AUGUST 1931CIRCULAR 60
SMALL GRAIN CROPS
IN ALABAMA
R. Y. BAILEY AND J. L. SEAL
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
OF THE
ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
M. J. FUNCHESS, Director
AUBURN
CONTENTS
Page
PLA N TIN G ........................................... 3
M ethods of Seeding Oats ........................ ............... .. 3
A comparison of Fall and Spring Planting of Oats ....-------.. 4
Time of Planting Wheat and Rye ............. ............--------------------5
Rate of Seeding ......................---------------------------------- 5
FERTILIZATION ----..................--...--............--.........-------------------..... 6
Effects of Phosphate and Potash on Small Grains ........ 6
Sources and Rates of Application of Nitrogen for Oats 6
VARIETIES ..........................----------------------------------------- 8
Varieties of Oats ..............................--------------------------------- 8
Varieties of Wheat ............................------------------------------- 9
Varieties of Rye .......................---------------------------------... ... 11
HARVESTING .............................-------------------------------------- 11
Time of Harvesting ..............................------------------------------ 11
Methods of Harvesting ..........................---------------------------. 11
SMALL GRAIN CROPS FOR HAY AND GRAZING -------- 13
Hay ............................------------------------------------------- 13
Grazing ..............................---------------------------------------- 14
DISEASES OF SMALL GRAINS .............................-----------------------. 14
Oat Smuts ........................------------------------------------- 14
Oat Rusts ...........................-------------------------------------- 16
Wheat Rusts ..........................-----------------------------------. 16
W h eat Sm uts ................................. ... .. ... ... 16
SUMMARY .........................---------------------------------------- 18
Small Grain Crops in Alabama
By
R. Y. BAILEY, Assistant Agronomist
and
J. L. SEAL, Plant Pathologist
NTEREST in small grain crops in Alabama is increasing due
to the decline in the price of farm products, which emphasizes
the need for producing feed and food crops at home. Cheap cot-
ton and reduced purchasing power make it absolutely necessary
that feed for livestock be produced economically on the farm.
The low price of poultry and dairy products has forced the pro-
ducers of these commodities to become interested in growing a
larger percentage of their feed in order to lower production
costs and meet competition. The dry summers and uneven dis-
tribution of rainfall in recent years have made the production of
corn and other summer feed crops so difficult that the attention
of farmers has turned to the small grain crops.
This circular gives the results of experiments conducted at
this station showing the effect of time and methods of planting
on yields of oats, the effect of fertilizers on yields of oats, and
the relative productiveness of different varieties of oats, wheat,
and rye. Harvesting, uses, and diseases of small grain crops are
also discussed.
PLANTING
Methods of Seeding Oats.-Different methods of seeding oats
were studied on the station farm at Auburn during the seven-
year period, 1921 to 1927, inclusive. The methods used includ-
ed broadcast and drilled planting on land broken with a one-
horse plow, on land broken with a two-horse plow, and on un-
broken land. All plots in the experiment were fertilized alike.
The results of this experiment are presented in Table 1.
Table 1.-Influence of Different Methods of Seeding on Yields
of Oats.
Six-year
Plot Method of seeding 
average yield
No. 1921-1927*
Bus. per acre
1 Land not plowed; seed disked in 40.5
2 Land not plowed; seed drilled with one-horse drill 40.2
3 Seed sown and plowed in with one-horse plow 47.6
4 Land broken with two-horse plow; seed sown and
disked in 48.6
5 Land broken with two-horse plow; seed drilled with
one-horse drill 47.5
*The crop of 1924 was killed by cold and was not included in the average. Each plot
received an average of 116 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre annually.
The average yields show that plowing the land increased the
yield of oats approximately seven bushels per acre. There was
practically no difference in the yield from deep breaking with a
two-horse plow and shallow breaking with a one-horse plow.
Oats in this experiment planted in drills and those planted broad-
cast produced approximately the same yield. This indicates that
when the weather was cold enough to kill oats planted broadcast
those in drills were also killed.
