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1
IN THIS ISSUE
Calcium Affects Quality of Peanut Seed 3
Do Young Largemouth Bass Compete with Future Prey?_4
On-Farm Tests of AU-Pnuts 5
Ultrasound Instrument Predicts Body Compositon of Live Pigs 6
Bull Meat Has Potential as Low-Fat Ground Beef .. 7
Economics of Producing Australian Crayfish in Alabama Ponds_ 8
Deworming Cattle on Infected Fescue_9
Catfish Advertising Is Paying Off 10:
Maintaining Export Quality of Chilled Vacuum-Packaged Beef_ _ 11
New AU Plum Varieties Show Disease-Resistant Benefits ,_ ___12
Constructed Wetlands Successfully Treat Swine Wastewater 13
Who Do Alabamians Trust About the Environment? ........ 14
In Vitro Fertilization of Cattle Can :Salvage Genetics 15
Genetic Engineering of an Edible Mushroom Species 16
On the cover: The Wetlands Project, shown here, at the Sand Mountain Substation
in Crossville has proven successful in cleaning water from swine lagoons. See
story on page 13.
UPCOMING EVENTS
January 26-27
January 30-
February 3
February 6
February 15
February 17-18
February 23
February 24
February 25-27
March 18
Fertilizer and Pesticide Conference, Auburn
Southern Association of Agricultural Scientists Annual
Meeting, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Horse Science Short Course, Auburn
Alabama Crop Improvement Association Annual Meeting, Auburn
Alabama DHIA/ADA Annual Meeting, Montgomery
AU Ag Alumni Annual Meeting and Hall of Honor Banquet,
Auburn
Home Landscape Field Day, E.V. Smith Research Center
Alabama Cattlemen's Association Annual Meeting, Montgomery
Livestock/Forage Field Day, Piedmont Substation
DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
To most of us GATT and 
NAFTA
are meaningless acronyms that are verbally
tossed around by politicians. However, to
peanut and cotton farmers and milk produc-
ers in Alabama, the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
are dirty words indeed. Though complex in
their implication to agriculture as a whole,
implementation of these trade treaties would
likely cause the rapid demise of Federal
subsidy programs for peanuts, cotton, to-
bacco, and dairy products. In Alabama, loss
of peanut and cotton subsidies would be
catastrophic in areas of the State in which
these crops are heavily concentrated.
Threats to two of our largest commodi-
ties create great challenges in 1993 for the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station.
Researchers continue to find ways to pro-
duce more for less, yet without damaging
our environment or over-using our natural
resources. The challenge, and the opportu-
nity, for the Experiment Station is to be
ready with alternative production methods
should farmers lose government support pro-
grams. Research also must strive to develop
agronomic-based alternative fuel sources,
and to contribute to the good health of our
environment. In terms of challenges and
opportunities, we are preparing for an excit-
ing and prosperous 1993. As always, we
need your support, and we welcome your
input into the research program of your
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station.
W i n t e r 1 9 9 2 V olum e 3 9 N u m b e r 4
A quarterly report of research published by the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station,
Auburn University.
LOWELL T. FROBISH ............ Director
DAVID H. TEEM...................... Associate Director
RUSSELL B. MUNTIFERING ... Associate Director
PAT GREEN ............................. Assistant Director
ROY ROBERSON .................... Assistant Director
KATIE SMITH .......................... Associate Editor
ROBYN HEARN ................ Associate Editor
TERESA RODRIGUEZ ............ Art Designer
Editorial Committee: Lowell T. Frobish; D.G.
Himelrick, Associate Professor of Horticulture; K.L.
Bowen, Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology; E.T.
Moran, Professor of Poultry Science; L.K. Lamke,
Associate Professor of Family and Child Develop-
ment; E.W. Rochester, Associate Professor ofAgricul-
tural Engineering; S.P. Schmidt, Associate Professor
of Animal and Dairy Sciences; R.A. Tufts, Associate
Professor of Forestry; W.J. Moar, Assistant Professor
of Entomology; J.L. Sartin, Associate Professor of
Animal Health Research; and Roy Roberson.
EDITOR'S NOTE. Mention of trade names does not
indicate endorsement by the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station or Auburn University of one
brand over another. Any use of pesticide rates in
excess of labeled amounts in research reported does
not constitute recommendation of such rate. Such
use is simply part of the scientific investigation
necessary to evaluate various materials. No chemi-
cal should be used at rates above those permitted by
the label. Information contained herein is available
to all persons without regard to race, color, sex, or
national origin.
D.L. HARTZOG AND J.F. ADAMS
CALCIUM AFFECTS QUALITY OF PEANUT SEED
C ALCIUM (Ca) is the soil nutrient
most likely to be deficient for pea-
nut production. A Ca deficiency
results in lower yields, reduces
percentage of sound mature ker-
nels (SMK), and also decreases seed quality
by inhibiting development of the plumule,
which is essential for germination.
Although field experiments in Alabama
during the last two decades have defined the
soil Ca concentration required for maximum
yield and SMK of Florunner peanuts, no
work has been done to determine Ca require-
ments for producing high quality seed. An
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
study was initiated to identify soil Ca con-
centrations required for maximum yields
and to demonstrate the role of supplemental
gypsum in the production of high quality
seed of the Florunner cultivar.
On-farm experiments were conducted at
13 sites from 1987 to 1989. Treatments
included (1) gypsum, a common soil amend-
ment used to increase Ca concentrations,
topdressed over the row at the early bloom
stage at 500 lb. per acre, (2) and no gypsum.
Farmers followed their normal production
practices, except for the Ca supplements and
harvesting.
Yields were significantly increased when
gypsum was added at these sites if soil Ca
concentrations were less than 300 lb. per
acre. Yield did not increase for any experi-
ment when soil test Ca concentrations of
the check plots were more than 300 lb. per
acre. An increase in SMK percentages also
was seen at most sites that experienced yield
increases resulting from added gypsum.
Gypsum topdressing at early bloom gen-
erally increased seed Ca concentrations,
even on soils testing high in Ca. Seed Ca
concentrations ranged from 210 to 500 parts
per million (ppm) for check plots and 198 to
622 ppm for gypsum-treated plots. Only
two sites did not exhibit increased seed Ca
concentration when gypsum was applied.
Results of a standard germination test
showed that seed germination ranged be-
tween 55 and 99%. Supplemental gypsum
either had a positive effect or no effect on
Germination, 
%
Germination, %
120 -
100 -
80
60
40
100 2
Soil Ca, Ib./A
600 -
500 -
400 -
300 -
200
100 -
0
100
Fig. 1. (Top) Effect of seed calcium on germination. Fig. 2 (Bottom) Effect of
soil calcium on seed calcium.
germination. Germination increased due to
gypsum at each site that exhibited increased
yield from gypsum. Higher germination
rates also were observed at five additional
sites where no yield increases were seen.
Maximum germination was achieved at a
seed Ca concentration of 414 ppm, as
shown in figure 1.
These experiments also suggest that
more soil Ca is needed to produce high
quality seed than is needed to achieve maxi-
mum yield. Since the data demonstrates the
influence of seed Ca on germination, seed
Ca of the check plots was compared to soil
Ca. Data in figure 2 suggest that soil Ca
will affect seed Ca up to a specific con-
centration and then other environmental
factors, such as moisture, may have a
greater influence on seed Ca. For ex-
ample, seed Ca will increase until the soil
Ca reaches 438 lb. per acre, then variations
in seed Ca at this soil concentration or
higher may be largely due to moisture
variations.
Germination from the check plots also
was correlated against extractable soil Ca.
The critical soil Ca was estimated to be 492
ppm. Because of limited data and few soils
that are high and extremely high in extract-
able soil Ca, this value of soil Ca may be too
high. Furtherresearch may identify a critical
soil Ca concentration necessary to predict
whether peanuts grown on these soils will
produce seeds of high germination.
Hartzog is Professor and Adams is Associate
Professor of Agronomy and Soils.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
00 300 400 500 600 700
Seed Ca, ppm
.
Fl'
U]
Y = -659 + 4.62x- 6.07 x 10"3x
2
200 300 400 500 600
Seed Ca, mg kg'
1
3
S. C. HIRST AND D. R. DEVRIES
Do YOUNG LARGEMOUTH BASS COMPETE WITH
FUTURE PREY FOR FOOD?
prlrecl prey It r act tlt I ar cc
bot ass;, arid the pr eserice of
ef forts to increase bass t h l rate by stock-
igof oi~ari d thireadfini shad often fail.
I'hoigh IiyctyatrbtdtoCmei
tion 1( oric detxx eni larva x at arid larvxal
hass, recent Alahama ALrrcuirtural I:speri-
merit Stationt ,\ LS) researel inicates this
is not the case.
All isties unidcrgo tr-erie rdorS changcs
ini Sriii drng thicir lixes, he-innirie life as
cxtremtelv smtall larrxac Ist a leA millimeters
in lerngth. Alt hrs size fish are restricted, at
least for a period ot time, to feed orr srmallI
riiroseOpre or earrrsm1S. Such is iottplarik-
ton inir the wAate r. B~eeause tar 1-e rti h I ass.
as welcl as shiad. mnurst pass th r iuli a gapc-
imited tarvat stage. thlese Species mlay ec iri
pete for /otrlanktori at this triie. Auhrbiri
fislier ics r esearcelers ex~ariIned thiis poteni
tral tr cormpetitiori, arid the potential for
shad to hax e a riegativ r impact x ia comriipeti
tiori On their fuitirre predator, ini twxo Ala-
bama reser \ irs. Weiss Lake arid W\est Point
Lake, dnrrng 1991.
