
n

lti1iii
n ,

xii
th

Ia ri

th

t'

1e

u

ltIs

liJS lin t

d u1ltII

\iii Ifs

ii

lix

ii

i

tli th l

fl x

i

it

tI

ppc

rsxtuI III l~I

tai ;nxull xiii.
l So i

mistlPanSlIai I,.

l

111

I

n, r
liii xli n oi

itIIII' mix t \ ilui
lii o

Ii x

it

,i P

wh
1 4 i' II.

I

)11 o

\

ix iI'
I
I I \

'iii

xxieiiitha tlIiIII Si (.I

Ia11li(
l'

iI

itv (Ii t

1)onii
S i ,

s

Piilu

Ii

1.1 1 '1

l ,

U

,'

)II

III

II

1(

I

.

I w iI

_

P

I ll,)w

,I(\,

I I)I

S II I [is ( h A/IAI.

AI

I AI I A A\ I,,

I I.II I A IVII III,

;

1 1 u,

AvI

I,\(

I

Ic

u

u

speciiii

t

ill

ill,

141(I'(tx .i

\1llna

\vra

/ur

Vl1111111 ,It
Cooinuoe i

1t 1
gr in

xx

~

t

b
t

I
1

i

I

ll

I )

!

111 Ilil

NIi

,, III I

Pine sawtimber prices per thousand board feet in Alabama.
veneer logs and sawlogs, accepting wood at

KEY to successful investing is to "buy low and sell high," and that is as true with timber as with anything else. It can be a mistake, then, to concentrate too much on growing timber and not enough on selling it. When it comes time to convert a timber crop into cash, two selling considerations are paramount: selling when prices are high and qualifying for long-term capital gains treatment of the income. A good way to measure the importance of such advice is to see what difference timber marketing decisions might have on standard measures of investment value-present net worth (PNW) and internal rate of return (IRR). A PNW is a forecast of the immediate value of a prospective investment, stated in number of dollars. It is the sum of all discounted revenues less the sum of discounted costs, hence it is dependent on the interest rate used in discounting. It is a favorite measure of investment value among economists because it neatly accounts for the important financial attributes of an investment. An IRR, instead of giving a dollar value of the investment's immediate worth, denotes an average percentage rate of growth on all of the unre-

THE

W.A. FLICK covered costs. A bank account in which a $100 deposit today grows to $108 in 1 year has an IRR of 8%. What difference does it make to sell timber at the top versus the bottom of the market? The answer depends on how wide the price gap is between the top and bottom of the timber markets. If timber prices were nearly constant through time, any differences in investment values would be small. As illustrated by the graph, however, timber prices can fluctuate wildly. Since 1976, the absolute range of variation in Alabama sawtimber prices has been $113, from a low of about $84 per thousand board feet (mbf) to a high of
$197 per mbf. And some of the peaks and val-

sawtimber prices which they would never take when markets are slow and buyers are more selective. An average quality 12-in. log might be worth $160 per mbf as sawtimber in a good market and only $16 per cord, or $48 per mbf, as pulpwood in a depressed market. Landowners who sell timber only occasionally may not be aware of these market changes, but they nevertheless can be devastating to someone selling 25- to 35-year-old timber in a poor market. Finally, timberland owners must know the legal qualifications for capital gains treatment of timber income. If timber is sold properly, that is, in accord with the laws determining capital gains, only 40% of the net capital gain is added to an individual taxpayer's income. Corporate taxpayers benefit too in that they pay tax at a lower rate on capital gains. The effects on a timber investment of changing prices, changing specifications, and capital gains taxation are shown in the table.
Those results are derived from an Alabama

leys are only four or so months apart. The prices shown are statewide averages-actual
prices may vary even more in particular

counties depending on local economic characteristics. Prices of pulpwood and intermediate grades also vary, but not as much. Timberland owners must keep in mind that another, more serious variation lurks behind the scenes in timber markets. When markets are booming and the industry wants wood, buyers lower their specifications for

AFTER TAX PRESENT NET WORTHS AND INTERNAL RATES OF RETURN FOR LOBLOLLY PINE PLANTATIONS WITH AND WITHOUT CAPITAL GAINS TREATMENT, AND WITH THE COMBINED EFFECTS OF LOW PRICES, PRODUCT DEGRADATION, AND No CAPITAL GAINS TREATMENT

Poor-site 50 Discount rate, With' No Combined2 pct. cap. cap. lows gain Dol. 239 -32 -183 -268 3.7% gain Dol. 140 -89 -216 -287 3.1% Dol. -7 -173 -264 -315 1.9%

Average-site 60 With No Combined cap. cap. lows gain gain Dol. 789 283 0 -159 6.0% Dol. 578 162 -70 -201 5.3% Dol. 194 -55 -194 -273 3.5%

With cap. gain Dol. 1,311 588 182 -48 7.5%

High-site 70 No Combined cap. lows gain Dol. 993 404 75 -112 6.7% Dol. 406 72 -116 -224 4.6%

2....... 4 ....... 6 ....... 8 ....... IRR ....

'Capital gains and no capital gains present net worths are computed with high prices of $18 per cord and $180 per mbf. 2 Denotes dollar value if all things, such as no capital gains and selling in a poor market, go against the landowner.

Agricultural Experiment Station study of a loblolly pine plantation in which pine growth, forest management costs, and timber prices were all predicted and combined to create an imaginary pine forest, one which is managed on paper or in a computer, and the results of which are available almost immediately rather than in 30 years. Tree growth was predicted for three sites: poor (site 50), average (site 60), and high (site 70). Land costs were included, and a 30% marginal, federal tax rate was used. All of the financial data were computed on an "after tax" basis, that is, net of federal income taxes. The data are "real" values, meaning they are not inflated by changing prices. On site 70 timberland, if prices are near their high values over the last several years, the IRR of a successful pine plantation is 7.5%. While that might seem low compared to certificates of deposit, mutual funds, and other financial instruments, investors must keep in mind that the 7.5% is a real rate of return, net of inflation and net of federal income taxes. If capital gains treatment is denied because the timber was sold "improperly," the rate of return drops to 6.7%, and if capital gains is denied and timber is sold at the bottom of the market instead of the top, the rate drops further to 4.6%. Similar results can be seen for site 50 and 60 plantations. The research model clearly indicates selling timber carefully and properly is crucial. It demonstrates the importance of consulting a good forester if unsure about the timing of a sale, conditions of local markets, or qualifications for capital gains. The potential of turning financial loss to profit by doing it all correctly is significant.
Flick is Associate Professor of Forestry.