In another experiment methods and dates of seeding were
studied. The purpose of this experiment was to determine
whether planting should be delayed in the fall until the land
could be plowed, or whether it should be done early without
plowing. Another purpose was to learn whether or not plowing
would increase the yield enough to be profitable. The details
of this experiment and the average yields are shown in Table 2.
Table 2.-Effect of Different Methods and Dates of Seeding on
Yields of Oats*.
Plot 
Date of Four-year
No. Method of seeding seeding average yield
1928-1931
Bus. per acre
1 Land turned; seed sown and disked in Oct. 15 39.6
2 Land not broken; seed sown and disked in " " 34.0
3 Land not broken; seed drilled with one-
horse drill " " 33.1
4 Land turned; seed sown and disked in Nov. 15 31.0
5 Land not broken; seed sown and disked in " " 28.7
6 Land broken; seed drilled with one-horse
drill 24.7
*Each plot received 200 pounds 
of nitrate of soda per acre.
The results of this experiment show that plots which were
broken made from 3 to 6 bushels of oats per acre more than the
unbroken plots planted on the same date. However, unbroken
plots planted October 15 produced more oats than broken plots
planted November 15. These results show the advisability of
drilling oats in cotton middles before picking is finished rather
than delay planting until the cotton is picked in order to break
the land. This method of planting allows the time that would
be spent in breaking land to be used in planting, thus making it
possible to plant a larger acreage to oats. This increased acre-
age, together with the larger yield resulting from early planting,
is of more importance than the increase in yield due to breaking.
A Comparison of Fall and Spring Planting of Oats.-JIn an
experiment at Auburn oats planted in the fall were compared
with those planted in the spring during the 29-year period, 1896
to 1924, inclusive. During this period the yields of 20 crops of
fall-planted oats and 21 crops planted in the spring were record-
ed; the records of the other crops were lost in the fire of October,
1920. The results of this experiment are shown in Table 3.
Table 3.-Comparative Yields from Spring and Fall Planting of Oats*.
Year Fall Spring Year Fall Spring
Bus. Bus. Bus. Bus.
1896 21.5 13.0 1911 56.9 31.5
1897 21.7 13.8 1912 57.7 10.9
1898 18.2 6.4 1913 48.5 12.1
1899 23.8 14.1 1914 53.1 34.6
1903 27.2 13.7 1915 40.1 5.3
1904 15.9 13.3 1920 24.2 9.7
1905 26.9 32.0 1921 44.1 47.1
1906 53.8 15.0 1922 31.5 3.9
1908 34.5 7.0 1923 31.8 9.7
1909 36.2 13.8 1924 0** 18.0
1910 49.1 31.2 Average 34.1 17.0
*Fall and spring plantings were fertilized with 100 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre.
**Killed by cold.
The average results show that the yield from oats planted in
the fall was twice as large as that from spring planting. In only
two years, 1905 and 1921, was the yield larger from spring than
from fall planting. The results of this experiment show in a
striking way the importance of planting oats in the fall. Only in
sections where fall-planted oats are usually killed by cold should
planting be delayed until spring.
Time of Planting Wheat and Rye.-Wheat should be planted
from October 15 to November 1 in Alabama. Plantings made in
December at Auburn have made moderately large yields some
years. However, it is advisable to plant earlier so that plants
may be well rooted before cold weather begins.
Rye is usually planted for grazing and, therefore, should be
sown as early in the fall as possible. If planted as early in
September as there is enough moisture to get a stand, rye will
make enough growth to furnish some grazing before Christmas.
On the other hand, if planting is delayed until late in the fall,
little grazing may be expected before late winter or early spring.
Rate of Seeding.-Oats should be seeded at the rate of two
to three bushels per acre. In sections where freeze injury might
occur the rate should be about three bushels per acre, whereas
two bushels are enough where there is little probability of the
stand being thinned by cold. Wheat and rye should be sown at
the rate of four to six pecks of seed per acre.