Larvxal shid, tarvxat largcnioitti bass, arid
/ooplarikttn we rc collected inshore arid
offstior e I1 tmes per wAeek ini both lakes.
hecinnirie, in miid-March (before tish
spax'A ned.arid coritinirine untit tarxat fishi
den sitires dcl ined to zero . In th tila~h, l arv at
fish arid iooptariktoi 'wcre identified.
coun ited, arid nicasirred. arid prey items Ifor a
sobsartpte of cacti Ifishi species we rc ideniti-
fred us ing a mirosscope.
Liirvat gizzar d shad we rc collected Ifirst
ini carlIN April in W\est Point ILake and ini
mid-tApr it ini Weiss ILake, 'ith peak denisity
occurring ini mitt-April (0.66 tisti/ii) in
West Por int I ake arid Bliiirig : May (0.33 fishi/
iii ini Weiss ILake. Larx at thIireadfliii shad
first atitiarccd in mid-ctApril ini Wrest Pin t
L ake arid ini tate-April ini Weiss Laike. Peak
larvxat thireadfini Shad densities were 4.2
fshi/mt in West po in t ILake ini tate-April arid
0.78 tisti/rr ini Weiss L ake ini ear lx May.
I ,ri\,lh~ts% \\cfiit cotllccied
ini WAest poii nt L ake on \pril
23, arid on Apr it 28 iii Weiss
Liake. IThus. the potenitia itol
comilpetitionr trir zooplaniktoni
clearly existecd. In both take
zoorplaniktoni densities droipped
to near icro wi thin a wAeck ot
peak tarvxat stiact densitires. miost
likelx clue to the treriiricoris
precdation pr essure 
cxci ted on 
-
zoopl an kton hy larxvat shad.
This turther suggests the poles-
tial for comipetition hetwAccin
Ilarx at Shiad arid Ilargerir iith Iiass.
To directix assess the po-
teniit i at I rirctllpet itioir. re Search-
erS used a diet oixerlap ideS
(Seti cncr s ide x) thiat ranges
front t) ([io diet oxer lap) tor I
( comlete diet oxvertap). T , pt
ratix a \ atne oh 0.6 or hiie
suggiests that comipetitioni foi
resonreS riirgtt be imiportarit.
assuingni that rCSOirreCS are
limiing In othStud 
laes, Larval 
sh
trrirtng Ii bitt std~taks, mouth ba
diet (ixertap \ aluis betxxe cciShad
andc bass niexer execeuectd 0.7, arid 'Aerc
ursually riucht less than this. idicatinie that
diet itvc rp is not extensive, arid that the
poteniit i at Itr coriipetit ion is riot gleat.
Sec cral tactoris likely reued the poteni
tial fr tomipetitionr betwAccii tagenionib
bass arid shad. F-irst, the greatest diet (1cr-
tap ticcurrecd wAhen zooplanktni densities
were higchest in the takes, suchi that resources
'A clast Iilimit ing at t hat tim re. Second,
tar\ ac rif these species tend tro occupy dif
tecrint areas of a take. %k ithi young bass re-
mia ininrg ini thle shal I(iAiiwi inhre areas 'Ahtil e
shact are moiirie abndcan t ini thte ottfshtore
ar cas. Firially, wh'len shad arid bass co-
Occurred, bass ate signifiearntly tar ger prey
itemus than cliii Shad. Ifurthier recduc i n
cliect ox citap cx en on those prey taxa on
whtichi thiey ox ci appcd.
Based on AAES results. the ruegatix e et-
tects ofi gizzard shad aniu thireacdfin shad that
ad do not directly compete with larval large-
ss (shown here).
arc somtrurm res seen in li akes anrd pon rds cart
no be attribiitei toi direct compitetitionr. Be-
canse shad and targeirroirli bass tend to feed
oili diffcrceit prey tax a diri thte per ioil of
rume t hat th[ey both feed ti It trplIan kton.
direct comupetitioni is not liket\ toi be an
imiipot ian t I eguiiattory fIor cc it[ lrargemiuith
bass ini systemis 'Aith shad. IHowevecrci be-
canse prcx ions research has inicicatedt the
iriptortanice of comupetitin hticteeci shad
and bluegeill (another irmpor taut prey fish
ii r xon h i ii ass), stiact max hir an r indirect
nueatixe efifect on laremouithi bass. bx re-
dcing the ox ailability of Smallrt binuilt as a
prey iem ii ir y ounrg large iii tn hiass.
Researchers cotinu iiie tuo Stuidy these
comuplex indirect effcts in research snp-
poirtecd by the Gareuic F 1ishtixsion of the
Atlabama D~epartmrent of ('inscrx at ionii
Hlirst is Giradclute Siciceri and DceVrics is As-
sisitant Prtofesstor cit Fisher ies and Allied
Acycac ultnics
A loboino Arl'rir urul UE-k1riiiewr .Station
P.M. BRANNEN AND P.A. BACKMAN
ON-FARM TESTS DEMONSTRATE
VALUE OF AU-PNUTS
SL I S otained on fams
trocliout tl lheamtx indcegU
P1111,a rule-based sy stemnft
leaf spot conitrotl on peainuts. ean i esult in
better disease eontrol and hipchei xields for
A labamnas peaitut tarners than calendar-
based appl icatnins.
I cal spot adxisories Ihax been dCe -
opedl ini Virtittia and Notth Catrolina, and
tni other staters are dex elopingo systems
to i educe Ifungicide usage and miak iplpir
tiolts itore tiliilx. I uiicicidC
tiinig s\ stemts can impr~)oxe I'i 
Season
nancial returns di rectlx throtucli
reduced applicat ion csts often
wxith intproxed disease control.
and indir ectly ttrongh1 ireduced
ite daitaCe Iroml tractor traffic.
With these facks it inid
A U-Pimts wxas dCx eloped by the
Alabama Acricultmial I":\peti-
mcitt station. D~esicncd to trigei
fungicide applications based oii A
teed, as opposed to a set sched-
ule. At-Pmtts of teit reduces thle
AU-Pnut
itumhier of applications during a
pcm ut- croxx in 1 seas ii.
AU-Pmttts utilises xx o actixi
tics wxith wxhih ItCx ry fartmer i
famtiliar: checking wxeathiet foic-
casts oin a regulat basis and usingc
a1 rain cu1e. The sx stemits so
simitple thtat onily a caletndat and a
rain cn cc1- are iteeded to in tthe
tested in f oui souhr sae
from 1989-1 991. Reutin-
cated thIiat AllPt is Pt so
lave to va~rying eliae.Iad
dition, use of'A Pmt al.?
coitntif of b iii eatl n at ef +
spot. IT hough AUP t P a
per formed wxelf ntes ml
I cii produicers staritedt ini the cleat
oitsii iion. hilt three chopped out due
to faiiluiie io tollowx Al.-Pitts actsiso-
ties and other techieal pi ohlens.
AU-Pnut
fungicide
plot tests. there wkas 110 inforniatiton its1 use
inl actual farmi situationts. In 1991, on annr
studies yWLec conducted xx tit seen pauwt
produers' in tixC e unmiies in AlI bania.
On-I arm ex alt ions req lireciid i ~lna-
tion and ti aine ol count acents and
Voluntci pr odueris. The National Weather
Serxvice pr oxided wc ather forecast in for-
mtation lor the predictix e potion of' AU-
P11Ik., aind this infol nation wAas delix LId to
pr odueris \ it a toll Ire phone serx ice and
anlaansxweiring nmachiine. AlU-Pnunk plotk
'u i l I ' Of 1-11 J~ee of pi) C i~l I. CII
-iong infection levels
Q Conventional
B C F H J
Form
s versus conventionat scheduting of leafspot func
s helped peanut producers more efficiently time I
applications.
phot wxas comtpat ed to the renaindet (of the
field trcated by ft1 m1ci-S ustnc their conv en-
tittal fungicide pi ocram.
fDui in the 1991 test seasont. sping raitns
ti geredl eatrly applications wxitht AU-Pmitts.
Intitial sptaxys xwere mtade ott ax crage at 33
days-after-platinti (DAP) in itoirotated
fields andI 36 DAP\J in totatedl fields coi-
pared to art ax erage of 41 DAP fot the cutit
xciitional progami. Eii licr applications.
%dIItt treqfuested by A.-Pnuts, of teit ic-
suilted in mnajor dif fetences itt disease con-
uit Subsecqcent applicattonts wxcrc cot dl-
itated xx ith intfectioin periods The
axetage2 numhter of I utigicide
appi catioins xxith At -Puultsatuf
convxenthional piociats wxas 5.6
audIl 6.0). respectix ely.
_______ Ot the tat ris itt wxhich AU-
lPttuts xxas suICCessi nLII utilised.
tecombinationi of earlittess anid
tieliness resulted ini si enilIi-
cat i mprox ed season-lonig
diease cotioli ( scc graph). Ott
P axer age, Al Hut phits had 10'%
less infection bx end-of-scasont.
No fatites (fithe xl. Rnk s ss
gicides.
tent xxe ireported. and y ieldcs
wxete higher (258 lb. per acre) itn
fouri tf fix e fields itn xxliich x iclds
%x crc coimpared.
filec streincth of the AU-Pmuts
>x stem maxy hc its abili ty to help
in inakitte x ise decisions. Untder
tinormnal' xx atiher conditionts.
AU-Pmuts mtay oftetn sax c spraN 5
due to timeltitess. In heaV x aint
fall years. AU-Pmnts mtay call
j lor mite spray s thtain a Cottx ci
" tiottal 14-dax schedule. Based
4: tt research rcsutlts aitd sugges-
tiotis ftrm piodlucetrs. AU-Pmtts
xxas rev isedl lot limited trelease in
992. For ittfIotrmatio ott Otudsc of
Al J ^ AUPunts ini 1993, conttact your
:4t j local couty Exteinsiont Serxvice
< office.
