OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
N
In
17
F a I I 1 99 5
V ) I U Ilt C 42
N Ui m h e r
(p sIssim RI I'I
It 10 S I Ii(' IN iiI Iit 1) 13' lll
Il RrLEAININ IN Si\F1s.
RS U.NIX I~ .
L IT1 1T. t-ROlBtSt .. .... .. .. iiecitoi
DA\VItD t. TEEM ..... Associaiie tDiieclxoi
RU SStL t13. MUNTIFERING, Assoxciate Direcitoi
PAT (GRtLtN . . . . . . .Assistant iruectoxx
ROYi ROBt RS(/N . ... Assusaxi Direcixii
KAIFI. SMtITHI ... . . . .Assoiatuue tdiior
RO0tS N HIEARN ...... .. A\s scale I duixxu
TtERtESA RODRtIGU1EZ ...... iir Desixgnei
Ar (liappclka. Assocxiaie t-roieso ofi iii liesi
tDain Coxllis. Assiatex Prioiessoxi oxi Plaiii
Pathlogy:I' Jote tFike, Assistant Pi ofessori ol
to-txicuxltuie t-texi KiliiisUa Ai ssxieiaie I'ics~o
ofi Ag'isultural tconicilis aiid Ruial 'Soiilxi's
Roger L i.n,\ As1 l~id PI 01C55iI' xi Pulii Sx~ielCe
i si Slxanles. Assisitint Pi ofessori o1 1.infsumilir
.
5
.iliis. D~asid Sii ixellix Assuiaije Proifxessoxi
ol Animal tHeailih Reseaich: Wxes Woodxi. Aluiimni
Assciatie Piolessoxiol Agixiixxxi anld Soils: G eolliey
/elxndei, Assistani Proxuessxu of Etiiomologys. and
Rov Robex son.
I l)I~Tl[RS Nt/Il' \Iii ofi bad ii I ii
doies not inicate cdislxr ent b th le Aliabaiiia
Agisullilral tspei meint Stion xxi \Lihlii tUni-
x erit of x one hirandl oxer ainoihei. Any use oxl pes-
11icide ales in exess oii laheled umiutis in i eseaiichl
repxited shies nui cstitute i caxuitiieflslini iii
sush iaie. Suish use is simlply poii xxf ithe s
Cxtii i insesigilioxi inecessari to ixCaluiits
vaiou matiiideiials. No chemiical Shxuild he ui ed ati
dites ihmic ihose pC milled by the lahel.
Iinuxrmaioii iontained hex eiin is ax ,ilaihle Ixo all pr
sonis xuiitui eaid xi M,is siili1i, SeX. x iuaiinal
on in.i
Highlllights5 ot Agricultural Research Vol. 412, No. 3, 
Fal! 1 995
ills issue
Cew Op~poui ties for1 S~port Fish P
1
ondi
Fertili- itioci
'hiannel Caittish Recover Qu.ickly Firomi
\CstilctCJ Feesllix
loises I lim c a Majorx ImI1
1
NIct 01n Alabama~
\Cs Mixple (mulriX a Performanice iin
11he Soiitheast
D efoliacits icid Boll Oipeniei Satc~,il r Quiality,
Imiipr ose I Ills est EtticIicy
I lue Bees tiii lulChi lies?
uncsliiiel lislphrs Can/l Help Ruiial Retalers
I creasc Pirofits
Raid Bacteriail Test Helps C.atfish Processors
II ud1 Fooxil Quility
Ii I is lromi P1/ill
Root-('ololi-in(, Bascteia Ploiiote Ccsumber
IResistacse rox lisease and~ Inisesct Pests
Bet I [Irds Cani Benit Froimii
\Vlss Use ot Implants
)N THEL COV.l\ER:. Mny~c 
ps ople iel CI n rci I mCs l lpC oliaixuc
i1)Xiide color iln the tall lanisscape, buit noxt Nl s 
tiaIs
LI itedI to Alibaimi's groin cisonitionis. SCC articls 
on0 pdI2
~i1
IN FISCAL YEAR 1995-96, the
AAES XWilI indergo a budclzt reduction that
wAill require u'S to ter mlnate Some of oui
research progms.
Thie initial pr ocess to piloritize
3 projects 'A as initiated last year. U.niverIsity-
wde si milar rcdnet i n s and Sa bsecjte nt
prioriti/ation has been ongoine, the past
D Xea. T hese a'e austere timles. bt time', in
wAhich we Can restr'ucture OUIF pl101i1-WflS to
most efficiently meet the needs of 
the
6 
future.
Budgetar) cuts wXill be especially
S difillIt to imiplc men t at some 
Of l*u1. out-
I incesearch unitS. HoXeX er. I 'Xe found
Some ot our most innoX atiX e people ale
10 wAorkinge at the Substations, and1 if aux one
Cail pCiSCX Cle and thi X during hard 
time,
-12 they will 
do it.
On campus, weC haX e to make
14 some hard decisions as to 
wAhich programs
to Support and on XXhich to Cut back and/or
eliminate. These are not simple decisions.
16 because all 01ur r esearChl plograms are
important.
-1For too loli XX haXe Cle Ca ul
prOX erhial seed corn. We haX C taken
20 Irescal ch Iresu~lts and 
adapted the technology
to pr oduction acu iculture, but We haX Cn't
consistently Ire-inv ested in our research
>>progams' nationXXide. As a 
Iresult, the tech-
no~logy producers ineedl to push in to the
next frontier ot tood and fiber production
lilmay not be 
there.
These aren't the card.s XX Cw'ould
like to ho~ld, bui they are the ou c's we'
S' been dealt. And. 'AC intend to play them to
the best fotur.i abilities.
11 (
NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR
Yance Y Rv~?W0lr hvt E. B~oyd
SPORT FISH POND FERTILIZATIOWUNt~s%
G rater fishi production
(/11d de(creased weed
growth are two good
rea/sons tor' fertiizing sp)ort fi .shI
p)onds in the South. Fertilizer
niutrients cause' phiukton blooms
by increasinig the aibmndance of
Plankton blooms eliminate under-
water wi eedls by shading and ser 'e
(as food to s(/)/)U1/ 1ho Mo /fI/I/1/
II l oni.
An A \l-,S I e"eCaih projcct
compared the effectiveness of com-l
monly used solid and liquid fertiliz-
ers with two new products. One news
product is a controlled-release fertil-
izer (CRF) introduced on the market
in 1995. The other, introduced in
1993, is a powdered. water-soluble
fertilizer (WSF) that dissolv es almost
instantly. These products have
attracted the attention of pond own-
ers and state agencies, and several
priv ate consultants and hatcheries are
already using them.
Conventional, solid fertiliz-
ers, applied as prills or grains, have
been used for at least 50 years. These
fertilIizers usually are applied to
ponds at rates equivalent to 0-10
pounds of nitrogen (N) per acre and
8-I1) pounds of phosphorous (P) per
acre: applications arc made at three-
to tour-week intervals between early
spring and late faill. AAES resear ch in
the 1 980s demonstrated that nutrient
Nti fish plO mll /I c n o ny cjrtr sto 
itoa ell.e~,te'cr.c/~,n
inputs for pond fertilization could be
reduced 50-75%, by using liquid fer-
tilizer. A popular liquid fertilizer now
used in Alabama has I 0(/( N and
34c/ P (10-34-0). It must be applied
at three- to four-week intervals to
maintain adequate plankton blooms.
Because liquid fertilizers are denser
than water, they must be premixed
with water and then splashed or
sprayed over the pond surface from a
boat.
A single dose of CRF (13-
13-13) made in the early spring grad-
Fertilization, continued on page 4
Alhabama Ag1r1iultural Experimnt Slation
Hiehlie/pS ol A cricullura Reserh Vol. 42, No. 3, 
Foll 1995
I~mm pag
4
Table I. Production of Sunfish Using Various Fertilizers in
Experimental Ponds at Auburn University
Treatment Applications Phosphorous rate Fish production
No./year Lb./year Per application Per year
b.a. b. la. b Ia.
None 0 0 0 0 100
WSF 10 2 1 10 
305
CRF 69 9 9 317
Liquid 10 40 8 80 321
Conventional 10 12 4 40 335
'Phosphorous is usually the limiting factor in most freshwater systems. Nitrogen is sometimes
limited, but fixation from bluegreen algae and decomposition from bacteria often 
provide ade-
quate nitrogen for good plankton growth.
Hilly IVIacaecl nult tent, into Ile sater
and maintained a good plankton
bloom throughout the growlng sea-
son. Fish production was similar to
that achieved in ponds treated at
four-week intervals with liquid or
consentional fertilizer. even though
annual phosphorous input was much
less (Table 1). However, a controlled-
release fertilizer containine about 10-
151, N and 34-48c7 P wxould prox ide
r, rr pi\ i,,,i r( an t iir .\ci l/ ' to lti.,rtilil-ci u'r tut
better results than the 13-13-13 CRF
used. Current AAES research is
being conducted on CRs that have
an analysis more suited for pond fer-
tilization.
The WSF product (1 0-52-4).
which is composed of powdered
monoammonium phosphate, was
evaliated at different treatment
rates - 2-8 pounds per acre per
application. Plankton blooms were
adequate throughout the growing
season, and fish production did not
differ amone treatments. Fish produc-
tion in ponds treated with two poinds
of WSF xas as good as that achieved
with other fertilizers (Table I).
Because of their history of
good fertilization and management.
research ponds often respond better
to nutrient inputs and
require slightly 
less fertil-
izer than the typical sport
fish pond. The current
y a PPlication rate for liquid
I itilizer is based upon a
Idecade of work in both
spoit fish and research
ponds. However, there is
little experience with the
use of water-soluble and
controlled-release fertili/
ers, and it is possible that
some ponds may need
1ic'iIt 
higher application 
rates
than indicated in Table I
In addition to being effec-
tive, CRF and WSF are cost coipet-
itive (Table 2) and environmental ly
superior to other pond fertilizers.
CRFs minimize nutrient loss to the
bottom soiIs by releasing nutrients
gradually and supplying plankton
with smaller quantities on a more
regular basis. This also prevents the
Table 2. Cost Comparison of
Different Fertilizers
Treatment Cost '
No Fertilizer 0
WSF $28.00
CRF $32.50
Conventional $56.00
Liquid $30.00
Cost to treat one acre for one year.
lcast oi I ani nc sdroImc cxpcri-
enced by plankton as a result of
monthly fertilizer applications. CRFs
also eliminate the necessity for
monthly applications. Although they
still require applications at three- to
four-week intervals, WSFs reduce
nutrient loss because they dissolve
immediately and permit rapid nutri-
ent uptake.
While all four Iertili/el's pro-
vide similar fish production vhen
properly applied, it is difficult to say
which is best. There are adv antages
and disadvantages to all forms of fer-
tilizer, and each pond owner must
find the torm that is most suited to
his or her management goals.
Liquid fiertilizers are inex-
pensive and completely soluble, but
they must be diluted before use.
