VOLUME 43, NO.4 WINTER 1996 I ALABAMA AGiRICLLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY r IFi , i;~' s: ~ ~e~J j a TREATMENTS STUDIED ON HAYLAND Alabamao AericjI/Ihf) of E xlwrimuerw Statimi Higlihis o! Agiculturl Rse arc/i Vol. 43. N. 4, Winte. 1996 tillage usually improves the capacity of the soil to store water and nutrients. In recent years, agricultural implements capable of soil tillage in perma- nent sods, including pasture and hay lands, have become available. An AAES study has been compar- ing the effects of two renovation tillage implements on productivity of tall fescue-berrnudagrass pas- ture cut for hay. Results suggest that the effectiveness of renovation may depend, in large part, on soil moisture conditions. Little previous research infor- mation has been available relative to the effectiveness of renovation tillage for enhancement of forage yield or infiltra- tion of rainfall and/or nutrients. Limited data from other regions has generally shown no vegetation response to reno- vation tillage. In some cases, yield decreases have been reported. The study examined responses of hayland to two types of tillage implements. At least two basic types of tillage implements are commercially available foi use in pasture renovation. The Aer-Way Renovator is an example of a ground-driven rolling-tined aera- tor/cultivator that resembles "pitting" implements used on rangeland. It is being marketed as an implement to improve pasture productivity through increased retention of rainfall and nutrients. The second class of imple- ments includes the Paraplow or the more recently available Paratill, which loosen the soil by relatively deep tillage but do not invert it. The study was condicted on Hartsells fine sandy loam soil at the Sand Mountain Substation. Crossville. Livestock were excluded from a two- ~s~t~ A labaIma A 'riculltulral Ev)periJteniI Station High lighis of Agicultnra1 Research Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 1996 /.r~n L'~brD~ lare Mille,; Bob Goodman, LeAnn Self-Davis, Rancd Rape,; ad War iie Reeves acre area of a pasture that had been con- tinuously used foi grazing cattle since 1981. The experimental treatments were: 1) renovation with the Paraplow, 2) use of the Aer-Way pasture renovator and, 3) no renovation. Each treatment was replicated three times. Renovation treatments were applied each spring for three years. Researchers monitored hay yield and quality. vegetative cover com- position, and root length density. Cattle were excluded from plots so that hay yield data could be col- lected and because the presence of cattle on the land would have required more frequent renovation treatments because of soil compaction. Penetrometer mea- surements taken on soil that had been grazed indicated that soil compaction from cattle recurred soon after renova- tion. while the effects of renovation on soil physical properties continued for some time on plots where cattle were excluded. No consistent yield increase resulted from annual renovation (see graph). The only statistically significant finding was that the yield of' the Paraplow plots was significantly less than the Aer-Way or control plots in the June 1996, measurement. No other dif- ferences reported in this study were sta- tistically significant at the 10/r probabil- ity level. There were yield increases some years. and yield decreases in other years when compared to no renovation tillage. While limited replications and short duration of the experiment make statistical comparisons difficult, there were certain weather characteristics in each year that might have resulted in the slight yield advantage apparently evident for either of the renovators or. indeed. for the control plot, continued on page 6 In 1994, the Paraplow plots appar- ently produced moire foragc than either the Aer-way or contiol. The year 1994 wa, a record year for crop production throughout Alabama, and cumu- lative yields in this experiment were highcst in 1994. Rainfall was especially timely through the spring and summer months. Thus, any root-damaging effects of deep reno- vation tillage might have been mini- mized by excellent growing conditions. The spring of 1995 was espe- cially dry. Renovation was followed by very little regrowth of plants. Cover composition measurements in May 1995 indicated that treatment with the Paraplow resulted in greater amounts of residue compared to Aer-Way or to no renovation tillage. This was attributed to damage to the root systems by the Paraplow and subsequent death of grass shoots. This effect may have been enhanced by the relatively harsh winter of 1994-95. In any case, the control treatment under those ioisture condi- tions was apparently superior to either renovation treatment. Moistore condi- tions improved by the fall, allowing yield. on hoth renova ution ticatmenk to exceed the control; however, cumulative yields for 1995 were low compared to 1994. Weather patterns in 1996 were similar to the previous year, with dry weather early in the year then seasonal mini-droughts during the summer with adequate moisture only periodically. In April. yields were very low, and none of the three treatments had any advantage. In June (in an extra measurement) mois- ture conditions had impioved and yields were higher, but growing conditions were not favorable enough to allow the deeper-tilled Paraplow plots to recover from any root damage. Yields in the fall of 1996 were approximately equal for all treatments, and cumulative yields tor the year were comparable to 1994. The difference between 1994 and 1996 was that the Paraplow plots seemed to show a slight Dry matter, tons/acre 0 Paraplow Aer-Way Q No renovation May 1994 Sept. 1994 May 1995 Sept. 1995 April 1996 June 1995 Yield lat Ofoml renov(tiol stldies 1, 1994-9(6 6 Total and Per-Acre Cost of Pasture RenovationI Par atill Aer-Way Acres Total Per acre Total Per acre 40 $1,8 10.63 $45.21 $1,048.97 $26.22 100 2,335.30 23.35 1,385.93 13.86 250 3,646.96 14.59 2,228.31 8.91 1000 10,205.26 10.21 6,440.24 6.44 Shared ownership 8.74 5.62 Variable costs 4.64 3.14 By acres covered per year, with shared ownership of renovator, fixed and variable costs except where noted. Highlights of Agricultural Research Vol. 43, No. 4. Winter- 1996 Meld advantage in 1994. but 1996 yields on the Paraplow plots seemed to be ,lightly lower than either the control or Aer-Way plots. Preliminary interpretation of these results seems to indicate that dam- age to root systems observed with the Paraplow may be a tactor in reduced forage piroduction under drought condi- tions such as those experienced in 1995 and early in 1996. However, soil loos ening at a deeper depth that occurs with Paraplow treatment may be a factor in increased forage production in high moisture conditions, such as were expe rienced in 1994. Renovation