12

Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station

I
iN
ORDER.1

I,~ ~

~'

IT)mlaintainl high fCIrtility

ill

al b rileIr breetder floIck it iX eXsXsIntil cIIIntro bo dy Xweight ill 1

to
xE ,

1bothl mlest'

andt ICadt feed

mIales. PreXsent day feetding XX XtCIII

b
oII t ht femlet breetder. The~reforC, tiltamou1111nt tragte 1bodt XXeight andt t'gg p~rodti~ton of tilt

#1

.

,f 1

oIftilt lilt oIf thlt flock. ExceXX XXetight is tilt

turfal Expt'rimen'lt Stationl,

it

wasI fotult

thalt

VIII. :30, No. 4).

findtinlgs, separatt' a

Lootakt' adtXaltgt' oIf theset ft't'ting XXyXtt'm~ XXs dettandI is binlg

signttd lbX Auburnl I rertIchers

lT'e tiual ft't'inI

XsXt('mI s

allowsXX feeding

mles' teacih tdaX. A XXoIrkablte tdual feed'inlg XXsX

s

ille

to prvn

tht

maXIlettt frll mal

ati gromtlt

it'ad ItXX thi i

ltik'tit' te f ,
AXeen femtles'

fe At' de bt'e dttt e's11ilt'd

eit

ing'r ft't'ililtis X

was

A(I- it'

t'iith' gril Iptig

i.Tot laccml'~ish theX t'es't nt feXXedttr and1 usedt as11 fooma l It'eXer. th accgssrt
aN Xlce inX the griXll tolte-

ftheti'fedrl

ifgorA

iseprtCfedl

T

ithe~l flt

erst eter
XIXt'e

ti

lat

o~itr on~ theCflt'r

Whil

sizet'

ill'

Allin t'ctan

harlyt at tlt'g astt
feed tttllth

rt'e

FIG. 1 (above left). Male feeder. FIG 2 (top). Female feeder. FIG. 3 (above right). Broiler breeder house with segregated male and female feeders.
1fo1 thet aulIlt

hav

eati X accett IttXhe1 o s

tit

11theI o

noral1 a ll N for nllt' Thetreductioln in totlt IICed to t he femles, I

~Iowed't
thli'

fitntI g XXXem loo111k Cxt I (I IICI t
XC

proiinX

g,

fede

from

Xi Xthe floo

iXII

Iticl

The

boto

tableC.

he

mIchIaInismI

of theCXsXtem

iIIIrtCIX 10-I2cc
CIal ru ILCalnt conltinueI

I hIXCXer,

is jIIst a genl
on1

XworIks

as XXl

orI beIItter than~ ex\peted . At mIaleX andt fernIales segregate to
XXitil

the bes't guitde to IoIlowX is to bIasedt bodyt

feedtinlg timeC

fCeding femIales

thleir I ('pcttiX C fe'ttders
C:3. Xic It'ersa, figure

littiC atteImpt 01n
pformlIanIce

in
Feeer

aof

the' flor weedsinto

prvetingthe
enur

femalI
th sam

32

. ..

97l.

Unfr

52d dsbon

we tight anIt (gg produ lctilon . Tihe mlet ratiloll inI a dl l in~I XX stemI g sholdt beC 11-12%/prIoteinl II0 -lc/ calwith ciuml pro5 iding a peak amoIIIult of ficd for tilt pci IIalCs (If app)oi(jmatCIX 27 Ii). 100 b11 id
per

In adition,~l

dtIat

ale CourII(IIaging fII r se'parate ft'einlg XX sCnloIaI feedinlg XX XtCIIIX. ThesXe dtIa Artc bing

tclIIX XerXIIX tIII stet tale.C

collectetd

(laX. Recommendedllt~t
wX ight XholdlIt

bodyti a

wX ight flur theC gu~ide to tile perI house~t lIsing tile XameI tvp hosin~~lg andt first h atch fromo theC tXwo b11ids Datal fro111 thet be i ghetr for tilt XCeparate

hanciii sive mae anrrz~ rqal

thetfidre bodyti

XcIc C

amIounlt (If feted iv(nI. AX prodction dcl inesI wXith age, tilt feonlat' dly du ced. IlI)XX CX lIIatII C II ae a thICX shoul leX Cl.
111e not1(

Ited intakte is

It'

fee'dinlg

XX Xtem.

Xii Iliar feedI redc(IItin Xin 1) ffeIctt sCImenI
t

pr1oduc~tion, XIo
I it

troIled btter XXhetre sepIIate usetdt.

feetders alt

takeII from1 al loXCr1e( to rechtl
aln AX 'Iagc

uIationI alnd undeirfeti

Pct. of each component

,ooJ;
40-

17

Water Minerals Total fat

4//
20 D.R. STRENGTH and D.L. HUFFMAN
AND PORK are hard to beat.