6
FERTILIZATION
Effect of Phosphate and Potash on Small Grains.-No studies
have been made at this station to determine the direct effect of
phosphate or potash on the small grain crops. However, the
results of experiments which included oats in the cropping sys-
tem indicate that if the small grains are grown after cotton or
other crops fertilized with phosphate and potash it will not be
profitable to apply either of these materials for the grain crops.
Sources and Rates of Application of Nitrogen for Oats.-The
influence of various sources of nitrogen on the yield of oats was
studied in an experiment on Norfolk sandy loam soil at Auburn
during the five-year period, 1927 to 1931, inclusive. This experi-
ment also included plots on which different amounts of nitrate
of soda were used. The different sources of nitrogen were com-
pared on the basis of 30 pounds of nitrogen (equivalent to 200
pounds of nitrate of soda) per acre. The details of the experi-
ment and the average yields are given in Table 4.
Table 4.-Influence of Different Sources and Rates of Application
of Nitrogen on Yields of Oats.
Bushels of oats per
Plot Nitrogenous fertilizer.* acre
No. Pounds per acre 
Five-year Increase overacre
average average of
1927-1931 check plots
1, 5, 9,
and 13 None 7.7
2 100 Nitrate of soda 18.5 10.8
3 200 Nitrate of soda 28.2 20.5
4 300 Nitrate of soda 37.9 30.2
6 400 Nitrate of soda 41.4 33.7
7 500 Nitrate of soda 46.0 38.3
8 150 Ammonium sulfate 30.2 22.5
10 200 Calcium nitrate 27.6 19.9
11 67.4 Urea 29.5 21.8
12 124 Leunasalpeter 29.3 21.6
*All plots received 400 pounds of superphosphate and 50 pounds of muriate of potash
per acre.
The data in Table 4 show that the plot on which ammonium
sulfate was used made the largest yield. The other sources yield-
ed in the following order: urea, leunasalpeter, nitrate of soda,
and calcium nitrate. However, there was a difference of only
2.6 bushels per acre between the yields from ammonium sulfate
and calcium nitrate. Ammonium sulfate, urea, and leunasalpeter
are acid-forming fertilizers and if used on land without lime for
a period of time, which will vary with the type of soil, will in-
crease the acidity (sourness) to a degree that is harmful to most
farm crops. If these materials are used on lime land, or with
enough lime to correct the acidity formed, they are satisfactory.
7
', b,. a.. a ii sr
.' 
9(
L 4, . '+i4 e
Figure I. -Uat without Ii it ilizer made 18.4 hti. ls per acrie . (Plot 7
Cul lars Rotatloll Experiment. P'hotogra~phed Mlay 9, 1923.)
The amount of ground1 limestone required to correct the acidity
from 100 pounds of each of these materials is 
as follows
ammonium sulfate, 120) pounds ; urea, 133 pounds; and leunasal-
pteter, 113 pounds.
Extremely heavy rains which occurred the (lay after the ni-
trogenous fertilizers were applied in 1929 caused heavy losses
from leaching in this experiment. Nitrate of soda and calcium
nitrate are more readlily leached than the other sources of ni-
trogen and, consequently, suffered a more serious loss.
Average yields of Plots 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 in Table 4 show that
t he add(iiition of each hundred p~ounds of nitrate of sodla, up to
a nd inH lud ing :800 pounds pier acre, resulted in an increase of
applroximately 10 bushels of oats per acre. Although there were
soime increases in yields for applications above 300 poundls, 
these
increases were too small to be profitable. These data (d0 
not
justify a recommendlation of more than 300 pounds of nitrate of
soda, or its eq uivalent, p~er acre on sandy soil. The 
heavier ap-
pldications resulted in some lodging and it is pirobable 
that on
rich land this wvould have been severe enough to cause a 
ma-
terial reduction in yield
The average yields in this experiment were reduced by 
rust
in 1929 and by unusually (ry weather in the spring 
of 1930. The
yields were also smaller than they would have been 
on richer
.- S
I i~ ,f#t,
4 i
8
It) huel. per acre. ( Plot 8 (Callays Rotation Exper~imen0t.
P'hotoi-lalhed Mlay 9, 1!)2:.)
land ; t he area used i -I s l) 'odiuctiv e' than average Norfolk soil.
