"b ni 4 y : 51S ; - - -, 7. ;ts7 -! i tra ,/ . . rC fF :1" ,"4_ FcJ N'nk " ;sZpe,, ~' fir . ti >u r "- f 6 ; . -4 ,g ({ r? A W .r 'r 4 ift 3 , -r o r , ' J 1 ' +y 1 l + ; t S "''j44,R 1 r ,rr 4 444 4 44 r '>HG- ?'- - _w'n - r ,wT ,N,!~i ' . ? fY .Y', v ;, -, cf 1 f''. if M::. rri-> , r t. '' 4 rL. 4 t4 . -".. !!~' ,444 ~ sj '4 f +' 1.'' - t ' yl?' t 1'rr r" .yam -A ii*4t Y"r' y 1 4 4 4 . 4 ' , F4 :I ' '4 1 . = I y . ~ t 1 ., " raNy'y ' '\yy~ . ' ' & ' . 4 ~ ' ' 6 & rS .. 4i~l' f J 1 A t4 4 4 '+ vit ?' ' " 1h:a"-,% * '.% 4.t }j- ,.t4 2 . .} . ,; ;; .. ~ e'YS'. : .. . rY _ xS ' A^P ;w . 3. i f', ar' r*Y 4.. 4 ; .. \.SAA'Y. r.t d -. ~ ~ a C4 - I F a I I I n Cows in the Mist: Misting Sy1stem an Efficient Way to Keep DairN Cattle Cool 2 3 ON THE COVER. The Old Rotation, established in 1896, continues to provide information for Alabama's cot- ton industry. See stories on pages 1 1 and 13. 1 99 6 V O 1 u mn e this issue Alternative Production Method Feasible tor Landscape Nurseries Cockroach Control Methods Can Cause Other Pest Problems Constructed Wetlands Transform Raw Sewsage into Pond WXater Produce It, and They Will Come??? Sustaining History: Auburn's Old Rotation Providing a Century of Information___________ The Past is Still Present: Applying Old Rotations' Historical Data to Modern Production Issues ____ Organic Insecticides Not as Effective as Synthetics, But Still Useful for Vegetable Insect Control Feather Meal Does Not Reduce Carcass Quality of Finisher Pigs Cottonseed I lulls as a Feed Source for Dairy Cattle Life wxithout afriend is death xxith- lint a wxitness. Dniring my tentii eC, I hasve made many new friends. In the coming years wxhen I ireflect on our acquaintances, a smile wxill appear on my face. Thank von for x our guidance, counsel, and, imolst of all, your friendship. I hav e many friends! Lowecll T Frobish EIDIT( R'S NOTE: Effectiie Octiober 1, Dr. Frohkh wiuill ji i the jricu liy oj th IDep iruient oj Aoiia~l and DoI)cirv Scien es N u m b e r 34 3 A LRLR I'I 1R>I(I1'R A I AAiA AOR s ji, si ExrEi Si \ ALBR UhN ILRIST I OWEI P T FROBISI I... DAVI 11.l TEEM\ ..... RUSaSELL B. \INTIFERIN( PAT ( REEN ...... ROY ROBERSON .... KATIE SMIITH ...... ROBYN HEARN ..... TERESA RODRiI .... Aso i Asis * A I 111 EDITORIAL C OMMNITTEE: Lo ,.II Froi F, STIT iy . Ir Chaprlka, A uomt Protr t Frestrs;,T1 Coullins, A- ci ir Professor of P1an crit rbg ; Joe ...Drector NelI s, A unite Profesor of A'gricultlI a iretr t Econoic Hr d Rua So~io gy Roge''r Lsin, ate Dtirector Asitint Pioiesso ofi Poulus Siencr, Art Avr}s, iint P iretr Professoir, 'School of I umns H Sc ie nces Daid~ i IDirector Sitrigellowi, Associaiie Pioiesso oifi Animasl )cirt Editor IHTalih Rer ch;i Beih Guciirial, Assiant Proies, or of cra te 'ei EDITOR'S NOTE. Mdention of bide nams[I, do, noti11 , iniat eris miinti Iw ther Allbm A'_'u ilI Expeimn Station or I'H Aiubu[rin Uii cride ratsn in cs of Luxibeld, Anuiss in resi incI rept[ted dues not cnst t iilrec.ui[Hommedion fli uch1 rate. Suds us is s[ispl pur fith i I, vrioirusu tia's Nou chemical usnl bu used alll rites iabove those permHitted Ibs the labelI Informion conit [ined hrerin as avilas to uFI l r pir [[s swithouHI rgad t re, color, sex, or Hnatinal oiin.'i- A labama. A gricultural Li pe imct(l ,Stationi~ Highlights o)/A grieiultuol Research Vol. 43, No. 3, Fall 1996 The provxerb, The best way to kill imifr i t work it to death, is very' appio- piatie for the A~lbamai Agiricuiliuril Expeiment Station (AAES). Althouigh 10 years hav'e passed since I became the Director of the AAES, it seems like only 3 yesterday1. Each day brought newx and inteirest ing challenges. A dedicated fie- ulty and staff helped to make ithis 10- 5 ear peioHd most enjoN alle foi me and time passed evei soi quickl. We wxorked it to death. 7 Much has been accomplished and many unfinished tasks remain. The goal _9 of the AAES has been and alws w~ill he to serv e the people of Alabamat Our researc h progr am reflects this goal. ~11 Alabama's nata nl and h uman iresouatrces piov ide the base for the expansion of its agricuiltrrl and forestry industites. 13 Time nor space dies not permit me to thank every one tor their support The vaiouis commiodit, indusry, and other 16 oiganizational groups has e beenl veiy suip- poitive of the AAES. I am consinced that this support xwill continue into the 19 futrie The AAES is an important con- tribultor to the health and xxelI being of the State and your advice and counsel aie needed. Page 9 ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTION METHOD FEASIBLE FOR LANDSCAPE NURSERIES hbecomPe a market-driven system generating sul2'tti/- ticil economic activit% characterized bN dive/ Q product sizes, types, and forms. Increased comnpeti- tion has caused producers and users of landscape p~ro~ducts to seek tva'vs to im-iprove efficiency. An alternative prodluctioni method, the Ipot-ili-ILt system, has received attention because it offers several advantages overi co)nventional s tents. Ta) evaluate the feasibility ot this. ecoits~ aind horticultiralits coan- duIted Ifl ecoollmic ayis ofM' ot-tin pot production, comnpared to the con- v entioanl methods ot in-field and ,iaove-iround-container produc~tion. Ovex cll, lNot-in-pot production seems to be a viable alternative, especitaily tor 'With the pat-in-pot system, lin- cis (young plants) are transplanted into) pots tilled wxith soil-less media, similai to the above-ground system. Howeve, instead of placing these pats into at holding area on top ot the grouind, they ate placed into second containers at the same si c, known as socket pots. Betore the inser t pots are added, socket porn aue buried in the ground wvith onix the top two or three inches protruding abov e the soil. Plants are then groxvn to desired si es and nmarketed in the insert pots. In ibov e-ground production, the containers remain on top af the <'tatind, wh ile wx oh in-tieIl prouion IN, liners~ Alternative Production, continued on page 4 Alabamao Agricultural Experiment Station Hiiz~hlig'htv ol'A /ie/iltfnl Research Vol. 43. No. 3, Fall 19/90 .Ioliui L. Adrian, C'hris C. ANaoi; ~aoerv, Bridget K. Belie, Patricia A. DufV imul Kennietlh M. Tilt Comparisons of In-field, Above-ground-container, and Pot-in-pot Production Systemsl Variables In-field Production System Above-ground Pot-in-pot Capital requirements $194,840 $194,820 $207,100 Machinery, equipment operation costs $13,185 $8,280 $7,850 Total variable cost $48,895 $78,825 $63.840 Variable costs per harvested pant $5.15 $6.99 $4.94 Total fixed costs ~ $344,505 $333,810 $36 1,1 10 Fixed costs per harvested plant $18.14 $14.80 $13.97 Total costs $393,400 $412,635 $424,950 Total costs per harvested plant $23.29 $21.79 $18.91 Plants produced' 18,988 22,562 25,858 1These figures ar e based on computer simulations of a 15-acre nursery with 10 acres in pro- ductioni oii a three-year growing cycle foi crapemryrtle using current best msanagemnti practices. 2 Includes $24,040 per year ($72, 120) imputed to cover the owner-operator s contribution. 3Assumes a 500 per year loss rate. All plants are grown to 10-gallon size for above-ground and pot-in-pot production systems. In in-field production, plants are grown to six to seven feet with a 1.5- to two-inch caliper; plants are harvested, and the root ball is wrapped in burlap material. aie tiansplantted diietlx into the soil. Costs xwer e evaluated for a 15- acre nutserxy xxith a 10-acre production area on a three-xyear ,row ing cxyc for pro- duction of ciripemx rtle C ost estimates xwere derixved fromti southeastern coin merciasl oper atio n> that use the xarious production methods, estimates from horticultural reseirchers, .ind) existing budget> for container nuirseries. Us~ing this information, along wxith other xvani able> that are considered the hest man- aSgement piractices for the industrx, researchers analyzed the relatixve feasi- bilitx of each pirodtuction practice. Collecting these data wvas a pr elinminary step toxward programmning a compriter model to perform atn in-depth analys is of the nurserx indiistrx. In-field Prt duc tion included pri- marx and secondarx soil tillage of the ten acres, followxed by fetrtilization based on soil test recommendations. Bare-rout liners wxere purchased and planted, and a drip irrigation sxstem xwas used to pro- xvide xxater and fer tiltze. Plants xxere scheduled foi harvxest in the wxinter of the third grow ing seaison. Aboxvc ground container produc- tion began wxith propagation of cuttings in one-gallon container> anti groxxth for one xyear in polxyethxylene-cov-ered greenhouise>. Plants wxere then trans- planted to three-gallon containers and imotixd utiuitsdex wheie ttx ethe 2 irr iga- tion xxas utilized. After anothei xer, plants xxere transplanted to 10-gallon containers atnd xwerc staked u,4ing three- foot sections of i ebar, or metal stakes. Plaints xveire harvested dintg the third spring. Pot-in-pot production Used the samme initial cuitting procedure for prop- agatiton and cuiltuiral practices as aboxve-ground production. Hoxxexver, plants xxere transplanted directrlx from one-gallIton to 1 0-gallo n containers. Elimination