SProtein

BEEF

Not only do they appeal to the taste, these red meats are highly nutritious. They provide nutritionally complete proteins that contain the 10 essential amino acids, plus several vitamins and minerals. And, despite claims by critics, neither beef nor pork has excess fat or cholesterol in the lean portions that are traditionally consumed. Proof of the relatively low fat content of lean red meat was established in Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research. Assorted cuts of beef and pork from Choice carcasses were compared with chicken and fish to determine relative composition of protein, water, fat, minerals, and cholesterol. The meats were closely trimmed of excess fat to produce a high quality, saleable product. "Regular" cuts were representative of the whole, well-trimmed cut, which included small portions of fatty and connective tissue. "Lean" samples were derived only from the lean portions of the same well-trimmed cuts of meat. Similarities in composition of pork, beef, chicken, and catfish are illustrated by data in the table. The differences between regular and lean cuts make it clear that much of the fat and cholesterol are concentrated in the fatty portion of beef and pork. Since this is normally trimmed at the meat market or by individuals when eating, the fat and cholesterol contents pose no health problem. Representative steak cuts were remarkably similar, as shown by the graph. There were only minor differences in the protein, total fat, mineral, and water compositions of lean portions of T-bone, rib, and bottom round cuts. The extra lean ground beef was prepared by separating and grinding of the lean portion from several muscle tissues. This preparation was similar in composition to the other lean cuts. The regular ground beef was prepared in the manner of regular commercial ground beef. The protein contents of all the samples are remarkably similar for the five preparations

U
T-bone
steak

Rib
steak

Bottom
round

Extra lean Regular
ground beef ground beef

Lean portions of Choice T-bone, rib, and bottom round beef cuts had about equal amounts of protein, minerals, total fat, and water. in the graph, as well as for five additional common beef cuts analyzed. Lean and regular preparations were analyzed from the 10 cuts, making a total of 20 beef samples analyzed. The protein contents of the 20 samples ranged between 19.2 and 22.7%. Seven major market cuts of the pork carcass were analyzed as lean and regular cuts and the results of the analyses were quite similar to those for beef. The lean cuts of beef and pork contained approximately the same amounts of protein, fat, minerals, and cholesterol. One serving of broiled meat is about 3 oz. (cooked weight). In several trials, lean red meat (upon broiling to medium done) lost about 30% of its weight; thus, 3 oz. is equal to about 4.3 oz. of fresh uncooked meat. The information in the table presents the percentage of total weight made up by each component. The losses during cooking lean meat are due mostly to loss of water; however, cuts containing appreciable amounts of fat lose fat as well as water. One 3-oz. serving of broiled lean beef provides the following percentages of adult man's requirements of essential nutrients: protein, 43; vitamin B12, 75; niacin, 18; thiamin, 24; riboflavin, 15; iron, 14; zinc, 36. In addition, meat is a major source of choline, and lean meat contains the essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. One serving of lean red meat would contain only about 150 calories (5-6% of daily requirement) and 75 to 80 mg of cholesterol (only 25% of the daily cholesterol level recommended by the American Heart Association in a prudent diet). Based on the Auburn findings reported, nutritious red meat can be enjoyed without fear of problems from fat and cholesterol. Strength and Huffman are Professors of Animal and Dairy Sciences.

COMPARATIVE COMPOSITION OF SELECTED FRESH MEAT CUTS

Meat cut

CPercentage

Protein
Pct. 20.2

Water
Pct. 75.1

of total weight of serving Fat Minerals Cholesterol
Pct. 3.0 Pct. 1.1 mg/10 0 g 73

Pork loin chop, regular ................... Pork leg, center cut, lean ................. Pork leg, center cut, regular .............. Beef, bottom round, lean ................. Beef, bottom round, regular ............
Beef, sirloin, lean .......................

Pork loin chop, lean .....................

19.9 20.6 20.5 21.2 19.7
20.1

72.8 75.1 73.8 74.8 72.4
73.2

5.2 2.3 3.1 2.8 6.4
4.3

1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1
1.2

88 70 78 62 90
78

Beef, sirloin, regular ..................... Chicken, dark meat ...................... Chicken, light meat ..................... Channel catfish, fillet ...................

19.3 20.7 23.2 17.6

71.0 73.2 73.6 78.0

8.4 4.4 1.9 3.1

1.1 1.3 1.2 1.2

92 65 60 68

14

Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station

LABAMA'S 1985 watermelon crop was valued at $6-7 million, despite a drop in acreage from previous years. Weeds pose a serious threat to this increased productivity, because they slow early growth of the watermelons and wrap around vines later, making cultivation difficult. Most of the herbicides currently labeled for use on watermelons have provided erratic control and/or have caused damage to the crop. Tests by Auburn researchers indicate recently labeled Sonolan® and other non-labeled herbicide combinations may provide better control in the future. Of the herbicides currently labeled for use on watermelons, both Alanap® and Prefar® have shown excellent crop tolerance in field
tests, but erratic weed control from the former and weed tolerance of the latter limit

Evaluation of herbicides for watermelon weed control
J.D. NORTON, D.M. COSPER, J.E. BROWN, and M.H. HOLLINGSWORTH ment Station's North Alabama Horticulture Substation in Cullman from 1979 to 1985 screened unlabeled herbicides for effectiveness and crop tolerance on watermelons. Jubilee seed were planted on a Hartselle fine sandy loam soil. Ten herbicide treatments, a hand weeded check, and an unweeded check were evaluated. The plots were 30 X 7.3 ft., with two plants per hill spaced 6 ft. in the
row

top 20 days after planting. Due to crop dam-

age from pre-plant incorporated applications,
this method was dropped for the 1984 and 1985 tests. Herbicide treatments and results are shown in tables 1 and 2. Weed and grass control was evaluated 40

their effectiveness. Planavin® and Dacthal® have not provided satisfactory control at labeled rates and have shown some phytoxicity

to the plants. Treflan® and Prowl® have not shown adequate crop tolerance on sandy soils. The problem is getting progressively worse as growers run out of weed and grassfree virgin land on which to produce watermelons. Tests at the Alabama Agricultural Experi-

Herbicides were applied pre-plant incorporated, preemergence immediately after planting, followed by a light 15-minute sprinkler irrigation, and postemergence over the

TABLE 1. WEED CONTROL AT 40 AND 70 DAYS AFTER TREATMENT, WATERMELON HERBICIDE TRIAL, CULLMAN, ALABAMA, 1984 AND 1985

Treatment Treatment

Grass control 40 days2 Pct.