Although no experimrnents have b~eenl condluctedl at this station
to st lidy the fertilizer needs ot whea and0 ryellv, they are closely
rel atedI to oats andI, therefore, WO 001( pioba blv giv e about the
same re'sponse to fertilizers.
VARIETIES
Varieties of Oats.--The a \'elage ields(1 of oats p)10d1 ned in
the x arietx test at Auburn are showni in Table 5. All varieties
incl toed in the test we~re fert ilized with 400 p~oundls of su per-
p~hosp~hate and 50) pound~s of muriate of p~otash in the fall. A
top) drlessing of 20()0 onds of nit rate ot sodla per acre was ap-
p~liedl about Marcith 1.
Table 5.-Yields of Oats in Variety Test
BUhelS Of oats per acre
Variety Thi ce-year a'verage* Eight-year aver-age* *
1929-1931 1922-1931
Red Rustproof :35.3 41.6
ItUlh~pU) 38.0 40.9
Apples 30.7 39.5
Norton 37.5
'All calir&fl -c in pured) by rus in 19')' a) nd by drp ph in 1911.
**Ih rop, ofi 191) and 19:: iere killed byl d andti ai, re not ,includied1 in the aseralges.
in ir . )ate Icil iimiI k\ith 6, junJ I nitte ' <dti h r acre wadiie
68 .4 h ul per acre. (Piot 8Cul lar Roathm tin xperiment.
Photugi aphNi Mya 9, 1928.)
'There was little difference in the yieldls of the Red Rustp~roof,
Fulghurn, and Appler' varieties (luring the period from 
1922 to
1931. inclusiv e.
The av erage y ield s for the th ree-year 
period, 1 929 to 1931,
inclIusiv e, are sh own f or the pur~ipose of giving it comparison 
ot
Norton, a cornpIarat ively new variety, with standard varieties
which are generally grown in Alabama. It may be 
seen that
Norto n rnadle about as large yieldl as the other varieties testedl.
'This variety is more cold1 resistant than Fulghum or 
the Red
Rustproof v arieties: it withstood a temp~erature of 8' F. in .Jan-
uary, 1928 when other varieties were almost comnpletely 
killed.
It is p~robab lly more susceptib1)1e to rust than the Red Rustproof
and Fulgh umn varieties. The rip~ening (late tor Norton is about
one week later than that of Fulghurn. 'This is a 
promising v a-
ri ety vfor NorthI Alabama wvhere cold resistance is desired.
Varieties of Wheat.-Six varieties of wheat were tested 
at
Auburn dutrinig the three-year period, 1921 to 
1923, inclusive.
Each variety was fertilized1 uniformly with p~hosphate and potash
n the fall and with 100 pounds of nitrate of sodla per 
acre about
March 1. The average yields are given in Table 
6.
:$" ~, 1 
:
I
-i
~i:;iT ir ri'i
,e,
ii?
I' 1- 1 1t %!aI u:I ; [I- ! II ' . a ' ', 
lL: I; ,, t.1 '.;" Ii 1_ il'u i ii
acre. (P'hotographcd Slay 1, 191.)
Table 6.-Yields of Wheat in Variety 
Test
Three-year 
a
kariety yield
1921-19
Bus. per
Alabama Bluestem 18.1
C urrell 
13.2
)ietz 12.1
Stover 12.0
I'uleaster 
11.7
Ieap's Prolific 8.f
average
23
acre
It may be seen from Table 6 that Alabama Bluestem 
was the
leading variety tested. This variety produced 
37 per cent more
wheat than Currell which was the second-highest-yielding 
va-
riety. Alabama Bluestem is less susceptible to rust than any of
the other varieties tested and is a more consistent yielder.
Although the average yield of wheat made by 
the highest-
protlucing variety was only 18.1 bushels per 
acre, it was only 3
bushels less than the yield of corn made on the same type of soil
with similar fertilizer treatment during this period.
I
B
i
~ / p -i~o~i~!