Granular fertilizers require no dilu-
tion, bit they are expensive and
require the use of a fertilization plat-
form. CRFs, in theory, enable pond
owners to make only one application
per year, but in reality, additional
applications might be needed in the
cooler months when the fertilizer
release rate is lower. Finally, WSFs
provide the benefits of liquid fertiliz-
ers. bit they must be spread in deep-
er w ater to prevent adsorption by
pond sediments, and they are some-
times diff1icult to find in stores.
Rushton is a Gaduate Reseairch Assistant
and Boyd is a Professor in Fsheries and
All ed Aquacultures.
Alabamia A, t/ricuuulturlll I \/wrimleuit .Stationi
Hig'hlihtrs of'Agriclrtral Rceseorch Vol. 42, No. 3, IFu/l 1995
rows 
l 3
~rte 
edf
J"'
Cut/is/i 
restricted 
fromi
/e dCC for thre CCC 
eeksx,
then fed u/I they u'united,
oitec the sume as /fish fed
cotinufou s/ tit the end~ of (1)
Ii) oeek t,',-owimi vve(io()t. according
tto recent AAES research. In addition.
tish restriced f rom feed for six and nine
weeks completed the growing season at
91(/ and 87(% of' the final weight of
fish fetd contintiotisly.
Compensatory xxeight gain
fol lowxing a period of restricted food
intake is well recognized in li e-
stock. btit no research information is
ax ailable on this phenomenon in fish.
Sometimes, because of tdisease or
water quality problems, or because
farmers are short on cash, labor, tor
pond space. catf~ish are not fed for a
period dturing the growing season. A
study was conductedl at thie
AAES to determine 
it Effe
channel cattish 
restrictco 
Finge
from teed for three, six, and ar
nine xxeeks dturing an I(s-
xekcrowing season 
COtild Weight g
catch up to fish ted continu- Weight 
g
tOtsly. 
Feed con
catfish
mately
Fingerl ing channel
averacing approxi-
1 .5 ounces were
Muscle
Dressing
One our
stocked in earthen ponds
(5,500) per acre) in early spring and
mnai ntai ned on the same feed inc recii-
men tintilI June I. when day time
xxater tempeirattire reached optimum
feceding temperature ot 82-84')F.
Subsequently, three ('roups of f ish
three ponds per group) xxerc held on
restricted feediney for x ariouis periods.
All fish wxere fed as mtuch as they
wxanted daily once the) wxere otff
restricted feedinc> . A control grotup of
fish wxas fed as mtmch as they wxanted
daily throtighout. the 18-month grow-
in(, season.
Fish wxeight, body fat con-
tent. intscle fiber diameter. and feed
constuiption xxere meastired ait three-
xxeek interx als tor the 18-xxeek croxx
otit period (see table). Fish heltd on
restricted feeding for three xxeeks
wxeighed the same as those ted con-
tintitusly at the end of the trial; in
tact, they required only three weeks
of' ftull feeding to catch tip wxith the
control. Fish on restricted feetlingu for
six wx ek,, xxci' ed 911 as much as
cts of Limited Feeding of Channel Catfi
rlings During an 18-Week Grow-Out Pe
able
ain (grams)
t
ain (pct. of control)
ver sion (feed/gain)
ody fat (pct.)
liameter ( m)
ield (pct.)
nce equals 29 grams.
Weeks deprived of fee
55
10
8
6
0 3 6
3 555 503
0 100.3 91
32 1.35 1.35
1.8 12.0 12.2
4.0 84.5 84.0
3.1 63.4 62.8
catfi~.h 
VZecove 
0
uatkI
Alabama .A/,/I(icultu(l Ex/limewl Statlin
Hiteh/ieli of Acicmtiural Reserart/h Vol, 42, No. 3, F all 1995
9
Rar 7:11111 Lovell
the control at the end of the tInal. Fish
on restricted feeding for nine wxeeks
wxeighed 87% as much as the contirol
at the end of the experiment. Feed
conversion wxas almost identical tor
the four groups ol' lish. intdicating
that feed assimilation wxas consistent,
xxhether fish weie fed continuously
or not.
Once feeding resumed, body
fat and muscle diameter were i mine-
diately and significantly lower
among fish in the feedlin(1 restricted
groups. Howxexver, at the end ot the
18-wxeek cy c hody tat content wxas
essential ly the same f or all four
(roups, though inuscle fi bci diameter
wxas smaller for the fish on restricted
feeding for six and nine weeks. Body
tat content increased quickly alter the
fish went on lull feed. buit muscle
fibers filled out more slowxly. Dressing
yijeld wxas slightly less for f ish on
restricted feedinY, for six and nine
wxeeks.
These results indicate that at
opti mum groxxth temperatuire, tWxO-
year-old channel cattish will quickly
recover from three weeks of feed
restriction, if they are fed as much as
they will eat when ptit on futll teed.
Results also showx that muscle mass
anrd body fat change wxith teimporary
fh eed restriction in groxxingo
riod atfish. 
These studies showx
that cattish can catch tip in
ed xx icht (ain 
followxing rela-
9 ix ely) long periods of restrict-
481 ed feeding prov ided they are
870 ,ubsequently 
fed all they want
12.9 to eat.
745 oeI is a Piofessor 
and Kim is a
62.8 frmer Gr adate 
Research
HUR5E5HAVE 
A MAJOR 
1MBAC7'ON
Many counties hax e a regu-
lar schedule of' eqine activities.
Breeding and sales, racing. recre-
ation. showing, and other endeaxvors
are sigeniflicant sour~ces of income.
emnploy menit, and leisuire.
An AAES study fouind the
aninual tuirnox ei of h( rse-related expen-
ditures to exceed $563 mill ion, about
. I %ofl the gross state product. This
oxverallI impact includes expenditures
by horse owners, related buisi nesses.
and touiri sts trax eli ng to x arious
equine actix ities. Seveiral recional
and national shoxxs, the B irmi ii hain
r acetrack, and a multitude of' rodeos.
polo matches, field trials, tail rides.
open shows, and other equestrian
events fuel the majority of these
expendituires.
Horses hax e impacts on the
rural economy throut-'h: the Serx ice
businesses they support farriers,
ti ai ners, and xvetei nairians: breedi ng
lees and sales: spectator and partici-
piant tiraxvel and enteriaiinmenit expens-
es awxav from home: and the largest
categcorvy care and imai nte nance.
Oxwners buy feed, materials, health
care prodcucts. insuirance. and Ser-
vices for horses exvery day. Buildings,
tr ai lers, fences, and pasture mainte-
Miance are expenditures linked to
horses. Horse shoxws and competi-
tions create demand for clothinic,
tack, and other items.
The ax erage annual cost of
keepingi an Alabama iraci ng hoirse in
trainingc wxas estimated to be S 15,39(0
in 1990. The estimated axverage annu-
al cost of' keeping a showx horse wxas
$11,.005. Although prof essional shoxx
ing is a much more wxidespread acti-
ity than iracing, the high lexvels of
ex pendituires for each set ofl animals
reflect the more intensixve lexvel ol care
and nmai ntenance requi red to keep
them in proper condition. The I icume
showxs spending for each use distrib-
uted ovei fouir cost catecories.
Horses used for Pt poses
other than i acing or shoxxinug aire clas-
siflied as recreational-use horses.
Their oxxners spend about S3,. 140
anually per horse tor care and main-
tenance. Expenditure CeS fsor these
animals reflect lower care and main-
tenlance needs asso~ciated wxith horses
not act ixvely showxinc. racing . or coin
petiing in other exvents. Althoug-h the
study did not estimate sepairate bud-
gets frrhireeding stock, expenses for
these an imnals~ probably approx imate
the keeping of' a recreational horse.
Horse shoxxs are a pervasixve
part of' rural life ini Alabama. Shows
are compet it ions in wxhich pri,'es aire
aw~arded based on body conlorma-
tion. gr~oo med appearance. phy sical
capabilities, and behavioral perfor-
mance of the horse and r ideir. Showxs
proxvide an opportunity tor horse
owxners. trainers, breeders, and riders
to di splay their animials. Shoxxs sti in
cMiate interest in hreedinc stock and
training piocedlcres because xxinning
horses and trainers command higher
sale prices and lees. On axverage,
owners of active show horses spent
6 
Alkaa m Agic~uturatl Fxperimew Station
Him.Jmli,l c'm o/ A,rimltmral R e, Ii ' lo. 4l2, No. 3. Fall/I99
e an int
luction, trat and event?W a major
contributions to the rural economy. Nearly ever
I has hor zit ons, a ha
ALABAMA ECONOMY 
AND) RURAL LIFE
J.Io '.'h J. Mlnuiu C X ill A. Mc'l l. Re gn I B'Iuo Hivu n und Robet 
M.A Peiider (Ia,
stems Irom f ood and lodg-i ng for per-
sone accomfpan\ ing the horses. a
Xxell as 511 Xices and supplies pmr
chased f or t he horses. [or ex\ample.
each out-ot state horse stabled at the
track or hon e show ma". generate
about YX() per day. Though11 a simaill
facili ty xxith a short program may
attr act relatix eIy few horses. the total
impact can he larvae.
Horses hax e significant links
to ai culture. About 16(V/ of the nation-
al aenrcultural and aLeribusi ness ?ross
economic product can be attihuted to
the horse industi}'. Hoise pioduction.
care. and mainten ance create deimiand
tor oats. corn. clox ci. alfalfa. hay. and
other feed crops produced by Alabama
farmers. Horse keeping. breeding,. and
raisine hicip retain the aer-icultural nfifa-
st'uetnie in areas where f anms are bevX
Annual
expense
$9,000
$8,000
$7,000
$6,000
$5,000
$4,000
$3,000
$2,000
$1,000
51.49)5 annuallX on traX el and related
expeinses to participate in hoirse show s
The estimate includes expenditlires
for fuel. food, and lodei ne fur the peo-
ple ti-aX elin meXith the horse. as XX elI
stall - _ .1!_ . 11lh
borsc.
centi ated in the communities that
host thle rodeos. Most of a rodeos,
effects on the local econoimy ar 1
deriX ed front the spectators because
there are tx pical lx man ux )1'e specta-
torks than contestants in a rodeo",
eXeints. Rodeo spectators eene rate
economnic activXity through ad]]H10I
fees, concessions, and sotiXen
Ouit-of-state horses stab Id in
a locale represent a sigen ificant eco-
nomic imlpact to the area. 1 his imlpact
Highi,'h /If a! icuI/ftura Rcsan A'' U rIit. 42. \No. 3, I oil / 99 i
in nuimber. Horse pastures. fences. and
bans often add to) the aesthetic appeal
of the Alabama countryside.
The authors estimate that 5i
of Alahaira ho uiseholds haX e soime
personal or famvilial connection to
horse oXXnership. breeding, or com pe-
tition. More people are involx ed XX i
horses than is common ly recon iied
by the inustitut ions that serX e ae'rien I
ture and thle reraigpulic.