with the Aer-Way appears more likely to favor- ably affect forage production under droughtier conditions. These hypotheses may be further tested when results of the companion experiment, where cattle were allowed access to treatments, become available. Further, additional experiments that alter the renovation regimen may also be warranted. These preliminary data indicate a yield increase for pastures treated with renovation tillage may occur under some environmental conditions. T1he differences reported in this study were not statistically significant, and further research is warranted, but if the data are correct, renovation could provide posi- tive net returns to hay producers. For example, if hay price was $60 per ton, and if renovation resulted in a 10%V increase in pioduction, birak-even reno- vation total cost would be in the range of $6-9 per acre. Unfortunately. achieving such a low total cost of renovation is unlikely for most Alabama producers unless renovators can be held in some fonn of shared ownership to hold fixed costs per acre for renovation at a very low level. Miller is ar Assistant Professor of Agronomy and Soils, Goodman is an Associate Profes- sor of Agricultura Economics and Rural Sociology Self-Davis is a Graduate Student of Agronomy, Univ of Arkansas; and Raper and Reeves are Research Scientists with the USDA-ARS National Soil Dynamics Lab. Alabamia Agruicultural b-sjxrinent Staion Alaba. Tomato GP'uwtf i Meeting Federal 1PM Guidelines Elleni Boo ,ke. Geo/ffic Zclde ,: Fcndj rd Sik ,u U.S. CONSUMERS have indicated increasing concern iegarding the use of pesticides in food production. As a result of public concern, the federal government mandated that by the year 2000, 7 5 %c of all cropland should be farmed using Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices. To reach this end. 1PM must be clearly defined and the current level of 1PM use in the region determined. Applicable research and technology can then be identified and educational needs and appropriate distribution methods determined to promote 1PM to target producers. Fresh-market tomatoes are an excellent model crop tor development and implementation of 1PM strategies. Over 30.000 acres of tomatoes are grown in the Southeast annually. Growing conditions, cultural prac- tices, and pests are similar across the region. Also, tomatoes are a "high- input" crop, increasing the potential tor significant financial savings as a result ot utilizin? IPM practicc". A survey was developed by farmers, consultants, and university personnel from the Southeast. The survey was distributed to tomato growers by mail, at county meetings. and other relevant venues. Frequency of use was rated for each practice list- ed on the survey (always = 3: otten = 2; sometimes = i: and never = 0). The total possible score was calculated and the Icxel of IPM use determined._ Summary of IPM Survey Results State Alabama Georgia Kentucky North Carolina North Florida South Carolina Tennessee No. Avg. farm growers size, acres 25 22.1 15 69.5 29 6.8 35 13.3 12 213.3 18 132.2 21 20.6 Pct. medium and high Avg. score IPM categories Growers Acreage 57.0 65 66 68.0 100 50 65.8 93 99 54.3 66 94 74.6 100 100 71.7 94 99 53.5 67 63 Avg Fungicide 9.7 14.6 10.2 1 1.6 19.5 1 1.8 score of 0 -50% was considered a low level of IPM use, 51-75% a medium level, and 76-100%>4 a high level. Growers were also asked to identify insect, disease, and production prob- lems as well as any technology or research developments that they felt would benefit the industry. Alabama tomato producers are concentrated in Blount and St. Clair counties in the North and in Geneva county in the South. [arm size in Alabama averages about 22 acres (see table ). Overall. Alabama producers ranked fifth in the region in 1PM implementation with an average score of 57%. However, there is little indi- cation that they are over-applying pctlt ide. :\lihaia tarmers make the fewest fungicide applications in no. applications the Southeast Insecticide Herbicide and use fewer 9.8 2 insecticide 13.2 1.5 7.2 2. applications 7.7 1.7 than producers 16.4 1.9 9.9 18. continued on page 8 A/ulabin ag A-ieulrl/ural Lvprilment Station Highilights of Agricultmral Res ean/h Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 1996 in Gcoi ia and North Floriida. IPM does not necessarily result in lower pesticide use. In some cases growers may be under-managing pest problems and IPM will actu- ally result in increased pesticide usage. On the other hand, many professionals use very conserva- tive thresholds in theii disease and insect scouting programs and this may restlt in relatively high levels of pesticide use. The restlts of this survey show that in four of the seven southern states more than 75% of the tomato acreage is in the medi- tim- or high-IPM category. These states have met or exceeded the state 1PM teams' criteria for prac- ticing 1PM and have met the feder- al mandate of 1PM on 75% of the fresh-market tomato cropland (see table). The other three states. including Alabama are well on their way to achieving the federal mandate. In the process of creating this survey, the state IPM teams have outlined a clear definition of 1PM in fresh-market tomato pro- duction. These survey results establish a baseline which can be used to measure the success of programs designed to increase IPM adoption. The survey also provided an opportunity for farmers throughout the region to identify pest problems of impor- tance to them. It can be used to influence the Extension/research agenda in the universities in the Southeast. Bauske is an Extension Associate of Horticulture, Zehnder is an Associate Professor of Entomology, Silkora s an Assistant Professor of Plant Patno ogy, and Kemble is an Assistart Professor of Hort culture. COTTON RESPONDS TO POSTEMERGENCE HERBICIDES I taple. the trade name for a new cotton herbicide containing pyrithiobac, proved effective in over- the-top broadleaf weed control when combined with arsenical herbicides in AAES research at three sites statewide. Though the arsenical herbicides caused some yield loss and delayed maturity at some sites in some years, this was not significantly affected by the addition of Staple in a tank mix. The organic arsenical herbi cides MSMA and DSMA have been used for many yeas for controlling weeds in cotton. MSMA was registered for use by U.S. cotton producers in 1964 as a postemergence-directed treatment on cotton ranging from 7.6 cm tall to first bloom (one inch equals 2.6 cm). MSMA is labeled for postemergence salvage treatments in some states such as Georgia for postemergence control of broadleaf weeds, grasses. and Dale Moniks, Michael Patterson, )ennis Delanev, Doti Moore, and Larrv Wells nutsedge in cotton while DSMA is labeled for the same use in Alabama, due to lower crop injury. Staple, which