'B'al hi(titn is it (iaduitie RCs'aiClt As-
eaf spot sistni aind Baickmtant is, Pofessoi of
Plant Pathohxs_
A la/aniU A toiclItui-a~l I. pIee-invent .Stationh
L.I. CHIBA
A SIMPLE ULTRASOUND INSTRUMENT IS EFFECTIVE
IN PREDICTING BODY COMPOSITION OF LIVE PIGS
A SSESSING the body composi-
tion of live pigs is important in
making selection and marketing
decisions and in swine research.
At present, ultrasound instru-
ments can be used for this purpose, and
research indicates that these machines do
not have to be expensive or complex to be
effective.
For routine application of ultrasound in-
struments, practicality and efficiency of op-
eration can be as important
as predictive 
precision. 
UltrasoU
Although ultrasound mea-
surement of cattle may
need more complex, real-time instruments
that produce cross-sectional images, one
or two backfat measurements taken by
simple machines are likely to account for
most of the variation in carcass lean of pigs.
Therefore, less expensive instruments that
are easy to operate may be well suited for
application in the swine industry.
A recent Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station study evaluated the use of a
simple, digital readout ultrasound instru-
ment that is capable of measuring only
backfat (BF). The results were compared
with recently published reports that used
more elaborate real-time ultrasound instru-
ments.
These results were similar to values reported
for real-time ultrasound BF and actual car-
cass values (0.44 to 0.94, -0.62 to -0.83, and
- 0.27 to -0.35 for carcass BF, percentage,
and weight of lean, respectively).
One use of BF measurements is to include
these values in prediction equations to esti-
mate important carcass traits, such as weight
and percentage of lean. The usefulness of
such equations can be evaluated by estimat-
ing coefficients of determination, which
nd machines do not have to be expensive to be effective.
The study used 177 crossbred pigs (Lan-
drace x Hampshire x Duroc). When pigs
reached market weight (201-274 lb.), ultra-
sound BF thicknesses were measured about
2 in. from the midline at the third rib, last rib,
TABLE 1. MEANS AND RANGES FOR ULTRASOUND BACKFAT OF LIVE PIGS
AND THEIR CARCASS TRAITS
Mean
Item Gilts Barrows Range
No. of pigs ............................ 88 89
Average backfat
1
, in.
Ultrasound........................... 0.86 0.91 0.51 - 1.38
Carcass ................................ 1.19 1.23 .83 -1.68
Carcass LMA
2
, sq. in............. 5.52 5.18 3.85 - 7.60
Carcass lean, lb ...................... 87.7 84.9 69.8 - 108.2
Carcass lean, %.....................53.8 52.4 46.7 -59.9
1
Average of measurements at the third rib, last rib, and last lumbar
vertebra.
2
LMA = loin (longissimus) muscle area.
TABLE 2. EXAMPLES OF PREDICTION EQUATIONS BASED ON LIVE ULTRASOUND
BACKFAT MEASUREMENTS TO 
ESTIMATE WEIGHT OF CARCASS 
LEAN
1
'
2
Item Equation R
2
Gilts
Lean (lb.) = -1.53 - 36.78 x ultrasound backfat (in.) 0.83
+ 0.527 x slaughter weight (lb.)
Barrows
Lean(lb.) = 4.43 - 26.93 x ultrasound backfat (in.) .78
+ 0.404 x slaughter weight (lb.)
+ 0.078 x age (days)
IR2 = coefficient of determination; can range from 
0 to 1, and it
measures how much variation in the dependent variable (lean) can be
accounted for by the model or by knowing the values for the independent
variables (ultrasound backfat, slaughter weight, and age in this table).
2
Standard deviations for the regression models were 2.96 and 3.10
lb. for gilts and barrows, respectively.
and last lumbar vertebra.
After slaughter, carcass BF
thicknesses were measured
at the midline of the same
positions. To estimate
weight and percentage of
carcass lean, warm carcass
weight and BF at the tenth
rib and loin muscle area
(LMA) also were deter-
mined.
Carcass traits of the study
animals are presented in
tablel. To evaluate the ef-
fectiveness of an instru-
ment, carcass BF and lean
meat were related to live BF
using mathematical corre-
lations. Correlations range
from 0 to + 1, with correla-
tions closer to ? 1 indicat-
ing the two measurements
are very closely related.
In this study, average ul-
trasound BF was highly
correlated with average
carcass BF (0.82) and per-
centage of lean (-0.79), and
modestly correlated with
weight of lean (-0.32).
range from 0 to 1. In general, the larger the
value, the better the equation.
Examples of prediction equations for
weight of lean based on average live ultra-
sound BF are presented in table 2. Equa-
tions for gilts and barrows had values of
0.83 and 0.78, respectively, indicating
that 83 or 78% of the variation in weight
of carcass lean can be accounted for just
by knowing ultrasound BF and weight of
pigs (plus age for barrows). Other equa-
tions to predict carcass BF or percentage
of lean had similar values.
Values for recently published equations
based on real-time ultrasound BF varied
from 0.31 to 0.64, 0.39 to 0.63, and 0.34 to
0.83 in predicting carcass BF, weight, and
percentage of lean, respectively. Measuring
ultrasound LMA is not likely to improve
prediction equations.
In summary, the relationships between
live ultrasound BF and actual carcass val-
ues observed in this study were similar to
those reported for real-time ultrasound in-
struments. Likewise, prediction equations
based on ultrasound BF measured by a
simple instrument were equal to or better
than those reported. The results indicate
that the use of a simple ultrasound instru-
ment capable of measuring only BF is a
practical and effective means to estimate
carcass traits and composition of live pigs.
Chiba is Assistant Professor of Animal and
Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station6
K.B. BULLOCK, D.L. HUFFMAN, W.B. MIKEL, AND W.R. JONES
BULL MEAT HAS POTENTIAL As A RAW MATERIAL
FOR Low-FAT GROUND BEEF
C ONSUMER demand for low-fat
meat products has prompted the
beef industry to seek alternate
sources of lean meat. Meat from
young bulls is extremely lean,
but it has not been widely used in the
United States for a variety of reasons.
However, research has shown that bull meat
may be a feasible source of lean meat for
ground beef formulations.
Producing young bulls can be less ex-
pensive than producing steers because of
reduced management requirements (castra-
tion, etc.). However, producers have been
reluctant to raise young bulls in feed lot
situations because they are concerned that
aggressive behavior among the animals
might increase other management inputs.
Packers also have been unwilling to pay
premium prices for this meat because of
inconsistent supply and because consumers
have indicated negative perceptions about
the sensory qualities of steaks and roasts
derived from young bulls. However, little
information has been available about the
acceptability of bull meat as a raw material
for ground beef formulations.
An Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station study was initiated to compare sen-
sory properties of low-fat ground beef from
raw materials containing the same amount
of fat but derived from steers or heifers,
cows, and bulls.
For the study, four low-fat ground beef
products were manufactured: special (steer
and heifer) trimmings, cow trimmings, bull
trimmings, and a combination of (50/50)
bull and cow trimmings. All low-fat ground
beef treatments were formulated to standard
AU LEAN
TM 
specifications (10% added
water, 0.5% carrageenan, 0.4% encapsu-
lated salt, and 0.2% hydrolyzed vegetable
protein). After manufacture, patties from
each treatment were evaluated by an un-
trained consumer sensory panel and a trained
sensory panel. Tenderness and color stabil-
ity measurements were taken.
No differences were found among treat-
ments for consumer
acceptability rat-
ings. The trained 
Acceptability
sensory panel found 6.0
no differences
among treatments
for juiciness or ten- 5.2
derness, but rated
the 100% bull meat 4.4
treatment greater in
off-flavor. How-
ever, panelists ex- 
3.6
pressed no prefer-
ence for cow meat
over a combina- 2.8
tion of bull and
cow meat. Trained 
2.0
panelists also found
no differences a- 
Lean color scc
mong treatments 8.0
for toughness (con-
nective tissue), fla-
vor intensity, and 6.8
overall acceptabil-
ity. The typical
(steer and heifer
trimmings) low fat
ground beef was 
4.4
tougher when com-
pared to other treat-
ments.3.2
The standard low
fat ground beef was 2.0
rated lower in sub- T T2
jective lean color
scores, while other FIG. 
1. (Top) Consum
treatments did not = extremely like), and I
differ from each 
low-fat ground beeft
differ from each mings, T2) 
cowtrimm
other. Treatments cow trimmings.
FIG. 2. (Bottom) Lean
containingbullmeat 
brown), and percent d
were rated lowest in Treatments; T1) lean
percent discolora- 
bull trimmings, 
T4) 5C
tion, while the typical low fat ground beef
was rated highest in percent discoloration.
Results of this study indicate that bull
meat can be used as a raw material for low-
fat ground beef, particularly when mixed
with other raw materials. This may open
er acceptance scores (1 = extremely dislike, 10
Kramer shear force values (kg force/g sample) of
reatments. Treatments; T1) lean special trim-
ings, T3) lean bull trimmings, T4) 50/50 bull and
color scores (8 = extremely red, 1 = extremely
liscoloration for low-fat ground beef treatments.
special trimmings, T2) cow trimmings, T3) lean
)/50 bull and cow trimmings.
new markets for Alabama cattle producers
interested in producing young bulls for meat.
Bullock is former Graduate Research Assis-
tant, Huffman is Professor, Mikel is Assistant
Professor, and Jones is Professor of Animal and
Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
R.G. NELSON, D.B. ROUSE, L.U. HATCH, P.B. MEDLEY. AND G.F. PINTO
ECONOMICS OF PRODUCING AUSTRALIAN CRAYFISH
IN ALABAMA PONDS
Male (back) and female red claw.
FI)(L.AWai Atixtialmancta)lixli.