Vhis lack of recogniit ion is
due to the traditional nature of the
Alabama horse i ndusti : a loose IX
connected aggregate of breed- and
activXity-related associations, each
Xith uinique orLCaiZitiIonal ra e
ments. I his lraementation and lack
of a a nilfied XVoice obscures the con-
sidet ahle impoirtance of this industrx
Horses, continued on page 9
In n (1 Uooa! /))
Services Supplies Equipment Facilities
Cost category
RED MAPLE (JULTI VAR
PERFORMANCE 
IN-T
' T ~ ST T' 
TT A 
11(11l l/lS('(/)C/S C1iiid
Jeff L. Sible
1
, I). Jsephi Laikes, (Chales H. Gil/iam,, Garv J.c// KCC//egAet/e
(111(1 Wi/licam; '. Duel,; I:, orni Jo/n I. ()wu;en 
l/N re~'Yh//
(iltrciv ie cOntopV form/,
(11n1 exce/llent re'd fcu//
c colo/: Uiiforliiiiotev, reed
Y Y totlhCr 
/iciiid, redl i/icC
cui(!firsO/, hic/i (Ire
:A c/onied/froni is sue col-
1 lh er thili Nd ie itch')1
selected f or Alabama based only hon
CVe aLiatIiIS in the plants 1natIve
y4 reeihhs. MarIn (4 these cultiX ar
:~~~ ~ ~ ~ g ,.l -poe to be unsuitable for the
Southeast. 0f the 52 named red
maple cultiX ars none hav e been
ti released from selections originhainh
*in the shouthern portion (4 their niativXe
"fir 9rahee. wXhich extends throughout the
Easteirn U.S. arnd Canada.
Th address this problem, an
\A[ S stuldy identified sev eral Supe-
w 1,1or red mapleS thr urban and resi-
dential landscapesinteSuhat
Determinhation of Suitable red maple
cultiX ars linr the region can increase
*the selection hf Shade arid ornamental
C LdtiX a-S included ih the
4 4\AAES tials represent a broad cross
section of the classiflied red maples
(Ater ru~brum L.). Red maple cult-
li/t iio ri/hiN .lron;, ' ti B/
4
~r limm tiic 1. Bowhl I aii/iiv h iio lm 
' Gr/ii' Xars knoXwnr to perform 
wreli in the
ho /01. (ot',, .h i 11 I iit) Ah~ 'OIL\ rtli U 0 ub, (o i h Ik '~Southeast 
w
4
e re co m pared Xwith selee -
Hhi,,ht ~r ol A i,u/tol Rcm i Olh/IWo. 42, N\o. 3, Full 1995~
tions from the Freeman maple
group. [reemain maples are general-
ly girouiped xxitli i cc maple cultix ars,
bcit are reccgie d botan ically as
Acr, /ree,,,omii., a cross betweecci red
iiaple and silvxer maple (Acer xur-
(baitlf i L. ).
Cudtixars xwere obtained in
March I1988 froni Microplant. fIlc., iin
Fai rxiewx, Ore., antI 1rix in containi-
ers for txx ciyears. Trees rangedt from
tour to fix e feet tall whein trainsplant-
edi iin March 1 990. i ntc ia Cecil grav-
el ly sandlo cam soil at thle Piedmont
Substation. Trees were plainted ton at
300 5 toot spacing aind xxeie fertil-
ized wxith ciie pound of nitrcigen.
phosphorus. aind potassiumi (13-13-
1 3) pci inich of cal iper at pl anting and
in March cof flo oxinc) 'ears befoire
bcid break. Dri p i rrigat ion was suit-
plied to each trce.
Acer x %/nee0o011 cultix ars
inlcledt Autuin Blaze, Morgan
tIndian Summner), antd Scarsen (Scarlet
Seiitiniel)}. AcLer riihron ciltivxars
ncttited Auttimn Flame. Fairxviewx
Flame. Franksredl (Red Sunset).
Karp~ick. Northwx (od. October G lory,
Recdskini Sctilesi n eri. aid ilf tordl.
Since the traditioiial practice has been
to plant trees froni seed, a grouip (it
seecdliincs froim seed coillectedl at A.
McGill & Soni Nursery of Fairxview,'
Ore.. we rc planted for comparisoni.
Auitunin 1lame aiid three
Freeman maple selectioiis, Autuimn
Blaze. Scarsen, antd Morgaii. general-
lx increased the iiiost in hight Dixer
the lixve years (Table I)~. Northix oiod
increased the least in height, about
tine hat f that cit iiost tither cultix ars.
Ax erace ainiital height increase tfor
Auitucmin Flame wxas 11 71 greater
than had been reported iin prex ious
sttiis: Frau ksred, 5i0( greater:
Scarsen. 47'-( creater: SchlesimicHm
36'/ greater: seelings, 71I K- greater:
antd Tillfordl. 35(1' crcater. These
enhiamced garoxxth dif[feremices could
be attributed to the use (it i rri cat iou
cir ixx iirolit trees x ersuis budlded
tiee s.
Caliper increases did noit tot-
lcix hliihlt increase treinds f rom 1991
ttirocicli I1994 as at ceneral i cie. While
the I-rmecman group selectioins had at
tendenicy form heilit giroxwtli ty pical oit
si lver maple. the caliper groiwxthi on an
aninial basis wxas differenit for cacth.
Among the 13 selecticons, Autumn
B lanc, an A. x beccinanii. had thle
greatest aniiual increase iin catliperi
Most selections dcx eloped gm-eater
increases iin caliper cacti successix e
year til loxxi ng1 establishment utili
1994. Caliper iiicreases xxere lowxer
in 1994 than 1993 for all but Autumn
Blaze (Fictmi-e I )
Fall color dlcraticin xvaried
yearly.- The longest dutrationi (it
fall cilor iin 1992 (iccurredl x itli
October Gloiry amid Fairxview Flaine.
wxhiIc iin 1993 Fai rxiewx Flanie.
Schlesimicerm. Franiksrecd. antI October
Glory hiad the longest tdtiratioii ft tatlI
cilor (1-igure 2).
Cuttix ars shcxxd gcl rmeater
xvariability iin the tiiiing oit peak tall
coloir ini 1992 than in 1993. In both
yeams Nor-thxwood antI Morgan xxeie
the tirst cuttix ars toi exhibit tall color
anl toi lhixe fall coloi peaks.
Hoxx cc. Noirthxxwood liad complete-
ly dlefoiliatedl near the tine Autuimni
Blare wxas at its peak and betfoie
October Gloiry had beguin tci display
noctable fatlI color. Peak fall cilor wxas
displayed 7-10 clays later in 1993 lflr
niost cultixvars. IFor the two c seasonis
Horses, continued from page 7
foi \Ilahnna s ruraI 0001i01iii.
To address this pr oblem,.
hoirse indicustryx and Auburn Un11 \ersity
reprisentaiv es recently or 'aiied the
Akiaana Horse Counici, whxxiich wxill
promlote dcxvclopnment of the industry.
Spending by spectators. idt-
ers, owxners, breeders, and trainers
clearly helps to bolster A labamna's
ruiral economyN. Althoucli the estimiated
70,)000 horses in Alabama are dwxarfed
by the 1 .7 million cattle in the state, tihe
impacts of horses are mac-nit led diue to
the high x aluc ol each i ndix idnal aml-
nial. Moreoveri. horses and horse activ-
ities otten bring urbanl dollars to iruiat
places. antd most impoirtantly . 1u1 of-
state dollars 10 Alabama.
MHna IQ Presl ofRHa Scooy
McCalis ar Associt rofcso o Arna
and Da iry Science, Br oadway is a for mer
Gr~rauae Research Assstantc, arnd Pender-
Srs is a Research Asociae at the
Unversity ofennressee AgriltrL Poaicy
Ai;i~i e ti
that tall color exvaluations xxere made.
the culti \ars Fairx iewx Flame and
October Glory had tie best display
(if red coloration, based on tyipicail
color hue and duration. xx hi Ic North-
xwo(od. Morgan. and Redskin had
poori tall coilor. Detoliation coiincid-
edl xxith the end ott fatll color tfor most
cultix ars each year. While all tees of
at particular cultix ar dcx eloped the
same tall color. onlx 201- ot the
seedlings in the AALS cx aluat ion
exhibited red tall coilor: (other seclings
had y elloxx to broixx ifall coilor.
Supeirioi red maple cultix ars
for the Sttheast. based on tall coiloir
dlispl ay andI height andI diameter
cii\\ iii. xxrCi \utuin I I,1111C. \tnrlni
Red Maple Cultivars, continued on page 11
Alab/ ro Ag~riculluraicl EyX/i('ffliIt Statiu,
IHighi,{frits of/A ,ic'uiliitii RKcseorc/, Vol. 42. No. 3. Fall 1995
*A A a
9.O 0'
, ei S C (15 
C'
carV., insec( 1. late,
grasses thr1oag/wutt
clh go to14/ pi/ckt
/7f ha(rvesting is
done' too ear/v. not
k/tO/f 14/7 1)01/s are
open;I/ too laIe (/1/d
open boils loseC
dufality,. p)Ius cold(
oecather is a p-b
D)efIolIiati oni
often alloxws growers
to pick imature cot-
tort several weeks
earl ier than they
could xxithout defo-
b. ~ I atits. thus pre'.ent-
itig lOSS of boll qual-
ity atnd reducing the
-~risk of getting
caught by bad
Wahrlate itn the
SThough only a hand-
IuLl of' cotton defo-
Ii ants are 
currently
. egistered for use. a
hree-year test at the
I ennesse Valley
Substatilon in Belle Nina indicates
certain treatments can resul t in good
defolilation. hiigh qual ity cottoii and
increased prof'it for growvers.
D~eiol iants registered for use
on cotton are DEF/Folex,. Dropp, and
Harvxade. These defol iants are often
used in combination wxith Pr ep.
wxhich enhances boll opening.- to
alloxw for earlier and more complete
harx est of' the hi'ghest possilile num-
her of marture bollIs. This combi na-
tion of defoliant and boll opener
also alloxvs groxxers to harxvest a
field once, instead ot *'scrapping
second harx est ) wh i clh is rarelx
cost effective.
In the AAES
cotre ttreatments were
ofi a nat ionxvide test
along xwith addi-
tional ttreattmenits
sometimes Ltsed-
in the Southeast.
Treatments xvere
appl ied in a spray
volume of 1 () al-
Ions of Solutiotn per
acre xxhen art axci-
age of 50-W 60%
cotton bolls xxeue
opetn. Visual letol-
atiort ratingzs wxect-
obtairted sexveti arid
14 daxys after ti-eat-
ment. Seed cotton
xvas harx ested from I
plots recceivinza
these 
treatments
and ginned to pro- 2
9
xvide lint xxhich xxas d
Study.- seven
utsed as part
(,cc table).
ChIa,'h',s I/. Bitrines' xhr. M~ichael G.
(eraded to determine the qu~al ity.
D~efoliation trcatnicnts in-
creased Icaf dIop 22-3
4 
/ aboxve
unttreated control plots. Ni trrS of'
Prep xvithi Folex, Prep xvith Driopp,
and Prep with Halrvaode produced 5-
11 % more consistent defoliation over
a wxide r~ange ol envxironmental condi-
tionls than the products produced
xxithout the boll opener (lurinig the
three-yeai Study.