of the thiee- gallon stage alloxwed a larger number t f plants to be produced. Also, no stake> xxetre needed since placing the socket Pots in the ground proxvtdes all the suppor t neces- sarx. This sxystem also reuiries less labor amnd erqtipment. A drip irrigation sxystem xxa> used to xxater and fertilize the Plants. Plants xxere harxvested in the spring alter txxo xears of gtoxuhl in the 10-gamllon containers. Most ecluipment (tractors, trucks, spray1ers, etc.) was the same for all three ptroduiction methods. Essentiaml equimp- tieiat for in-field pirodic tin nxxas a moldboard plow, disking harrox, single- roxx transplanter, and a tree spade. Improxvements on the production area, including such items as grading, tree remoixal, and building access ri adxvaxs, wxaterwxays, and holding ponrds xxere esti- mated at $1,2~00 per acre iot the in- fied sy stein, $3,670 for above-grouind, and $1,429 for hot-in-pot. Of the total capital req~uirements cse table), land and improvements accounted for 1 3 %, of in-field >xystem expendituires; 20 %,, alboxe ground; mdn 14 ,, hot-in-pot Buildings accoutnted for 18 % for in-field pioduction; 2 5 , aboxve-ground; and 2 3(/6, pot-in-pot. Machinery1 and eqiuipmient added another 69%t to in-field costs; 5 5 ,'x, aboxve-giosnd; and 63 %,, pot-in-pot. The pot-in-pot system had the highest initial total capital and total tixed co sts lexvels (see table) pimailri ly bIcau~se it ig pier co sts ass c iated wxith pu rchasing and installing the iot pots. (ither disadv'antages of this Ss tern include potential drainage prob- lems within socket pots and the possi- bility of root elongation into the sock- et pot and suirrouinding soil. Also, con- tainer s max stinck togethe, and the insert pot bottom max sag, causingI an unexven base. Howevxer, this sxystem generared the lowxxest per-plint cot because of less-intensive, labor-saxing cultural practices and the ability to grow more plants on the axvailable space. To tal co tt pet harxvested plant was $15.91 fot the pot-in-pot Sxstem, compared to $2 3.29 toi in-field and $21.79 for above ground. Pot-in-pot production offers sev- eral advantages over abox e-giound- container pr oduction. For example, the root-zone is insulated firom exti-eivi temperattt e xvariat ions, the plants remain in place throughout the winter, trickle irigiatio n reduces water usage, and extensiv e staking is eliminated. When compared xxith in-field production, the pot-in-pot systema is superior in terms of year-round harxest capability, redu ced harvest labori cost, and decreased root loss at harvest. Also, in shipping and handling, pot-in-pot material is leS, bulkx and cumbet some than in-field-pro duced material. Ana r -c f a>re Professors of Agicul- tural Economics. Montgomery is a former Graduate Researcr As ssant, Behe is an Associate Professor, ano Til is a Professor of Horculure. A /l)(IliI Agi ultur/falii F xperi menit .Statioum HIighl~ihts otA gricultmirol Reserch 1 Vol'. 43 N. o. 3, IFall 19906 ,uNThRC METHO" PROBLEM. Lune M. Smith, Arthur- G. Appah. anld Garr J1. Keener Trutiliu t( c, /, ~ II ITh c i i lt 1tct . ,cur a/, I ibc I"/illc l)nt II . ,1 1 , / il i i sau1ce inset. RcI~warcht/ shounc tha ltetnent ran tilliceasl Som p0/C/est /nntinii , whui decrieas5ing~ iiiinhis of heliijl insetsT aidsidr AA7ES researchers have 1k. lotincl that tradi- tional pest control methods tar- getecd against smokybrowvn cock - roaches can greatly increase abiuncdance of other ntiisanc e insects. Furthermore, traditional treatments can also reduce popu- lations of beneticial insects that prey on pests. Smoky browxn cock rioaches are the main outdoor-nuisance pests around Alabama homes. Traditional eftorts to ctntrol cockroaches wxeie shoxwn to sig- niticantlx increase poupulautiouns ot other pests, such as Argentine ants, tire ants, adcrobat ants, and small black ants. In addition, these pesticide treatments redtuce numbers ot benetic ial predators such as jumping spiders and grtound beetles which are natural enemies ot pests that feed on grass, bushes, and trees. Hotwever, an AAES-developed integirated pest management (I PM) pro gramn tor smiokybroxxn cockrtoaches only slightly increased abuidance ot sotne pests, wxhile also slightx increas- ing ai undance ot some beneticial insects. The I PM treatm-ent includes strategic applications of gel and pellet baits to mulch, wototd piles, aluinntm sheds, craxwl space gratings, and other outside spots where cockroaches are likely to hide and cat. Previous research shoxwed that the 1PM sy stem is not onix more ettectixve than the traditional pes- ticide sprays applied in a perimeter around the house, but it also reduices the amuntu t pesticide needed by up to 90",. At 107 houses in Lee Count} researchers compared the IPMI treat- ment to no contrtol and to the perimeter spray cockroach treatment, wxhich is applied in a 10-toot sxxathe around the house. Special baited traps wxetc used to capture cockroaches in torder to gain information about changes in cock- roach numrbers. These triips also collect- ed about 30 ditterent txypes ot other insects or spiders. Insects xxere sampled six tunes trom Juix throiugh Septembe. Researchers compared the numbers ot insects and spiders captured at homes receiving the various ireatmuents. IPM and petrimeter treatments reduced the abundane e id smo kxbioxn cockroaches, as xweli is some other pests, -'uch as camel crickets (see table). But Ancin cockioac he and natixve Cockroach Control, continued on page 6 Alaubamau Agriuluhrail Ex.perinuent Station Hig~hlihit/ts oftA y icthti oh Reseorcs VolX 0 . 43, No. 3. Foall 1996 wxoods, cockroac.hcs xerie not tont otld. Hoiwners nca~nnot expctto ci ontr ol all pests by applying. muethods dig~tned tor use agist, tnok\ roxxn cokroach- e.Aundince oft thet benefitcial daddy- iong- lcgs xxas, reduiccd by both trcat- ments, bit the bcnfctial crI ab spider wasi uinaffected by cit her. wxere msorc abundant at homes' where Sockr oatch control trcatmnsnts wx rc tised. Numbers of Arigentine ants, fiire ,tnts,, atcrobat ants, and smallacihIk ants increased, comlparcd to hoimcs wxhere no pe~sticides we re appliedc. This, response by ,tnts may resutlt fr om thic scavenging ot dcad inscts left after aipplication of the twxo ti catricn mecth- ods. Nevercitheless, intlcascd nt atctixity ncar homs' mig~ht lead to greater humnst constat w xith these tcsts andi grcater pcr- ccx'ed probles. W1(hen xviewedc in tri of' 1 species witrh pcrimectcr sprays Itd a igrtatcr rela- tixve pt'rtcntagc of Ar'cntinc ants, firec ants, old ticld inl hiu't ctir(. .J iJ f 4)r;-i l i~ r J_ LaII /P1o I r1, in i/it IIA I l i IN I 111! u l II,, Id, ui Jll Ii ,~ I i j meit it a111I higr re/lltive ab/undanclil 0//I j/heneiltial 11(1n cials. th/n the lul lionirl tre'ualleii. W~hile IPM-trcatcd homecs also hatd norii ts, thtese pests we i 1111th niore miudint at homecs treatedt wxith Jumitping ippders aind griound bt'ctles we tre icdutced it homuis receiix ng the pcimiiii tcr spray, but IPM- trettc hooks' hadi a nmuith greiti reiatixvc abuindantct of these bcnctitial piredators. Fvcen if thu. jppulation ofli a gix tn insect or spidici icases, that dloes not ncess~ail mientan they xxill increase to problecm lexvels. Thc atual size olf a dicrt asc or incirtasc ot hcnfctials' or pets~t Change in Abundance of Other Arthropods in Urban Yards Affected by Control Measures Against Smokybrown Cockroaches Types of arthropods Change in abundance 2 Perimeter spray IPM program American cockroaches +7%o -1I6% Argentine ants +19% ~ + 5 % Big red-headed ants -9% -5% Camel crickets -12%o - 12% Carpenter ants +30% +41%o Crab spiders 000 0% Daddy-long-legs -11%o -9% Earwigs +13% ~ -4% Field and house crickets -50 -3% Fire Ants +20% ~ + 15% Ground beetles -14%o +3% Native woods cockiroaches 0%o -80% Other spiders -1 1% ~ -7% Pill- and sowbugs -1I5%o -2o% Wolf spiders -34%o +40%o 'Arthropods include a wide variety of invertebrates, including insects, airachnids, and crustaceans. The 15 most commonly trapped arthropods are listed in this table. 2 Positive numbers indicate increased abundance at homes treated with the listed method, while negative numbers indicated decreased abundance, relative to no conrol. muiised hx lict I natnt tdeptentds on thc abuntantt' of ni t i ic tilt bctoi c trcatllnt. HIomes, ibuiidniilc s mliltd not expcience a-s hi an icase as houssc' xwith initilly hiugh pest abuni- d aitce. A~ problemi xxith that slomet insects pircfer cet'in eniiironmecnt, intd tiui' arc mlore ilikely to be' foundi at somc xxhcther atny cockroach tretatmilcnt imethod- are ti-cd. Fuli cxaiuplc, Argetntinec ats' appt'ar to prcet'r open lo t', xxithout trees, xwhcirta, naitixve xxoods- totkroachces re tci wxooitet lots,. iLots xxith a tcxx trcc', haxe dif- tci cnt inset'tts ass'otiatedi xxith them. Reseai thers accoluntedi tot thcse dliffcreces llv statistically tdance. Trees arc not thc only t'nxiron- mentall factii imoiund homecs, but thec AiAES iisalysis shoxxed they tdo pil- xvitde an explanation tolr thc diti h- tiol oft soime insects intl spidcir-. Ex tn ,mttrcitorrectiing for this t'nxiironmcn- tti the differentces in rciatixc abun- iante of It ts antd hencfficials betxetn the' twxo t cmti innt miuthods' ibundantce oft somei pets~t Lx 10-30,, totmpiad to 75- 95"11 flor smo kyhrowxxn tlltki I,itic'. l.nfllrt Inarcix, t hcx also intcteiasct the- ahiindinct of ',ic pests 1 0-30" . Pti iuttc spaymx hixvc thc potcntial trt intcreas'ing ot her pet'\ problems bx' ireducing thc ahsindantc oif bet'rici insecltst and spidtrt. These 'ti hoWix that beside it' g less ptesttic, and proxvidin4 goodt tontrol, IPM has less inmpat ton othter pests and heneficials, in tiht uirhin Sith is Post-Doctoal Fellow rn Appel is a Professr FEo of o oy. Keever is a Profssr ofHo.culue Alaobamai Ag?ril 7/110/ 1 1//l llI'i!e Station H//ilts o1/ ApliI/tiFo/ Resiearch o/n. 43, .o3, I-/ 1~ 0 W4et/nuc/x lt/un~icokiwfo Ic/i): /)eiili fi rt. otuil, buli i xh. iii u buI/iaa uci U ons truc ted Wetlands Trans f orr Raw Sewate itPodRachiel M. Krot.