I sK hax t hc piotenat 
iaI ti i le a coiiiiiirc 
ialI
ailuactiltuiial cirop in Alabama. It
hiax sex cial adx antacx ox er natix e
ciaxl'ixh in that it is larger. ix ax ail-
ablc in xunticiand fall, and hias hiicher neat
yield. IHoixevxer, receit Alabama Acr-icU1
t1ura-l Experm nt Station (AS) rexcarch
indicates xtockiig rate xxill be critical toi
miI ii/c pirofit.
A foicux iif AAES piind tirialx xxax to
dleteriiiinc aii appiripriate xtiicking densiity
liii red claxx in ponids. Finiding the right
Ntolckiing densxitx is a colmmplex priibleim in
cmraxisNh cumltumi bicauixe crowxxdine xliixx
crilxtli ratc, Catixine inre- xi/c x armatmon at
harxvext. Variation ini xize alxii ciimplicatex
file econmnuiic anal xxis bccansc conxtiimerx
wxill pt> mu tchI more pci ptmtind Ifir at 1c
xiel I lih thlin liti small o nes.
A fairly detailed eco-
noiiilC aiialx xis (inclngii es
tiniatcd nmarket prices by size
class of craxfish ) is nccexxai x
to conve rt t he b oloLicAl
x hicli stock inc, dcnitit is miost
protlitable. Tiles I and 2 arc
in tiCh abbi \ Iatcd x LI .m a
of one suich econtimic Mnly-
Table I showxs the we i cht
hiirvested in each of sx\ xizc
classes lor the threce dilfferent
stocking, densities tested, ax
we ll as the total wxeight anit market prices
by sizc class. Surx ixal axveraged ox er 701%
at all thiree densities. Thc size classes xx rc
c hosenl x ii cons idcirablIc car c in an attcmpt
to acct ratel Iricpreent thle im arket fir a cray-
fis sl pcc ics t hat hiax inot bcen iiso ld ex\tel-
sivecly in thec t. , and for wxhichi there airc no
cstablishcd viarket piriccs x ct.
Peeler, lixc-nial kct. aiid cxport classex
Coirexpondc ti t hos us L ed in Loi i ana ay-
fish mar ketx. Cunrrently thcic is little infoi-
mationi to xnggcxt that rcd Claxx xxonld ic-
ccix e highei1c piccs than ILonixiana craxlixli
at thexe xizes. The jumbo ,si/c hax no cloxe
xnbstitutcs Nil pices xxr cie t imidwxax be-
twe en the twxo neairby classex. Small lolbstei
pricex wx rc extab lished fr omi liited infori-
mat ioii on ired cIawx sales ini t he N cx EnglIan d
area and tiirom publishbed imiarket piricex for
scampi and ot her xmallI lobxteirN.
Ti III 1. f ItiX lVi 1li xJi, NI Xttt I~:r hot ix Rii Si/i Ci xxx
tneIIcei XX t
Matiket laN Wi cli ttarkci 4.0I0 II .0()0 10.0
(,) I)A,/lb.
x'ecktC
LIXc 11, c ..i
k X) t l ........
tu h .. ttI ....
SmialIll ltet .
Ttl)X it. Ift
0.--0.
... .. .8 1.
... .. . I 1. 2
Analysxis of the harv ext data fromii table I
indicatex that red Cloxx cuilture likely wxould
not be pi olit ah IIcnnderifthe Ci ndlit ions of0 thle
I1991 pond trialx. xx hlich wx cie hantdicapped
bx the xmall xi/e of jx eniles at xtocking
(abont 0.01 I im) and the irclatix ely xhort
ci oxx in Nscaxsoi ( 158 daysx). I Ioxx cxci-, these
colnstrainits prillabl> caii hc ox ccime ci-
tlicrh bstockiiig larcer tuenixci cx0.25 ol/.).
ior bx extendin ite croxx in iccaxoni uii t
covxered tnurxer' ponits iii locatinig lirtituc-
titli pondx in imic xouithci ly ciluntiex ( to
add 20 oi iiitri ccioxxiinc d~axx).
Because tlis xxax an exlormatolry aiialxsis
of the potential liii commeicializiiic ied
claw, a sccond analy xix wxax cimidnctcd uiii
d~er the axxnuimpt io n that fliclei prtldLction(li co
xtiaiiitx cild be xnllicieotlx ox ciconic tio
alloxw at oniie ClcIass intc reaxe iii the dlistri-
btitii m at Iiarx ext. The icsu Itsx are xluii n a-
rized ini table 2, xxhichi xhoxxs a much mire
promiiig titiltmik lor cimiilnet cial culture
of ied claw. Usxiiig the 12.0)00 pci acre
xttockinig Ldeiixit sceiiaio, net retuirns tio
mana ement xxiold be rouchlxy 1x
5
,1000 a
cear foi at i d Claxx farm ol abonut 51) acrex.
Thix wxould ireqire an ixvextiment of iover
100.0)00 anLd annual ilperatinc costx ill
51I45.000l~ on 50 acres. Acain it shiould be
eiiphiaxizetd that produlctiioi Coslts ;iiid
pr ofitx arc hiypothietical, bnt rexearch ix
cuirrenatl Iutntderwxay at the AAI S to refiiie
thiexe extimiatex.
NelsonIx. is t~~tant Pimitcsxit tif A2\-Cit.LlUr 11
Ir~mtir tuu Ret itI S0L'Itlote Riuttxc IN s
soittate Profinessort of
T ywti 2. Pttti\iti \xirknm. Ptt)It Pit. Aci roI I
F t Nix t( Xktr lStOI ts XXXrnr ht H~ \I\R%]t Cnxt
[fit xe t Meldi andi
tocki detl~' nit~t
Ttal to tiIil dol/a..
t'rtl I o ./ I .........
11),A' t L ~ IL.l.
.... .204 3.705 4.392
I13 2X)Q00 4103
... 407 8l95 359
F isherie ax~nd Allied
Ayluacu lturcx: Hatch
IN \xxtia it Pi tc-
I il Soilo mgy: Med-
cx I iii tiler Gradu-
tc Rcxaarch ANsis-
Griduatc ResechI
Assixtant iot Fish-
eies c and Allied
Ayl acu tltuiii s.
\ lhn ut iulu -l I x/ii'ril (i')l Station
D.I. BRANSBY, J.L. HOLLIMAN, AND J.T. EASON
HUGE WEIGHT GAIN INCREASE FROM DEWORMING
CATTLE ON INFECTED FESCUE
SEVERAL management 
tools are
the neeatis effcits ot fescue tox-
cosi i n cattle, biut miost hasve not been
'Aidely adopted or Successful. Cur-
re It research at the Al abamia A ericultuital
F x pet tue 01 Stati(on idicates a more Cco-
noiltcal and eff ectis e tool may be ti-eat toe
cattle 'Aijth isvermectinI, which reduces the
oezatise eff ects of fescue toxicosis.
Tall tescue pastureS infected wAith the
litut is Ac ce ton in cu toelto/I/ i/l are
toxic to cattle aild cause lowA 'Aweit gain'.
[utngus fi cc5arteticS atnd mlatnaemtl t tech-
nitncS that itlitte the ill-eftects of titfected
fescue ate asvailtable, thoiugh these (Iptionts
atrc tnot atl'Aays pt-act ical foI r produtce rs.
Itn experimletnts at the B lack Belt Substa-
tiont (BBS), Matio fI u nction, atni the Satnd
Moitttaitn Substation (SMS), Crossville, it-
cteaseid 'A ight ga ints it] cattle graz ing tall
fescue and treated for 'Aornms 'Aitt] iver-
meet in Scemed lareer than coli be expected
m~als. Tits cit tresearchecrs toI take a closer
look at tive rmectin twth'l]ch is at broad spec-
tan de ' (rtlm ig agenit that is asvailtable in
injectable or p( lit n (I]ort iiittatiot]'.
lIn 1991 an~d I1992 steers 'Aitt] atn int]tiat
'Aeighto(f 500-6]0011lb wetre grazed ont high~ly
infIectedl fescue (over i)0% of thtle plants
conttainedi the fuitnguiS) at the BBS. Each oft
foitr 2-acre pastittes was graz'ed by thriee
croIssbred steers. provi ding a stoceking rate of
1.5 steers per acre. Steers it] two oIt the
pastuireS 'Aerc trteated fo~r 'Aortms' 'Aith
grazttng atnd 56 days later, wh~ile steers it] the
otlher two ( pastures 'Aetre noIt treated for
wAormns. Animlals h~ad tree access to tmit-
eral blocks bitt receiv ed tno teed Sutpple-
mletnt. Grazintg started it] M~arch atni cot]
titnieid for 99 anld 84 days ttn I1991 andi I1992.
trespecttively.
Atnothler experitmetnt 'Aas coniditted it]
I1992 at th~e SM S 'Ahlete sitmilar Atngits atnd
Artgits x H-ereford steers grazed 2-acre fes-
cue pasttites at th~e satme stockitng tate. This
experimtetnt inludtied itrteated cotrtol atni-
noat, atnd anit]]ats trIeated 'Aitt] ci-
thet svetrtmcctitn itnjectiont or
feinbendazole adin~tistered orally
itmtmediately betotre girazitng
starteid atnd 56 day s later it both
itnfected atd ulitgits-itrcc pastut-es.
endied 140 days later. The-e wet-e
two r-eplicate pasturtes for each]
tt-eattmetlt. ttn both experitments, ____
atnitmals were wAeigh~ed 
every 28
(lays and Sat]pleS of tmatnire 'Acre
obtainieid friom each animal for
'A (rm] cc" counts (wAhic] teflect
'Ao(rtm bittdells it] th~e anlimlals) at
the etnd oIf thle experitmetnt.
In preiesouts ex(peritments at th~e
BBS. average daily ints (ADG)
ty pical ly hav e beetn aroittd I1.0 lb.