Cotton fiber thicknie ss
(micronaire). strength, and dlegree of
xxhiteness wxere wxithin coimnercial ly
accepted ranges throughout the test
period . Total yield wxas not s~ignifi-
cantly dIillferent wxhlen using Prep vei -
suS not Lising the boll openier.
Howvever, using Prep in comb inat ion
x i th the dcl 01 ants prodluccd iroin 0-
Effect of Defoliants and Ethephon 
on Cotton,
Belle Mina,Alabama, 1992-19941
Treatment Defoliation Micronair 
e Strength HVI
Rd +1B
pct. units gltext units
1. Untreated 57 4.5 25 76 8.7
2. Folex, 16 oz. 79 4.4 25 76 8.4
3. Dropp, 0.2 lb. 80 4.4 25 76 8.4
4. Harvade, 8 oz. 82 4.5 25 76 8.4
5. Harvade, 6.5 oz. 87 4.3 25 75 8.7
Prep, 1.33 pt.
6. Folex, 12 oz.
Prep, 1.33 pt.
7. Dropp, 0.1 lb.
Prep, 1.33 pt.
8. Dropp, 0.1 lb.
Folex, I pt.
Prep, 1.33 pt.
9. Dropp, .125 lb.
Harvade, 6.5 oz.
0. Quickpick, 8 oz.
Dropp, .125 lb.
89 4.2
91 4.2
86 4.1
86 4.4
80 4.4
26 76 8.7
25 75 8.7
25 76 8.6
25 76 8.4
25 76 8.5
Micron aire acceptable range are 3.9 to 4.9; strength acceptable range,
3 and above; HVI RD and ?18 units acceptable according to classers
rade. Defoliation was evaluated on a scale from 0-100, where 0 = no
efoliation and 100 - complete defoliation.
llcrumu 1 k (IIk Ik 11/1k I /ri tn SW/jion
Hix'li-isi o/ Agr',iulural KcarIt Vol. 42, No. 3, I oil 1 995
u
Red Maple Cultivars, continued from page 9
1 5% higher yields
on the first pickiiie
each y ear. T his ih
cates that defol iants
do not adversel\
affect the quality 01
fibher h arv\e sted.
while allowing
growers to~ (let thll-
cotton out ot the
field Carl enr
studies hav e shown i
that the lint in an
open boll looses
approximate ly I e
of its weie(ht for each
dlay it is niot harvest-
ed after opening. A
tw\o-week delay in
harv esting cotton
can resuilt in Signifi
cant economic loss
due to the wseather-
ing Of lint in open
bols. The proper use
ot delfol iants and
Prep can result in
farmers barv estingg
hi gh-iquality cotton
in a shorter period of
time. wich is good
for the industry and
cumeris 
Extersior Researh
Agr onomist, Patterso
is an Associate Pr ofesc
and Monk is a
Assisant Professori
Agrony nd Sil
Typical Sept. Oct. 
Nov.
Selection color 22 
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 4 9 
14 19 24
Autumn Blaze R-P___________
Autumn Flame O-R-Y ________
Fairview Flame R-P ______________
Franksred R-O IZ
Karpick O-R______________
Morgan Y-B __________
Northwood Y-O________
October Glory R-P ___________
Redskin O-Y___________
d3s Scarsen Y ___________
Schlesingeri 0 O______________
Seedling Y _________
4 . Tilford Y-B______
2 ,r . Hue anid durion1I) n/ // 'Ao /o I ed mph, sole( b/oaF ini /99 hi, /993. Color nohauron
=Preserve of olo/ -, Pk colo piod 1u / /li fa! colo ptiets a i/i ('01 (1/u1
~47 'ii I oiruthr/He t'im//li a cijiio ///111Wc thrug De;embe of/99_ andu/1993 C'olor peak
to be oneit observtioni prUirt If) p/ak dlite t' onW obst/ v0/ion/ afhte dl ,isiblo/u' peal.
Blare. Fairv iew Flame. and October G lory . By th is same citerija. Karpick and
Northwvood were poor selections. The Freeman red maple selections, along
with A. ,iibriw AuLtimnl Flame, had the best growvth pen rinan1MCe in th is Si Ldy
wth no apparent adaptab ili t limitations to the climate of the Southeast.
Si .a Resa'c rAssart Le r s n rofessr .Giam is aProfesi Keevei s
IPoesr ldDz' D(prretCrad P-fess-o Hotcl-i( rve is
Table 1. Height and Trunk Caliper of Red Maple Selections
Cultivar / Avg. annual Final height Avg. annual Final caliper
- seedling height increase caliper 
incr ease
in. ft. in. ft.
Autumn Flame 35.0 18.7 0.94 5.2
Autumn Blaze 39.0 18.9 1.06 5.4
Scarsen 35.0 16.7 0.71 3.7
Morgan 35.0 17.0 0.79 4.1
Nor thwood 15.7 12.7 0.47 2.9
Franksred 29.1 15.7 0.75 3.9
Schlesingeri 30.7 14.6 0.79 4.0
-- Seedling 34.6 11.8 0.94 4.8
S October Glory 31.5 16.9 0.87 4.7
^ Fairview Flame 28.7 15.4 0.91 4.8
Kar pick 24.0 12.9 0.47 2.7
Redskin 24.8 13.4 0.75 4.0
Tlod29.9 15.0 0.63 3.3
Growth increases were determined by the difference in current and the previous
' season's measurements firom 1990-1994.
A/lbama Ag u lU/ turedi I \)1ri/il'I Station
Hi-glightsI of A //ricl/In /0 Research 1/o/. 42. No. 3. ku/I 1 995
BLUE BEES FOR BLUEBERRIES?
"mNATIVE 
BEE MAY 
PRODVIL
HELP FOR Bi
a -
e\
l oUiJI lI I)Iueerry 1)proIIIliol i.s exandII(ing ill
C ~Alabahmau, with 5,00() acres of lan)d cufrrCeltlIplanlted.
The mol(st (Y/lconmiIv t4/Yt'li lu!eherry" species ill the
Sou theast is JYII)Iite ye, Vacci nitum ashei. Tis sp/c(ies'
requIire's bee. fr pollhinationI (hid fruit set, ltt not (hil'v bee tril!
do. IKabbiteve blueherry has ispVeciahziedlloters (1n1( its /polleni
muiist be tiaiis/ereed lhetwteeiihushies of compa/Ntible varieties ho
,Set fl ii it.
( M)pcric r\C esearch be-
,en the AAES and the UJSDA has
Own f that the SOUtheastei n hi ueher-
bee ( Hubropodu Iul)(rio.(I). a
.:.Ltivc e round-nestin? bee, effective-
ly pollinates rabbitey e blueberry.
H owx cxer, Southeaster-n hi uchetrv
bees may be uncommon on larger
acreages or in habitats lacking suitable
nest sites. Honey bee hives have there-
lore been brought in each y ear to Poi-
linate this x aluabie fruit cirop. IUnfor-
tunately, their ineffectiveness at p)01
linating rahhiteve bin eberry and their
susceptibility to diseases and newly-
introduced parasitic mites could limit
their future use.
As a possible solution. com-
mercial bumble bee colonies are now~
beine considered for rabbiteyc blue-
berry po1lination, but their sophisti-
cated management requirements and
small colony sire make them prohib-
itivecly expensiv e. The possibility of'
native bee shortages and a lack of a
rel iable and affordable commercial
pollinatoi for rabbitev e hiLeherry
underscore a need to find new and
better p~ollinators for this cr01p.
In addition to the honey bee
Alubunia A ,ru/III/u E opwiniew ii IUo
IHigihis of AgricuIliural Research kVol. 42, No. 3, Fu/I 1 995
NEW POLLINATION
'EBERRY PRODUCERS
Bl/air Stampson, Jim Cane amd 
Jolt, Neff
and bumble bees there are about
20.000 other species of bees wxorld-
wxide. The majority of these bees lixve
alone and a female bee is responsible
for both bu ilding her nest and proxi
sionling it wxith pol len and necta'.
Although solitary bees do lot pro-
duce wxorkers. they ai'e gain ing nexx
respect as crop pollinators for Sex-
eral i'easonls: they can specialize on
certain plant species; thley have
mainy ni que adaptations for han-
dl ing flowxers: and in many~ cases.
their brier adult li fe spans can be
imainaged to coincide wxith ci'op floxx'
eriil. Numerous species of solitary
bees also lhixe a gi'eat potenltial for
comm~erc ialI management. The best
caindidates are those species that
inest in dense acci'egatioins, i'eadily
accept artif'icial nest sites, and easi-
Iy axxaken f rom hibernation alter a
suif'ficient cold period, thus permit-
ting predictable eimergeince with
bloom. An additional benefit of'
solitary bees is their gentle behlavior
arounid thlei r nests, thus makinil
themil safer to hlandle.
The alf'alf'a leafcutting bee.
Megacthile r'ommlamitt for examlple,
has all oft these characteristics and
has replaced the honey bee as the
principal pollinator of cultiv ated
alfalfa in the noirthxxestern Uinited
States. Relativ es ot the alfalfa leaf-
cutting bee. belonging to the c~enus
O)smia. also are promising candidates
for manageiment because they dis-
play the same useful characteristics
and some species forage on a xvari-
ety of crops. including blueberries.
almonds, pears. and apples.
An AAI S study focused on
an iridescent-blue natixve bee. O)tsmia
ribi/loris (see Fragmie I ). Prel imi nary
studies f'rom California and Maine
sugcaest that O. ribiloris has consid-
erable potential as a bIlueberry polli-
nator. This bee is found from Texas
wxest to California. Adults emeic1e in
early spring. and in the xxill_ they
nest in a wide array of pre-existing
cax ities.
0. iilori.s is bein'a studied
as a new pollinator f or managed
blueberries because it f orms lare
nest aggzregations in artificial wood
domiciles and its diet in its natix e
ranee includes close relatix es of the
rabbiteye blueberry. H-oxwexver, artifi-
cially dense nesting populations ot
any bee are more suisceptible to dis-
ease and parasitism. Procedures to
screen for pathogens and parasitic
mites specific to 0. , ihitlor-i' are
being developed by the USDA to
help ensure the commercial success
ot the bee by prevxent ing the intro-
duction of this bee's natural enemies.
The goal of this study wxas to
assess the potential of (). ribi/loris
for iimprox ing h mit set on rabbineye
blueberry. in light of the adx ances
being made in the manacement of
this bee.
Ox ci xintei in" adults, still iin
their cocoons, we re shipped in the
fall from Austin, 'I exas. to Auburn.
The f'ollowxing spiring," 56 female and
36 male 0. ribilloris cocoons weire
reimoxved f rom cold storace and
wxarmed to outdoor temperatures.
T'hese cocoons we re placed i nto 7-nmm
inside diaimeter) x 14-cm long wxaxed
paper straxxs. Straws weire inserted
into pre-drilled holes in pine blocks.