- homuas A. MCukev, Shen 1). Z/iou, Sarah Li,,, R. Atliariv Daknsax and Marvin If. kit! onsrri ite tc x ndstii, planted xi.ith aquat it eet 'ttn suc a t t eari rII Cbulrush, are an effective, natural, and inexpensive wastewater treatment system for livestock and poultry production facilities. AAES researchers, in cooperation with the Tennessee Valley Authority, have studied such a system sincex 1989 at the S~and Mouintain Suibstation in C'rossville. Since its co nstruiction, this x ci tlald has tntiixlio~lx treated >xinc la.ox n xwastewxater ftnl ia 500-piv-per-year, trnii ci> Lixve comtpicted six years o tud ri n the relaiixe >ristainability at ariu wati erdc plants used in the xxtani and the abilitx ot these >pc ie, to take uip xxastexi. ater cantaminaints. Re~nlt> shaxw that bill- totxvtie soft rush, arid cammaln cattdI aie tiht lest rcic> x u in~ i Coli strt ted wet- land plantings A iiitiii ot these spci es can be nsed to overcame the limiitations of each. Consrurcted wxetlirnds are shaillow ear then basins planred wxith aquatic veeee tatian. By at process talled phx taremedi- atian, pollutanits in the xxastewxater mre renmaved bx plants in at sx mbiatit asia- raon wxitih beneticiat sail bacteiai. P'lant transpart asx veil tiaom their leaxves to their roots, xwhere o x yen-dependent hac- tria are cali n i ci. These bac teria con xverr nit avcn t tining ai mit xx iwstes into ammiai, xxhich is then oxidiedto nitrate. Aiminiuim andi nitirate>, >s xwell as the phosphoris and paiassiiiin tn tmed in the xxastcxxatri, aic takcn tip by the plants and usidci a> nutrients. Sani Mun l i taiius wetland was con-txx strrtcted in 1 988 is at txx aticici systcim xxith tixve, ante tnth acre tells in each at the uppei .ind loxxer tiers. About 6,200 srallan> at ettluet per clay floxx ito the tipper tix c cclls. WXaiei floxs the lcnvIth af these cell, befoic it floxs inta and atris the lowxer tier af tells. It tsake bait IS~ dax> tai the xx\lc ut t lax tixiauil bath tiers. Water ti-eated in the xxetiands mieets criteia ii iconinried byx the Nat itdi Resatuicc Co nseixation Srx itce. In 1IS9 ). s cxci l txypc> of iquat it xegxetatioxn xx ci planted in ilhc xx tlind cells. Atter natuiial selection pressures >ruch a> insect pests, severe xxntei t ec--s, ix aiinv plaint,, aini irnlin~intt by soimc spcite>, inVe predoiniilant plant> Lix e emeirvcd (>cce tables). Fach tcell contain, a imixtxure xi ihtst planxts. Rectst iot hi at ixrlci xn thcse nine plant> xii af x cvctitix c mnatciial (bioaissi) and ability to uiptake nitrogen, phoisphoxrouis, andt poasiumxi (N P -K). [Xig Juii Ixix 1994 aid 1995, at peak matiiy i if the plant" "11 a1it 'hit ind Ilcax c ot th x)inaiii lint, xxc ca and ix 11l xi Constructed Wetlands cointinued an page 8 Al/abanut A 4 icu/ti i- i LExperin tI Station)1 Highlights i# Axgricu ltiural Rex ci Vol. 43, No. 3, Fall /996 Table 1. Dry Matter, Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and C:N Ratios of Wetland PlantsI Table 2. Harvestable Dry Matter, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium in Wetland Plants Plants DM C N P K C:N ratio 2 Pennywor t 5.8 41.6 3.06 0.78 5.57 1 3.6 Bull-tongue 9.1 46.5 2.86 0.56 5.14 16.3 Common Cattail 15.2 49.4 1.85 0.50 3.1 1 26.7 Narrowleaf Cattail 18.8 49.2 1.93 0.34 2.94 25.5 Common Bulrush 18.6 50.0 1.82 0.36 3.14 27.5 Giant Bulrush I5.5 47.0 1.65 0.42 3.27 28.5 Soft Rush 31.5 52.3 1.60 0.24 2.63 32.7 Giant Cutgrass 20.5 50.3 2.44 0.28 3.1 1 20.6 Rice Cutgrass 24.5 49.7 2.05 0.42 2.15 24.2 1Data represent averages of samples collected in June of 1994 and 1995. Dry Matter =DM; Carbon =C, Nitrogen =N. Phosphorus =P; Potassium =K. Percent N, P and K weire determined on dry weight basis. 2 C.N ratio is the amount of carbon units per unit of nitrogen.The beneficial soil bac- teria important in treating wastewater requires a certain amount of carbon to survive. usually a C:N ratio of at least 25:.1All but four of the wetland plants had a C:N ratio of 25:1 or higher. ly-c (Tiabi Ix )i.cxmc .Iiimmic lXwo ftorii: (1) it iel d ot hiolm,s., arl (2) th iscm155 nnt of the thriee nutrcnnt. it iac., ump. WheIsn botll hc th itctor. ,rc cons.idcrcd tu rp.icih, hmil Iti nipic i, thc Hiit eficti eint plint it cnn imin N-P-K. i'ili tinui had.. oly ai mnudlciatc y id, hiii iits rclntivci\ hils ulisicit ot N- P-K timnpcnsa.ted. In ohne ;i.2hiXX ism..caus, huhltnguic remoiuux 609 hsii) nd- ot N, 1 31 puniis ofl 1 min1 1,20; pundisl ot K pe ci tic ot wet .ind (Tihilc 2). On )ic lck- nc....f ut nlI ' t isa it,. relitiXel cI oIiX iiari n-to-n511 i 'tie ill ii ((: ratio) hai~ci mm ini the wX tla~nd. I lowXXcvct, thec othei highlsI cttfici. puilns ..uott rush andt lximo CiaKtil -mi c is i lat..i veIy Soft xci ri.ushiil id list hcghci ncyiiii~ haIiom.., ,iind wu uiiiiui tly111 crcic itu hiaCrtmiiriti( I nutin, miiin, iit ai ihlir\ rmisil. i:nun isttaisu il int i t grli lt aXXcls si cmn tscvc hbett s hefii X t..tJ N-P-Ks h ciis n lsr io.2 iii t t 011g.timl tiiisttiiii m rX itni Iir,iix t.i sur ivailit aiil dit y oi pat,.i uc .\.c PIuii nisnJ itheii i San iSn,iitiis tint pieiste. OneiI loerac gticai ofi thsti ,iiciirsc .mticnt P U h a.p s. XXits ielas iii it X i,i i Mil t Ihsphic , whi5 i c i s5 t o vollii, i l it I im.is. mui ir tt XX retmovedil', iosith ett-h iltnd i i t Xd itis pr suivi its lt -er . \1,ii Th is~ Jsicci..tisuto of5 1st wteire tusiiot, r iithe etsl (ni due ilt li isto is M Miiiiii, -JXtuixX c is the lil t ctivie tiht urX int iliiooni Clii Ic 3). Plu.., the XXte lt d us ,ouil iin tiht XX tlais itainedt mothi 1 I9.6" at thet itioe ii di 1 40. L'i liTeiI littilt or no pluist growiXXtis or Plants Pennywort Bull-tongue Common Cattail Narrowleaf Cattail Common Bulrush Giant Bulrush Soft Rush Giant Cutgrass Rice Cutgrass Maich-June In inflow In outflow Retained in wetland 3 1 Retained in planrs 4 lb/a1o 473.7 90.4 383.3 290 4 pct. I100 19.1I 80 .9 61 3 lb. /a. 145.3 28.6 1 16.7 S8 2 DM N tons/a. tb./c 4.9 300 1 1.7 669 11.8 437 12.1 467 9.4 342 5.8 191 19.2 614 1 1.6 566 7.9 324 Avg. year 2 pct. 100 19.7 80 .3 40 1 l/a. 1320.6 339.7 980.6 290 4 pct. 100 25.7 74 .3 22 0 lb/ a. 461.7 147.0 314.7 SR 2 pct. 100 31.8 68.2 12(6 1 March-June is the most productive time for the water plants, and thus the time when they take up the most nutrients. These figures are the averages for 1994 and 1995. 2 These are averages foi 1993-94 and 1994-95 and aire measured from June to June. 3 Nutrients retained in the wetland are either taken into the plants. bound to the pond soil, or remain in the wate. 4 Figures in this row report the average nutrients contained in the plants evaluated.This infor- mation is one portion of the data included under the previous heading Retained in wetland. For example, the March-June section reports that 80.9% of the nitrogen was retained in the wetland, while 61.3%o was retained in the plants themselves. This means that 19.6% of the nitrogen was retained in the wetland soil and water. P K i/o lb/a1o 76 546 31 1,203 18 734 32 711 58 590 49 379 92 1,010 65 722 56 340 p I ikc ofl nutint. lii 1l1,i[ii lir N-I'-K is. scmwhit itess. thin Miarch- I inc. WXhcn in~cd froni Juine to I inc., inl 2". , it the nit. ir~vn indI 1I'.", of ithe phsphotroius flow 5 in int the wX tlan l Cc. reclined by the piant.. [noutheri 52. 3'x ofthe mitiuu_'cn and 55.6 ot lt pIhiipIhiiu werc iclincd in Th es Xx tiii. ind ict 1 tat xci rIic plant ..vcc.ie> pl~iX ai 'wiirt iuile in tr,tcX idti ncrtislcit in ConiiS-.ti lc XX ci lilu Sinc I1989, thei Saind Mouintaiin w cIlindl ha.. counsi.tcntlx co m cr1eo wIxhit i.. c.ssentiailly raix .cewaic 11t511 te of~lc uth sam duin aqtlilt tiiiuid in Krotz is a Researcn Associate, Mcak a professor Zhou isa Graduate Research Assistart anc Lno is a Resear cr Speciaist in Anirmal arc Dairy Sciences Dawkins i Supervsor of Herd Research and Ruff i rnterim Superinteroent of tre Sarn Mo-i Su~bstton inCrossvile High/mim//mt ui o . gi/fl tu il Rci/ a I h Stlli/ l. 43, No i. 3, I il /990 Table 3. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Distribution in Wetlands and in Wetland Plants Jo/hn L. Adrian, Stephen L. Kiser; and Stephen R. brcie r hen an other-worldl voice commaanded Kevin C'ostner to "Build it, and they will come," hewa rewarded with his Field of Drcaw, Unfortunately, no such optimistic spir it has cmnminicted with Alabai fruit and v egetable pro~ducers. If one did, it might soils and sustaining crop, prodtiction. In 1896, more than 3.5 million acres ot cotton were planted in Alabama, but the axverage y~ield was only 130 pounds of lint per acre Alabama cotton farmers planted their crop year after year on the same land. New land for clearing and crop- L ing halmost been exhausted. Very mcxiend ment s wxere ipplied to the soil and use of crop rotations and wxin- ter coxver crops was unc ottmron. Excessive soil erosion, dec lining yields, and low tarni income were commi~on. Ar the time, Alabama's economy anid the welfare of its citizens depended tipon sustainable cotton production. SYome researchers suggest ed siibstiruiting tobacco cutltui e tor cot ton. Howexver, Dtwugar undouitbtedlx beliteved that Alabama soils co )tld sustain pn ufitable yields ot cotton if a crop rotaition sys- rem that included wxintei I.'unuc, could be developed. Old Rotation, a)litl111Id Iun IViboiii Agicueltural Lxeie Sta)IO ti? 1(11n Highlight, ol'A gricu/turol Research Vol. 43, No. 3, Fall 1996 I Carta1, oatI, and c i)\w.pea wereIC Iaiiliair crops on 19th century Alhbama otton ftarms. These grains andi their fodder fed the draft animals that worked the fields. Corn also was a staple in the '[Based on data from the Old Rotation it appears]... cotton as a crop does not deplete the soil or run it down exces- sively. The cultural practices of leaving the land bare through the winter and afoot pre- venting erosion are responsible for the generally low fertili- ty level of many soils on which cot- ton is grown." FL. DAVIS (1942) diet of the people who lived on the land. Almost as many acres of corn as cotton were planted to support the cotton cash crop, and corn xas usually planted on the more productive bottom- lands. Cowpea was one of the few sum- mer anntial legumes that grew well in the South. Therefore, corn, oat, and coxxpea were logical crops to include in a crop rota- tion system. Though no statement of the Old Rotation's orig- inal objectives can be found in histori- cal records, the treatments them- selves suggest that the objectives of the experiment were to (I ) determine the eftect of rotating cot- ton with other crops to improve yields and (2) determine the effect of winter legume (crimson clover and/or vetch) in cotton production systems. These same objectives ate used today. However, today the Old Rotation provides a site for researchers, students, and campus visitors to study first hand 100 years of sustainable agri- cultural research. Duggar went on to serve as the third AAES director from 1903 to 1921. During this time, he continued to ixversee the management of the Old Ro tation. When the Department of Ajitnom~i andl Soils was estallshcd in I919, management of the experiment tinc the department's responsibility. Thie area around the Old Rotationc~llli(,l became knoxwn ias the "Agronomy Farm." In 1977, most field crop research was movec from the AU campus to the new farm at E.V. Smith Research Center near Shorter. However, the Old Rotation re-mained On campus and, today, the Department of Agronomy and Soils works with the AAES to maintain the site. Though the original records of the Old Rotatit in I. Cotton every from 1 896 to 1919 .C were destroyed in A. No Iegui a tire that ra-cd Coiner Agricul- B. Winter le rural Hall in 1920, some hand -written [C 120 lbs. records were larte found. Other as II. Cotton-corn r exist in the ] A. Winter I records. However, piublIications, * B Winter le research paper, N/acre/yr and abstracts, pop- ular articles, and crop recommeni III. 3-year rotatio dations hav e Cotton (eg dev eloped trom(small for gi information gath(a ered from plots in the Old Rotation. All these sourc, help document the experiments, history and has c added to the ba c of knowledge it tIc ivitrcn itc often inn C ricd t, shoxn in the figure. All plots have receivcid the saime annual rare of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). However, the actual rare applied has gradually increased over the years trom a total annual appli- cation of 0-22- I) pound, N ,O;-K ,O The Old Rotation 'ear ne/no N (plots #1,#6) gumes (piots #2, #3, #8 './acre/yr. (plot #13) otation egumes (plots #4. #7) gumes + 120 lbs. r (plots #5, #9) n (plots #10, #1 1, #12) umes)-Corn ain)-Soybean I I 2 41 5- 6ZZ1 71 8 I 101 II I I 12Z1 13 E -- 136.1 ft. ~ has provided to Sr/ hrauti t //l R/\1iii,ii /avwl iiri d /(,,l,ili hi i, m hih e / o Alabama agricul- ture. The Old Rotation site strad- dles the juncture of the southern Piedmont Plateau and the Gulf Coastal Plain phy siograph ic regions in East-Central Alabama. The Old Rotation consists of 13 plots on one acre of a Pacolet fine sand 1 loam. Today, the rotation per atcre per year in 1896 to 0-80-60 since 1 956. Ground, do lomitic agricul- rural limestone is appliedl as needed to maintain the soil pH above 5.8. MIIn of the crop groxxth pro ib lems during the first 50 y ears resulted from inadequate applic ations of K fertilizers and removal of coxxpca hay. Phosphorus deficiencies in Miit r .AlaamaI A grieultural L. \/wr/hi. l co/i Highlights o/ Agricuiltural Research Vol. 43', No. 3, i/ Fal 199 "The South will come into its own legimes o~tter led to lose di matter production and low cotton yields as a result of low N in the soil from the legume. This observation led to split P and K fertilizer applications, which Continue today in some plots. Hoever, since soil P has accumulat- ed to high lexels and soil K is in the medium range, deficiencies are no longer observed and there are no cot- ton yield differences due to split P and K applications. When the Old Rotation was established 100 years ago, it xas intended to addriess when its Fields immediate produc- Breen in winte tion problems in HEN a g r i cu I t u r c. Duggar's initial goals were realized early in the history of the Old Rotation. It is, however, a vision that has been far-reaching and, luckily, has been carried on by Duggar's suc- cessors. Toda, the Old Rotation contin- ies to provide ne information for Alabama agriculture, but its monu- 'C Ri. ire mental xlue lies in its rich historical base ot informa- tion. Modern concerns about sustainable agricultural pro- duction inay not have been on the mind of Diggar and his successors, but the Old Rotation's unique blending of the past and the futtire make it a remarkable and invaluable acre ot land. It is a trie tes- tament to the value of history and tar- sightedness. Mitchel s a Professor ofAgronomy and Soils. 9 rSast: APPLYING OLD ROTATIONS' HISTORICAL DATA TO MODERN PRODUCTION ISSUES Charles C. Mitchell, Jr., Francisco . Air-iaga, D. Wivne Reeves, and .Iames A. Entrv ata collected for 100 years from Atburn University's Old Rotation provide today's scientists and farmers with valuable information aboit the effectiveness of management strategies and also ideas abott how to sustain agriculture for another century. Some of that helpful information can be found by tracking yield trends if om the Old Rotation. For example, ced co tton yield records from plot 3 (cotton exery year with only legume N) illustrate the wide yield variability expected inder nonirrigated condi- tions as used in the Old Rotation and practiced by most Alabama groxers (see figure). An interesting observation is that rarely are two consecutive years xith very high yields observed in the ild Rotation. Likewise, txo consecu- tive low-yielding xears are also rare. In addition to tracking produc tion trends, yield data also haxe helped identify problems and offer solutions in cotton production. Five'year rtnning average yields seemed to decline slight- ly during the first 25 years of the Old Rotation. No doubt some of this decline xas due to the boll xeexil, xhich entered Alabama in 1911 and became widespread by 1914. Some of this decline also xas attributed to defi- ciencies in phosphorous (P) and potas- sitim (K), and restlted in revisions of P and K rate recommendations tor Alabama soils. Nitrogen (N) fertilization trends also can be traced through Old Rotation data. With no N fertilization and no xinter leguimes to supply N (plot 6), cotton yield potential gradu- ally declined over a period of 15 to 20 years and then stabilized at about half of the beginning yields (Table 1). This is a reflection of the gradial break- don of soil organic matter. Old Rotation, ontinuei on page 14 4labana Agriculhural Experinent Station 13 Highlights ofAgricultural Research Vol. 43, No. 3, Fall 1996 I F includ ing a xinter legume (cimison clover and/or vetch) as the only~ soiuice of N for the cotton crop (plots 3 and 8 in table) has consis- tently produced average yields higher than those produced from applying 120 pounds N per acre to a cotton monoc ulture (plot 13 in Table 1). The N-fertilized plot (plot 13) was added in 1956. Professor J.F. D~uggar, to under of the Old Rotation, eftec- tively demonstrated that winter legumes could improve yields of con- tinuiois cotton during the first fewx years of the Old Rotation. These data shoxw that this trend