11
Varieties of Rye.-Five varieties of rye were tested at Au-
burn. This test was conducted on deep sand which was not
adapted to grain crops. Each variety was fertilized with phos-
phate and potash in the fall and 100 pounds of nitrate of soda
per acre about March 1, except in 1920 when no fertilizer was
used. The average yields are given in Table 7.
Table 7.-Yields of Rye in Variety Test
Four-year average
Variety yield
1920-1923
Bus. per acre
Tuscaloosa 7.6
Abruzzi 7.5
Florida 6.4
Rosen 5.7
Abruzzi and Tuscaloosa, a local variety, made more rye than
any of the other varieties used. Abruzzi grows faster in the
fall than other varieties and is probably the most suitable for fall
and winter grazing. It also matures seed early in the spring and
is probably the most satisfactory variety for general use in Ala-
bama.
HARVESTING
Time of Harvesting.-If small grain crops are to be harvest-
ed for grain they should be allowed to become practically ripe.
The straw should be ripe and the grain nearly dry before harvest-
ing begins. On the other hand, if oats are to be fed in the straw
they should be cut while the grain is in the dough stage. If cut
at this stage some of the straw is still green and will be eaten
more readily by animals than if left until thoroughly ripe before
harvesting.
Enough of each small grain crop grown should be harvested
for seed to supply the needs of the farm. Seed can usually be
harvested cheaper on the farm than it can be bought. In addi-
tion to costing less money, seed produced at home is of known
variety, whereas that bought on the market may not be true to
name.
Methods of Harvesting.-In case a large acreage of grain is
grown, it may be harvested and threshed with a combine. Most
of the grain threshed with combines in Alabama is cut and allow-
ed to lie in the swath until dry, after which it is raked and thresh-
ed from the windrow.
Smaller plantings are usually cut with a binder. The bundled
grain is shocked in the field until dry enough to thresh. Figure
5 shows a six-foot binder which will cut about ten acres of grain
I'igure (,. uttitII x\ u t 1 111111 \xlh1 a six-f t I,ii~id p. A w c ti like
this shoull cut about tell aIcres of grain jcr day. (Photograp hed
Junie 1, 1:1.)
per day. A binder of this size is too heavy for two mules and
should lbe (drawn by three or four if a full day's cutting is to be
doneh.
Another method ot harvesting is with a mower equipped with
a butnching attachment. B~y this method the grain is left in
buni tc hes xxwhic h may' be tied by hand. Although this method of
h arvesti 1W req uir'es more labor than cutting with at binder, it
maxy be desirable in case the acreage grown is too) small to justify
buying at b~inder.
Small areas may be cut xwith a cradle, but this method is slow
and should b~e used only wh ere none of the methods dliscussedI
ablo~e ('an lousd
Ini case oats are to be fed in the strawx they should b~e cut xwith
at mower and handled like hay. They may be storedl as soon
as dry, either loose or baledl.
i
SMALL GRAIN CROPS FOR HAY AND GRAZING
H-ay.-.Alix~ules com)nposedl of one of the smrall gri crops(01)
aind e ith er ha iry vetch or A ustrian w inter peas ale being used
extenlsiveFly in Alabama for hay. Such a m ixiture usually makes
a larger yieldl thain any ot the sp)r ig-Plantedl hay crops tlsedl in
the state. Ihis clop may be harv ested early enough in the
spring to allow another ha cro p to be plantedl on the land, thus
making tw~o crops of hay a yeal from) the same land. AliXtures
ot grainl and~ leguimes have made more hayv in) exp~eriments than
either (101) planlted alone.
Oats sh onu1( be plIa ntedl for h ay exceplt in sections where
there is dlanger of winter hilling, in which case wXheat or irve may
be usedl. P'lantiing should be done duning the latter halt oft Sep-
tember' or the first half of October.
Oaits ~a legumes should lo cut for hay "T en oats ale in the
early doi ugh st age. WNhe'n w\heat or ryVe is used in mixturies, h ar-
Vest inig shonuId be (lone as soon as the grain is headed. Tbhe dan i-
gel ot loss fronm rust increases as the wixheat approaches matur'-
ity. If either w~heat or irye is allowed to stand until the straw, is
ipe the hay will lose in both p~alatability and digestibility.