Grass and broadleaf weed control 40 days 70 days Pct. 95 92 96 93 87 69 Pct. 90 87 92 88 81 53

Preemergence Sonolan 3 1 lb./acre + Amiben
2 lb./acre........................ Prefar 4 lb./acre + Alanap 2 lb./acre....................... Amiben 2 lb./acre.................. Sonolan 1.5 lb./acre................ Devrinol 2 lb./acre................. . 100 97 100 98 94 88

and 70 days after seeding, table 1. First harvest was 85 days after seeding and second harvest 7 days later. Soluble solids content of two fruit from each of four replications was determined at harvest. Predominant weed species in the unweeded check plots were pigweed and crabgrass with lower populations of purslane, morningglory, fall panicum, goosegrass, and carpetgrass. Populations of grass and broadleaf weeds were heavy. Of the materials tested, control of all weeds (broadleaf and grasses) at 40 days was best with Amiben® at 2 lb. per acre or a combination of 1 lb. Sonolan® and 2 lb. Amiben; Sonolan at 1.5 lb. per acre was almost as good. Each of these treatments gave better control of grasses and weeds at 70 days than
post applied treatments of Poast and Fusi-

Postemergence
Fusilade 0.25 lb./acre ..............

Poast 0.5 lb./acre .................. 87 67 'Amiben, Devrinol, Fusilade, and Poast are not labeled for use on watermelons. 2
3

51

Hand weeded plots had 100% control of weeds and grasses and unweeded plots had no control.

Registration for use on cucurbits has been withdrawn.

TABLE 2. YIELD, FRUIT SIZE, AND TOTAL SOLUBLE SOLIDS CONTENTS OF WATERMELONS IN HERBICIDE TRIAL, CULLMAN, ALABAMA, 1984 AND 1985

Treatment Preemergence Sonolan 1 lb /acre + Amiben 2 lb./ acre .......................... Sonolan 1.5 lb./acre ................ Prefar 4 lb./acre + Alanap 2 lb./acre Amiben 2 lb./acre .................. Devrinol 2 lb./acre. ................. Postemergence Fusilade 0.25 lb./acre .............. Poast 0.5 lb./acre .................. Checks Hand weeded ..................... Unweeded........................

Yield/acre
Lb.

Fruit size
Lb.

soluble solids
Pct.

33,000 30,000 30,000 26,000 20,000 12,000 12,000 19,000 0

23.4 21.9 20.3 24.0 26.6 16.1 17.0 21.9 0

10.1 10.2 10.1 10.0 10.0 9.6 9.6 9.7 0

lade, table 1. Best weed control did not always result in top yield. Yields were highest for plots treated with Amiben at 2 lb. per acre, Sonolan at 1.5 lb. per acre plus Amiben at 2 lb. per acre, Prefar at 4 lb. per acre plus Alanap at 2 lb. per acre, Sonolan at 1.5 lb. per acre, and the hand weeded check plot. These results indicate the importance of controlling both broadleaf weeds and grasses, table 2. The highest yielding herbicide treatments also produced fruit with the highest percent total soluble solids, table 2. Results from similar tests on cantaloupes gave similar results on weed control, yield, fruit size, and total soluble solids. Data from the test were instrumental in Sonolan gaining clearance for use on watermelons in Alabama. However, registration for use of the product on cucurbits has been withdrawn by the manufacturer.
Norton is Professor of Horticulture; Cosper is former Research Associate of Horticulture; Brown is Assistant Professor of Horticulture; and

Hollingsworth is Superintendent of the North Alabama Horticulture Substation.

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

15

Bluetongue serotype 2 virus poses concern for Alabama cattlemen
G.R. MULLEN and L.H. LAUERMAN
2, ain exotic foirmi of fbiuetongie ri s ici NCthe past ear B3TV serotxpe BTV w\~ fItlil ill Aliaama cattle. Xas Tis x irus. suspected of being introduced from the Caribbean, wxas cnirined at two ocations in tihe State, marking the first time BTV-2 has been detected in the Unlited States outside of Florida. It represents the first clinical cases associated wxith BTVI'seroty pe 2 in North America. In August 1984, eight suispectedl cases of BTV occurred in atheird in ws t-central Alalbama w5here infected animals exhibited soires and erosion of mnuzzle tissue and imcosa of the mouth, figure 1. Lameness was ev ident dhic to inflaim imation of the co)ronarx Ilands of the hooves, figure 2. BTV-2 was later isolated fr om the 1)lood( of these animals Serum samples, wxhich indicate onlx HiT is, not wxhich seirotype, froin 220 cattle in thle area rex ealed that :38%i wxere seropositiv e for BTS; indicating their pirevious exposure to the xvirus. In March 1985, a bull1 from this site wxas admiiitted to tihe Large Animal Clinic at the Aubulrn Unixversity College ofI %eterinars Medicine, wxhere BIT'-2 was isolaited from his blood. In Januarx 1985 a hligh incidence (If aborted fetuses and (lead nexxborn calxves occurred in at herd in the solutheastern part (If the State. The calxves xvere abnio(rmallx small (20) to 40 lb.) exven though thex xxere diroppedl near term. BIT'-2 xwas subisequeintly iso~lated frin the tissues (If onel (If the aborted fetuses. Tran smissioni o(f the vir us o(cur s pri marily lbx the bite (If tiny flies in the genus ('/icoid s, com mon ly referred t(o as bliting mnidges, punkies, or illoIsee-ins. The pirin cipal knoxn vIxectolr species (If bluetoniguie xiruls in tile United States is C. tdlriip('I(Iis In

Dl'I

Florida, bossevxer, the eases (If BIV-2 in ca(ttle hiaxe Iccuirred in a(reas wher'le tis species is reat ivelx m lcommo or01( sent, stroingls inab diicatiing that oile (or imore o~ther species max be iresponsibile foi tiran~smissionl (If BTV-\2. 1 Cu'ii /eide 5 illsign is has b eeimpl1() icated as tile problale xectoi ill Filorida based pimaiusy (1( the high incidence (If this species in asso~ciationi xxith cattle and th iisolatin of(IBTV2 from field-collected adult flies. 'lb deteminie xwhichi ('u/ilides spp. airc
inlv ixn i trailsiissioni (If BIN' in .Alab ama,

bultioni

(:urrc'iitix little is knownx I abou~t the( dlistri(If BIN-2 ill Alablama anduth e pIit'farts

least as 1,arix as tilt summerlt' (If 1984. Thie aissIc'iationi of BTV' sci otx ip 2 wxithi sc' tnt' clii(cal cast's (If illut'tongu isease,1 t ill

Alabamla cattle is oIf paricular c'onc'e'n'.