Treatmtent oIt steers 'Aitt] isver-
tmectinl increased ADG by. (It
average, 0.87 lb. (2?1 lb. 'Aith
ivei (rut
isvermclctitn vs. I.38 lb. 'Aithout ing fun
isvermtinett).
Treatmeint 'Aitt] ivertmectint reduced
wo'(rtm egg coutnts by, ont asverage, 891I4 (10
'A'1,1t1 ecu>, per gram of m]atnure 'Aith
isvertmectitn vs. 88 eggs pet gtam 'Aithoit
ivertmectttn). Esven thoitgh iv'ettmectitn t-
ditced wortm burdens. ssoirt] egg couittts ot
conttroIl atils in t thts Study at-c contsidered
low' fromtl a clinlical poitnt oft sview (2100 eggs
per graml is cotmt]otnly the thrteshould abosve
wh~ich treattmetnt for woIrm]s ts ecIoomically
feasible), atni the respontse of ADG to treat-
t]etnt 'Aith isvetrmctitn sect]]s largcrthan 'Aouild
be expected ftrotm ssorm] control alone.
At SMS ivertmectin] in~creased ADG by
0.66 lb. (1.35 ss. 0.69 lb.) (It itnfected fescue
atnd by ontly 0.212 lb. (1.44 vs. 1.22 lb.) on
fitngits-free fescue. It] conttrast, fenbendazole
did no(t prosvide sim]ilarrtesults. Futhertmote,
atnimtals treated 'Aith isvermlectin tont itnfected
fescite sho'Aed reduited visual signs (It tes-
cite toIxicousis. This Sitggests that is ettmectitn
coitld base soutme atiifescue touxic(Isis ef-
fect besides its atnthelminitic action, and
conv]5ersely. ttntected fescite couild teditce the
efficacy out tetbendazole.
h- dted rttp) cl. wilt eated steers butt) graZ-
gus inected fescue.
Wourtm egg coIunts also 'Aert low itn the
SMS expernit]tt atnd showed no( clear-
spontse to) tr eatmenCtt, although there 'Aas a
tetndency four low'Aer colunts on! fuingitS-tree
tescue. Otnce agaitn. itncreases it] ADG 'Aete
contsidcrably lat-ger thatn wouild be expected
fromtl 'Aortm cont-ol alone.
It] concliusiont] tr eatmenCtt oIt steers grazttng
itnfected fescite 'Aitt] ivertmectinl provided
tar-ge itncreases it] 'Aeight gain: ot] averace.
atnttmals tr-eated 'Aith ivetrmectin] oIt infecteid
fescite at the BBS 'Aet-e 80 lb. heasviet thatn
itntreated atnitmals by the etnd (It tlh experi
tmen~t, and at th~e SMS they were 92 lb.
heasvier. Wetgh~t gain response to ivertmcctitn
on funt]CiS -ree fescue atni to fetnbetndazole
(It itnfected fescite 'Aas t]uich stmaller. Fu-
ther research] is necessary tou establish]
consistetncy of these resitlts 'Aitt] steers atnd
to determine 'Ahether sttmilar trespounses cat]
be expected with] nitrsitnc catsves.
Brt n shy is Protessor (It A gronomn and Soils:
Hotlima1n is Suinte n lOdet. Blacmek Belt Sn hstai
tiln: Eaoson tis Suipetrinttendenlt, San~d MIutinI
Suhistationt.
Alabmt Agi-i-u/un-al E.xperiment Stationl
fi
H.W.KINNUCAN, W. ZIDACK, M. VENKATESWARAN, AND 
L.U. HATCH
CATFISH
ADVERTISING IS
PAYING OFF
F OR the last 
5 years, the catfish in-
dustry has been conducting advertis-
ing campaigns aimed at increasing
awareness and consumption of cat-
fish. A recent Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station studyindicatesthatfund-
ing these promotional campaigns has been a
valuable investment for the industry.
The promotional campaign began in
April 1987 after feed mills in Mississippi
agreed to contribute $6 per ton of feed sold
to finance a promotional effort. Additional
resources for market promotion became
available in July 1989 when Alabama feed
mills began a $2 per ton assessment. Cur-
rently, catfish producers spend about $1.5
million annually on market development
activities, primarily media advertising.
To determine the effectiveness of catfish
advertising, two separate analyses were con-
ducted. First, cross-sectional data from a
nationwide (except Hawaii and Alaska) sur-
vey of 3,600 households were
used to assess individual con-
sumer res . The survey
was conducted approximately
1 year after the campaign be-
gan. The second analysis
traced changes in catfish con-
sumption across time, from
1980 to 1989, including 7
years (1980-86) of no indus-
try advertising and 3 years of
relatively continuous advertis-
ing (1987-89).
The cross-sectional analy-
sis examined various issues re-
lated to catfish consumption,
including relationships be-
tween consumer characteris-
tics and awareness of catfish
advertisements, farm-raised
catfish, and beliefs aboutprod-
uct attributes (whether catfish
is considered nutritious). Be-
liefs about product attributes
were linked to the consumer's
attitude toward catfish (rating
of catfish compared to other
fish and seafood), and attitude and advertis-
ing awareness were linked to purchase fre-
quencies. This approach permitted a de-
tailed analysis of how the promotional
campaign affected consumer perceptions
and purchase behavior.
Simulations of the cross-sectional model
were conducted assuming that consumers
were either aware or unaware of catfish
advertising. Results suggest that the adver-
tising campaign in its first year: increased
consumer awareness of farm-raised catfish
by 15%, improved consumers' perceptions
of and attitudes toward catfish by 3-6%, and
increased at-home and restaurant purchase
frequencies of catfish by 12 to 13%.
The second analysis used equations de-
The advertising
campaign in its
first year:
increased
consumer
awareness of
farm-raised
catfish,
improved
consumers'
perceptions of
and attitudes
toward catfish,
and increased
at-.home and
restaurant
purchase
frequencies of
catfish.
scribing farm-level catfish
supply, wholesale-level de-
mand, processor inventory,
and farm-wholesale price trans-
mission. Advertising impacts
were obtained by simulating
the model with no advertising
and with advertising equal to
the average expenditures for
catfish advertising during the
1987-89 period.
Results of this analysis
suggest the advertising cam-
paign had a larger effect on
price than on quantity, as
shown in the table. Specifi-
cally, the advertising campaign
is estimated to have increased
price 6.7-8.2%, depending on
market level. The impact on
quantity is estimated at a mod-
est 1.3% at each market level.
Revenueincreases associated
with these price and quan-
tity estimates are 8.0% at the
wholesale level and 9.5% at the
farm level.
Cost/benefit analysis was conducted us-
ing a measure of industry profit called pro-
ducer surplus, which measures the net re-
turns to producers from advertising after all
economic costs have been subtracted. Based
on the estimated price and quantity impacts
discussed earlier, each additional dollar of
advertising was estimated to generate about
$13 of additional producer surplus. In
other words, the campaign during the
1987-89 period had an estimated benefit/
cost ratio of 13:1.
The issue of the optimal advertising
spending level was addressed assuming
that the industry wishes to maximize pro-
ducer surplus. Four factors critical to the
assessment of optimal spending levels were
examined: supply elasticity, demand elas-
ticity, advertising elasticity, and the interest
rate that could be earned on alternative
investments of advertising funds (opportu-
nity cost).
Results suggest that the advertising pro-
gram is underfunded. For example, assum-
ing an opportunity cost of 15%, spending
levels for advertising during the study pe-
riod should have been between 18 and 99%
higher than the observed level if the program
was to maximize producer surplus.
Based on these analyses, advertising has
been a profitable endeavor for the catfish
industry. Increases in the budget can be
justified on economic grounds. To raise the
funds needed to maximize effectiveness
and to eliminate inequities caused by "free-
riders" who do not contribute to the program
but benefit from the demand increases, the
state-based voluntary contributions can be
replaced by a mandatory industry-wide
program.
Kinnucan is Associate Professor, Zidack is
former Research Associate, Venkateswaran is
Post-doctoral fellow, and Hatch is Associate
Professor of Agricultural Economics and Rural
Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
WHOLESALE- AND FARM-LEVEL IMPACTS OF CATFISH ADVERTISING, UNITED STATES, 1987-89
Simulated long-run
equilibrium values
Without With Absolute Percent
Market level, variable Unit advertising advertising difference 
difference
Wholesale
Price ................................ $/lb. 1.64 1.75 
0.11 6.7
Quantity ........................... mil. lbs./mo. 12.88 13.04 .16 
1.3
Revenue ........................... mil. dol./mo. 21.12 22.82 1.70 
8.0
Farm
Price ............................. $... /lb. .73 .79 .06 8.2
Quantity ........................... mil. lb./mo. 24.76 25.09 .33 
1.3
Revenue ........................... mil. lb./mo. 18.08 19.82 1.74 
9.5
10
W.B. MIKEL, D.E. CONNER, AND W.R. JONES
MAINTAINING EXPORT QUALITY OF 
CHILLED
VACUUM-PACKAGED BEEF
C ONSUMERS around the world are
demanding high quality fresh meat
products. Exports of fresh beef
(beef that has not been frozen after
slaughter) produced in Alabama
and other parts of the United States to
countries overseas are constantly increas-
ing. However, for products to be globally
successful, they must maintain their quality
for an extended period of time. An Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment Station
study has helped clarify limits and condi-
tions for extended storage of beef products.
Log 10 cfu/g
[ O Rib
7 * Loin
A Chuck
6 A Round
0 20 40 60 80 10
Time, days
FIG. 1. Aerobic plate counts of primal beef ci
for 128 days.