A\dult bees emerged into a 14.4I x 9-
meter scieenhouse. where they weie
confined wxith established flowering,
rabbitex e b lueberry bushes. All other
bee species xxere excluded.
The potential of O. ,'ibitlorix
as a bIleberry pollinator wxas exal-
uated in txxo ways. First, researchers
tested if rabbitev e blueberir' leaxves
and 1floxxers proxvided enough
resources to sustaini a small p)pl a-
tioin of 0. r'ibnioriAv. Second. the pol-
I ination effectixveness of 0. ribijlorisx
xxas -auicd by the number of' fruit
that dex eloped fruin 553 rabbiteye
bluieberry b loxxers x isited only by
these bees.
Female 0. r'ibilloris mated
soon after emergence. and 37/ of the
onci nal 56 females began gathering
pollen fix e daxs later. Instead of
buzzing bIliebeirry floxxecis, as do
bumble bees or the Southeastern
blueberry bee. female 0. ribi/oris
removed pollen by batting the
anthers wxith their front and middle
pairs ot legs. Each I emale tiranspoit
ed blueberry pollen back to her nest
wxith the help of a brush under her
abdomen. S he xxas also able to reach
the sugam-ich nectaries hidden deep
inside the rabbitex e Iloxxer.
Blue Bees, continued on pae 15
Altuh uta n ic l 't /I'i/)i'litl Sta~ti
Hligligts olil gruieiuhurati Reseairch Vol. 42, No. 3, Fall 1 995
CONSUMER INSIGH-TS (CAN HELP 
RURAL
E' vcx Ni L. Braninn and Lenda J Incl r/Iepoi
lie eciisC, (i(c/)ptobilit~v, an iiierquicel f shoppin1g (it iv Jfroii liomeitowi
stores has iii( iPU~CO c011Ce/li f0r the sort1'it 'a! of ,snai!, iiidepeiideii,
local" owneiid buinesses5 Ili riral town/is. Hoiet'el: dcsp~iie t/ic iiicFci5-
ing~ L'oiii/)ilioli / romi oilier S1i0/)/)iii!4 cilterliatii'cs, opp)ortunlities exist
JoIl the se iidceiicii retaiilers to eiliance /)lftthilitV' if they undicer-
stand0 thie tradehoffs (olisifiiers iuse in choingi/t (1 shiopp/ing desiiutioi.
An AAES suirx e wxas Coil
ducted to deteriine the relat i x posi-
lion of hometowxn merchants, as
compaired to other shoppi ng al terna-
tiv es, in the minids o1f rural Alabama
consumecrs. The 198 ruli conlsumilrs
surx exed indicated that thc\ most
fr equently shopped mass merchan-
di sers, such as Wal Mart or K-Mart.
I lomctoxxn mer chants we re the next
most I reqLient choice. Mass mlerchanl
disers irankedi best in terms of conve-
nience and x alue for price. but they
ranked wxorst in the ar ea of assort-
ment/selection. Hometoxwni mer-
chants, on the othei hand. receiv ed
tihe hieuhest ratines foi sei xice.
Tihe suirxey was mai led to
residents in six\ simaill Alabama town s
selected to repiresent economic and
gYeograpilic dix ersity. Subjects xwere
randomly selected from list n Cs for
those towns published on a coinmer-
ciai ClD-RO(M pine di rectory.
Respondents wxere asked to indicate
howx frequently tihey shopped eacih
shloppinug alternativ (cm lass imerchlai-
disers. department stores. specialty
stores. iloilctox n mecrchaints. aind
ioin-store opt ins like catalogs and
telexvision shlopping) oni a scale froml
xer\ I'eq ntll (once a imonthl or
mlore) to nexver. To increase accuracy
iin tile iesponses.
ianmes of' wxeli
we rc Lised to
c..lassi 1kcations.
T 1h r e e
shoppiing alterinatixves
stood out as destiina-
illoiltil or ullore): mlass
mlerchlandisers (641/( ol'
respondeints) hoimetox il
merchants (39( / ). and tira-
ditional departinits stoics
(2411c. Shopping x Ciues
Wxith tile highlest perceintage
of nileer respoinses wxerc
telexvisioin shloppiing (88(c)
career-oriented specialty
stores (87% ). stores tior special
sizes ('75(/c), and specialty stores
(569c( ). Whlein reportiing occa-
sioinal shlopping (one or txxo
tiimes per year). factory outlets
(41%) and catalocs 
(-7( ) wer crc
selected imost oftenl.
Experience and expectations
deterin ie coilsuiilers' pielei-ed shop-
ping dcstination. To
capture that complo-
ileilt of tile shloppiing
decision, respondents
xx rc asked to raite
shloppiing aiterna-
wxorst oin eachl key
for price. assort-
qualitN. conxe-
iinice. aild serxvice.
Ovxer 601%
of respoindeilts
chaindisers iligiest
of aill alterinatixves
Oil xalue for price
(axerac-e 6.3 oil
17-poinit scale)
aind conixenicilce
(axera,-c 6.1 )I
The oily attri
bute xxhiere illass
mie rchIan disc rs
xxorse tilain
lliliihlihr o A g'icui/imol Re xcurch V/ol. 42. No..3, loall 1 995
afternatis es w5as on assortment!
selfec tin.
D~epartmient stotes r aniked
higchest of, all alternativses on assot-
ment/selection (as erage 4.7) and
qu iality (as eracle 5.2). Sixtf-five petr-
cent of all respondents awsarded
department stores one of the tsso top
sl..or'C on quality.
F-ifty percent of r espondents
assaided hionietowsn merchants the
highest score on sersvice (asverage
5.2) Homnetossn merchants wsere
ranked second on Is to mass nierchan-
disers on cons enience (asverage 41.( .
On the qfuality dimension. almost an
eq ual percentage of respondenits
assignued the best score and the ssorst
score to honietossn merchants. shoss
ti g that groups of consumiers mvay
has e an opposite ex\perience and difI-
I en ng ex'~pectat ions Gor the same
shopping destination.
One Alabama independent
rural rctailci situmimed tip thle enurrent
situation: "I t used to be that people
ssould gis e N our small toss in indepen-
dent merchants first shot at shopping
ss itli them -not ans more... Today
rural, suburban, and urban customers
share simiflar pref erences and choose
a particular shopping destination
accordinti to their expectations for
coinveniience, price. selectioni, qual it.
and sers ice. lIn this suirv es hlomie-
tosn iitmerchiatits ranked first iii ser-
vice. secotid iii coniseniienice, and
third in qfualitN comipared to si \ othier
shopping destintionis. 1These resuilts
shoss that homietoss minerchanits
Cinjo/t agenierallfI positiv po ffsitiont iii
the inds of rural A labamna con-
sumiiers wshent coimpared to ot her
shoppintg alternmatisves a position
that cati be etihaticed ftrough con-
sitmier research atid comnpet it ise
analssis.
A -'cut feelingc' about sshfat
conismier's expect pros ides poor sup-
port for butsi ness deCi siotis made in ai
comipet it isc climate. lIistead, rural
retailers miust conistatlyI take the
conisu mers' pitlIse by co nduct iii c on
sitier r esearclh. In-stoic i nistess es.
comiiment cards itisititig earhid input,
occasionial siur es s or I ocits groups
cant help retailers f inii out sshat
makes the difI erenice betsseccn a satis-
fled recutlar cuistonier' anid ani unisatis-
fled inifrequent cuistomier. 1-sen cits-
tomier comtplainits cart be used to
assess Ihos st eylf the r etai let is ulfis -
critic IrienidlyN serv ice. acconitnodat-
itic consitmlers' lifestyl es ssithi the
right ix of products and set'sices,
anid pro05idinic consenitent parking
anid store hours.
Rutral r etailers cani des efop a
respontse p ani to still comipetitiotn bN
shoppingt the other stor es and hi1k itt
ssithi their customers to idtilti'
explfoitable sseakniesses. Ini this simr
sey. 67 ( of responidenits gasve miass
mterchlantdi sers the lossest ratik inrg on
assor'tmient/sefeet ion-ani e \ploi table
wseakntess that hiometows iimierchianits
cani capitalize oti bs cat-isinc di Iffer-
ent product lites of itotre distinictis e
stN fes. bs olferitic sersvices coordiniat-
ed ssith Iiitoduicts, or by marketintic
Ioc all proditced products. Such tac-
tics ar'e essenitialflot suiv sal in a
miarketfplace ss here consumers has e
ani increast icg iiumiber of' choices iii
shioppintg dest intationis and highler
e\ pectatiotns for salue, assortmntt.
qutality. conieniienie. and sersvice.
Brarron and resi e-,cm
Besides fod IIlieherrs
p~lanits pros ied a female bee ss th
nest-building niaterial. Leaf collect-
ing trips started wsith a lemnale bee
chess to' simallI potlions of a leaf into
a pulp. Back at the nest. shte lash-
oned flis pulp into nest pliugs and
partitions. needed for her oft spirings
protection (see Figure 2). Hsowesver.
nlot all sources ot leaf mtaterital wiere
accept ahle. Femiales prefI ried sm all-
er and more delicate hI uebeirr
lea\ es. but thcs also gathered oak
and hI ackbeirs leaf material.
After onls If) das s. females
had Fii led their nest strass s ssith cellIs.
Researchers found that these nests
could he protected from piedat ion by
ants Lisinig Tancletoot I"' barriers. X-
ray photos of the inmetrior of 0. rihi-
I/or-[. nests shoss that 450 niess
cocoons w5ere produiced: a retur n of
Div5e nesw cocoons for each bee
released. Strawss contained, on asver-
ace. eight health) pupae (r anie () I
cocoons) inudicati ng that rahbi tev5e
hI uebeirs) w5as a sat i sactors host
phlnt for this bee (See Fiore 2).
" hese results also indicate
that U. ,ihi/lHNrl w5as an ef lectW pol-
li nator of rabbite e hI ueberrs. B ishies
svisited solely bNv male and I emale 0.
ribi/lonis set on asverage 54 mature
berries for es erys 100 flossers. This is
an e xcelIlent frunit set for coimitercial
rabbitevse hlueberrs. As rabbitevse
blueberries do0 not sell-pollinate, all of
the fruit set can be attibitted to this
bee. [his pireli minar stutd, shows
that 0. ,-ibii/oris coilId proside an
iniexpensis e. easils managed. elfec-
tis e, and sustainable solut( in to the
challeng'es of rabbites e bliteberir pol-
linmat ion in the Southeast.
Sarp (ridu..e Reseai a A sisant,
Care n Asscate Pr ofessor of
Entromology and Neff isDirector- of the
C -. leas Hc.oo t1 Iti
11i
5
'hli;'Il~ of Agriultural Resw'rch Vol.44 42, No. 3. kal~l 1995
SAP~ID BACTERIAL
d FEST HELPS CATFISH
'ROCESSORS ENSURE
onnlT OT TAI 
,ITY
(4)(-bore dsease outibreuks 5 0 oci-
1117 wih /~utrv. eCgS. m/ilk, (mul beef
ll1recnt PCrS h[Io m//de (01/A f///CC
.,;) 
nl ~ t a 
C o i robiol 
flod risks. 