Thei~

exten sixe lIigiht-trap col lctii(5s(If these inn sects hiaxe bee m'iladce ill Alabam a Agi(clituiral Experiment Station re'se'archi at xvariolus ou~tblreak sites in the Statce duriing the past 2 xeamrs in an effor t tol recovxer th(e xi ruls from field-co~llecte'd flit's. Mo(re thanl '5,000 ('u/ithe( code sptcimens collected at tile t im aI'~t ( 1984 site' arc' still biniig assax cd for polssilie vii'us in fect ionsl. ITh' maj(or speies' attackinlg cattlc' at cachl sitt' hasv'e bee'n C'. Itili i p(((I~S' C.st'l/ifr, C'. v'cnustu, anti C'. debilipalpics. Ini thc' me'anti me' Allur re1(1icsc'arch, ill con-( juncidtioni xwith petrsoInnecl at tile U~SDA) Arthr'opod-boillriic Aimial Dise'ases Peseaircii Labo-( R ratory' ini Denser, has demonstr'ate'd that bocth C. ste'//ife'r aild C. (/('/ili10/Jis call supoit the dcxvelopment (If BIV in laboratory inlfec (axt tihus tioni stu((it's' One (oi illoth speie' n 1)1ax a supilm'ental ('(lit in t ran smlissio oll(f
BTVN fb
C. viti iiI'is. Cuic'oides inisignlis

(If' thet viru(s hlas ills((1 in~g olthe'r 'Ise t's Pris i s5tatexs'icit surbee do'l(1 cuimitedt'. xcxs have ieea'(il BTVN c actixvity in 48 oIf Alathe' Ibam 56t c'oli (tit's, wi thi uip to 81 olt(f (a' hetrcds ill somiet parits (If tilt S tate' dem onst ratinf'cte'd to BTU: Howe'e' , mo.(1(st iiig anitibodyi allimill aiexhillit littic' or noI ovxert si giis anit

cases and ici iou reproduItfl ((1lcti5et diso~rders, suchi as abo111te'd ori cefonrnlcc caks' that in

fectecd an~imllas arc' uisualix cdctectedi.
illrtaks oIf tis cdise'asc' ill thir occuii olwn hetrcds.

If'

suisptcte'd c'asc's

tilt'shold~t

p' Illmfti

propiahte' sample s fori diagin((stic purposes.I5 Aluburiin re seai't'he'is s iginiifiTihiis tain hlp
tilt (iistibuitini (If tilt iirus and to

thc' species

(If inlsect xvectors

cdettrin(llt (ixo lve ill

pirograml for tihis siginificaniit lix estock dlise'ast'. plart (If' Alabamii a alloing thie F loida illor'de'. NoI specimilens o f C . isgnis hase' et 1beet'n fond

at any

(If

unlike' tilt

the ou~tb~reak sites, sugge'sting that, si tI ationi ill Florida, this spcic'

Muollen is Ass'oc iatt' Puoeso

ol(5l(f, Zoology-I ((il

oIf BIN-2 ill Ai1labama

mdIndnll'l(ics

FIG. 1 (below). Sores and erosion of muzzle tissue are samples of BTV symptoms inyoung cattle. FIG. 2 (right). Lameness caused by hoof inflammation is another symptom of BTV.

X

~2
I.

peanut groswing region, hut it is p)resent on enoutgh Alabama farms to creat' concern. Therefore, atstudy was begun at the Alabamia Agricultural Experiment Station to learn ab~out this tough wseed. Althotigh related to the mnore comon Carolina horsenettle, wsestern horseniettle is larger and more robtust. It grows u p to 3 ft. tall and prodlcces fruit nearly as large as cherry tomatoes. Its large purple fosweirs contrast wsith the white flowers of Carolina horsenettle, wshich produces fruit usually sinaller than ' in. in diameter. We (stern horsenettle p~rodluces an extelisis c netwsork of roots sshich run parallel to the sotil surface, and the roots apparently are the pimary means of sp~read. Since sp)read of the wseedl is mnostly by roots, the p~roject insvestigatedl the size of root fragmtent necessars fot regeneration and how natural dry ing of roots ssouldl affect their ability to regenerate. 'To determine effect of root fragment size on spread of swestern hor senettle, roots that had been unearthed during spring tillage wetre cut intot sections of :3.2, 2.4, 1.6, 0).8, 0. 1, and 0.2 in. long. These sections ssere planted near the surface of moist potting sil and kept in a greenhouse. Sections 2.4 iin. long or longer had at99% reg~eneratiotn rate, as coinparedl swith 76, .50,1t, and 0%, respectiv els, for segments 1.6, 0.8, 0).4, and 0.2 in. long. Effect of root drs ing swas determined by exposig .3.5-in. root fragmoents for 0, 2, 6, and 12 honurs and 1, 2, and :3 dassd(uring \lay 198:3. This wsas (lone to simitilate the effects iof root fragments heing brought to the soil surface by tillage and then being ailossed to dr. After :3 dlass, s iability swas recloctedi to 55% relatisve to roiotts that swere not allossedc to dlr. In atseconud trial conducted in Augutst wshen the temperaturte swas higher andi the huidcity losser, rooits swere killed after :3(lass of dirsing. These r esuilts emp hasize the s altue of tillage 1 to break up and hring roots to the surface as atmeans of control. XWestern horsenettle produtces seed, buit those from miature fruits had otils a :33% germintatiotn rate. None of the standard germination enthancing tireatmtenits, such as scaification ior leaching ssith ssater, impros ed gerin tatioin. Esven though some of the seed are s iable, plants that originate from seed are seldom apparent in the field. Young plants are insvariably connected by lateral roots to neighboring ptlants. Seed germination is sloss. Under ideal condlitions, seeds (It not germinate utntil the third sseek after planting, andc seedlings desvelop sloswlI. A :3-month-old seedling is ty picalls less than 12 in. in height. Seedling stirvisial is priobabis a fairls ratrc es cut in the field, and this pr oballimits the sptrtad of this species.