II ay andu grain sh oulId he well cured before being stored.
P~artially curedl hay or grain stored in bulk may heat to the ex-
tent that the barn in which it is stor'ed will he set on fire and
diestroyedl.
t i' rk i. Al ',c u , nIlt I :A ~ It % !i t~'A. %\ .110 III<,I % i h,
half dons of hay per acre. (PhoI-tographed Mlay 7, 19381.)
14
Grazing.-Oats, wheat, or rye may be planted early in the
fall and grazed by livestock during the winter. Oats and rye
grow more rapidly during the early fall and will supply winter
pasturage. In North Alabama where oats may be killed by cold,
it is advisable to use rye. Abruzzi rye grows rapidly in the fall
and early winter and is probably the most satisfactory variety
for grazing. An experiment was started at this station in the
fall of 1930 to determine the value of the small grain crops for
grazing, but this problem must be studied further before any
conclusions can be drawn.
DISEASES OF SMALL GRAINS
There are a number of fungous and bacterial diseases of
small grains. These diseases are relatively unimportant in Ala-
bama except on oats and wheat. These plants suffer material
losses from the smuts and rusts, which cause more than 90 per-
cent of the total plant disease losses to these crops annually.
Oat Smuts.-Oat smut destroyed a very high percentage of
the oats grown in Alabama during the past season (1930-31).
In a number of oat fields there was noted as much as 30 to 40
percent of smutted heads; this is an unwarranted loss, as the
disease can be controlled very easily and cheaply by treating the
oat seed before planting.
There are two smuts quite similar in character and controll-
ed by the same methods. They are confined to the oat plant and
do not attack the other small grains. Each black dust-like mass
formed on the oat head is composed of millions of spores of
the fungus. Spores are to the fungus just what seed are to the
oat plant. The smutted heads show up before the healthy ones,
and the matured spores are blown by the wind to the healthy
heads. By this means and through threshing operations the
spores are spread to the seed. Unfortunately, there is no ac-
curate way of telling when the seed is infected; but as a gen-
eral rule, most oat seed carries some smut and, therefore, should
be treated.
Under and on the seed coat, the spores, and delicate thread-
like growths from them, are carried until the seed is planted.
When the seed germinates the fungus grows into the seedling
before it comes out of the ground. The fungus is not evident in
the plant and a diseased plant is not noted until heading time,
when black masses, which are formed into spores, appear where
the flowers should appear. Soil moisture and temperature at
planting time often determine the amount of smut that will ap-
pear in the spring, more or less, regardless of the number of
spores carried on the seed oats. Favorable climatic conditions
cannot be depended upon to control smut, and it is therefore
much safer to treat the seed before planting. When seed oats
are treatedl properly with formaldehyde solution, practically all
smut organ isms~ are killed.
The cost ot treating seed oats with formaldehyde solution
should not be overc a few cents a lbushel, regardless of the num-
bler of* bush els to be t reat ed.
Directions for Treating Oats
I ul1y a on e-quanrt atomizer-type sp~rayer from a drug or
ha~rdlware store. (Cost about 5(0 cents.)
2.-( ( from a drug store one pint of formaldehyde (40 per-
cent) solution fo1r each 50( buIshels of' seed to be treated.
(Cost about 50 cents).
8,.-1fjile oats to( be treated on a clean tfloor, canvas, or' in a
tight wagon bed.
4.-IPour formal1(1ehyde from the bottle into the sl'ayer; fillI
t he blottlIe with water' andl 1pou1 it into the spr1ayer.
5.-WVhile the oats~ are beinig s.hoveled from one pile to an-
other, give( one goodl sqfuir't of the solution to each shovel
full ofu oats as they are movedl.
6.-Round1( upl the tr'eatedl pile of oats and cover' with bags
which hav 1 been sp)Iayedl inside and out with the solution
in ordler that the fornma dehyde gas may be r'etained and
p)enetr'ate the entire pile.