has continued toi 100 yecars. Recent measurements on wxin- ter legumes indicate that between 80 and 15~0 pounds N per acre is fixed in the above-ground portion of the lcgtlme depending upon the leg=ume growth. If most of this N is available to cotton, it wvill be adequate for non- irrigated cotton. A nitrogen budget for the treat- ments in the Old Rotation (using yield, fertilization, and crop removal estimates duirings the past decaide) siig- gest that N use efficiency~ is the same for continuous cotton regardless of the source of N. Nitrogen usce efficiency 1 appears higher for the three-y ear rotation becausc of the high N removal ImpC associated wxith soy bean and cu/lt because only 60 pounds of fer- tilizer N per acre xvas applied and during the three-Nyear period, a pr and Data also shoxv that for ti there is a definite yield terb adxvantage to rotating cotton xxith other crops (Table 1). dwei Howxever, the twxo-year cot- their ton-winter legume-corn rota- tion is as beneficial to cotton from yields as the three-year rota- delic tion. Low y~ields for nonirri- hi "sated corn in Central thi Alabama hav e made a cot- cans ton-corn rotation less attrac- AP tixve to growvers than continui ouis cotton.I In the three-year rotation, soy- beans have axveraged 35 bushels per acre per y'ear since 1956. Small grain (%xxheat or rye) hairxested for grain prior to ILinting sov- a ns has avecr- acd 27 bushels hei acre tor ioc arid 43 bushels pecr acie for xwheat sice 1975. Seed cotton yield, lbs./acre 4,000 Annual* N 3,500 5-yr ave. C' 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 n~ I I I I i 960 1970 1980 1990 20001890 1900 1910 I I I 1920 1930 1940 1950 1 . IIIIII, i ~~~ I / , e i il Li I,)~ (.,, ,,I:~ ' ', gl ,II!ie 1rto ll tiu 'lgut 1o h l oai n /,S9 -1 95 )ss ore he pr hoV I/er Vii gi ati m~ NI ccn cnncciiic urlx is oii the n~ iflc systeims itticcu ,an bse. tii, 1 in hii liho (1989) Il 36(4), "Old hI tici- Resiilts Id,,ritx Leist /tisky Rotatriomn addressed through It is in fact the Old Rotation. Almost all defini- ible for any tiins oll sioil duiali- to be sound t'," inc lude some a/thy withaut aspect of enhancing produictivitx of the er respect land wh ile prcitect- oper regard ing the environ- ment Many factors soil, no mat- affect soil duaiility. /many urban and only recently 1 i-ithat haxe soil dltality, rS tik ha t mecasur eiments been ctua/s come tiken onu soils friom roceris and the Old Rotation. ~oce iesand Althougch there are essens and no records of the i/k from condition of this soil in 18~96, researchers can comupare present DREW% LYTH-E day ditfeiences amonivg cr1 p~ping ss tenms (treatments). Measurements related to soil duiality, include soil textuiie, bulk den- sity, infiltration irate, xwater holding capacit, soil organic mattei, and miner- al nutrients (soil tests results). Old Rotation data shiow that produictixity has incireased in all treatments.2 Treatment differences in soil tilth also have been obserxved by' individuals ploxwing, planting, and cultixvating the Old Rotation. Soil on plot 13, xxhich has been planted to cotton every year since 1956 wxith only commercial N fert il i-ation, has a history of sexere crusting after planti- rng. Poor cotton stands freqtientlN result wxhen rains cause ci usting prior to seedling emergence. The problem has also been observed on othei plots planted to cotton exvcry y ear xwith no xvinter legume (plots 1 and 6). Soime :See Highlights , Winter, 1994, "Old /ic icion~~. I -J Alabamua A griciltuiral Egperhnuie .Stuiiiiic Highlights of Agricultural Re searc/i Vol. 43. Nvo. 3, Fal~l 1 990 hi thc ci xi sil qluality probicems tic'u tto king-tcirm treatment effects. In func'rrl, t reatments wxit h ohsci x c cruting problemsn (plots 1,6, and 1 3) had lo)) ci soil organic maltt (SOXI), highci co nc pcnctromctcr rcsvi- tance, hither hulk density, fecrc xxater stile aiggregaite, aini Ilowerc hx iraulic condctiti vity (Tithlc 2). Thi's confir ms poo il iiii1tiuc tutre and soil compact ioni in thcsc icitincnts co mpairci to those~ treiatin thit tisc wxinter legumes and crop rotit io ns. I. Continuous cotton A. No N/no leg. (#6) B+ legumes (#3,#8) C. 120 lb. N/acre (#13) II. Cotton-corn rotation A. +legumes (#4,#7) B. +leg./+N (#5,#9)1 III.Three-yr. rotation (# 10,#1 1# 12) Sil orgatnic matter is an inmpor- tant indlicator of soil quality hCCaiti'C it intluicncs c>oil structture, wxhichi atfecti> oil stabiil ity n ik ts capa~c ity to flu 0 vic xx.tcr, aini it is the controlling tic to r in nutient cyc ling. No records we re kept ot SCNM mcai'tir cmcnts on the O1, Rotaion before 1 988. Mlcaiurcments in the plowx liyx werxci made in I1988, 1992, and in 1994 (Table 2). Resuilts of his inves~tigaition showx that long- cem pilanting oft wxinter legiimcs aiind 800 630 340 510 370 510 620 710 860 680 640 160 1,230 1,580 2,360 2,100 1,960 2,040 870 750 890 950 740 804 770 1,260 1,150 1,190 704 1,150 1,440 1 ,1I70 1,140 1,950 2,640 2,410 1,680 2,500 2,030 1,690 2,640 2,390 SO)M. Thc plots wxith ithc highest SOMI ar c ,lso thc highcst xyielding filts. Inc rcasci SCA~M can ltc xicxcd ais ;a consc'quecncc of impirtoxed pitroditutin. I Iter tx c c, thec rc'lationshilp hct xx ccn SONI and i cld uggcst> itiat -)ON) nh~i\ also he x'iecxxc' a> i prediicito iofi rclaive c croip yieldI. Thicr c' it sign ifi caint trc'ni toxxwi la hgheci cot ton yiclds in plts xxith higheci SONM. These result', ',hti thant cot-ic ci ops growxn on cro~plandi iin the ilithtcrn Uinitedi Sitc'tie r enctic ial 995\I i h y inpro c >in 17-18-i po e si985 1995 phys icail iii.) .lc micil chrac tc'ist ics>, su pplx thec 'Soil xiih ladt~kion- 610 930 ill N ant redc'iic cro 1,840 2,230 1,630 1,860 Sioin of tipsotil dinig 1,850 2,290 tomnh la- 2,170 2,560 tiiiiih l i 2,210 2,240 tois relting to sotil Corn grain yields (bu./a.) 2 1. Continuous corn A. No N/no leg (#2) 18 1 1 9 10 B. +legumes (#1) 19 16 18 26 II. Cotton-coin rotation A. +legumes (#4,#7? 18 13 15 29 34 40 69 39 33 73 B. +leg/+N (#5,#9) I 42 96 III.Three-yr. rotation 16 13 15 29 36 47 86 68 33 107 (#l10,#lI ,#12 ) 120 pounds N per- acre added as ammonium nitrate since I1956 to cotton and corn. Prior to this, a summer legume (cowpea) was planted in rotation with cotton and winter legumes. 2 Corn grain yields are calculated using 56 pounds per bushel at 15.5%o moisture. 3 lnsufficient data. Table 2. Long-term Treatment Effects in the Old Rotation on Selected Soil Physical Measurements Treatment I. Continuous cotton A. No legumes B. +legumes C. 120 lb. N/acre II.Two-yr. rotation A. +legumes B. +leg./+ 120 lb. N/acre Ill.Three-yr. rotation Cation exchange Plots capacity niqI OOg 1,6 3.9 2,3,8 4.7 13 5.4 4,7 5,9 10,1 1,12 Plow- layer N pct. Organic matter pct. 0.1 1 0.8 0.14 1.8 0.10 1.6 0.13 1.8 0.11 2.1 0.14 2.3 Bulk density 0-30cm g/cm 3 1 .84 1 .85 1.73 1.75 1.66 1.56 Cone penetrometer Water Hydraulic resistance stable conductivity to 30 cm aggregates (K-sat) bars pct. x 10- 3 cm s t Thc, >iox c resiltc ils Ithowi thi in i c cii.h tolr igricuiltuic'. Alteri otaitio n cint iinotic' to pridtc \ iltithlc Incel is i Professo andc iraga is a Resetich sociate, Reeves is an o dinct Phrofessor and UDA Resear ch Scientist, adEntiry is an Assistant Pofessor of Agronomy 1(I/oot: gi,',ut/tmra I xpe'itttcit .Statiton Hlt 4t/ r/I o/ A gri( tuhtuyt/ Re iwarch \ 'i/. 43?, No. 3,. I gill /9t90 Table I.Ten-year Average Seed Cotton and Corn Grain Yields, 1896-1~ 1896- 1906- 1916- 1926- 1936- 1946- 1956- 1966- Treatment (plots) 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 Seed cotton yields (lb./a.) I Organic Insecticides Not as Effective as Synthetics, But Still Useful for Vegetable In sect C ontrol Ter~i H. Br'iggs, Geoff W4K Lelm~der, , ud Jun es B. Wt V~ARIOUS MOTH LARVAEDAMAGE to cabbage Vtirowxxn in the South, but cotrc eirn, oxe synithet ic pesticide iresidues in titu d and the environment prompt eitm- merc ial vegetablegiriowers and home gardeners to seek natural pest control alternat ives. Organic gardening 1literituiie is r ich wxith anecdottal evidence tot the effec.tixveness of oi gaic insectic ides. Hoxvever, fevv- formal studies hax e been done to ex altiate these mateilals. An AAFS experiment cii- paircd a standaird synthetic pvirethri d ineC tic ide wxith si/mec common ly available organic i nsectic ides for contriol of diamiondback moth and cabbage looper larv ae, or wxorms, on ciabae Results indicate that the organic insecticides, wxhich arce con- piosed of natural, non-pitlluting mateirials, do not piroxvide the same high lexvel of wo irm control as pxircthiroids. But thex do demionstrate mo/deirate to good actvitx against the xwioims and can acceptably ct/ntriol xxoim ifeeding daimage. This Itabbage'ith l/ titt Ia l a i fr tlriit i/iiiiii ' i , it I e ',. < , O i/ ionitirktt/te. It is the heit thus/ioIi/ is i idel ithin usi/i it/g d/it/iitg' / tit/if Iu iItt i (is', Adult female diamondback and cabbage looper moths lay eggs on cab- bage platnts. The hatchint, wo~rms feed on the iMuter leav es and heads, causing defoliatiotn and reductioan in grade or marketability of cabbage. Fotutna cabbage wxas trans- planted on March 1 8 at the E.V Smith Research Center in Shorter. Treatment roxxs were spray ed on a wveekly schedule until harvest using a backpack spraxyer wi th thiree hollow- cone nozz-les per roxx. Ixvorxy Snow liq- uid laundry sio/p (at a rate of 0.5 mil liliter [ml], or six drops per two-liter bottle) was added to the spray~ mixture in all spray\ tireatments to enhance even wxetting of the cabbage leaves and avoid large drops of spray on the leaves. Spray x olume xwas 55 gallons A/li/a//t A g>rit /ltil/Yl F_x/)ii//'/t staitiont Highights o Agruitlttsii Resiearch Vo0l. 43. No. 3, Fali 1996 4 ~4 4 Ohn -oo, +o uhg n~r r"lu i(h'l e i "'iaetep~ia peim o ( th /vcu h rsneo avfus $5 V ~ 'N. 