was marketed tor the first time in 1996, controls several broadleaf weeds with- out adversely affecting cotton growth and yield when applied postemergence. Favorable results in many studies sug- gest that total postemergence programs for cotton producers tay be feasible in certain situations. The weed species that may limit the useftlness ot Staple in the Southeast is sicklepod. due to lack of postemergence control. Since MSMA has been shown to increase the activity of some herbicides on many weeds, it may have potential for increasing sick- lepod control when tank-mixed with Staple. However, tank-mixing herbi- cides from different chemical families can increase the potential for crop i nj ury. To evaluate the effect of Staple and MSMA or DSMA combinations on cotton growth and development, experi- ments were condtcted in Prattville and Headland in 1994 and 1995. Treatments included Staple MSMA. and DSMA applied alone, and Staple tank-mixed with MSMA or DSMA and an untreated check for com- parison. Herbicides were applied poste mergence over-the-top of the crop A labamIa Agricultural E xperimecnt Station Highlights of Agricultural Re~searchi Vol. 43. No. 4, Winter 1996 cano~py prior to the pinhead square stag~e ot cotton dev elopment wi th a conv\en- tional-ty pe spray er. The x arieties plant- ed in H-ead land were 'Sure rowx 1001' and 'Delta and Pi ncland ( DP) 90' in 1994 and 1995, respectiveliy. The xvari "C planed ini lPratmi llx setc IDP 90' Table 1. Effect of Staple, MSMA, and DSMA Dtton Injury and Growth Two Weeks After Tre2 reatment Cotton Rate Prattville 1994 1995 kg/hao pct. pct. injury Headl 1994 pct. :ontrol - taple 0.069 4SMA 1.12 DSMA 1.68 Maple + MSMA 0.069 + 1.12 taple + DSMA 0.069 + 1.68 n~jti] tDP 51i in 191)4 and 1995. respectively. Cotton response k" was ex auated twxo wxeeks alter treatment usina N isu- {" -k I ath. Maturity effects aedeteinmined prior to 3, hresthNy recoiding the . meter equals 39 inches) The plots wxere chemically deie tated and the center twxo rowxs machine-harv ested once alter all mature boils we re open. Cotton in 199)4 at Prattxville wxas injured by applications of MSM A and DSMA applied alone and tank- mixed wxith Staple. Although there xxas H( dii letence in injtuy betxxeenl MSMA and D)SMA applied alone. on IDSMA tank-mixed wxith Staple tment ax ve less iniury than MSMA tank-mixed wxith Staple. In and 1995. MSMA applied alone or 1995 tank-mixed wxith Staple result- ed in higher injury than all ot her treatments. Adding( 0 Sitaple to MSMA or DSMA did p nolt increase injniry over the 0 twxo products applied alone. p regardless of location and Near. Co ttonu in I9)1a Table 2. Effect of Staple, MSMA, and DSMA on Cotton Maturity and Yield Prattville 1994 1994 1995 1995 Seed reatment Rate total open total open cotton boils boils boils boils yield kg/ho 2 no./6m 3 pct. no.16m pct. kg/ho :ontrol -218 58 147 92 1,930 taple 0.069 205 53 145 85 1,960 ISMA 1.12 191 45 121 88 1,640 )SMA 1.68 198 41 142 91 1,810 taple + MSMA 0.069 + 1.12 186 39 143 89 1,590 taple + DSMA 0.069 + 1.68 232 48 1 17 90 1,770 SData were pooled over years due to absence of an interaction. 2 To convert kg/ha into pounds per acre, multiply the yield by .893. 3One meter is equal to 39 inches. Headland1 Total Open Seed boils bolls cotton yield no./6m pct. kg/ho 206 69 2,160 224 69 2,500 224 75 2,210 249 72 2,280 206 70 2,330 214 73 2,210 H eadland wxas injwted by all tiCatitttS utiliring MSM'A and D)SMA ([abtile I) Although DSMA is geneiralix consid- ered less injui ions than MSMA wxhen applied at similar rates, no differences xx cie recorded. The addition of Staple to MSMA or DSMA did not increase cot- ton injury ox er each chemical appi ied alone. At the sanme location in 1995, no in jury was recorded regairdiess of the treatment. The total nnmher of boils wxas reduced by MSMA pins Staple coi- pared to thle untheated cottrolI in 1 994 at Prattvilie. Adding Staple to MSMIA and DSMA did not affect the nunmbei of t 'tal boils ox er the saime treatntns appliedc alone. Theie xxere no differences ini toital boils iin 1995. Ini 1994, percent open boils wxas reduced by MSMA and DSMA applied aloiie and MISM A tank- mixed wxithi Staple wh len coinpaired to the unhteated contirol. No ef feet wxas mieasured in I1995. Staple tank-mixed1 wxith MSMA oi D)SMA did not delay inatnritv greater thiaii the two arsenical herbicides applied aloiie. Seed cotton yield wxas not affected by Staple or DSMA applied alone or tank-mixed. MISMA applie,' alone and tank-mixed wxith Staple deciceased eotton yielod coi- pared to the untreated control aiid Staple applied alonie. No treatment affected boll developiieiit either xer in H]eadland (Table 2). The total inmber of boils axveiaged 221I pei six meters of rowx for ereli t eatmemit. Cotton matniri ty was not I cted by ainy tieatnit, wxithi aii axei- *of 71'/ open. Seed cotton Nyeld at SI.adiamid wxas not affIected bN aliy ti eat- itt xxithi aii aerace of 2.280 kilo- ins per hectare (imnitiply by .893 to J tcrnmine pouiiids per acire). isisar Assitan t Pr ofesso,; Patterso or ofessor, arc Delarey is an Extiern ouce Conervaion Assciate of )homy and Soils. Moore isSuperiten- ofPratyvil Experimenit Field andt Welis tIltuut11( I ic tu /It L1k/N / ttttt Stctliot 9 Higl, ti4/ o/ ,Ai, ilut Rc'o oar */ Vol. 43, No. 4, Wtertt 19926 Assistance 3oi-esters in Ponindustrial /private 3orest jWanageinent: Daowei Zheung n AAES study reveals that public and private assistance foresters play a particularly strong role in advising the state's noni ndustrial ptivate forest (NIPF) landowners. having assisted in about 50% of all NIPF management activities in Alabama over the past 10 years. NIF landowners own about 72% of the forest land in Alabama, but many rely on assistance foresters' expertise and infor- mation to ensure efficient markets and sound forest man- agement. Assistance foresters include three groups of foresters: public foresters who work for county. state, or federal agencies and whose services are prov id- ed without charge: consulting foresters xxho run their own forestry consulting business and who charge a fee for ser- vices and industry foresters who work for forest industry fir ms and prov ide ser- vices to NIPF landowners oni behalf of the tfims. Assistance foresters' serv\ices cov er all aspects of forestr\. including management plan preparation, timber harv esting, marketing, reforestation. tim- ber stand improv emnent, and w.xildlife management. Assi stance foresters inllu- ence not only the benefits obtained trom timber sales and forest manlagement for NIPF landowners, but also the long-term health and productix ity of forest lands, wxhich are important to the general pib- lic. In spring 1996. AAES forestry researchers began a surv ey focusing on profiles and perceptions of assistance 10 foresters' serv ices, distribution and qual- ity of services, and landowners actix MII and character istics. A representaitive sample of 616 Alabama NIPF landowxn- ers xxere surxveyed. xxith a response. rate of approximtately 43(/(. During the last 10 years .k table), 65r( of the landowners haxe." timber from their lands. Sixty-foui cent of them hax e sold timber, and t of them have planted trees. Only I51 landowners hiave spraN ed pine forest control wxeeds, undesiirable spec]:, insects, or diseases. Txxenty-two pet. of the landowxners hax e inteiltiol- burned their forest for manag(ement 11 poses. and 27% have dev eloped a tor management plan. Finally. 