WEST'ERN
'-'I

Was

HORSENEITFLE in not is the weeds prtevalent as many s

G.R. \\EHIJE and D.L. COLVIN
G;reenhoutste and field studies ssith herbic'I aicieved she'n ht'ricides wereit appliedc mn cides ind~icatedl that onls herbicides that has e Juis sshe'n plants ssetre blooming. Bansve' D a hiormtone- disrutptinug tsype of actisits (like aippliedc at 1 q~t. pt'r actre at this time' proidId 2,41-) has e ans ssorthmsshule actis its against 96%c cottoit the first s tar anti I(X% after the wsester n horsenettle, Andl none of those pro-i se'icn seat. Rounidtp applit'd in the saimt sviclecd satisfactory contr ol ssith atsitngc' applimianneiur prnovidedl comparabiiilie finali control, c'ationi. itwsas poorer. The'se trt'atlint first-syeat c'imtro A stud ocstn set-as ide land e'saltuatecd cootriol men'its art' texorbiitaint e'xpt'nsis e if appliedc cn of wss stern hors ene ttl e ssi th R oundu i tps atnd a ittroadcast basis; hosw ts er, in moitst case's sptt Bans el D°. Both herhicidles ssere applimcc at trc'atmetnt is all that is netcessars. I and 2 qt. pcer acre at thneet stages ot the Theicse fintditngs emiphaize' that thert' is no 2 sseecd: (1) eat Is to full bloom, i.e. JutIs, ( ) cstt'rn qnuick andc eass ocethod Ibs sshich ws early frutit citeselopmi ent, i.e. Au guist, atd (t~3) hortsen'ttletc catn ibt c'otroletd. Situimiitr t il mtatuire fruit, i.e. September. Each treatsas iot lage' that allossd r'o ftragmetnts to dry w itictt ssas appiliedt hiroadcast to the saint pliots oit ouiiitsly beneitficial, anti ht'rbicidies apiited in 1both 1983 and 1984. C'ontr ol slitow5n iin the in micd-sutimerit pirosed helpful. table ssas c'salutat'd at the close' of ceach seaRestults indlicate' that Baitsvel 1) ssas suiperior toiRounduitp, antd theic greatcest coitrol w sas
COTRiOLO

'itSitit 1tt iisItliN HtiRSENEIT t3-snnss t ANt) RittNmt I' A)

Fruit produced by western horsenettle are nearly as large as cherry tomatoes.

July

Banvesl) llq(t. Btits 1), 2 qt. i Roundtutp. 2 (it....

.... . . .

96 95 93

100t 1(Ut)

l1t) 90
96 81 84 7)) 86 7.3

August
l. 1), 1 it. .. .. Bamit l 1i 2 t. ......... ), Rouiduij I qt..... Ilitiictp, 2 (It. . . . Ra its

92 t)0
5:3 78 62 90 80)

Septemher
laiii
l 1), 1 (it.
. .

Ilniiis *-~

1i), 2

jt.

... .

Roundultp, 2 (it . .....

ofcidtcompare toh ti

oisei',intreatd ipltot.

Alabama Ag ~riculturalE;xperimecnt Station

CHANGE IN FARM NUMBERS, 1860-1984

Year

Alabama United States No. of Change N. ofChange farms a farms Ca Thous. 55 67 136 158 223 263 256 238 257 273 232 223 212 177 111 93 82 63 59 54 Pct. 22 103 16 41 18 -3 -7 8 6 -15 -4 -5 -17 -37 -16 -12 -23 -6 -8 Thous. 2,044 2,640 4,009 4,565 5,737 6,429 6,500 6,475 6,672 6,611 6,350 5,967 5,648 4,654 3,963 3,356 2,949 2,521 2,428 2,333 Pct.
-

LL IS NOT WELL with agriculture. Farms are being sold because of credit and financial problems. Newspapers report almost daily about the farm situation and bank failures in major agricultural areas. Movies such as "Country" and "Places in the Heart" depict the plight and demise of farms. What is responsible for the situation? Exports of farm products peaked in 1981, declined 15% in 1982, increased some in 1983, and have declined since then. From 1950 to 1981, farm real estate values increased each
year with few exceptions. Demand for farm

and caused lenders to be more cautious in

1860 ........ 1870 ........ 1880 ........ 1890 ........ 1900........ 1910 ........ 1920........ 1925........ 1930........ 1935........ 1940 ........ 1945........ 1950........ 1955........ 1960 ........ 1965........ 1970 ........ 1975........ 1980........ 1984 ........

29 52 14 26 12 1 0 3 -1 -4 -6 -5 -18 -15 -15 -12 -15 -3 -3

land was strong by farmers to expand their operations and by non-farmers for investment, speculative, or tax purposes. Since 1981, U.S. farm real estate values have declined, 50% or more in some areas. The decade of the 1970's included several years of substantial inflation in the economy. Real interest rates (nominal rate minus inflation), which averaged 1% to 2% in the 1970's, abruptly rose to relatively high levels when inflation subsided in the early 1980's. Inflation was slowed by stringent control of monetary growth and a worldwide recession that

weakened international markets. Interest rates were deregulated and allowed to seek market clearing levels. With high interest rates, foreign capital was attracted to the United States. This resulted in a strong dollar relative to foreign currencies, which led to reduced exports. Farm production costs increased in the 1970's, and high real interest rates in the early 1980's compounded the adverse financial effects. Interest costs became a major expense item with high levels of farm capitalization and operating expenses. Thus, with a decline in exports and increased costs of production, net farm income was squeezed. Farmers faced problems in obtaining credit to finance their operations. Declining real estate values reduced the farmer's equity base