AAIES
01 scchel. rec v eiluuied (I si////le p)/V
(Ul//I/ for dtctC(onu/ (111d enuml/eratiui ot E.
Coli bacteria on catfis!, which sh~orieiis the
.,e si/ii p /rocedure bC eve &CCivNs. I/hi /)I)CC-
dalre also Cani be used/for other./od.s.
/1 / There has e alwsays been microbial
health risks associated wsith foods because foods
are not sterile: ev en many cooked, ready-to-cat
loods are not sterile. Raw, animal-dlerived foods
aire paricuelIarly susceptible to microbial
mow, poi lage and 
require ret ri Cerat ion to ex\tend the
clIf lifI and slowx microbial cTrossth. Rass Ioods
nlat ural Is harbor icrobes. just as huimans hasve
a iiatniral imiicrobi al flora associated with thiei r
skin and inutesti nal tracts. MIicroorganisins on
raw foods are rarely a problem because the
foods are cooked before consumption, and wshen
piroperly cooked. foods are safe.
Food piocessors abide by str-ict regula-
tore g1iidCHlC inswshich are en forced by routine
nspections to deteirmine compliance wsi tl state
and federal codes gos erning l.ood w5holesome-
ness and safety.' Food-borne disease outbreaks
QCin recent y ears hasve made regulatory codes for
Catfish ille/ts are marar (Jl i IIll sird phopho /)h tr/llUU' lr d irl/ io /l lnl food processors ev en more stringent. The
unhc~ /Or E-. Coli.i 
ntcrit) and national 1-epitat ion 0l Iood pmce0s-
sors are strong incentis es for processors to do
their best to ensure safe, wsholesome food products. Otherwsise, they risk ree-
Llatory agency Sanctions, loss of' con suimer trust, anld possible business failurie.
Food buyers for major retail and restaurant chains arc establishing
theiri owsn mrriobial spec ificat ions to ensure that the) are purchasing sale,
16 tluhunuu A1 It ituliural/ siwi jOil/I .Sliaii
Hint'hloiihs o/f Agric iluril Rescarch Vol. 4 ', No. 3, 1 /Il 1995
oddl C. Hanah, Tomas(1111 .t ,Iy T LI
and Richard T.rl 7 Loecll
wholesome foods from food proces-
sors. In some cases, the microbial
specifications are more stringent than
those rccommendcd by regulatory
acnctes because tood buyers want to
protect themselves from possible lia-
bility from the consuming public.
Another concern for food
processors Is standardized microbial
criteria and standardized testing pro-
cedures. There are no mandated
microbial standards fir raw poultry.
beef, pork. and most seafoods. but
raw milk has a standard. Microbial
populations in excess of set standards
indicate that sanitary practices and/or
product holding temperatures are
inadequate to maintain the desired
degree of wholesomeness and safety
of the food. Foods with microbial
populations in excess of the stan-
dards are not permitted for sale.
Although raw poultry. beef,
pork. and most seafoods do not have
mandatory microbial standards. thex
7
Ch( c)n1' ii ) l hiuru i, /
do have ticrobial specifications and
litits which serve as industry and
regulatory guidelines by which
acceptable food quality is deter-
mined. 13ecause
most raw protein
foods do not have
mandatory iicro-
bial standards. the\
also do not hae
standardized testing
procedures, which
means laboratories
microbial analyses
Comparison of E. coli Enumeration Procedures
Procedure No samples Mean' Range Days required
Procedure A
(FDA 3-tube MPN) 30 1.80 0.3 12 8
Procedure B
(EC Petrifilm) 30 1.99 0-25 1
I Number of E. coli per gram.
conduct inc
can conduct
analyses by different procedures,
often leading to discrepancies in the
test results.
AAES researchers are help-
ing catfish processors to ensure the
wholesomeness and safety of their
products. Buyers who require the
processors to meet miciobial specifi-
cations sometimes require tests to be
conducted more quickly than the
lengthy piocedures that require a
week or more for completion. AAES
researchers exaluated two testing
procedures foi deternining the num-
ber of L 'sc/mrichia co/i bacteria on
catfish fillets. The procedures also
xould be applicable to beef, pork.
and poultry.
E. oli is associated xith
humans and warm-blooded animals.
and is often used as an indicator for
the presence of pathogenic bacteria
of fecal origin. Despite the publicity
about E. coli, it is not generally path-
ogenic to healthy adults, because all
humans harbor the bacterium it their
intestinal tracts. Variants of . coli,
such as . coli 0157:H7. ,are patho-
genic, but they are rarely encoun-
tered in the enxironment and have
not been detected on catfish.
Goals of the study were to
evaluate a quick, easy procedure and
to compare its reliability to a widelx
A/iabama Agric uturl -xpe rinent Station
Higigh/ts of A iricurh, al, Researt/h Vo/. 42, No. 3, Pa// /1995
accepted FDA procedure. E. toli
were enumerated by the FDA Most
Probable Number (MPN) procedure,
referred to as Procedure A in this arti-
cle. Several steps are required to
complete Procedure A. which usual-
ly takes about eight days. This stan-
dard test was compared to the exper-
imental Procedure B, which used EC
Petrifilm (3M Coipany) in a one-
step process that usually can be com-
pleted in one day - two days at the
most.
Before analyses by the two
procedures. 50-gram por tions of catfish
fillets were placed in sterile plastic bags
xith 450 milliliters of sterile phosphate
buffered water. (One ounce equals 29
grams or 30 milliliters.) These bags
were placed in a mechanical agitator
called a Stomacher which agitated and
maccrated the samples. causing bacte-
nia on the fish to be suspended in the
buffered water The water was then
Lsed to enumerate E. coli by the two
procedures. All samples were analyzed
in duplicate by both procedures.
When E. toli were enumerat-
ed by Procedure B, the counts were not
statistically differcnt from those
obtained by the standard FDA proce-
dure (see table). The average . coli
count for fillets analyzed by the FDA
proccldure was I.80 per gram. and the
Rapid Test, continued on page 19
"'010
riiisll~
/ '4
Plants:
l jme 1f1
Henry Daniell, Sharon Zhang, Babu Guda, and Dan Urry
/1)great demam theseric~ cldo x u~s
r.' look /o)r moi(rL elt'iilol-
meil riucru f' rieo v~l proxc
/)mthiling a nien', ewal
soifrce of b~iodeg'radale
plaCs/ic by imlailtili a111 0sa\'u-
thliic /)olvl gener 1'in /to bac-
teria ai! tobacco p)1anis.
Protein-based polymiers are
naturral ly occutrrinrg polymners that
exi rst in some bacteria as a produtct of'
biosynrthesis. These poly mers can be
ursed to make numerous plastic prod-
ucts. rarirn from mil k cartons to
medical dev ices. Unlike plastics
made frorm petrom-h i ased prod-
ucts. protein-based polymers are
erixironmenitally sale ox er their entire
Ii fe cycle. f'rom productiorn to
disposal. T'hey can be made 114n11
rernewsable resources usine' wxater-
based processring techniques and are
biodegradable. In contrast. petro)le-
unm-ihased plastics are made f romn
exhaustible fossil fuels, requoire toxic
and hazardous chemicals in their pro
driction, and are a miajor p~roblemi in
solid xwaste disposal because they do
riot degrade.
Prote in-based poly mers atlso
are useful in a x arietx of other areats.
Th ley arc remnarkably bioconipat ible.
xwhich means theyN are nonitoxic and
are readi ly accepted by organismis.
Bccauise of this, they are useful in
mariy medical appl icatloris. indud inrg
the prex ention of post-suirg-ical adhe-
si ons, tissue reconistruct ion, and pro-
gIrain red drug delixvery. In addition.
the polx miers liaxe numerous tech no-
log-ical applications iricludini : trails-
IU
e' IA PIlas1ic p)o/11r l 1114r 1/4144/ i Side 11 ; /ll
d E. C
4
4li r4'/I
dULCC1l MA1 cu far machines: super-
absorbents: plastic packaging: and
control led release of, herb-icides. pes-
ticides. and fert Iiizers.
IFor protein-based polymuers
to be commierciall iN able. hoxwev\er.
they must be pr oduced in large quan-
ti ties and as at for d(abN as petroleum-
based poly mers that are currenitl
produced. A possible wxay to accom-
plish this is to produce these poly-
mers in plants. 'I raditional rowx crops.
such as corn and 50)ybeans, already
are heine- used to obtain products,
such as lipids and oils. f or Lise in
induitstrial applications. IfI these crops
could be used to make biodegradable
plastics. the profIitabi lity and sustain-
abilitx of ad 'rculture could be
enhanced and, if plailts can produce
biodegradable polymrers as aburndant-
lyas plants prodirce lipids (?( I-40(/
A labamau~ Agi~cullund/01/ Exeril/U'm1 Stin 
*1
Rapid Test, continued on page 19
/r
"4
.. *4 ~~'-
r.5
d"
4,
I K
p.,
,' 4 :
4'
f.
?
1" ;
igu'HI, 1B INhmi-ut like im/ 11u4ion1 inI gcii l H U/
toba' co c s .i
of dri \w xxight). the pofyners could be
produced at a cost comparable to
vecetable oil (50 cents per kilogram).
Introducing a polymer-mak-
ing gene into these plants and other
orcanisms has been the focus of an
AAFS research protect. The natural
formation of polyners is a compli-
cated process involx ing sexeral genes
that is difficilt to duplicate on a com-
mercial scale, so researchers siipli-
fied the process by developing a sin-
gle synthetic gene to implant in bac-
teria or plant cells.
The sxnthetic genes xere
produced in collaboration with scien-
tists at the Uniiersitx ot Alabaia at
Birmingham. then introduced into
bacterial cells (E. ol. tor example)
sing standard procedires. Results of
this phase of the research shoed
that the synthetic gene xas incorpo-
rated into the E. coli cenetic structure
and resulted in efficient pro-
t" duction of polymers inside
I he bacteria. Some of the
Leneticall altered cells
(airmed single. large bodies
of polymers that occupied
07(% to 801- of the cell. In
other cells. manx smaller
ri bodies of polyners occupied
80()90( of the cells (see
Figure IA). On axerace. a
65-75 % area ot the fully
rown cells xas filled wx ith
t ii, hpuC mer.
i/ured Ihese synthetic genes
\v CI C nl:en introduced into
tobacco cells using the Gene
Gun, a device that literallx fires
cenetic material into a cell where it
can become part of the cell's genetic
structure. Tobacco xxas chosen
because of its relatixe ease of cenetic
manipilation and because concerns
about the ill effects of tobacco Lise
may soon limit its current market. If
it can be used as a source of protein-
based polymers, tobacco growers
xould hae a nexx use for their crops.
Researchers have successful-
ly incorporated the synthetic gene
into tobacco plant cells. This is the
first time scientists have deinonstrat-
ed expression of a sxnthetic gene
(wxith no natural analog) in plants.
Examination of the genetically
altered plants shoxwed polymer-like
inclusions in tobacco leax es (see
Figure IB).