5011o atn landoxxners hav e i mprov ed xwildl ife habitats on their lands, and 3317( of them haxve performmed other kinds of fIbm e manacaement such as site preparatl . mar king piroperty boundaries, and est; I ishin e recreational facilities. Th_ results indicate that NIPF landoxxners Alh n( l: /)Ltltt 1 ii ._ I ~ ilwct .Sltiont J-i hli, Ihtx o! A t,'iculhiotyl Rr.ra /t I I. 43, \o 4l, lintc; I QQ6 are fairly active in managing their forests. Only 17% of the respondents have not conducted any management activities in the last 10 years. Assistance foresters played a major role in helping landowners con- duct these management activities (see table). Of the landowners who conduct- ed these management activities, 57% have used assistance foresters in timber harvesting. 54% in timber marketing, 651/ in tree planting, 77% in spraying, 75% in burning, 83% in preparing forest management plans. and 31 % in improv- ing wildlife habitats. The roles of the three groups of foresters vary slightly in different activi- ties. Consulting foresters have played the largest role in all management activ- ities. Of the activities in which assistance foresters are involved, consulting foresters have participated in about 45- 50(4 ' ll mnra-cment activities (see table). However, pLiblic and industry foresters have made significant contribu- tion as well. Since many NIPF landown- ers have not used assistance foresteis, and some of them have not even heard of these services, it seems that there is room for each group to expand their services. Figure 1 shows the distribution of services in all forest management activities among landowners with differ- ent sizes of forest lands. Public foresters provide more services to small landown- ers (less than 51 acres) than consulting and industry foresters. On the other hand, consulting and industry foresters provide more services to large landown- ers who own more than 500 acres. Figure 2 shows the relation- ship between services provided and landowners income. Public foresters provide 37% of their services to landowners who hav e less than S(l.000 an nual incoame. continued an paue 12 Forest Management Activities Conducted by NIPF Landowners in Alabama and the Involvement of Assistance Foresters: 1986-1995 Total Engaged in respondents practice Assistance foresters provided services No. Public Consulting Industry no. no. no. pct. pct. pct. Timber harvesting 267 172 98 25.2 47.8 27.0 Timber marketing 262 168 90 18.3 53.8 28.0 Tree Planting 266 133 86 35.1 41.5 23.4 Spraying 257 38 29 26.5 50.0 23.5 Burning 261 58 44 36.4 50.0 13.6 Management plan 161 72 60 29.2 47.7 23.1 development Wildlife habitat 260 131 41 41.7 41.7 17.6 improvement iA total of 271 questionnaires were returned. If a respondent did not answer a given question, his or her response was not counted in the numbers presented in this table. For example, 267 respon- dents answered "yes" or 'no" to the question concerning timber harvesting; four respondents left this question blank and thus were not counted in the analysis of timber harvest activity. \Iabaaarr . 'ii 1u/timnd A/ i/n t I istation 11 Highlmigrs o/ Agiclturl Researc/h Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 1 996 Q 101-500 acres Q >500 acres Public Consulting Industry foresters foresters foresters 1 itac I tlijji Iihi o f slo riccst psiid( l . Pct. of services provided 50 I <$50,000 S[$ 50,000-100,000 L LI>$100,000 n Io ruoiic foresters Consulting Indus foresters fores Figure 2. Relationship /0e lsrices p)roide'd and lnoors iml lolt 1 Pct. of respondents 70 LPoor I Fair 60 F- 7~ Public foresters l Good C Excellent Consulting foresters Nigue 3. Dw ov(,rall rating of assistance %urz.neI. see NIPF landowners.,:c Pct. of services provided 6 <51 acres 60 r 51-100 acres industirx foresters. In order to reveal the perceptions and reactions of NIPF landowners to the services provided by assistance foresters, -. - respondents were asked to rate stry each of the services they received ters from each grotp of foresters into four categories: poor, fair, good, and excellent. Figure 3 shows the results for the overall ratings of each group of foresters in all management activities. Generally speaking, landowners have a favorable impression of all three groups: excellent and good appear in more than 75% in the overall rating for every group. Though not reported here. detailed ratings in individual management actixities show sim- ilar results. Landowners were asked to indicate from whom (or what) :ry they heard about the particular ers assistance forester they initially -victs by contacted and requested services. Thirty-sexen percent of them Consulting foresters and indus- try foresters piovide 22(h and 19% of their services, respective- ly, to this group of landoxners. Industry and consulting foresters provide more of their services to landowners who have annual incomes of $50,001 to $100,000. The percentage of services pro- vided to landowners who have incomes more than $100,000 is iroughly eqtal among the three gr oups of assistance Ibresters. These results suggest that public foresters provide more of their services to landowners who haxe smaller acreage and lower incomes. While industry assistance is ften free. economies of scale night also make industry foresters locus on medium and lirge landowners. Consulting foresters assist large and xealthy landowners more than public and A labania A g'ritiiltural LEx'pCrilellt StatiOln Hi/'liglrs of Agr icultur~ilal Research Vol. 43, No. 4, Wit(- 1996 heard abott the particular foresters from another landowncr, andi 18% from a friend othei than a landowner. Telephone directories, landowner conferences and advertisements in magazines newslet- ters, or newspapers account for another 15cc. The other sources were other foresters, lawyers, and federal, state, and county agents. These results suggest that reputation and networking aie important in order for assistance loresters to find and retain clients and to expand their clientele. Landowners wecrc asked to give their opinions on two questions related to public Iorester assistance. When asked whether the number of public foresters should be increased, decreased, or stay