7.-leav e the oats covered five hour's, or' over night.
,I
'ig ur 7. ( )~ heing tre'nted wvith fohmaldehyd(I to prevent smut.
16
Oats treated by this method do not swell and will readily run
through the grain drill, even the same day they are treated.
Since there is not sufficient liquid used to wet the oats, they may
be treated weeks or months before they are to be sown and their
germinating power remain uninjured. Treated seed, after air-
ing for a few days, may be fed with safety to livestock. The
only disagreeable feature of this method is that formaldehyde
gas irritates the eyes and nasal membranes of the handlers un-
less the seed is treated in the open or in a place where there is
cross ventilation.
Oat Rusts.-There are two rusts found commonly on oats in
this state. Black stem rust appears on the stems, leaves and
glumes, where it causes pustules that are from 1/16 to 1/4 inch
in length. In the red stage the pustules are brick red and often
granular in appearance, but later these same pustules turn black.
The other rust is known as crown rust or leaf rust. This is the
most common and destructive rust in Alabama. The pustules on
the stems, leaves, and glumes are often much smaller than stem
rust, frequently about one-half the size. In the red stage the
pustules are orange yellow in color and often waxy and smooth
in general appearance, but later turn black, as in the other rust.
Both rusts have many grass hosts. Here in the South, they
live from year to year on grains and grasses. The warm dry
summers and cold winters are unfavorable for the growth of
these fungi, but they are able to persist and develop rapidly
when seasonal conditions become favorable. The only known
means of reducing damage from the rusts consists in the use of
the more resistant varieties, such as Red Rustproof or Fulghum.
Wheat Rusts.-Just as in the case of the oat plant, there are
two rusts attacking the wheat plant; stem rust, which is caused
by the same fungus that causes stem rust of oats; and leaf rust,
which is caused by a different organism. The latter will not go
from wheat to oats. Nothing can be done at the present for the
control of these wheat rusts in the South, unless resistant va-
rieties are found.
Wheat Smuts.-There are three smuts of wheat, two known
as stinking smut, and one as loose smut. The two stinking smuts
are essentially alike and may be treated as one smut. This smut
is not commonly noted before the wheat heads. The diseased
heads are frequently distorted or abnormal in shape. The smut
balls, which replace the wheat seed, become large enough to
spread apart the glumes or chaff. When one of these smut balls
is broken open it is found to be a mass of black, powdery
spores. These smut balls have a disagreeable odor resembling
that of decaying fish; thus the name "stinking smut".
During harvesting and threshing, many of the smut masses
are broken and the spores are spread to the healthy seed. The
17
spores stick to the surface of the sound seed and when the seed
is planted the spores germinate as the wheat germinates. The
minute germ tube of the smut enters the wheat seedling and
grows along with the growing plant until heading time, when
the fungus forms the smut ball in place of the normal wheat seed.
Since the spores of this smut are carried on the surface of the
seed, various types of seed disinfectants have been used to kill
them. Copper carbonate is a very finely-ground dust as manu-
factured for seed treatment and is used at the rate of 2 to 21/2
ounces to each bushel of seed. Effective treatment requires that
each seed be coated with the dust. The best way to obtain a
thorough application of the dust is to treat the seed in some
kind of rotating machine, barrel mixer, or barrel churn. In dust-
ing seed the operator should wear a mask or a wet handkerchief
over his nose and mouth, as the inhaled dust will cause irrita-
tion and even nausea. Copper carbonate dust is rather general-
ly recommended in the North, West, and Northwest. Formalde-
hyde solution, used as in the control of oat smut, is effective but
frequently injures the seed and therefore is not recommended.
The hot water treatment, used for the control of loose smut, is
effective; however, it is not generally used unless loose smut is
also present.
Loose smut in many respects is quite similar to the oat smuts.
The diseased heads are completely destroyed and in the place of
seed and chaff only smut masses are formed. These diseased
heads frequently appear before the healthy heads. The spores
mature and are carried by the wind, insects, and other agencies
to the flowering healthy plants. Here they lodge in the flowers,
germinate and send their germ tubes into the young seed kernel.