The next step of the research
AC Cl u PIO 1 ICCdIl f B x ,Ii 1 .99 per'
ciram. The taret level of I. oli icc-
on mended by the International
Commission on Microhiological
Specifications for Foods lur fresh and
fIozen fish is 11 per gram. and the
maximum allowable is 50)0 per gain.
A study wxas performed to
determi ne if the bacteria ciiumeiratc
by Procedure B were actually L. oli.
Of 12() random ly picked colonies
f'rom the EC Petri Iilm plates used in
Procedure B. 119 were identified to
be E. oli.
Procedure B saves time and
labor, compared to the standard FDA
procedure. but does not limit accuracx.
This test woufd give food processors
an opportunity to analyze their pirod
ucts before shipment to the public.
Hannah is a Researcr Ass stant, McCaskey is
a Professor of Anima and Daar y Scienes
and Lovell is a Professor of Fisheries and
Al ied Aquacultures,
wxill be to propagate newx plants from
these genetically-altered plants and
determine if the sxvnthetic gene wxill
transmit to new generations. If this
occurs, researchers max then be able
to implant these and similar synthetic
cenes into a varietx of crops. includ-
ing rox crops and trees, and use these
crops to make biodegradable plastics.
The result could be a stronger agri-
cultural industry and also a cleaner
enxvironment
Danie s am Assoc ate Professor Zhang s a
Research Associate, and Guda s a Giraduate
Studert m Botany and Micobiology. Urry is
a Pirfessor n the Un versity of A abama at
& I- Screo Mec r re.
Ala/bamal Agricl/tlrfl f\/)cqrifllcJI/ Stutiii
H hihso/ Agricu/ltural Resach /1ho/. 42, No. ?, FaI 1/ /995
RSSANET DSAS ANDISC ET
A I-es('rchers 
hate
biologicalI con1trol
digtf.s (as (ii erl-nwives to pes ticides
fr haini-to-contrlY discuCss .suchli 0s
Ni)Uter'l1 w'ilt o/ ocurubits 
(aulsed by
the /llsc! tni-isiiith bacte111)l1
Erwvinia tracheiphila. Bacte richlwilt
is /)arti(ItlaHl del-ct~(ive to) cucum-1
bers~ al /nuskiuiclon s; squuash and
p)IImpkIin (a/C suIs(c)Iible' but ar o tn'10
(lf~cte(l (IL severel'/.
Fuingicides arc not effectixve
against bacterial diseases, so the pri-
mary control method for hacteri al
wilt involves use of' insecticides tar-
gce d against cucumber beetles that
spread the pathogen from plant to
plant. Hoxxever. Cuicumhcbr beetle
infestations are impossible to control
completely wxibh insecticides because
beetles are highly mobile and contin-
ually invade cucumber plantings
from adjacent fields or weedy areas.
In addition, cucumber plants contain
a compound called "cucurbitacin"
that causes cucumber beetles to teed
cxvin more xigorouisly once they taste
it in the cucumber leav es. This cucur-
bitacin-induced feeding stimtilation
can cause even greater spread ol hac-
terial wilt by cucumber beetles.
Over the past five \ car,,
AAES scientists hav e been im sti-
gat ing the beneficial properties ot
specific strains of root-coloni /ing
bacteria, also knoxwn as plant gro,\ th-
promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR i
wxhen applied to Cucumber as a seal
treatment or a root-drench applica-
20
tion. It is knowxn that certain PGPR
strains colonize plant roots fol low-
ing treatment and affect plant physi-
ology in a way that results in
increased plant groxwth and also
enhanced actixvation of the plant's
owxn defense mechanisms against dis-
ease. Although the im~mune sx'stenms
in plants and animals are vecry differ-
cut, PGPR treatment may be thought
ol' as a sort of -vacci nat ion- against
plant disease.
Work at Aubuirn previously
dlenionstrated that PGPR t eatment
xxas ef tectix e for control ol anthrac-
nose disease on Ccutmbers, catised
by the Iftngus C0l/etutr-iChiunt orbicu-
lure. The current study was Conduct-
ed in 1993 and 1994 to evaluate these
same PGPR strains for control of
bacterial wxilIt disease of cucurbits and
PGP~R's ellects on the Cuicumbcr bee-
tle xvectors of the disease.
h-eld experiments were done
at the E.V. Smith Research Center
HorticulIture Unit in Shorter, and
greeiilouse expeimeincts werci con-
dueled at the Plant Science ('enter at
A\uburn U nixcrsitx . In I icid c\pci
ments. PGPR treatments were com-
pared with an insecticide control
(weekly sprays with Asana XL' xi
nsecticide ) and a nontreated control.
In 1993 field experiments. fotir
PGPR strains (861B-61. 90-166, INR-
5. and INR-7) wxere tested: txxo
strains 190-166 and INR-7)I were
ex aluiated in 1994 . Straight 8 Cucum-
ber seeds used iin the PGPR treat-
ments were dlipped into pelleted bac-
terial cells before planting.
(cubCr11hl yields f rom the
PGPR-treated plants xxere higher
than xviclcls in the insecticide-treated
and nontreated contirols in both years
of the field experiment (see table).
Bacterial xvilt symptoms were not
prevalent in 1993, but in 1994, the
percentage of wilted vines was
approximately sexven to nine times
greater in the nontreated plots corn
pared xxith the PGPR treatments, and
about three to four times greatei in
the insecticidc control plots Com-
pared with PGPR treatments.
Unexpectedly. ntimbers of cucumber
beetles in the PGPR treatments were
nut unlx IoxxC ethan in the nontreatcd
Effect of PGPR Treatment on Cucumber Yield, Cucumber Beetle
Numbers, and Bacterial Wilt Symptoms in Field Experiments
Treatment Fruit wt. Cucumber beetles/plant Wilted vines/plant
1993 1994 1993 1994 1994
kg/plot no. pct.
86B -61 37.3 NT
3  
0.61 NT NT
90-166 35.9 28.1 0.44 2.3 2.6
INR-5 32.7 NT 0.56 0.56 NT
INR-7 37.1 26.5 0.73 2.9 3.4
Insecticide control 29.4 21.9 0.89 3.6 1 1.5
Nontreated 27.3 20.8 I1.73 5.4 24.6
1Average beetle and wilt values are derived from six replicates. 10 plants per replicate. Beetle
data aire averaged over six sample dates each year Wilted vines were recorded on June 24, 1994.
2 One kilogram equals 2.2 pounds.
3NT = not tested.
\/~uio .i /IiiU/ Iou k/-- // 1r11i/I SIw/i
Hihi, hii of A gicutiwut Re seurc k'ol4. 42. No. 3, F ull 1995
ieii, /. e' duced bele /i/c ling on IGI-tretdc/ ciucumber
stcms comp/iared/ wi7th g'rtelti'r daomage on nointreated srein.
Figure 2. PGPR- trated plcants on left s/how little nilt .'a/mptomsii
while n/rn11/I iy'lid pl~ants are seveurc/V wuilted.
control treatments, but were lower
than numbers in the insecticide con-
trol where insecticide was applied on
a weekly basis. These results indicate
that the PGPR treatments were supe-
rior to weekly insecticide applica-
tions for control ot cucumber beetles
and spread of bacterial wilt disease.
Cotyledon leaves from
PGPR-treated and nontreated plants
were analyzed for cucurbitacin con-
tent. This analysis showed that
cucurbitacin concentration in PGPR-
treated plants was rcduced by 16-
44C, depending on PGPR 
strain,
compared with nontreated plants.
These results suggest that a possible
explanation for the lower cucumber
beetle populations on PGPR-treated
plants is a reduction in the cucumber
beetle feeding stimulant cucur-
bitacin. Previous experiments have
demonstrated that cucumber beetle,
can detect cucurbitacin in amounts
as small as a billionth of a gram.
Therefore, it is likely that cucumber
beetles in the field can discriminate
among plants with varying cucur-
bitacin concentrations.
A series of greenhouse experi-
ments was done in which cucumber bee-
tles infectcd with the bacti ral wilt
pathogen were released to feed on plants
inside screen cages to prevent beetle
escape. Experiments were designed
two ways: (1) choice experiments in
which beetles were free to feed on both
PGPR or nontreated plants in the same
cage, and (2) no-choice experiments in
which beetles were confined in a
cage with either PGPR-treated or
nontreated plants.
In both designs, beetle feed-
ing on cotyledons and stems of
PGPR-treated plants was significant-
ly lower than on nontreated plants
(see Figure 1). Wilt symptoms on
plants in cages were first observed
five to seven days after release of the
infected beetles; experiments were
run for 17-23 days after beetle
release, aftcr which the plants were
examined for signs of wilt.
In both the choice and no-
choice experiments, the average numn-
bers of wilted leaves per plant were sig-
nificantly lower on PGPR-treated
plants compared with the nontreated
plants (see Figure 2). These results
demonstrate that spread of bacterial
wilt by cucumber beetles is signifi-
cantly reduced by PGPR treatment,
even if beetles are iestricted to feed-
ing only on PGPR-treated plants.
Another series ot experiments
was done in which the bacterial wilt
pathogen was inoculated into PGPR-
treated and nontreated plants without
cucumber beetles (artificial inocula-
tion). Plants were examined for wilt
symptoms 23 days after inoculation.
The average numbers of wilted leaves
per plant were significantly lower on
PGPR-treated plants compared with
nontreated, indicating that PGPR pro-
tect plants from infection even if beetles
are not involved in transmission.
Based on these results, it
appears that PGPR-induced protec-
tion against bacterial wilt disease
works on two levels. First PGPR
protects the plants against cucumber
beetle feeding, thereby reducing
spread of the disease. This feeding
reduction probably is linked to
reduced levels of cucurbitacin in
PGPR-treated plants. The second
level of protection occurs after the
pathogen is introduced, and is mani-
fcsted as plant rcsistance or tolerancc
to bacterial wilt intection.
PGPR treatment of crops by
seed treatment or transplant drench
application represents an exciting,
new, and environmentally friendly
tool for use in pest management.
While most biological control agents
have activity against a narrow spec-
trum of pests oi pathogens, a key
advantage of PGPR is that PGPR-
induced resistance may lead to protec-
tion against a wide spectrum of
pathogens and/or pests. This was
demonstrated in AAES 
experiments,
where two diverse pests (a bacterial
pathogen and an insect) were con-
trolled by PGPR.
Zehnder is an Associate Professor and Yao is a
Graduate Research Asstant n Entomology.
Kloepper s Department Head and a Professor,
We s a Postdoctoral Fe ow, Tuzun is ar
Associate Professor, and She by s a Research
Fellow r Plant Pathology. Crambliss s a
Professor of Horticulre and Wtt s
Superintendent of the E.V. Smith Research
Center Horticulture Unt.