Because microbiological quality im-
pacts shelf life, research was initiated to
determine the microbiological character-
istics and shelf life attributes of vacuum-
packaged primal beef cuts during extended
storage. Twenty-four cuts each of top
rounds, strip loins, ribeyes, and chuck rolls
were randomly selected from a processing
plant in Alabama, vacuum-packaged,
transported to the Auburn University
Meat Science Laboratory, and stored at a
constant 30?F temperature. At 0, 25, 35,
49, 68, 82, 104, and 128 days, three
cuts of each product were evaluated for
package integrity (vacuum, air pockets,
purge, meat color, fat color, and odor)
based on industry standards. Microbial
analyses were performed on samples
aseptically removed from the surface of
each cut.
Samples were mixed and two 1-oz.
subsamples were obtained and analyzed for
populations of spoilage bacteria [aerobic
plate counts (APC), and psychrotropic bac-
teria]. Six steaks, 1 in. thick, were removed
from each primal cut for sensory evaluation.
All products were cooked to a final internal
temperature of 150?F and evaluated for ten-
derness,juiciness, flavor intensity, odor, and
overall acceptability. Tenderness and ran-
cidity values also were determined.
Overall, microbial
populations, including
APCs, remained steady
during the first 25
days of storage, while
psychrotroph levels in-
creased from 25 to 35
days and continued to
increase thereafter. APC
also increased after 35
days, particularly those
from the chuck, (see fig-
I ure 1). Maximum APC
S 120 140 values 
occurred at 82
days for the loin and
uts stored at 30?F round 
and at 128 days
for the rib and chuck.
Interestingly, these observed maximum
populations are concentrations generally
associated with early
signs of microbial spoil-
age. However, it should
be noted that factors
other than microbial
population are respon-
sible for the sensory de-
tection of meat spoilage.
Sensory evaluation
and shear force mea-
surements both indi-
cated that tenderness
was greatest for strip
loins and lowest for top
rounds and chuck rolls,
with all cuts becoming
more tender over storage time. Tenderness
of strip loins and ribeye rolls increased at 35
days. Juiciness scores were highest for strip
loins and increased at 82 days of storage
time. Flavor scores were highest for strip
loins and chuck rolls, and increased at 82
days of storage. Overall acceptability was
highest for strip loins followed by ribeye
rolls, chuck rolls, and then top rounds.
Overall acceptability of all products was
least acceptable at 0 and 25 days and most
acceptable at 82 days of cooler storage, see
figure 2. Detection of rancidity was highest
for top rounds and lowest for ribeye rolls and
chuck rolls. Rancidity values began to in-
crease at 68 days and were highest at 82 days
of cooler storage.
In summary, although some initial micro-
bial populations were above desired levels,
microbiological and sensory quality re-
mained acceptable throughout the study.
Thus it appears that these microbial levels
do not necessarily mean meat has spoiled
beyond sensory acceptance. However, it is
essential that strict temperature control be
maintained and that proper sanitation prac-
tices be followed to achieve maximum shelf
life of products destined for export.
Mikel is Assistant Professor of Animal and
Dairy Sciences; Conner is Assistant Professor of
Poultry Science; Jones is Professor of Animal and
Dairy Sciences.
Overall acceptability score
8.0 
Round
7.0 
l oin
[4Rib
6.0 L Chuck
5.0 -
4.0
3.0
1.0 0 25 35 49 68 82 104 128
Time, days
FIG. 2. Overall acceptability of primal beef cuts stored at 30?F
for 128 days.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
11
~J.D. NORTON, G.E. BOYHAN, B.R. ABRAHAMS, AND H.W. HUANG
NEW AU PLUM VARIETIES SHOW
DISEASE-RESISTANT BENEFITS
AU-Rubrum plums
HE FRESH market for plums is
ncireasing in Alabama and the
Southeast. anLd prox ides a potential
Souirce for cannedl pluimS.jams. anLd
jellies. A reason foi this increase is
the availability of disease resistant, high
y ieldin1g, high quial ity pluim xvarieties dex el-
opedl and released by Auibuirn Unixversity.
All the xvarieties Ldexeloped by the plum
br-edi ng program at Auibuiirn and released
by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station (AAES) in the past few years haxve
Ldemonstratedl good resistance to many coi-
mon pluim diseases. Frit iqufal ity Lof the
Auburn xvarieties, comparedl to other popuilai
plum xvarieties is shown i in the table.
Diseases hasve limited production of plumrIi
ini Alabama. becanse most commercial x ai-
eties aire susceptible to bacterial, fuingal, and
viral Ldiseases. Sources of resistance to bIC-
tei ial anLd fungal dliseases in nativ e pluims
xxere Lisedl in the early crosses. wh ile coi-
mer cial varieties prov ided Ldesirable qu~ality
attributes. Aftei the plum11 leaf scalLd disease
was discovered,. resistance to the disease
foundI in native pluims xxas Lised in the breed-
ing pirogiram.
Mu Lltiple Ldisease resistant varieties and
selections have been developedl for areas
that rceixe 700)-800 hours chilling belo\\
45?F. Approximately sexven seeLdlings are
currently being cx alumated for possible re-
lease by the AAES as named x arieties.
Obserx ations on fruit and tree character-
istics. disease. injuiry. anLd yield xxere made in
test plantings at Aumburn; E.V. Smith Re-
search Center, Shorter: Chilton Area Horti-
Cultuire Substation, Thorsby; Guilf Coast
SuLbstatioln, F airhope; NLorth Alabama
Horticultire Suibstation, Cullmnan: andl the
\ViregrasS Suibstation, Hleadlland.
Aui-Amber, AU-Cherry. AU-Produceer,
AU-Rosa, AU-Roadside, anLd AU-Ruibruim
V1 as
Al'-;a tbe .......
At -Ruhrt....
CSt. Rstn..i.......
IHoicesid ........
O,'.iik Pt miei ...
Fr unii Finess: 0-10)
al are either resistant or only sl ightly SuS-
~eptible to bactei al frilt and leaf Spot,
hactei al canker, and piLum leaf scald. AU-
wnhr xas highly Susceptible to black knot.
xx bile the other v arieties showxed no Suiscep-
tibility to this disease. All of the Auburn
xai ietieS wxere Slightly Susceptible to browxn
rot. In coinparisoin, Nethicy. M~or ris.
()iaik Premier, and Santa Rosa we rc more
Iu eptihle to many or al! of these diseases.
Rcommnended pesticide sprays wxere
.lpl icL to) the test trees. but Susceptible trees
aall l ocatjions showxed injuLIry Isiom birown i
rot. bactei al friit Spot. leaf spot. anLd can-
ker. Howxev er. injury from blaek knot wxas
Sexvere o~nly on Susceptible v arieties at the
('hiltonAi'ca HOI-rt~lule-Substation. Plum
leaf scald in!jury wxas recordled oni trees that
had been infected by doui~ble buddling wxith
infected wxooLd.
Tree x i or, lonexitx . anLd toleirance to
pluim leaf' scald aire piimaiy advxantages of
lie Aubuirn xvarieties. Ti cs (itthese resistant
Sai eties wer e observ ed to be x jeorouis
wxhere plum leaf scalLI wxas present. wxhereas
trees of suisceptible x arieties g1exx muich
slower. Tree vi gor is an iiiiportant factLor in
the Southeast, and plum leaf ScalLd is impli-
cated in phony peach Ldisease of pluimS and
peaches. Therefore, disease resistance of
these nexx xarieties is particularly important
fLorthe dev'elopment ofa stable and pirLotitable
plum industry. Short tree li fe, lowx piroduc-
tixvity. anLd Lindesirable fruiit characteristics
of susceptible v arieties make them Lineco-
nom ical for coimmerci al produict ion.
Promising newx pluim v'arieties and seed-
lings are a resuilt of the plum breeding pro-i
gram at Auburn Unixversity.
Teenew v'arieties have in-
2A~GRST7S r }Ll,\7V:RIFIF \TACCRN 
hsecreased producetivity 
and quality
Ft[ii ILit itibe Peak obtained 
by genetic improve-
Si/e timcsS, oid dal inent (host plant resistance) 
trin
h classical breeding strategies.
1.5 7? 
I8. 6/ 
They titter the possibility 
for
1.3 7.11 8.11 6/23 developing 
a commercial ship-
1. 8.0 16. 612 4 piiig iniduistry in the SouLth. Pro-
2.i 8.0 17.6 6/22 duction 
tor home, rtoadsidle, and
1.9 6.8 17? 6/23
1.9 8.0 I .6 6/t19 pick-youur-o~wni operatioins also
1.6 8.3 16.3 7/t0 shoumld benefit from these new
~ 16 1. 
/2I4 6.6 185 6/ xvarieties.
Ix 7. 13.4 6/'I0 Nonon is Professor, Box han
2.1 6.8 1 '.7 6/129 iS Senior 
Research Associate.
1. 7.7 16.7 6/
\ brahams is Techn iciaii, aiid Hunang
0 = Soitness; 10(1 firm ness. is Visiting Scientist of Humrticufitire.
A labanu A gricultural E.xpecrimnem ti Staition
T.A. MCCASKEY, J.T. EASON, D.A. HAMMER, B.P. PULLIN, V.W.E. PAYNE, AND D.I. BRANSBY
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS SUCCESSFULLY TREAT
SWINE WASTEWATER
NIMNI, w'astes can dii ectl\ a
wIatei tlualitN' par-ticular> in i
w~here liv estock andi pouiltiy
t duet i ii are highlN con 1Cft r
Dev elopinli innovI\ati\ C. lowA
hichiN elificient was~ite liafla(,eillet t
itologi cs is imporlitant to iiizlie
qutality problems andi 'till promlote pr
able agriculture. A\ itlo(lCl Cinstructedi
lantd is shi~ ilng poltenial for this I tti
('oust! netd wIet-
landts ale shaillow, '55riiT
car then deteintion
pohndts that lia\ hCben
pllanteti wIitli enmc
gent agjiatiC plants.
sueh aIS irel, bti I
itisli a nd Cattail.