roughly the same. 33( ot the respon- dents replied stay roughly the same. 42% have no opinion, and 21% indi- cated they should be increased. Only 5(k indicated that public foresters should be decreased. Since services fiom Alabama's public toresters are free, the respondents were asked how much they might be willing to pay if public foresters charged for their services. Fifty percent said they wotld pay nothing. Another 45% were willing to pay $20- $100 for a day. Only 4% of the respon- dents would be willing to pay more than $100 a day. These results indicate that NIPF landowners do not sipport a decrease in the number of public foresters in Alabama. Their responses on the question of willingness-to-pay are divided, with roughly halt in favor of paying and half against. Several landowners commented that they should not pay for services provided by public foresters because they have already paid tax. Others mentioned that they wotld xant to know what services public foresters provided to them before otfer- ing any payment. Still others comment- ed that landowners shotld pay for ser- vices provided by public foresters. Zhang is an Ass stant Professor of Forestry The athor wishes to thank Sarah Warren and Conner Bailey for their help. 50 40 30 20 10 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1m POPTEN'TIAL CHANGES IN THE RENTAL MARKET F P UTA PFANIJT POUNDAGF Johni Curtis, Neil Malrtin, Jr, M~arshaull Lambil, andit Lu nValigi Johnuson~ / iv? By lo\\ering the fixed quota support price to $610 per ton and reducing the national quota level (total tonnage of peanuts guaranteed at $610 per ton) for the seven-year life of the new Farm Bill, 1996-2002, instability was created in the quota rental market. Producers beliexe that quota rent should be lower because the price of peanuts is lower. However, quota own- ers feel the price should remain at cur- rent levels because there is less quota available tor rent, hence less supply of quota. In the first year ot the new Farm Bill, 1996, quota rent prices slightly increased as a whole. One explanation might be that farmers felt that they mtst replace reduced qtota that they lost as part of the Farm Bill and/or produce even more quota peantts since they were to receive a lower price per pound. This likely sus- tained the recent price levels of qtota rent. In order to determine what might happen over the next few years, a study was conducted to determine at what level quota prices would need to go before quota renters would be better off growing alternative crops, such as cotton or corn and at what price owners would be better off to rent-out their quo- tas rather than grow quota peanuts themselves. It was hypothesized that renters will not be able to continue to pay past quiota rental prices with the reduction in the quota support price. bt that a qtiota rental market will exist as long as renters can pay more for quota than owners would require to use the quota themselxes. continued on pge 14 Alabima Agricultura/l F Kxpe rimnt Station Highlig~hts u/A 4 ,h ,ltuiral ResearchI Vol. 43, No. 4, Witer 1996 A representative x arm w as modeled over a five-year period for five situations. One situation was to grow no quota peanuts. The remaining tour situations included peanut pro- duction at different quota rental prices. A parallel set of situations was also analyzed for quota owners. Pr ices used in this analysis were S610 per ton for quota peanuts, $315 per ton for additional peanuts, and two price lev- els for alternative crops. Low and high alternative crop prices were $2.53 and $3.25 per bushel for corn and S.64 and $.75 per pound for cotton. respectively. The economic potential of each renter and owner situation was mea- sured as the average annual income over five years. This prov ided a numei ical value for each situation which could then be used to determine break-exen quota rental levels for various renter and owner situations. Fifty iterations ol the model were run for each situation. Data for all situations were created at the same time with the same states of nature. For example, if a peanut crop failure happened in any particular ana- lytical year, renters at all rental rates and owners were affected alike. The farm that was used as a base foi this model consisted Oi 500 acres of non-irri- gated farm land. For the RENTER model all crop land was rented at $2() per acre. In thc OWNER model, all land was considered to he owned. In the mod els run, the incomc ranged from about $86,000 to $140,0001 Owners typically made 10-15% more thait renters, and new crop prices (higher) general ly returned 30-50' more income than oll (lower) crop prices. Results are presenitedc in Tables I and 2. For RENTER I (low competing crop pirices), the farmer would receive an equivalent annual net income stream of $87.809 over five years xhen he paid S.08 pet pound for quota. and S89.720 when he paid $.06 per pound. If, however, he had grown no quota peanuts and only the alternative crops, his annual net income xould have been $88,814. Thus, the farmer could afford to pay only up to about $.07 per pound for quota pounds. RENTER 2 (high competing crop prices) makes more net income when planting alternative crops than when ienting quota at even the S.04 pet pound level. Howex er. about eqLal net income was obtained even at S. 10 per pound quota rent but only four acres of quota peanuts were planted. This is not an economically feasible size for peanut production. Therefore, he should really not grow peanuts unless he can pay as little as $.04 or less for quota pounds because only then would he plant enough acres to make it economically viable. The OWNFR I model xxwas Table l.Average of Annual Net Returns from Fift Observations (Runs) of the Five Year RENTER Mode Five Quota Rent Scenarios and Two Price Levels Item RENTER I RENTER 22 Did not allow quota peanuts $88,814 $127,327 $.10/lb. quota rent 86,308 127,513 $.08/lb. quota rent 87,809 123,666 $.06/lb. quota rent 89,720 123,921 $.04/lb. quota rent 93,739 126,669 Old crop prices (corn $2.53 per bushel and cotton $.64 per po 2 New crop prices (corn $3.25 per bushel and cotton $.72 pei po Table 2. Average of Annual Net Returns from Fift Observations (Runs) of the FiveYear OWNER Model Two Quota Scenarios and Two Price Levels Item OWNER I' OWNER 22 Did not allow quota peanuts $97,838 $136,947 Did allow quota peanuts 109,845 140,388 Old crop prices (corn $2.53 per bushel and cotton $.64 per poi 2 New crop prices (corn $3.25 per bushel and cotton $.72 per poi set up the same way as the RENTER I model with low competing crop prices except that this farmer owned iather than rented quota pounds. The results from Owner I showed that as long as the farmer could rent out his quota potnds tor $.05 per potnd, he would be better oft to rent them out and to grow other crops on his