's~ S ~ ~ The larva ( is the stae of the, (l(iamonudbk moth/ thit Carses %ecci11i damagei/. per acre at a pressure ot 40 potunds per square inch. WXoi i counts xxere recorded xxeekly, and a xvisual damage rating was assigned at harxvest on June 13. The table lists the sexen materials exvaluated in the study. Karate, applied at a rare ot 0.75 ml pci txxo-liter bottle, xwas used as the standard sxyntheitic p rerhroid insecti- cide. (Note: a gallon is 3.8 liters, and an ounce is )9 nil. Comimonly used bycommetrcial groxxers to contirol moth larxvac, this product contains 13.1% lamibda-cy halothrin, the actixve ingredient. Garlic Barrier, a l0oo~ garlic- juice product adxvertised as an insect repellent, xxas obtained from GRAB- IT Enterprises in Jackson, Ala. This product enters the plants through stomata (breathing potrcs in the leaxes) and moxe sysx temically throughout the plant. As recommend- cd by the manrifacturer, Garic Barrier wxas mixed with an equal amount of fish oil (exact composition unknown). Garlic barrier and fish oil we re each applied at the rate of 200 ml per two- liter bottle. The primary ingredient (83.2%,X) in Organic Plus, obtained from Organic Pitis, Inc., of San Antonio, is diatromaceous earth, or finely 1 ground isilized shells of tiny\ aquatic organ- isms called diatonms. These m ic roscop- ic pieces of silica can pierce the wxorrn ctiticle on contact, i esult ing in loss of body fluids and ultimate death. Organic Plus also contains 02 py rethrins, a natural insectic.ide from chrysanthenum plants, and 1 .1 % p iperonxy1 butoXide, a compotind added to block insect iresistance to the pyrethrin. Organic [PItt xxas applied at 30 grains per txwo-liter bottle. (Note: One ounce is 28 grams.) Align, manufactiuted by Agti- Dxvie Technologies of Salt Lake City, Utah, is a botanical insecticide con- t iinin, 3''o a adii ac htin, a natural Organic Insecticides, continued on page 18 Alabamau Agrculual F xpeeoent Station 17 Highlights o/A gricultural Res c/ Vol. 43, No. 3, Fall 1996 Effectiveness of Organic Insecticides Against Diamondback Moth and Cabbage Looper Larvae in Cabbage Treatment' Karate Garlic Barrier & Fish Oil Organic Plus Aligin Javelin WG McCor mick Ground Red Pepper Ivory Snow Laundry Soap Control DBt' 0.1 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.6 1.8 1.7 4.2 Avg. no. larvae! lant May 21 May 30 3 CL 4 DBM CL DB 0.1 0.2 0.1 0. 0.2 1.1 0.3 0. 0.0 0.9 0.2 0.' 0.0 0.6 0.1 0.' 0.1 0.7 0.3 0. 0.2 2.1 0.4 0. 0.2 1.6 0.2 0. 0.1 4.9 0.4 0. June 4 BM CL 1 0.1 1 0.8 0 1.0 0 0.3 5 0.2 2 16 1 0.5 8 2.4 Season avg. DBM CL 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.9 0.2 1.0 0.5 1.1 0.2 2.2 0.7 Damage rtn2 1Rates of application are descibed in the text.All treatments, including the control, contained six drops (0.5 ml) of Ivory Snow per two-liter bottle to wet the leaves more evenly. The Ivory Snow treatment contained a total of 20 ml of soap. 2 Damage irating: I =no apparent insect feeding; 2 =minor feeding on wrapper leaves, 3 = moderate feeding on wrapper leaves with no head damage. 4 = moder ate feeding on wrappei leaves with minor feeding on head.A rating of 4 and above is considered unmarketable because even slight damage is not acceptable. 3DBM =diamondback moth larvae. 4~ CL =cabbage looper moth larvae. inisctic ide ol taini1d tiiln tihe trolpic.al nceni tree. A~airtachtin has aci.tivity aginifsr i w ie xvariety At inlsc~t spciesIC, inclhuin moth larvaec, but hais no reCpoite ci ei rsc effects on mammalli~ls. All<,n was applici at 4.4 ml per txwo- liter hoti Ic. The activeC ingredienft in laveClin ProitcItiltn of Decs Plainecs, Ill., isa toin~f obtainef rom atiti bahcterliumi, Bailltus thitiingicnsis xvaritr kurstai. T'he toinif is active o inly ag.ain'st moith larvae ,iCt acts as a stomach poison that must he ci nsumniec b the wxorms tori atctivitI\ to ocurici. Javelin WGO xxas applioed ar the rateC of 3.8 glrams per Griouind rcd pepper, obtained at a local sutper mar ket, has also been repoted-s as an insect repellent. 'The spice wxas applicd at thc rate ot onc tabhlespoon per tlxxiteCr hottlc. The Ivory Snow liquid laundr iec'tI .ent uisei ins this test xx as obtaind friom a local su~permarket ani appl ied. It thic Ite ot 20 nil pert txxo0 litcr lottle. The 0.5 nil of Ivory that ill o thei ti-catmnflts contained doles not Aitect thi-sescts, but thce 2 0 ml contcentirtioun is harmful to them. Intsec ticiidal Soaps act on contact agatinst siit-bodici inseCcts by dirad- ing~ ti-s insct cuticle. They also max suifficatc thi-snsct. by blocking spit a c ilpeni'uis. Diiitsnihdack moth numbc'rs reac hci near ly fivc per plant ion \ lix 30, .Ini pcak cabbage I llpc't numbri (2.4 pcer pslant) wxerc recorded on Jutnc 4. Nnmbc'rs of iamionihack moiith lar- iac xxecre higlscst in ti-sc nontrceitci contrtil on May 21 ;ind 30. I )iimiotiiac k larxvac c ounts xx ri sig- nificantly loxwer in all trceatmcents, ciumfparecl xxith thec control, on thcesce daites. TI-s scason axverage iamoni- hick counts indicated that Karai c'ro- videi tie lest icontrio1. The oii a',i Pluts ptroxici ti-s next hi 14 hcst lcxcl of priotc tiown. Alig 4 n ani Jaixvcl in WG3 xxcrce sltightly less eftectitxvc than ithese priiducts in rccducing4 iiaminihick numbehrs. Recd pepper ani lIory sioap haii ti-s lceast cftct ill- the iiin hbick piulitiont but we're still more aictixve thain ti-scoi.untriol. All tret-ci me~nts, ecept rei pejpper, piroxvideid a stit iicant-t leveli ot caib'laie liiioper cionti il on June 4, xxhen xxollm nuim- bcr" xxr cta t thcir hig~hcst. Danmagc r atings ircflcted ti-s dec'reeC of xwornm contriol rcsuilting friom ti-sc trc'atmcents. Cabage~ plants in t-sc Karatc trcatnscnt exhibmitei tihc leaist xxiri duamnage, xxhilc plats in thce tc'i pcepper treatment cexhiliitc'i thc' mtls. Howexvce'r, ti-s avecragec worlim idiinlwc lritings~ in all of ti-sc ill anic trcatiins xxr ci ehlox 4, inictingi. ti-at molist of thc iamiag4 occurrci ill- tic iter leave s, ani xxas no~t sufiIciecnt tio teni icr thec plant ininii kctaihlc. Of t-sc orgu.anic matcitals, Jixelin WJ .ini Align xxerc Best at contrilling xwortm damalgie~, foililxxwci clolsely y Gairlic Batrtcer. Whilc rcd peppcer xxas ione of tlhc least efctti tx'c timcnts, it dlid proxvide a sutrprising4 levecl of contriol. Spr axs xxecie appid ci i sc'x n-diai intervxa-s, and tie ired pepper xxas nit expectecd to havec lolne rcsiduail activi tv, bitt it still ofterei c' uiuci ,tc cionctril of xxorm-s and damnae. Of all ti-s tlC-ititicns, ihe syn- thetic pesticicde Kairatce gavxec the hcst control of caibhai' xxiiris. Howexxvex r, theu organic materiails artc uisfuil fur home ugardeners ani commecialii pro- d.uicers xxho xx nt til avixdi sy nthetic c hecn'al rcesiiucs aimd cain acccpt soijC insect damaigic oil their cabbage 4 s. Briggs isa Resear ch Techrician, arnd Zeh nder i ar Associate Professor in the Departmnto Entor-slogyWitt is Supeinrtendent of the E.V. Smith Reseatr Center Horicuture Unit, Hii,'/i/i,ght. o Ag1riculura'l Research Vol./ 43. No. 3. 1 o/l I990 FEATHER MEAL DOES NOT REDUCE CARCASS QUALITY OF FINISHER PIGS A ~protein for htuman nutrition become more and mnore valu- able. High-Cdutality protein lprodc~l~ts are essential in human diets, hut they also are a v ital component of diets fed~ to pisin the >Nwine indust1tr. Find~ing~ viabile alternative protein soturces tor pigs is necessary to avoid. conflicts betxxeen human fooLI reCluirements and~ the swine ind~ustry. AAES research ind~icates that hydro.lyzed fCl eathier meal mayi lbe a suitab~le alternative protein source for finisher igs. Fuither meal, a miajori byproduCt ot poutltrx proCessinli, is high in- prtin (8'0-55"CC) lint deticient in sortie mmino IC.id,, C.'>peL allx lx >11k. huCG S ii a de- (fiiate IN >11k' is the primary xcoi ncern for mosit sxxine C.iets, it I>is ,mnillk r Ci U- 1ii(iidC'd that teathet muil he liit.d~ tol aboiut 5DCC oit the C.iet tot ipimm pei- loi l ace. Prexiusi AAES rIesearch dC.'ii n~tm ted that tC.ather miC.al is an Cettc.C ixc olrc "CiiCC Cie.