Alabama Agricottoi/ Eisperinit Station
Highmirnhi (7/ Agr'icauru rat Research Vol/. 42, No. 3, Frill 1995
-\?31.
t~s~i P~
~~i~B~I~4iF~d1~6~~ai
cYl4
13eef Herds Cain 13enefit
3rom Wise Use of 9mplants
Frnk I. Btirtol.,hlJo(.s G. F lo vd, ,:., Iolc A. Colem,,ll
AMtIC A. Wil,h. and Donaldl F BI\uto
G 
ROWTH 
PROMOTING 
IMPLANTS 
are 
arion 
the
beef Cattle producer. Iniiplarited Calx eS t\ picaIlly xx cigli
about IS-20) ponds miore at wxearning than iioimiplanited
Calx eS. [Hoxxexer. pr-exious research inixolxvinc laboratory
anrim ials has shiowni that the samie hormiones used ini groxxth-promitingri
I'lo~r ux' /i/Ilc i/Iiiui,'u the' ii( rpl (1(Y)lWu'/ 
Ih wu/ o imlanits (plrogestiris
the~ (U/Il/ 05w [nhco ar i lll/lu/i ( a~ llomd /, nmled arid estrocenis) whxxlen
co tr l h i/LI fl) I. (l a hc i/c'I 11ha1 rci ve c' a (/ im rl//// on/ I//c' ix~ Ci ]'ci earlxl III ]lfe.
c//I0/biihI/c/ I HOHH c//I//)/U l//l/f (1// ~l/c/f/ W alter the structure arid
opl/ i/i II/c/ ')0 d/co ( B). \otc ;cli kc'c /lo's o/ ifici nc
la/ci (() c/c' Ito /ormIfe expo/ell'1 (B). l~ S =ueI/c)lr 
fninCtlri 01 adunlt rp-c(
11 (comic (flIc tir iiCIs I/Ic . Ml 11/ 1)//cill ~il I//lull Icd, L -ife, (Iducti xe tract ti SSUeS.
im / h i oll Uo 
This iiCicUdeS the Uterris.
an iilgean r esponib lle 1k r
I-'iiitlicirnire. the soon-
ci fkdlloxxinc birth that
the se arinials xxere
-vposed to theho
hhr-ones. the 
miore 
sex 
ere
lie problemis. Critical
4' : periodls of 
exposure.
d416ri1 xx licli adinis-
~% 
4
I~ t ration of cer-tain hilor-
( a t. "m (lies to heifer Cakxes
mh*lt affect dcx clop-
11crit (it repiroduictix e
)' 'ans arid fer-tility in
- adults. hiax not been
del iried.
In cattle, the
ltr us is riot comiipletcly
dcx clolied at hiirth. The
xall of the uterus.
SJ 
xx el includes the liii
inL, ( erdoriictriurii) arid
G
- ~ ~ ~ ~ V r deaie xai, anI/ I/ IIlI.d infot-
lul u i bo h l thi' vtld\ ccli he
polf~ 
YIIxluu'
-un "n44oaol~
the nlUSCl at- laxyci (111 o1letri Lif).
undergoes draniatic structtrral chances
during- the first three months of l itc
wxhen Literinc o landls form in the
endomletri uni and uterine in usd1a-
tui 'e increases. Interruption of these
events. durineI eairly critical dex elop-
mental periods, could cause repro-
ductivec problems in cattle Similar to
those irecogn icd ini labor atory ami
mals. Such changes might unimit the
abi lit x of the LteruS to Support preg-
nancx ini adult heifers.
Control led Stuid ics of the
long-tern ieffliects of hormonc expo-
Sure durine1 early l ife on Subsequent
aduilt uterinie structure and function
hiaxve not been repoirted in cattle.
Therefore, an AAFS studx wais inisti-
tuted to determin ic1i exposure of
he if er calvxes to Spcciftic imiiplaiit hor-
mones, heeiiii nebetween hi rthi and
earliest labeled usc (45 day s of ac-e).
xxon Id affect adulIt uterinie structure
or proteicotent of uterine II iiid aiid
xx ietlier these effects wxould be relat-
ed to the age of the calxves when hor-
iihiie exposure began.
Txxenty crossbred heifer
calvxes of siil an genctic background
xw re assigiicd to oiic of f our treat-
merit grolrpS (fixe calxes per ertitp)
def'ined by the acue of calxves whleii
they rece ixved a Synoxvex-C cgrowxthi
promoitin~g implant. Synox ex-C treat-
iiint Coiisists of four pelletS designed
to release progesteronie ( P. 10 1H) ii0
arid estradiol herwoate (I:. 1 0 rug!.
long actilii estr oceri) for abouit 200(
day s.
Three groiups of' Caix cw x rc
iiiplanited on either the dhay of hi rth.
or at 2 1 or 45 (lays oif ace. Caixves in
A labam A1)(1ic ul Iiti inl Fxpe/)cH(WI I Suait I
Hil/lilht/li ol*A i'ic itlilton Rc'arc V'o/ -Hl?4. No. Fal i/I9 95
controls. L ax 45 wxas chos~
hecanse it is the earlijest a(_e
xx hich this imiplant is appro'
for nse in lmei fets intended
r eproduction. Birth wxas ch
becans ornion oe ofp
rapid ci ox th of nterine
and prex ions studies i ndica
conseCi iences of early hi
exposu~re nig'ht be sex ere.
wxas chosen as an i nternle
betwxeent hit th and 45 dai'
xxhen nteri ne ti ssLneS are 11iu
A]I heifers xwere ke
er, we aned at 205 dlays of
maintained oni pasture at the
Snhstation (('amp Hill). He
all Cox d to reach pnhei IN
rcprodcint ixc trtact xx as retm
each heife r on dax 1 2 of
ceN ic he thex wxere appr
I5 n onths of age.
Fach reiprcdtcti xc
cluini both thle uterus andc
xx iLiied. and nterine Mltds
liedc to test fo )tPro te in co
iec "milk")~. (irossections of
xxr eCxcamnlcd to ex alnatc
mueat of tihe uterirte xxall.
embrto wIxxond normnallN aft
snstaintid dutltlg pregnatlcy
ResCUits ate shlox
table. Rcc'ardiess of tile a,_
caix cs xwerc imiplantcd, exp
antd I: tredued the coinhi n
of thle uterus arid cet x
cnoett tal area bx '_71/ an
trial area hx 2-3c%. Lutriotne
densi tyx. ant estimate of t
of utterinte glands per ni
1N~tke ONON hrSARC BhY
W~~mplanhife that heier asbesld
as ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ilne [elcmns ccrigt ae
* acofoase
Pt tocet tei n elc!
aelaent anidwainimln
onl ahose thnateeh irho
trct in 4 ' ' ~
zi 
t\.a 
i 
xxa 
al hef 
r ac 
o 
g t
xmere relcmetoolopnst o
tent ( ner-
the uterus
de(cxelop-
wxhere an
achI and he
in ini the
C at X\ lhich
OSLifI to 13
Ccl xkeicht
by 351/.
dI mn\oiie
trial elancl
e nninher
i aea ot
etidotiieti utti also xxas rcdutccd lix
4) )r in imtiplated hlcers. Tis effeet
wxas cleatrly related to the ace at
xxichel calvxes xxr ctc 1111atited.
Emidomnetrial c land density w xas
reduced by 65'/ tn hitfers imniplatited
at hlirthi. xxlI redumtions of22
attd )3 (i x\ etc ohscmxcd tot heifers
ttmplatntedl on cithier dax 2 1 or dlax 45.
Coinsistent xxithi tile rcduction tn
etidomtetria I area and elIand diens it
proteini content of uiteri ne fluid xxas
redunced by 46(,- iti itilamited liet fet s1.
P~hotographls itn tile fiCUtre.
dentifited tin hei let
atnd 1- at birth. rir
flid prteintt cotn
effects itn hetters
dUtet on. Since hot
tissues anld uterine
tart roles iti sltppot
opttctt. these r
tilIit~y obserx cr
imlanted uttside
Hoxx e r, the pot
Implants, CarttnuicJ o
[ilicroscope. shlowx
C of tihe adnlt ttr-
aired to that of a
tflatltccl at bith
2abitndatiCe of
in tlotitipiattcd
tctfcr (B). RcsUits
atnd E. hcginting
hitth atnd 45 daxvs
dhes affect aduit
st ructutte and pt'-
)nttett of uterinti
ea ct'that efects
e more damtic
eartier thtat iept
indcltc st rictw-tal
chatnocs ini utet-
ie tissutes, par-
ttcutlarix those
sfitst explosed to J)
)r reducecd uttrtine
tetit are dlesi raile
tmetnded for rept(-
ih mlatetrnai uttctintc
flids play itlot-
1t of etnhrx ( dc ci-
CsttitS pr ide a
ont f rcdcclted er-
ttn soic hiifers
ot label directitotns.
emial for uterinte
n hake '4
H-ilso/ ,t (ru~')mfIiOi Rc,;'onc li l. 42, No'u . /ilol 1995
Implants, continued from page 23
chanhcs ohser\ ed in this study to
affect pregnancy rate in adult heifers
remains to be investigated.
The fact that exposure of
newboin calves to P ard E had such
profound effects on adult uterine
anatomy indicates that biological
processes affected by these hormones
early in life regulate patterns of ter-
ine development. Therefore, these
hormones, and other drugs that affect
their action, may be useful tools \ith
which to identify mechanisms that
re(ulate development of the uterine
wall. It will be important to identify
these biological processes and to
determine the extent to which the
success of developmental events that
occur shortly after birth may dictate
the capacity of uterine tissues to
function properly.
Overall. beef herds can bene
fit from the wise use of growth pro-
moting implants to increase pounds
of cain and improve body composi-
tion. The proper and aggressive use
of growth-promoting implants can
enhance the efficiency and profitabil-
ity of beef production and should be
encouraged. However, this study
shows that careful management is
vital to ensure that cattle producers
reap the benefits of these implants
while avoiding reproductive conpli-
cations in replacement heifers.
Research sumnarized here reinflorces
the importance of lollowing label
guidelines for use of' inplants. pro-
vides justification for continued
efforts to develop and refine guide
lines for the use of' these importhant
tools, and sets the stage for new stud-
ies designed to identify developmen-
tal factors that affect reproducti e
efficiency in cattle.
Bartol, Floyd, and Coleman are Associate
Professors and WAiley is a Researcn
Assocate in Animal and Daiy Science.
Buxton is a Pr ofessor of Anatomy and
Histo ogy.
Effects of Progesterone and Estradiol Exposure Beginning on
or After Birth (Day 0) on Uterine Structure and
Uterine Fluid Protein Content in Adult Beef Heifers
Age at Implanting
Responses Birth Day 21 Day 45
Weight of uterus
and cervix (grams) 113.7 123.5 101.3
Myometrium (mm
2
) 123.7 141.8 111.3
Endometrium (mm ) 29.9 32.4 31.7
Uterine gland
density (units/mm
2 
) 172.2 380.3 328.2
Uterine fluid protein
content (mg) 2.8 2.9 2.3
Hormones delivered using the Synovex-C implant.
Data represent mean values of five heifers pei group.
SEM = Standard Error of the Mean.
Control SEM
173.9
162.8
45.4
486.9
4.9 0.7
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY. ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T . Frohish. Director
POSTMASTER-Address Corection Requested
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIIT NO. 9
AUBURN, ALA.