farm. This does not, however, take itto effect the fixed cost of peanut specialized machinery which might raise this price by a cent or two. OWNER 2 was modeled with higher competing new crop prices (same as RENTER 2). In this situa- tion, the owner would be just as well off to rent his quota out at $.01I per pound than to grow peantts. The results from this study indicate that provisions in the 1996 Farm Bill will cause qtota rental prices to decrease from the commonly seen $.10 per potnd level tnder the past Farm Bill. The break-even rental price for quota was $.07 per pound when competing crop prices were rel- atively low, and $.04 per pound when competing crop prices were relatively high. The rental price was also found wxhere a quota owner would be better off to rent out his quota Ifor than to grow it. The price an owx ner xould need to receixe to rent out his quota would be S.05 pci pound for low competing crop prices, and S.01 per potnd tor high competing ciop pr ices. Since this analysis indicates that renters will be willing to pay und). more for quota than owners will und). require, there should still be a healthy market for quota :y poundage over the life of the I for 1996 Farm Bill. Lurti is a Graduate Research Assistant, Martin is a Professor, Lamb is a Research Fellow, and Johnson s a Professor and Head of nd) !cutura Ecoromics and Rural und). ulnd)Soc~ciogy. Alabamia Agriculuralo Experiment Station H~ighlights ot Agricu/tiirii Research Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 1996 COMMON REEJ Toi- AQUATIC P-LAN WASTE M D. T Hill and John Rogers r:00 Jrr; - Tvpha latifolia, cattail; and Juncus roe- inerianus, common rush. All of these plants are commonly found in wetlands. Each model wetland pond was in the same environmental condition and provided the same influent from the sec- ond cell of the anaerobic lagoon for three months. The ponds were operated using a 12-day liquid detention time. During this period, three replications were made by harvesting the plants and measuring the dry biomass pro- Cluccd. l'ic nitrogen content of all l is c %v ctland plant species during this study was essentially the same, which demonstrates that nutrient uptake by the dif- ferent species was approximate- ly identical for the same plant mass. This means that the species which provides the greatest dry matter production will also provide the greatest nutrient removal when harvest- ed. This is because nitrogen removal is proportional to dry matter production regardless of species. The species ranking in dry mat- ter production was: common reed, 20.4 grams per square meter per day; cattail and bulrush, 9.0; arrowhead, 7.5; and common rush, 0.9. From a management and environmental standpoint, common reed was by far the preferred species. Cattail, bulrush, and arrowhead were essentially the same, but less than half as productive as common reed, and com- mon rush was the least competitive. This information is useful in selecting the best wetlands plant species for manage- ment of nutrents and environmental pollution abatement for agricultural operations that choose to use construct- ed wetlands for livestock production waste management. Hill is a Professor and Rogers is a former Research Assistant in Agricultural Engineering Constricted wetlands are new to agricultural operations, being seri- ously considered as an alternative treat- ment process since the late 1980s. Hence, a study was conducted at the Swine Nutrition Unit on the Auburn campus to provide much needed data and knowledge to help Alabama pro- ducers make intelligent management decisions as to the potential and practi- cality of applying these filtered nutri- ents to common agricultural practices. In this study, the effluent from the second cell of a two-cell anaerobic lagoon system (see figure) was used to treat waste from a swine house. This effluent was used as the input to five model wetland ponds, each with a monoculture of five different plant species, including Sagittari latifolia, arrowhead; Phragmites australis, common reed; Scirpus acutus, bulrush; SING PLANTS to absorb the over-supply of nutrients pro- duced by animal waste is not a nc\\ concept, but determining which plants provide optimum uptake is an ongoing challenge for Alabama live- stock producers. Auburn researchers recently determined that plants in the Phragmites species, including common reeds, provide excellent uptake of nutri- ents and subsequently produce high lev- els of biomass. Constructed wetlands are being studied in Alabama and nationally as a pre-treatment for many kinds of agricul- tural waste, including livestock lagoon effluent, prior to its application to pas- tures and cropland. Not final disposal sites, these units are treatment processes which offer a method of reducing the nutrients in waste and providing for reuse of the nutrients. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Highlights of Agricultural Research Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 1996 I NDIV MOUND i TREATMEN RED IMPORTED C FIRE ANTI. James Vogt an(I Art Appel hen fire ants colonize ,, your yard, getting rid of these painful pests as quickly and effectively as possible is a top) priority. AAES researchers conducted a study, recently to evaluate the effectiveness of several registered fire ant pesti- cides that are available to home- owners and can be used with no special training in pest control. 1A, & (17as of bare soil o77 /0a7ns. The red imported fire ant arrived in the U.S. in the 1930s, with- out any associated natural enemies, and has since spread to infest an area from coastal North Carolina south to Florida and west to central Texas. In the urban environment, fire ants can cause several problems. Mound-build- ing activity in or beside central heating units and other electronic equipment can be destructive to the equipment itself, and is at the very least a nui- sance. Mounds can also damage mow- ing equipment. Ants sometimes enter homes and carry soil indoors. Occasionally fire ants nest in potted plants. In yards. pet food can become infested with foraging worker ants. The primary concern facing home- owners is the danger of multiple stings and the possible accompanying reac- tions. Reactions can range from local- ized swelling and edema to severe cases in which respiratory distress may occur. Homeowners must address several questions when deciding on a control strategy. Is immediate kill nec- essary, or is a slower-acting pesticide acceptable? Is it necessary to mini- mize risk ot accidental exposure to pesticides, in cases where children or pets are present? What is the accept- A l(Il)(177 Agriultural E(p/ L r0imen017t Station H~ighIlig'hts of Agric ultural Re~search Vio. 43, No. 4, Witer 1996 ~ 44 ~L i' z I ,/it nU~ tltt' hsr o bsuunnr h rr 1 ( /nni rln~u( tc filll~fr(till shIt llttc able cost of conriof'' These and other f actors xwill direct the hiormiown rr to lie most approfpriate control rieasure K esear'chls tested six fire ant prducts, each represeritatixve ot comimion pesticide forrmulatioris arid/or niethbods of application (see table for list of products). All products wxerc applied to inrdi xidual fire ant tiounds accordi ng to label inrstr uctioris. M'ournds wxere riarked wxithi survxeying Iflags in three locations ( twxo in Lee C'ourity arid one in Macon County), arid a total of ei(_t mounds wxere treat- e d xxithi each product. Mound actix ity wxas estriiated bx scratchlri the sur- face of' each riourid xxithi a small stick id estiriatirng the riuriibr of ants on lie top of each miourid 30 seconds after 'cratcliirie. Mound actix itx xxas esti- mated one day before treatmnent appli cat ions arid one, sexvei. 