their lending practices. An Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study completed in early 1985 provided information about the financial situation of Alabama farmers. Sixteen percent reported being delinquent in principal or interest payments on real estate loans, 17% on equipment or livestock loans, and 18% on operating loans. The average debt-to-asset ratio reported was 28%, with farmers in the Black Belt Area showing the highest average, 40%. The highest average ratios of debt-to-net income were for farmers in the Gulf Coast and Black Belt. There was some evidence that farms with higher gross sales had somewhat higher delinquency rates. Also, debt-to-asset ratios declined somewhat as age of the farmers increased. When the farmers surveyed were asked if they expected to be farming in the next 5 years, 38% (almost two out of every five) replied "no." The proportion indicating they would not be farming in 5 years was fairly well distributed by farming regions of the State and levels of gross sales. However, 52% of the farmers 60 years old and over indicated they would not be farming in 5 years. Major reasons given for leaving farming were retirement, financial problems, health, and others. If the estimated demise of farms occurs, this could mean that Alabama will have only 35,000 farms by 1990, down from the peak 273,000 in 1935. In 1984, Alabama had 54,000, approximately the same as the number given in the table for 1860. In general, the number of farms in Alabama and the United States has declined since the 1930's. This decline accelerated after World War II as capital in the form of machinery and equipment, fertilizer, chemicals, and other inputs increasingly was substituted for labor. Total capital investments in farms and annual operating expense requirements increased substantially as farms be-

Source: Various Censuses of Agriculture.

came larger and more capital intensive. Many people left the farm to find employment in nonfarm industries and firms. The decline in number of farms was also associated with increases in size. From 1950 to 1985, the average size of Alabama farms doubled while the number of farms and farmers declined from 200,000 to 54,000. The release of people from agriculture, in a large measure, made possible the growth of manufacturing, trade, and service components of our economy. The decline in farm and farmer numbers that started about 50 years ago apparently is being accelerated by the financial situation today. Will farmers become an endangered species? Implications derived from research are that middle size farms may be the ones that will decline most. Generally, larger farms are somewhat more efficient and are able to take advantage of economies of scale in their operations. At the other extreme are small farmers who depend on off-farm work for most of their income, and this allows them to continue farming even under unfavorable economic conditions. Agribusiness firms face substantial adjustments in their operations, product sales, and services in order to survive. The concept of the farm as strictly a family enterprise is increasingly outdated. Modern farmers are marketers and financial managers who are breaking old ties with local firms. As a result, an increased number of small towns will likely wither away. Thus, the decline in farm and farmer numbers will have far-reaching effects.
Yeager is Professor of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology

18

Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station

IMPROVING GRASS CONTROL IN GRAIN SORGHUM
~.d

[3t1 \UlKhIS iind Kl.

\ \1\ KI K

Tixas panil
rt

n

Ii c111 l i

tale 1. \\X il

ni

iltite xlix
xl) i -i O

lxiid it( 'f\ pi I

platiii
tall' \ll> aieii

al iii-

ioit

3 lIi
11111

tiillgI

itlii

ii

lixo

XwXtic

i

xxit c cu

i1111 -

I(icidi

til u ix iiI
xii. p.5

I iiid
acre i

i e

te

i

t

t

tcl l.d

Lasso

ixll t i incupu u
cuit ii xfo lill tii i l idn afteilrlii' i t 1_tey,~hxti

s ob11111

aliiiic-

pu

I

it

li

i xii1x

h-ca ll ix
li
xeesr

t~t fIlia

t

t

C
t o

it h-ii

i'flicx if X Xt

xliii

Lasisot4ilx' apidto

out xiil

lii

i

tt

iic 141111 t
fiuli adei l

1411pliaionsx xateicon

("x'I'x

I~.tiiI/ll 11 2ea4 y'dlii ii I l i I i i i p[1111,111 ha) hit1 xiim Masx spixIliis (i'spci ajl i n
I

l~

S

ltI
t1 pm

lit~s 14s dlit hI.
tc

i

n i'ti)li 15it

in.
pe

band
eiiiblr

and in-ii

111111hthe

bxx

11111 lii

141111

xtrl o

n11 ii

i

~

-i

lii14igc

xti'ii lx

I )xxpitc th is,

ii-

~ ick aii a41 liimpi lxxnt ift

i

il xxi l.

i

iii

gr i 141111 Stapitin ind ittesi iii i
li 'I

\\ 11xi Xxii I Smii)

lli y

st

1's

lride

1( ( rptablli c1 l
i(

yi l s

1(iit\(,t

xxa ptliu iii 111

m

la te ini eihe iiigx'o xtinli

t

ox

ixtic
oii

ltll ix

t ii

h111b~iciit

i

()tlx

1tx ill

ii i14'1t-S
u1)

t

i itilic

l
111ll
ill

lxxxcn l~(si

't s)1 hni t 111 Ii
lxxix

-

1)111 1-111 iii" 141 lxix

hei'cid jhitlit li i h 111 i we41 in
x

ad

Iixxxi

Io ixi

iiiln15 T~IIt

'xxis i'lxnnxi xixw

tti

I Iiiso xxi oii

iv~lI

xi (I

iittlf

-c

tii1111 of11) lil citlil

Ill t il

xiri xx i (lix 'xl ;.n )) 'iu 'l i x~ vsl ll I u.

xl'ii v111 11)

It Soii1411111

ii ii1 r )

tuhai'xtx xx'r xIllxti'i

)ixiiiii

gliii'
ii 1i1141ixxe

XX 1114

lxxf

t'iab)rat'

xirlII acrei

pli icti~

lix Iiii

141

h(iv xipittX XlitI t't I,, ,t

vnlI
1il

45 t) Xt
Pelt.