\ii i dietairx nitro- (yell to C.nhlmincC' leanness of finisher pii4s. Results friim that studx also Sugei.ted that pi's mix be. able toC util is C.mICrie thu in5CCfeathC.r mea~l in the.ir diets. HoiweCvx .r, in that Study, Corn i nd So 1 Ci bean nmC.'l priovided a fixed amounnt of proite.in and lys ine, and teather ml'l proid addC'~liCitliona~l proitein and lin >1. A retC.C.n Studx xxa> CondCt.Cd toC C.xalui ate the xvalue ot feather meal a> a >ouceitC of proite.in N ipplemient and tiC de. t riinC. WhIi Br ian F. (Tu ihic wxhether SMC\ be n mnlC a 1 an V co m- fllC.tC.l}- re lc.J eC.d Iiy a coiiiiiliii it oi C teatherx mleal and cr\ stalline IN >Ine.To determine the 0iptinluim uconcentratio n o f dietary fcathicr mcii, fixve coin->i bumhea ietiCl liets weri C tC i-iiiilated toi ConC-f tain 0.7 3"4C lx inu lid 0-12 %C teaither meal (see table). This lx sine cncentra- tiont is 2 .8"4CC ireaul than the c/uurnt National Researc C oXuintii (NRC) rec- ommenda~ti~htionI. Two\ a dditio.nail diets cointaining~ 9CC tuithur 1[null wx ru iiud to test the poiilitiy of Lcililuiuly replac ing sok i The i meal wxith teithcr meal. Both oit these ucorn-feather meal diet> wxer e tCoi nlilted toi hav e the Same protein co intent a> the corn->1oixbean iNeal diet wxithi 0%C teather meal. Crxstalline lysine wais addld to on C fl i the corn-ii eather imcal diets to achxieve At an axveiag w~C2 eig~ht of 150 pounds, pigs> house~d 11in div idual 1pen>1 wxeie assigrncd toi Cini of these suxvun diet>. To issess carcass iait,, all pits> were Slaughter ed xxhun they wxeighed a1priminatly 220 pouinds. RCUIlt ai C >Lninari ed in the tablu2. Weighi <-iin and gain-tC-teud iatio (a imeirtiie of teed efficiency) JcIC& J.I lineal lx tihle dietary tcathiur Feather Meal, e. iiiicj oni pa,, 20 Ifi21i'>It% of Agicnutural Researchu/ Vol. 413, No. 3, F ll 1990 T fre meal content increaxed. Hoxxecv r, grieater xxeight ''ain ot pigx ted thei diei contaiining 3', feather umeal and greatei teed intake ot pig~s ted the diet containing 12"'o feather meal seemed to be primarily rexponsible tor the oxer- all linear dec reasex. These reductions xwerie not consistent or progr essive as dietaii f eather meal increased from 0"/% to 1 2%. The rate and efticiency ot weight gain in pigs fed other soy bean meal diet> xxere relatixvcly similar. Carcass duality ot tinisher pigs xwas not greatly ,itfected by the inclu- xion ot up to 9%o teather meal. Hoxxever, the diet with IN2,) feather met 1 did decrease carcaxs quality. This ix illusxtrared by r eductions in propor tion ot carcaxs lean (48.7%, vx. 51 .6%o) and the rare of lean groxxth (0.52 xx. 0.66 pound> per daxy), compared xxith pies ted other combinatiois ot >ox bean mvile: and teathei meal. Becauxe of itx lysine detic iency, it is recommended th~at teather meal shoul~d be incorporuated into sxxine dit based on the lys>ine content. I loxxex'r, this method xxovild increaxe both the amount ot teather meal needed to xatisfx the pig'> protein content of dietx. Supplementation of feather meal diet> xxith the most deticient amino acid, lysxine, is likely to decrease not only the aimotint ot dietary feather meal required, but also the pirotein content of xxxinc diet>. Thus, lx sine xupplemen- tation ot feather meal diets could alle- xiate the env ironmental concern rexultinig troim the inc reased nitrogen excretion in the urine of pig> ted high- protein diet>. A> expected, pig> fed the corn- feather meal diet xxithout lysine suipple- mentation grexx mnore sloxxly arnd le s eftic iently than those ted the soy bean meal diets containing 0%, or 9%, feath- er meal. The addition oif crystalline lx >ine to bring the ly sine concentration tip to 0.73%, did not allev iate groxxth depression caused by completely~ Effects of Dietary Hydrolyzed Feather Meal on Growth Performance and Carcass Traits of Finisher Pigs SBM diets containing FM (0%)' FM diets 2 0 3 6 9 12 Iso-N +Lys Composition of diets Protein (pct.) 15.0 16.6 183 20.0 21.6 15.0 15.0 Lysine (pct.) 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.37 0.73 Growth performance Weight gain (lb./day) 205S 2.19 1.91 1.89 1.90 1.67 1.68 Gain:feed ratio (lb./lb.) 0.28 0.29 0.27 0.28 0.24 0.24 0.25 Carcass traits 10th rib backfat (in.) 1.08 1.02 0.93 0.91 1.09 1.26 0.98 Loin muscle area (sq. in.) 5.52 6.06 5.78 5.66 5.50 4.74 5.58 Lean containing 5%o fat Propoirtion (pct.) 51.2 50.9 53.1 51.2 48.7 45.2 50.7 Accretion (lb./day) 0,67 0.66 0.71 0.62 0.52 0.29 0.49 1SBM =soybean meal; FM =hydrolyzed feathei meal. FM contributed 0% of the total lysine in the 0% FM diet; 6.9%o in the 3%o FM diet; 13.8%o in the 6%o FM diet; 20.7%o in the 9% FM diet: and 27.6%o in the 1 2% FM diet. A dried fat product was used to achieve a similar energy content in these five diets, as well as the two corn-feathei meal diets. 2 Lys =lysine.These two diets, containing 9%o FM and no SBM, were formulated to be the same protein content as SBM containing 000 FM (Iso-N). L-lysine-HCI was added to one of the Iso-N diets to achieve 0.73%o lysine (+Lys). replac in' sul ien mel~ \\ 111 9' li ath mlea 1 . This lack ot ,roxxth response to lysine xvupplementation is ditfficult to explain. The amino acid content ot this diet was axti least 20.8'%, greater than NRC reco mmendatio ns. For instance, the second most deficient amino acid, tryptophan, wxas 25. 3"4 greatr than the NRC requirement Total content ot all amino acids, therefore, should hax e been adequate. O.ne possible explana- tion is that pigx max utilize not only ly sine but other amino acids in teather meal lexs ettic iently than those in soy- bean meal. This contention, howexer, does not explain the carcass data. Carc ass quality xxas generallx loxxei in pigs ted the txxo corn-feather meal diet> than those tedl the corn-soy - beasn meal diets containing 0'% or 9% teathet meal. Hoxxexver, carcass backfat, loin muscle area, and piroportion ot lean improved greatly xxith lysxine supple- mentation, aind thexe traits were xery similar to pigs ted the soybean meal diet containing 0%o or 9'% teather meal. Althouigh lean girowth i ate xxax lower in pigs ted the lys>ine-supplement- ed teather meal diet than those feel the corn-soybean meal diet eontaining 0% or 9%> feather meal, this deciease xxa> caused by an extension in the feeding peiriod (about sexven daysx). In conclusion, these rexsilts indi- cate that up to 9%0~ feathei meal can be incor porated in the finishei pig diet xvith no adverse eftects on ciircass trait> and little effect on gr~oxxth rate and effi- ciencx. In addition, althoug.h xxeight gain max be reduced, feather meal can be tixed ax the only >ource oft protein >upplementation xxithout decrieasing carcass qualitx, provided that the diet is supplemented xxith crystalline lysine. Ir is not knoxn xxhether the groxxth depiression cauised by a complete replacement ot soy bean meal xxith feather meal can be allexviated bx >up- plementation xxitlh other ain acid>, thux aivoiding the increase in feeding period. Further research ix needed to explore the full potential ot titiliring feather meal in sxxime diet>. Nexeirtheless, consxidering the market incentives for leaner pigx and possible reduction ot feed costs, feaithei meal imay be a suitable alternatixve protein supplement for finisher pig>. Chia isanAssorate Proessorard Cumins ia Professor of Animal and Dairy Sciences vey is Superirtendent (ietired), ard Gamblei ar Assistant Superintendert of the Wiregrass Substation in Headland. Alab)(ima~ A griultural E xperimienit Station Highlights, oftAgriuuiral ReseaerchI Vol. 43, N~o. 3. I-'ll 1996 SILAGE is an excellent forage source, bt silages are often inaciectuate for Alabama d~airy farms. Therefore, dairy producers mutst find alternative forage sources that are economtcal, easy to tmix inl total rations, and support sattisfactory mi tk production. AAES research indicates that cottonseed httlls may provide an economical and effective alternative for dairy prodlucers. Typical forage source> used by dairy prodluccirs inc bide alfalfa and (grass hat The av ailability ot altalta hay, hoxwevxer, is limited, expensive to import, and it must be ch opped it utsed in total mixed rations (INIR). Girass hay quality oftcn is tow', the supply may be limited, and it also must be chopped it used in TNIR. Cottonseed hull>, by product> ot the region'> thrix- ing cotton indutitrx, are ottrn an cco- nomical source ot rorighag~e and mix xxell in TNIR. Protein souirces also tic ot intei- est because mil: xyield imax increase it coxxs arc ted ccirlain teed combina- tions. Best results are otten obtained wxith protein sourices that aie partially digested in the rimen wxith the remainder undiigested in the rumen (UJIP) but digested in the loxwei a>- trointestinal tractr. To iget >tich diges- tion, a mixture ot protein >ources sutch as soybean meal and xvarious by prod- ucr protein suipplemnents ai c cons~id- eredt adx anflLous Howxev er, torage sour1ces may attect the pirotein dwest- ed in the rumen, and theretore attects the \iIlue ot proteini sources. To learn mo re about the value ot cottonseed hull> in dairy cattle diets and their ettects on protein sources, two sttidies weire conduc ted at the E.V. Smith Research Cienter Dairy Unit in Shortei. In the tiirst studx, 72 early-lactation Holstein cows wer cic ed dets (Il) corn silaige as the only forage, or diets in wxhich (2) cottonseed hulls, (3) coastal bet uwidagra s hay , or (4) altalta hay replaced 1 0 % of the coirn silage on the drx matter (DiM) bas~is. All diets xx ere equal in crude protein (16.5 u ), net energy tot lactation (NEL, 0.74 Mcal