Thle laniits Sei\ '' as, AmmorH)iII intic
attachntent sites t n No r Nitc-mie 
.~i
aid in wastewIaidr Chemicat o0\\ cn
ti eatilent. T otl 
illpcndcd
Sueh a Vwetlandi [00 palt ('0
wIas built at the Staidt
Mountain SubstationC('oss\ ilie. tocs al
tfeel tiniiousi\ to the Yo etlands at a rate of 5,600)
treas gal. per day 11, 720) gal. to each oif the fi\e
Pro- eel!ls in the first row
1
). W astewsater flowVIs
ited. througinh the first row
1 
into the seco ntl rowI of
cost, eells.
cel- Treatiment ciffieieneN es aluation ot the
ater wset lands sy steim cliuring a 22-mon11th pe ri od
of it- is showsn in the table. Nit ogen eontent of
we t- the diluted lagoon dliseharge w~as redueed
oni. fi om 50 parts pet tmilliotn (ppm) to 14 pp
1
D) WI ii 5511 W ASni iAll KR Tin '51 MENT EFIIENCY' FRinM
Nos I svi jR. 199(1. TIt (ill, At al sir, 1991
1 dcl.u ...iI
A l aid..... .
on-fr tilIw5etlandls teehlliligy fill treatmeil
iof wastewsater I rili swsinc lagoons. The
projec't is a cioiperative efiort betsseci the
\ labait Agien tuiral Esxpeimhent Station.
IT enniessee VallICy Authority. USDA-Sil
Conrservsationl Seirvice. anld Alabaila Dc-
T he ci llst I utt ICt I ltil(S site Coniitainis
twoi rilws 01' lii\C Cells, ill wetlantds, wIith
eachI cell melrasu rinig approim at ely 26 It.
wide' by 162 it. long (0.1 acre). These It)
Cells ileeupy abilut I acre. wIithl an atdtitioulal
0).5 acr (C of rassetd iov5erlanld iii VI aiea be 1 ss
the wsetlants.
WastewIater tio he fil teretd thllriuolh thI
wetcilaints is genleratetd by a 500-)pig-pcr-yeai
farrow-Itio-finishi olperation locatetd at the
Substation. Wiastewsatei is colilected ill :
tw5o-stage lagooini sy stem but, because la-
gililn VI stewsattr is hiigh in ainlinnia that
Could kill thle w~etlandis' aquatic plants, it is
coiinctdt wIithlu rsh w~ater Ii out a pontd
bet ole tdischarce intol the Vwetlandts.
D iluitedh wastewIater is iiiibtetl Cci-
17'
1181
II
(1
13
55citltlus
P( i
80) 14 2i3
5) 85 86
<1<1I -
1 69
7' II -'
336 104 69
40t~ 10 79
Researcher checks water quality monitoring
equipment.
aftet tteatnent. an 53'/ reduetion. Aiuliil
ila-n iti oc riIepresenlted 5) ' i of the tolt al
iltrIoge n eon tent of, the I agi (11 di scharge.
Ammonia at 100( ppmi or gireater is eonsid
eted toxic tio plants. so dilution of' the li-
coon wlVatei wIith friiesh wIate r appears tI be
wsise. Beeauise the lagoons are deep and
exelude oIxygenl essential lot eonversion of
ammonlliia tio nitrate. all itl ate-niti ocen de-
teirminatiltns shoss cd less than 1 111t11.
Total philsphlorous w5as reduced 69'%
anld biologc al oxygenil emand (13() ),
wIhteh imiasuries oX> gein Cioisiimptioni tur-
luga biololgical decompositioln. dcreased
Chermieal oxyg en tleniand ( ('()I))
decieased 69'% and total suspended sillitds
I"SS) deereasedl 79'7r
\ though gid tel ines has e not been es-
J bilshed for acceptable treatillnt of swinme
,t on ssastewsatet bs cionstr ucted ssetlantds.
ge neraly INw5atlessatel i lef ie shouild Con-i
tain less than 10 ppm P nlitiate-initriogen, 30)
ppm 1301). andt 30 ppm TS t5 ollowsinic
tleatmetlt. IData ini the table indieate tile
55 etlailts s5 stein aehies etl these measuires of'
He~asN rainfall ill the spring, high ter
peratiltes in the summer, antI the lack of
couetation iin the wsintet mas affect ssaste-
\5 aide trteatmileilt b\ we tliantis.I Diirini tile
wIinter monithls, wshell wsedtlns segetation is
idormlatt the Vwetl ands appeari toi be less ef-
teetis C in ieiiios ini nlitrolenl Ililn the ssastc-
ssatel. lDiscliai C fioim the \\ etlalds \\ as
mltiimal l)t nonijstenlt in the fall. w5hen
Constuctedl wetlandls presenly are lilt
aipproveti till tieatment an i lscharge of,
pirocessedl aimal iawiill 55 astes ater. but
ItIe effecti 5 ness (If this experimlental Ss-
ciim implies that thlese 55etlands can be elfec-
Ii vc and mtay has e potenitial foi appiroval.
iclnes: I a10n1i Suplinillticllt_ Sand Mtonlain
Suihstationl: t trCitie andl Pufii illie Poi( _.111 MNt-
a1c1 anlitloiist, ie'specliseis, WetClandls Re-
,cic and Diifte~ iopmleni. t ellilsse VIlle its\t
Sili Coiistn 5 1111 Sers ice: iint B i tish\ is Pt t s-
A /lhmnu A t,.io idlurol L \/1)o'rlltteltwStationt
on di,,chim-,c was diluted v irh 1 part pond o\ ater.
J.J. MOLNAR AND M.J. TRAXLER
WHO Do ALABAMIANS TRUST
ABOUT AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS
AND THE ENVIRONMENT?
A LABAMIANS care about the
safety of the food they eat and the
chemicals that enter the environ-
ment. Farmers receive training and
a great deal of information about
the products they use to protect their crops.
Nonetheless, media attention to unfortunate
events, real fears, and actual risks have
heightened concern about farm chemicals.
Agricultural chemistry is a complex and
difficult topic for most individuals. Thus, it
is important to examine the sources of infor-
mation people use to shape their opinions of
and reactions to farm chemicals.
As part of a national effort, a spring 1992
survey asked 213 Alabamians to rate their
level of trust in various information sources.
About one-third of those actually contacted
in the study were asked how much they
trusted each source about the impact of agri-
cultural chemicals on the environment. Re-
sults show the relative trustworthiness of
the various sources.
The figure shows large differences
across the 10 sources. The information
sources are ranked according to the level of
trust rated by respondents. Overall, univer-
sity professors were the most trusted source.
Advertisements were the least trusted. Less
than 25% said they trusted civil servants or
elected officials.
A number of important differences were
observed based on age of the respondent.
Young people (18 to 30 years old) tended to
trust television, professors, newspaper re-
ports, and radio stories more than their
elders did. Ninety percent of young people
said they trusted television documentaries
for accuracy on this topic-a high level of
trust.
Compared to younger respondents, those
over age 55 were more trusting of govern-
ment scientists, corporate managers, civil
servants, elected officials, and advertise-
ments. Only about one-third of the sample
said they trusted the latter of four sources.
Each has fairly clear interests in the issue
that seem to undermine their credibility
among study respondents. Finally, univer-
sity professors were more trusted than tele-
vision by the middle-aged and older re-
spondents.
The relative trustworthiness of informa-
tion sources is important for farmers and
agribusiness managers. They are concerned
about how their neighbors and customers
might react to an unforeseen event or scien-
tific finding about the impact of agricultural
chemicals on the environment. The data
suggest that balanced television coverage
is an important objective, particularly where
young people are forming basic opinions
about farming and environmental matters.
The findings also point to the relatively low
impact corporate managers and public offi-
cials can have in shaping public perceptions
of risk on this issue. As the nation continues
the struggle to reconcile the benefits of ag-
ricultural chemicals with risks to human
health and the environment, integrity and
balance must be central components of the
communication process over these issues.
Molnar is Alumni Professor and Traxler is
Assistant Professor of Agricultural Economics
and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Sources of information and degree of trust by Alabamians.
14
D.A. STRINGFELLOW, M.G. RIDDELL, K.P. RIDDELL, R.L. CARSON, R.C. SMITH, AND B.W. GRAY
IN VITRO FERTILIZATION CAN HELP SALVAGE
GENETIC POTENTIAL OF CATTLE
\\l COW()'\S ol hicil Lenctic
M omcrt m nust he culled I cmla-
IliICIN. hax ina Piotlcl~e t tox
noi caix Cs. ln itr 1tH) IIIiiatioii
tiles(- Lclx n iow pioxvideC a met~hod bI hN\ich
adi~ttiolllvest\C caii he Piodu'edI. and thux,
lsss from1 the gcneiic pooi can he reduCcdl.
Ii1n1( vilr Iriiiation ix the process
wxhic eggsO~ and sperm arc jineiid in an artifi-
ciaI lx nirilnmlent for the productioin ot III-
xpriig. Thle leelinliu \\ax Iriginallx C\ l-
o~ped to stui(I tactorix affctingC lerilizat(iin
alindi al\ min tencii e (It pregnan~ic. It has
heeni projected that IVF xxill he usxed ini aiiri
culIurC ft il tc Cmmiiircial Pi'(itlitoni it
calks anid toI circuili n CiiC!tilitx ini sC-
cral species ol livesxtock.