The seed is not destroyed, but the fungus remains dormant with-
in the seed. Infected seed show no external evidence of being
diseased. However, in case the infected seed is planted without
treatment, the smut fungus begins to grow along with the seed-
ling plants and makes its appearance at heading time.
The only effective control known is the hot water treatment.
The principle involved is to kill the fungus within the seed with-
out injury to the seed. This method of treatment is difficult for
the average farmer to use. As a general rule, farmers will find
that treating small batches of seed by this method and using
them for planting seed patches is most profitable. These seed
patches should not be near other wheat.
Directions for treatment are as follows:
1.-Fill a bag half full of seed and tie the top of the bag.
2.-Soak the seed for four hours in cold water.
3.-Have two large tubs of water heated, one to 120
? 
F. and
the other to 1290 F.
4.-Dip the soaked seed in the tub of water at 120
? 
F. for
a few minutes, then place in the second tub of water at
129
? 
F. for 10 minutes. The water in the second tub must
be held near 129
?
F., for if it falls much below this temp-
18
erature the smut will not be killed, and if it rises several
degrees above this the seed will be killed.
5.-After the seed is treated it should be spread out in a thin
layer and thoroughly dried. When the seed has dried it
may be planted.
SUMMARY
1.--Plowing the land before oats were planted increased the
yield approximately seven bushels per acre.
2.-Oats planted in drills and those planted broadcast made
practically the same yield.
3.-Drilling did not materially reduce the injury to oats by
cold.
4.-Oats drilled in cotton middles without plowing on
October 15 made more than those planted one month later on
land which was plowed.
5.-The average yield of fall-planted oats was double that
of those planted in the spring in a long-time experiment at Au-
burn.
6.-Wheat should be planted from October 15 to November
1.
7.-Rye for grazing should be planted after the first rain in
September.
8.-Oats should be planted at the rate of 2 to 3 bushels per
acre.
9.-Wheat or rye should be sown at the rate of 4 to 6 pecks
per acre.
10.There was a difference of only 2.6 bushels of oats per
acre between the yields produced by ammonium sulfate and cal-
cium nitrate, which made the high and low yields, respectively,
in a source-of-nitrogen test that included nitrate of soda, am-
monium sulfate, calcium nitrate, urea, and leunasalpeter.
11.-Each hundred pounds of nitrate of soda, up to and in-
cluding 300 pounds per acre, made approximately 10 bushels of
oats.
12.-Red Rustproof, Fulghum, and Appler oats made approxi-
mately the same average yields during the period from 1922 to
1931, inclusive.
13.-Norton, a cold-resistant variety, compared favorably
with other varieties in yield during the three-year period, 1929-
1931, inclusive.
14.-Alabama Bluestem was the highest-yielding variety of
wheat in tests at Auburn.
15.-Abruzzi grows faster in the fall than other varieties of
rye and is probably the most satisfactory variety for winter graz-
ing.
16.-Small grains should be practically ripe before being har-
vested for grain.
19
17.Enough seed of each small grain crop should be harvest-
ed to supply the needs of the farm.
18.Mixtures composed of one of the small grains and either
hairy vetch or Austrian winter peas usually make larger yields
of hay than spring-planted hay crops.
19.-Oats and legumes should be cut for hay when the grain
is in the dough stage; wheat or rye and legumes when the grain
is headed.
20.-Hay and grain should be dry before being stored. Damp
hay or grain stored in bulk may heat and set the barn on fire.
21.Rye is more satisfactory for winter grazing than either
wheat or oats.
22.-Smuts and rusts are the most destructive diseases of small
grain crops in the South.
23.-Oat smuts are controlled by treating the seed before
planting with formaldehyde solution. The spray method is
recommended.
24.-The only practical control measure for rusts of oats is
the use of rust-resistant varieties, as Red Rustproof or Fulghum.
25.-Stinking smut of wheat is controlled by copper carbonate
dust.
26.-Loose smut of wheat is controlled by treating the seed
wheat with hot water at 129
?
. F. for 10 minutes.
)5