per pound), and mial contents. Foi each torage souirce, nine cows> werie ted eirher soy bean meal as Cottonseed Hulls, continued on page 22 IHiy~ltliyhtii ut Agriulliwol Re schI Vuol. 43. V.3 ol19 re No. 3, Fall 1990 Table I. Effect of Forage Source on Dairy Cow Performance When Diets Contain Low or High Undegraded Intake Protein (UIP) Sources (Study I)1 Protein and forage sources a lOxx UIP supplement oi a soy~bean', feather, and blood meal combination as a high lIP supplement. Milk., milk composition, feed intake, body wx eights, and metabolic compound data were collected for 10 weeks. Foi age and protein sources had little if any effect on hody weight and IImen pH indaiating that the rumen tinction ot cows ted these diets wxas noirmal. Effects ot dietaiy tireatments on milk pioduction and fteed intake are presented in Table 1 . Cows on the low ULIP diets ate more teed than cows on the high1 11P diets i ezardless ot the forage sotirce. Coxs on the cottonseed hull diets ate more teed than those fed diets containing all corn silage, 10 %, alfalta hay, ir 10% beertn tidigi iss hay . (oxs consuming cottonseed hull diets pro- diuced more milk when they were ted high LIP than low ULP sources. This did not occII ftor other torage sources. Although there wcrc some v'ariations, neither forage nor protein supplement had a clear effect on butterfat content. The high LIP sources caused a depres- sion of milk protein when cowxs were ted diets with 10 %, hay, or cottonseed hulls. Because the addition of 1 0 %n cot- tonseed hulls with the high LIP diet enhanced teed intake and milk pro- dction, asecond study using 54 mid- lactation cows was conducted to evaluate the eftect of higher levels of cottonseed hullx with low or high LIP sources. L)ietary treatments xere (1) 10 % cottonseed htill and 36-38% coin silage, (2) 20% cottonseed hull and 16-19% corn silage, and (3) 30% cottonseed 11111i and no coin silage. All diets xere equal in cruide protein (16.0(0o), energy (NEL, 0.74 Meal per pound). and mineiral contents. As in tidy I, coxws in each torage source xere ted either loxx or high LIP son rces. Neither the forage nor the protein Source hld muh effect on change" in DMI MY BF Ib./day Ib./day pect. Low UIP sources All corn silage 47.5 67.1 2.83 3.02 10% BGH 49.5 66.2 3.28 3.21 100 AH 52.8 73.0 2.78 2.98 10o CSH 60.3 64.9 3.09 3.23 High UIP sources All corn silage 45.9 65.1 3.00 3.01 10% BGH 45.3 71.1 2.94 2.94 10% AH 48.2 68.6 2.99 3.05 10% CSH 58.7 72.4 2.78 3.03 SEM 0.41 0.44 0.14 0.07 'DMI = dry matter intake, MY = milk yield, BF = butterfat, MP = milk protein, UIP = undegraded intake protein, BGH = betmudagrass hay, AH = alfalfa hay, and CSH = cottonseed hulls. Table 2. Effect of Different Levels of Cottonseed Hulls and Type of Protein on Lactating Cow Performance (Study 2)1 Protein source DMI MY BF MP BUN CSH content Ib./day Ib./day pct. pet. mg/dl Low UIP Source 10% CSH 46.9 51.6 3.19 3.12 11.0 20% CSH 53.5 59.0 3.11 3.27 14.5 30% CSH 56.5 57.6 3.17 3.28 15.0 High UIP Source 10% CSH 41.4 60.5 3.20 3.10 10.0 20% CSH 47.3 64.9 3.19 3.11 10.8 30% CSH 50.2 64.2 3.06 3.04 11.0 SEM 0.5 0.4 0.04 0.05 0.6 'DMI = dry matter intake, MY = milk yield, BF - butterfat, MP = milk protein, BUN = blood urea nitrogen, and CSH = cottonseed hulls. body weight or rumen pH; however, they did aftect dry matter intake, milk yield, milk composition, and blood urea nitrogen (Table 2). As the amount ot cottonseed hulls in the diet increased, dryx matter intake increased, but there xxwas no increase in milk piroduction. Coxxs on high LIP diets consumed less feed than those on the low UIP diets, yet they produced more milk than those fed low UIP sotirces. Coxx on high LIP souirces pioduced milk xith loer butterfat content and depressed milk protein xhen cos xere fed diets xith 30 Y6 cottonseed htills. The loxer blood urea nitrogen xalues for the cows on high LIP diets may indicate better utililation of the protein ted. Based on these results, it appears that cottonseed hulls provide several aIvantages for dairy prodicers. Data indicate that coxs may pioduce as well xhen receiving cottonseed hills as corn silaige if the diets are well bal- anced. Feeding high LIP sotirces, sich as feather or blood mdeal, with cottonseed hulls produced moie milk than only soybean meal when fed with cottonseed htlls. Therefore, prdticers should conside feeding somIe cottonseed htlls with higher amotints of LIP. Gu i a Graduate Research Assistan, Moss i a Professor, and Lin is a Resear ch Assoc ite of Animal and Dairy Sciences. Alabamao ASgricultural Experiment .Station High/lightl ofAgriculturl Research Vol. 43, No.3, Fail 1996 Jo/hn C. Lini, B. R. "Pete"* Moss, Joe L. Koon, C/iffA. 1 load, and Robert C. Smuith,III 7 EEPING COWS COOL during hot, humid xveath- er is a critical concern for sotith- ern dairy producers becatise ho t COWS eat less and, thus, produce less milk. AAES research is showxing that misting systet, mye economical and efficient approaches for keeping Iiir cattle cool and comfortable. Producers have several options tot cooling cattle, including the use of fans, sprayeCrs, mifisters, or combinations of these approaches. Sy stems that use wxater in the cooling pro~cess hav e poven effec- tiv e; howxever using wxatei in the dair barn can be expensive and also con- tiibute to problemis wi th ruiuff fioi dairy facilities. AAES reseaichers have been evaluating various cooling systems to deterine which ones aie most efficient and effectiv e for Alabama producers. Studies wxere conducted at the E.V. Smith Reseaich Center Dairy Unit in Shortei duiring the summers of 1994 and 1995 to evaluate the eftects ot dif- terent eooling treatments on lactating Holsteins. Cowxs (48 in rhe firsr year, 52 in the second year) wxeie assigned to one of tour tieatment giouips: (A) limit- ed time in the barn with tans, (B) in the barn wxith fans only, (C) in the barn wvith fans plus direct spray, or (D)) in the bairn xxith tans plus xxater misters. Cowxs in treatment A stayed out- side from 6-9 a.m. and 5 p.m.-1 am. Co s rudde I lt mfhL i i , ; rrn :)171/ 1)( daily. Cows in the othei treatments remained inside except tot txxo hours ot outside exercise daily. In each treat- ment, twxo Turbo-Aire fans wxete nlounted ex'ery 25 teet and ran contin- uously xxhen air temperature exceeded 780E Fans used for treatments A, B, and C wxere placed eight feet fiom the giround both years of the study. In 1994, fans for tieatment D) wxere placed 10 feet high, but lowxered to seven feet in 1 9 9 5 because, in the first yeai, mist wxas caught in updraft> and earnied out ot the barn through roof xvents. Theretore, it did not reach the backs of coxxs. The dlire-ct-spray system (treat- merit C) consisted of five 0.062 5-inch diameter, solid-cone loxx-piessuie noz zles (Senninger 1800, Model =9; 1.77 GPM at 10 psi) imoLunted on half-inch PVC pipe installed along the feed bunk at a height of six teet, twxo inches and spaced about sexven feet, six inches apart. Sprayers wxere turned on auto- iO minutcs ot ever 15 i the tempeiatrie wvas treatrment D), each t, an wxas equiipped xxith circular tubing t bat contained foui hollox cone nozze [0ot bar wxith four I 'inlilar nozzles wxa> Ieach tan. M~isters arund the tans and on the bari were perature exceeded 820F and 85F respectivel. The outside temfperature during 75 0 FE Temperatures and humidities of table) eempeto bee nore dir ent betwea eirh dreat ad ors dsexetei ti, the repiationidt (brethig) atewas cotinted as flank Misting Systiem, cntned on page 24 Alabamat A gricltuaral Experimuent .Stationi Higliig/tx (f4Agricul/tural Research Vol. 43, No. 3, Fall 1996O week. Cows in groups without any water cooling had to breathe more often to keep cool than did cows in the spray or mist systems. Individual feed intake was determined through group feed con- sumption divided by number of cows in the group. In both years, cows under the direct spray and misters consumed more feed than those with only dry fans. However, there were no differences in milk production between cows under misters and those under dry fans in 1994. In 1995, the feed dry matter intake was about five pounds more per day (13% higher) for cows in the direct spray- fan and mist-fan treatment areas than for cows in the other two treat- ments. Milk yield was about seven pounds more per day (15.3% greater) for cows with water systems com- pared to cows without the water cool- ing treatments. There were no differences in daily milk production between cows in the direct spray-fan (52.8 pounds) and the mist-fan (53.2 pounds) treatments, when the misters were lowered. Milk fat percentage was lower for treatment A cows allowed outside for extended time each day in 1994, but did not dif- fer amon; the treatments in 1995. Milk protein xxw:as lower for those treatment A cx\ows allowed outsidr for longer periods in 1995. Body weight gains did not differ amon, the treatments in 1994, although there were some slight differences in 1995. The mis- ter system used much less water than the direct spray system in both years. These re- sults indicate that cooling cows with water applied through either