14. arnd 30 days after treat merit. Results of the test are ,>uriiriiariZed int ficur It should be rioted thiat the bait forriiulationis tested -Orthio Fire Ant B~ait. Coriiat Outdoor Ant Killing Grariules, arid Arndro Insect icide Bait may requrire four to six xxeeks to (o- ak. These fproduicts hiaxve proxveni hiigly effectixve in other studies, but it takes riore t imre for thierm to be distirib- uitedl to all ants in a colornx. piarticularly Description and Cost Analysis for Insecticides Available for Use Against Red Imported Fire Ants Product Active ingredient Amdro Hydramethyl non (0.73%) Combat Hydramethyl non (1%O) Hyponex Chlorpyrifos Ortho Ant-Stop Acephate (75%o) Ortho Fenoxycarb (I O) Spectracide Diazinon (5%) Size purchased Cast Application No. moundsA rate treated cos I lb. $8.93 1 1.2 oz. 7.37 4 lb. 3.96 8 oz. 7.97 10 oz. 9.97 3.5 lb. 4.98 5 tbsp. I oz 1 /2 cup 2 tsp. I tbsp. 1 /2 cup fihe dueen. Also, these bait lot rula- tions can be applied as broadcast treat- mernts to control fire ants oxver lar ce areas. H-owev er, this test was designed to demonstrate products that proxvide prompt fire ant control in relatively small x ards. Two pr oducets - l\ ponex Fire Ant Control and Spectracide lire Ant Killer Granules -proxvided cor- plete colony contirol wxithini 24 hours of application. Thle activec i neredicnts inr both products are considered to be hard insecticides, which are effective against numerous insect Species. B~oth pr oducts xxere xwatered into mounds accor din( to label irnstr uctioris, icreas inrg the ef fort necessary for application. Care riu~st be taken during application to disturrb the mound as lit- tie as possible. to ax oid causing colony mnoverierit. Colony relocation is a nat- ur al process. but can be induced by di sturbanice to tihe irourid. Colonires moxved durn ne the test rcoar cless of tireatrierit, xxith the except ion of Hypoiiex arid Spectr acide. However, rio conclusions about colony moxe- mernt can be draxn fiIr omi thiis study. The two treatments xwithi the highest nc iderice of colony rmoxvement (sexvei total rioverierits ) were thle uinrtreated controf's arid )rftho Ant-Stop lire Ant Ki letr Orthio Ant-Stop, a non-bait pr oduct. fiiox ided rapid kill of some colonies. but other Approximate colonies moxved arid t per mound built riew muiunds near- $0.53 bx. Genierally, whleri an 0.67 01ld mound is lou nd 0.1I5 x acarit arid a newx 0.15 Mound is seen wx thin 0.50xvcral feet. it is safe to 0.23 continued on fauc 18 Hi i,/ilts o/ 1 ,' t i/to, a! Reuac Vitiu W. 43, Nvo. 4. WVintu 1990 .msume that this is a sign of colony mosement. 40 The bait formula- tions Amdro and Combat pro- vided reasonable levels of 120 control by day 14 (90% and 80% reduction in mound 100 activity. respectively). How- ever. Ortho Fire Ant Bait did 80 not provide good control dur- ing the test. The actise inure 60 dient in this bait is a sloss acting insect groswth regula- tor (IGR) that disrupts the 40 reproductive cycle of the queen. Fire ant workers can 20 live for several months, so an IGR bait is not suitable if 0 very rapid control is required. Baits do have adsantages, primarily due to De/linie effectiveness against small. N inconspicuous colonies not large enough for the home- owner to detect. Also, they generally require less effort for application and can be used over large aieas. One con- trol strategy often used is the broadcast application of a slow-acting bait. fol- losed approximately one month later by individual mound treatments. This takes adsantage of the baits effective- ness against less conspicuous colonies, while insuring elimination of larger colonies. It is very important when applying baits to be certain that weath- er conditions confor m to suggestions on the label, since baits rely oi forag- ing ants for their introduction into the colony. Cost analysis for all treat- ments is piesented in Table 1. Results of this study indicate that the cheapest. most effective means of controlling individual lire ant colonies is applica- tion of Hyponex Fire Ant Killer, at approximately 15 cents per mound. The most expensive product tested cent original mound activity L Control W Amdro Q Combat 0 Hyponex 1(1 lare thud /100 iicate all n juace in mundt m tiiitx w hi/c nume/css ltha/n 100' indi- was Combat Outdoor Ant Killing Granules, at 67 cents per mound. In addition to this information, home- owners must consider the time and effort reqiired for application and the required speed of control when decid- ing on a product to use. For example. Hyponex requires transportation of water to treated mounds, whereas Combat is fitted with an automatic dose-measuring device and requi-es no water. Results of this study are not meant to be an endorsement of' any of the products tested, but as an aid to the homeosner in addressing the above questions. In addition, the products tested do not represent all asailable treatment options. A more inclusive list of available products can be found in the Agriculture and Natural Resources Timely Information Sheet number T- 13, How to Tr-eat for Firec Ants hit awl Aro-umid Homles, which is as'ailable at local county Extension offices. Additional information also can be found in the 1996 Pesticide Handbook. Regardless of' the means homeowners use to combat tire ants, it appears that fire ants are here to stay. and re-application will he necessary to control them. Colonies are capable of remarkable teats of movement from place to place (they can move several teet overnight). so in ncighborhoods where residents wish to reduce fire ant populations it is desirable to communi- cate with neighbors and coordinate control efforts. Remember that once a colony is destroyed. neighboring colonies may mo e in to claim the area once occupied by the dead colony. It is evident. however, that with some effort and dedication. the homeosner can maintain a lawn that is relatively free of lire ants. Vogt is a Graduate Research Ass stant and Appe s an Associate