1IlrI toit eICtahlixh an IVF' pl'(ccdIni'C lor
catl IC ath tlC n haila Agr icilt oral F xperi-
ili Statiiii [Igali ini all 1991 antd theC
1 992. Earl reseCxar'ch at Au hurn fo(Cu(I xd oin
assessiiig the Ceaxihillit oit uiig IVF to1
IIrodultce cakl" Cro iiitcowsx that arc claxsif led
aiC aili that tlhe PrtI ce doIICC no~t it wxish
to Culll hit milult hecauxe they hax C hCComlC
itlfrilc jChax C xt ICIetI troii inftCtiousl hix-
Cascsil lii Cv itimiial t auiiaiC inIjuriCs.
SC\cfc dit~l(aily cox C0 (a~cs 2.3-7(1
CIri l CuIII fCLI ftti ileC daiy Ofnitx at fileC
k.V. Smlithi ReC',CaI (Center Shoter, and~
tli C olleee (It VeCeiniary Mdicinic. Auhuirii
I. Jiix ci ity. wCrC uised ini pI'Cliliila' st~ie.
COWSx \crC clld for a \ ariety oIt 'Casilns.
inluidingC miaxtitix, injury, andi r'Cpr'idutivx
Iai 1(11C.
Immiliaturl CUs CCCxxCi-C Collected Iro (li hC
oI\ariC\ oft licsc tl(Iiii" coxx. T he CC'g
wee C i tatedl ti ider SPC i a ICoind itI(ixn un-
ii li x~ \xeie mlaturC Cliotugh tio ferlIli/C.
iglN mitle spermi weri' sepai'ated f1(om1
"mlliin that hiatt hcICrto/Cli commrii ally
till I IuililC atlitfiCial iniinlationi. A\ Por11thin
il tli spetm ilw\as licated to(1iciid- it caple~~t
oIt tertilizationi (capacitation). The mlattlrC
ei.g ad 111ca pae it ated xperti xx eri i ne ihatedl
UteecthuinIl a lahoratn r111 foirh I iihool 16
ho(urs x NI eixxai'dx. the lteiiiet eggx xx etC
xxax l anld inC hat ed in anotIiher dishl.
An a ciagiC ofI 43.9 eggs per cowx xxcrc
clleteeed. Of thiese, an axeiragC of 15.
tettilized CCC\ hewantodvlpan5.
dexveloped tio a stage that eoold he placed
intio recipienits w.ithout xorgal'N. "Traiistei
abl cm1hrvo (Ixcr'C pro(dulcedhho Irn 16( il'he
I17 eo,,,,,. Based on the hi eedin viCxat te of
lix e oIt the donor cowsx and ax ailahilitx (It
recipientx. the deeision xxax made toi taiixfei
inle ot the hest quatit\ emhrto N o m t111 hese
cotsx tol recipienit cowxs thai had heeii xxii
etiron iiedl xo Cliroux ex Cles matehed thle
xtaix oIt dex etopiient of the eiihi\ ox. ]xx (I
enihiy xilxxxee tiaiixteiied xul~litdlN after
daxs ot Idex eopmeni. and xex en xx rl trani-
ieri edl iionu Ig ieat IN alter 6 oi 7 daxs of(I
wc re accontiptishtld xxidi an instrumient ii
tai til ani iniseinati(In Con. Fouir it the nite
recipienit cows x ecame piregnant, Cal 'N lg
'ales Isomi three (i thde fixe eull eoxx .
Alltioulth ul~lixcI ale ciihrxo (Ix xet pro-
dltced 11r111 al 11 ItiCn Cilxx thiere xxax n light
dcree It xf vaniahititx in titiihct'x ot cexl~
cec eted aiid c mhrN is piroduceed t tot each
cox. Tlii dlixidtial x aliahititx, alolliCtx ithi
the reaxln titr CuIIliii aiid x atue (I thle
P110(1(11lie atlI are factitol olixnittelat ii inl
tleteriiiniii" xxhethiei IV!' xtould be uised tol
pri uc It1cC e x i m a particu'lar c'I .
These teaxihititx xttiie ale onioing.
hutl due to fihe high degiee (it eai lx sxoeex
xwith eaeh Phiaxe of thle xx xtemi. IV is lCuii
ientlx (lIICIctI as a clinical ,eix lee 1o Ala-
hania eatihe produ~cersx through the C'olege
ill Veterinarx Me~dicine at Auhuin P nix e-r
xix x\ ith tahtiatoly x uppinrIt fr11m tfiCleDC
partiit of Animal I Icalthi Researeci.
Sit in'tel loxx kx .\ out I u' Ptolixxiu of
lPaihohioloyx NIG. Riddell lis Assxociat Proiiexxio
ofl I ai' Aimtal Surterx and Mediciitc. K..
RiddellI is Reccli AssIIcu(ill o Pt'ihoihtiiiliex
Carsont ix Associte P1 oitexxi of kIr A(C tnimal
Surgcr anx ld Mlcdicinc: Smtitht is SulpeintendentCl.
FA. Stiith Rcxcarch1 (CCt ll Dar nit: and Grix
lxis Pofesso of Anatiomp andi~ Iltxlop.
Eggs (magnified 25 times) that have been collected from the ovary of a cull cow, washed,
and are ready to be matured in the incubator. Note the ball of "nurse" cells that surround
each egg.
ry
I
Aiuhumu /AgI -ic ill/ar( Id F.x/)c 1-ilIw/II SlcuioI I
4
P.A. LEMKE, N.K. SINGH, AND M. PENG
GENETIC ENGINEERING OF AN
EDIBLE MUSHROOM SPECIES
U.CCESS in transforing edible
Species of fungi for improsved nutri-
tioinal s alue has the potential to
impact sienil cantlk up~on the
f0.d ind ustriy and to helIp reduice
glh bal huiinger. Mu shroo ciltCIIiv at ion te-
pe ndls on su hst rates, prim ar ily of hi odegrad-
ahle ssastes, requires little land, and the used
Substirate can he recycled to i mpros C agricuil-
tural Soil, So land reclamation and pollution
ahatement1 alIso may heneft
Recent ly, a noselI method of iitrodne in g
forei cn cenles into edihle mushrooms, in-
solving formation of' ssall-less cells (proto-
plastS) receptive to uptake and expression of
Iforeign genles, wxas dev eloped hy Auhurn
U niv ersity microhiologists. The introduced
gene is carried on a replicativ e plasmid
therehy increasing the lev el of expression in
the tr ansIfoirmed mushroom. These restilts
co mld ult imate ly led to the des elIopinent of
mnushr111 lmis genet ical Is enci neered for in-
creased food s alue. Candidate genes from
plant Sources inc Iutde t hose tor Storage pro-
telins, Such aS phasco liii or c in; or from
animal Sources. Such as genes for proteins
frm egg albhumnins or Serum inproteins.
Such research in genetically) modifying
mushirooms foi increased Iood s alue is en-
couraged hy a tecent decision hy the U9.
FoI od and Drug Adin iistrati on that Says
genetically engineered s egetahles iieed not
he suhjectetd to extraordinary testing proce-
tfures. The USDA wiill not require pre-
market clearance unless the nesw cirop has an
iwredment nes er ouind in food. Befoic this
ruling. it '.son lt hasve taken years to hiing a
gene t icalf y enrg inecered imuish roomi to inar-
ket after it was dev eloped.
While the miethodology d~eseloped hy
Auhurn Scientists thus fat- is concerned ssith
the oyster mnushroom, it conuld he a modl f or
gene tit iminpros emen t in ot hem groups 
of ed-
ihlc as wselI as nonedlihle f ungi. Desvelop-
ment oil the model is significant trom a
scienti fitc peirspective,. hecatise f ungi arc
more diff icuilt to transf ormi ge neticalIy than
hact eri a.
The oystci
mnus hr~o() m
has enotm-ino
mass cuiftis a A
tion owssing t(,
short 4-
for mtish -
room produc_ grain. This strain of oyster mu
tion andi an 
Auburn researchers 
to expre~
ahbiflity to torin inushrtoomns fro m SeN eta Iil
ferent kinds of stihstrate. including ahuti
dant agricultural and for-estr ssastes Sutch
as Stirass, sassdtust. and 1onluhet rade ti-ee
species. The ox ster mushroom does not
retqtiire compostetd suhstrates for cuiltisvation
antI is hecoming increasingly important as an
alternatisve to tradlitional mtushroom cultture.
Since ness mushroom svartettes antI species
at-c heing incr-easingly cultis ated, it ssill he
necessary to desvelop Superior methods for
prodtuctioni of these ftungi.
MIushrooms represent the only non-
photosynuthetic s egetahles constumed in
tquantity ss 0rkdsside. Tsso species. htttton
mushroom andu shiitake, at-c cultisvated exten-
sisvely. Commercial piroduction of' these
two species tduring 1983 was saluedl at Sf14
billion (940.000 tons) and $540) mill ion
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STA
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T. Frobish, Direcfor
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
-s
S
shroom has been genetically transformed by
IS a bacterial gene for antibiotic restistance.
(192,000 tons). irespectiv ely.
The mushr (oims prodtucetd ftrom act icu-
tu ral and in dust rialI di scardls contain 30-
5011 protein on a dry sseight basis antd 2-(
onl a fresh-wseight basis. This percentage is
tssice that of aspai aguS oit cabbage, butt. Sig
nificantly less thati peas, beans. andu most
animal protein sotit cs. Yet, glossinc mush-
rooms for footd protein rcuircs less lantI
thani producing pr-otein Ifrom animal and
plant Sourtces and, if mushrooms ssr ge-c
netically improsved for protcini contenlt, espe-
cially ssith t-efet-nce to proteins rich in
essential amino aciuds, such as I)ysine anid
IeuiCite. then mushrooms might ottompete
mor-e traditional agric-ultur al commodities
both nutritionally and economically.
Lanke is Profes-sor, Singh is As-,ociatc Piof s
sor. antd Pcv" i ai Grdut ijii Siuteni ol Boiians aond
Miribioloi's
TION
I NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES P AID
PERMIT NO. 9
AUBURN, ALA.