Sorghu

Iai

lxi

ftiS i grs

Io sti I
tI al

x

p o lxll

lci

('iijit -

XXd II (.1,1111 xii

I

r

su1 pp1e11 t'

t t xtYll

(xi'-ap-

Iocntoa ti 1 1lage

942

19

Xxii 114 l 19'Si ;a 195

oilt nop rtd
daS.~lta.
xliiiliiit r

I'IIb
id111 d.x rete

Alabama Agricultural Fai)c°rinucut Station

A-

A

L.1

t

l£

Ak .wA

15..E

-

OF FISF
J~~n
R.TI LOVELL and I. LELANA

AW1F

1

pondseautdiitsu\aeof xx uxturn Alab~ama wx'reu inlarx uxtahic because of of-flax or in the fish. Catfish abxorb flax or comipfoun ds xprodui iced ib pond1( orgaisms xhich irunder thu fisxh uonm~arkuetaile. xo l 6 11 ) illx at pract ical and consxis tenit ponmd
ctr liol fo r oflf11axvor wxill beu fond. Mean wxhile, iildilit anti research nueei oblectix e

anaix xix of fixsh flexih xxiicI conslistedi ot xatnount distillatioin to extr act tihtcoouIInd wxith xsobxsequenit in)jection oi(f'thu ex triact inito

at gax

cihroIIatogratph conltet. Tht

for de~terinaitIIion (If p~rocdure~ o(f tioti ix .l reiabl

gtcxmim

doxx I to arounid~t

1 p~pb P

Agirdulmtnt betwxenl

obillctixc and xlbilc-

tixu anials ix fir dtirininlmg inltcmlxit (If (II

flax or
giadd
taxtt

xxax iiauirid

hx ex allating fixih xxith

miethods to ireplace thu pi uxuitl\ iud tste' tes t for cx aloat ing fisxh hfIr ofi flax or. Devxelopimint of a satisfactorx objuctixve test for off-flax or in f'ish requiires the following: (1 idiuntification of the coiipound x causing moxst of the off-flaxor; (2) sensorx 1 thireshld~t of thu comipound (i the conceiitrat ion ini the f'ish that is nceussarx for a pececptible flax or); and (3) an instruioental method1 to reiiahl~ muaxure the off-flax or complolundis) at senxorx thiresholdc lexcls. lot idientifx thu p~redomiinant ty pes of pondrelatecd off flax or in intunxix ui fed fixh pionds, 7catfish plondx in xwestern Alailaima xx urc saimplecd ii mt il AIl thlroul gh Octobert amid prilI ex alnated xcoi I I foi txpe ancd initeni itxof off lax or. "Earthy-ionst anti "iiuddy"x xwere the flax ors found in 79% of thu oil-flax or fixh. Fiftcui of th usot or ndcix flax ored fixsi xxere cheimically anaxyzed anti all bult one cointaineci thu coiopound geostxini. xA xensorx threxhold in cat fix1h fluxhi xax extabl ished Iw spxfikiing coni triol fixi)(n illtct ucta1WeI geosxntin ii it h graded~ luxel (1xof th Icom-1( xwh ich taxte texsters coild hidititl fx it iii fisxh thle 75% of thu tioie. Taxte thoruxhoid foi guoxninl iii catfish is as low ax 5.-1 part pex b illion
().).)).

le c

ls

oIt getuini lx insxtr umnt andt

text. Fixii xxitil intclix mIixt 1ofl-flax or xxetiransxferrti fironii ponds to ciean w t xater and iheild for x arioux peiriotix to reilox c off-flax(Il. At ( 1, 3, 6, 9, anti 1) tiaxs xsamIples Ilf

and xx itru

meIIl~tt ntl r

Ill nit

As(shxta til on
ta iilx

tflu table, riults

oIf thu (xaluation sowe

cilosx rulat ionshIii

be cltein xsinsxor scorIl anci conct ntrationi (If getlin(l ini thu fixh tlexh. Hx tie sensori xsxc(ring xx xttei usxtti xxilti 9-it) no ff-flaxoi and 1-2 (il uxtremioff-llflax or,
at xscore (If8 woxldit xxolid not he niinuilllln (ojet iolluli for a mar1ketto ian (I-

ablIi fish. This irepiresents xsligilt ofl-flaxeIlndlt

iiktix ie

wxithi t he taxste tetsxt aiiai i
conlcenltration (If' 6 fI~b tqul at sensorx scoret (If S Reults of' tis

intdicatesx that at
xx ldc

o11(f' geosuinl

fill off- flax or appears feaxsibeiu it xhld nt co(m ltelty relact xsinot sol Iix xall atio be1 x uideittiifittd comilcase poundsi iithei tihan gcelxli tall alsol cusex offflax o in fixh. Howevecxr, it call supilment xlii Ict ix textin1g. Foi examIpilt if tiht ilnsxtrui xt lilitital tx a1iuationi metl texst xiows ixxx geuli co11 ncent ratio o111(f 6 o~r abolx, xtensori xe atluationi tilt f'ish is (If liiIuxcssar.

Alabala Agr icutural E--

pterimeint Staltioln xttidi iniciate that gtostinl ix tilt causxt (If lnot olfl-flaxlor ini catfixih pondsti durin thc xsiiimir groi n~lg lg seasonl anti thu ilnxrlulilutai text xxiii acculratcix meiaxlire it bctllxx the taxtt threshllew dxc.Althoullgi inl

Lo(Ixll is Pluot(xxor and1 Ieltii i DI octoral Gradtlilt Axslxtalt of) F Iiloh ixs a0(d Xil %qtuaclilt uresx

ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849 David H. Teem, Acting Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 3 86 Penalty for private use, $300

(;.OSxI CONI I NIRxI[ON, VI) SL~sOIM SOI Ii FORl Oil -I xxo CM xI[i HELD I ( ii N WA xIF TO iltExiox I ()I1 xxol, Fi D~ays ini clean xwatei
(txosin

11M

BULK RATE POSTAGE & FEES PAID USDA PERMIT No. G269

t(ccetriationi p.) b 1)

Senxoi xc on

t) . .. .... 90t I .................. 40t .3....................7.7 6 .................. 5 9 ............... (loi-tctab1ile

5.2

7.)
.3 .1I
7-8 di-

No Ioff flaxo oi

tiiict (fTtlaxvor 5-6, intensllxtIflaxor oxt reme (Itf-flaxvor =1-2.

9-0 it)hit ofII-flax or

.3-4 anid