Professor of Entomo ogy Alabama Ag'iciulttnural I yerlt Station Hig'hlight.s of Agriculturl Researcmh Vol. 4. No. 4. Vitmer 1996 Pretreat Day I Day 7 Day 14 Day 30 Treatment ) Ii Squasr anu rumnplu Pollinators Plentiful T'ai Roulstoni Blair Sampson, and James Cane NATIONAL PUBLICITY about honey bee declines has led to worries of inadequate pollination, although diverse crops may be enjoying adequate pollination provided by native, unmanaged bees. AAES researchers found plentiful pollinator activity on Alabama summer squash and pumpkins, despite the frequent absence of honey bees. The most important pollinators were squash bees on mid-season plantings of squash and bumble bees on pumpkins and late plantings of squash. Honey bees were brought to America aboard the ships of early European colonists for honey and waN production. They now rang across most of the country duk to the activities of bee keepers and the proliferation of feral colonies. Because honey bees are prolific, relatively easy to manage. and good pollinators of many crops. they have been extensively adapted for crop pollination. Recently, however, Hones bee (scabe line = parasitism by vanoa mites has all photo') greatly reduced feral populations of honey bees and killed the hives of many bee keepers. This has led to concern that crops would receive inadequate pollina- tion. But North America is home to thousands ot native bee species. many of which are important pollinators of wild and cultivated plants, such as squash. pumpkins, and gourds AAES researchers conducted a census of honey bees and native bees visiting flowers at six squash and three pumpkin fields in East-Central Alabama. Most common visitors could be identified in flight. Three hundred flowers were sur- c"\yed at each pumpkin field, and 4(0-300 flowers at each squash field. At small plantings, most open flowers were examined. At urger plantings. rows5 of plants in Liii bloom were chosen and every flower in the row 1/2" in was checked until reaching a total of 300 flowers. The types ot summer squash surveyed were zucchini, yellow straight-neck, and yellow crook-neck (both early and late plantings). The pumpkin varieties were Staff. Big Max, Spooktacular, and Spirit. While it might seem that crops as different as zucchini and pumpkin should have different pollinators, all squash and pumpkins have similar tow- ers and many are considered to be the same species. Since ornamental gourds are closely related, these results may also apply to their cultivation in Alabama. Findings from the census are sufficient to describe bee activity in Central Alabama. and they likely reflect pollina- tor populations throughout the state. The primary pumpkin pollina- tors were bumble bees. In August, hum- ble bees were abundant at all three pumpkin fields in the census - an aver- age of nine bees per 100 flowers. They accounted for over 50k of total bee vis- itors. The remaining pollinators includ- ed honey bees, sweat bees, leaf-cutting bees, and squash bees. Tv o (4t th pump- kin fields had hive' of honey bees neai- by. In one of these fields, honey beep 0 were found in simi lar abundance c bumble bees, but at the other field, none were found on pumpkin flow- ers. Bumble bees were also the predomi- nant visitors at two late-season plantings of summer squash blooming at this time. The main pollinator s of early plantings of summer squash, those flow- ering in June, were squash bees. Native squash bees predominated at all five squash fields - continued on page 20 Alabamia Agricultural L qwriinent Station 19 Highlights of'Agricultural Research Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 1996 one bee for every two to cven flowers and account- udc for 91 %c of ,otal visitors. They are clearly IPcp o iu //Npc bcc) the primary pol- linators of small acreages of squash in East-Central Alabama, as they are in many other parts of the country. Squash bees (the genera Peponapi.s and Xenoglossa) are native to the Americas, occurring from Argentina north through much of the United States. Unlike honey bees, squash bees do not live in social colonies. Each female digs her own vertical tunnel in the ground. usually near the host plants, and spends the morning gathering nectar and pollen to feed her oftspnng. A squash bee's for- aging activity is highly synchronized with the host plants bloom: the bee emerges from her butow near dawn as the flowers open, quickly gathers pollen and nectar, and t, ceases foraging by late morning when the flow- ers close. Males, in con- trast, patrol host flowers A hInjbl, hc, all morning looking for unmated few hours later, usually by noon, bees females, then crawl into a wilting flower are primarily at risk from insecticides to pass the afternoon and night. Where in the morning hours. squash bees are present males (which One market grower whose cannot sting) can be found by opening field was part of the AAES census wilted squash flowers in the afternoon. reported spraying his 400 yellow sum In addition to being effective pollina- mcr squash plants weekly with either tors, squash bees, if present, will carbaryl or Malathion, but only at always visit squash, unlike bumble dusk. His crop enjoyed good pollina- bees and honey bees which may find tion by a burgeoning population of better rewards at other flowering squash bees (one bee in every six species. Where squash, pumpkins, or flowers). He brought nearly 4.000 gourds are not planted ec ery y ear. pollds oh suromer squash to market. squash bee populations can- Overall. plentiful not build up. and other bees pollinator activity was will be necessary for polli hound on Alabama sum- nation. mci squash and pumpkins. Generally, growers Crop management prac- need to tend to their pollina- t tices that consider the life tors only when there are csycles and daily activity indications of insufficient saw patterns of native pollina- pollination, such as poor tors will often ensure ade- fruit set, early A tX/N o/( e a( be quate squash and pumpkin Ifruit abscission, and small, or pollination with wild bees and mini- misshapen fruits. Most insec- mize the circumstances for which ticides are directly toxic to growers will need to hire honey bees. bees, or will kill them if Roulston and Sampson are Graduate taken up in nectar or pollen. Research Assistants and Cane is an However, insecticides may Associate Professor n Entomology. Debbie be used with care. Since Fo certs, an A sant Professor of Botany squash and pumpkin flowers and Microoiolog, produced the bee pho open only once and wilt a tographs used in th s article. ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403 James E. Maion. Diretori POSTMASTER-Address Corection Requested Alabauma Agiculural ELperilent Station Higulights oJ A griculturaul Research Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 1996