s
y - dY
J+ 
i
Y .T ! 1 
Ya. E 'Ti "'. . >. I .ice ; 
' *41
771-
a 
".
s 
'!
,
tt 
M- 
F
A:; mac,
DIRECTOR'S 
COMMENTS
On April 27, 1990, a 
plaque was placed at the Black 
Belt Substation to mark
the site where the cause 
of fescue toxicity was 
discovered. Most Alabama
cattle producers are aware 
that cattle grazing fescue 
pasture infected with
the fungus endophyte, Acremonium 
coenophialum, often develop 
a chronic
unthrifty condition, known 
as fescue toxicity, fescue 
toxicosis, summer slump, 
or
summer syndrome.
AAES scientists were the 
first to document marked 
differences in the appearance
and gains of steers grazing 
paddocks of fungus-infected 
and fungus-free fescue. It
is still amazing what this 
research demonstrated-an 
82% increase in average 
daily
gain and a 42% increase in 
gain per acre on fungus-free 
paddocks. From this research
came the general rule 
of thumb-for each 10% 
increase in endophyte 
level, there
can be a reduction of 0.1 
lb. in average daily gain 
of growing beef animals.
What is the significance of 
this research? For the first 
time, the agent causing poor
performance on this important 
cool season grass was identified. 
This breakthrough
led to development of a 
fescue that was devoid of 
the fungus, and to fescue 
manage-
ment methods that could 
improve beef cattle production 
and give Alabama the poten-
tial to become a leading cattle-producing 
state. In addition, the research 
demonstrated
the importance of perceptive 
observation, persistence, 
and good experimentation.
Among the most significant 
impacts of the research, 
however, was the team 
effort
that emerged. Scientists from 
many disciplines came together 
to apply their expertise
to a particular effort without 
concern about who received 
credit or who was in charge.
No one dictated the team members 
or how to approach the problem. 
Although many
of the original team members 
have retired or departed to 
new positions, new scien-
tists have become involved 
in the team. (Some of both 
groups are shown in the 
above
photograph.) Today's team 
is investigating the establishment 
of fungus-free pastures
and how to manage them, 
and seeking answers to such 
questions as what does 
the
fungus give to grass plants 
to protect them from 
their environment?
The plaque at the Black Belt 
Substation commemorating 
the discovery of the fungus
responsible for fescue toxicity 
is really dedicated to the 
team of scientists, past and
present, for their diligent 
effort, and to the cattlemen, 
seed dealers, and others 
who
cooperated.
Lowell T. Frobish
Director, AAES
MAY WE INTRODUCE
Dr. John 
Hough,
Assistant Professor
of Animal and Dairy
Sciences. A native of
Iowa, Hough earned
his B.S. degree in
animal science at
Iowa State Universi-
ty and M.S. and
Ph.D. degrees in animal breeding at the
University of Georgia. He came to Auburn
after completing his doctoral studies.
Before beginning 
graduate school, 
Hough
served as managing partner for 
Circle G
Angus Farm in Georgia and was a show and
sale cattle manager in Texas and Nebraska.
Since arriving at Auburn, Hough has con-
centrated on animal breeding 
and genetics
research with beef cattle. His work has 
in-
cluded research on sire and dam selection
techniques, predicting genetic performance
of beef animals, and use of ultrasound im-
aging to evaluate live animals. Hough's
report on the use of growth implants in
fast and slow growing cattle is featured 
on
page 12.
ON THE COVER. Finnish harvester 
and for-
warder showed value in Alabama tests. 
See
story on page 15.
SUMMER 1990 VOL. 37, NO. 2
A quarterly report of research 
published
by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station, Auburn University.
LOWELL T. FROBISH ........... 
Director
DAVID H. TEEM ......... Associate 
Director
DALE L. HUFFMAN......... Interim 
Associate
Director
CHARLES W. BRUCE....... Assistant Director
R.E. STEVENSON.. .Assistant Director 
& Editor
ROY ROBERSON ......... Associate 
Editor
KATIE SMITH .............. Associate 
Editor
TERESA RODRIGUEZ ........... Art 
Designer
Editorial Committee: 
Lowell T. Frobish;
L.K. Lamke, Associate Professor 
of Family
and Child Development; 
E.W. Rochester,
Associate Professor of Agricultural 
Engi-
neering; S.P. Schmidt, Associate 
Professor of
Animal and Dairy 
Sciences; D.I. Bransby,
Associate Professor of Agronomy 
and Soils;
N.R. Holler, Associate Professor of 
Zool-
ogy and Wildlife Science; J.D. Weete, Pro-
fessor of Botany and Microbiology; P.A.
Duffy, Assistant Professor ofAgricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology; R.T.
Lovell, Professor of Fisheries and 
Allied
Aquacultures; T.P. Mack Associate Pro-
fessor of Entomology; and R.E. Stevenson.
EDITOR'S NOTE. Mention of trade
names does not 
indicate endorsement 
by
the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station or Auburn University of one brand
over another. Any use of pesticide rates in
excess of labeled amounts in research 
re-
ported does not constitute recommenda-
tion of such rate. 
Such use is simply 
part
of the scientific investigation 
necessary to
evaluate various materials. No chemical
should be used 
at rates above those 
per-
mitted by the label. Information con-
tained herein is available to all persons
without regard to race, color, sex, or na-
tional origin.
M.S. GOLDEN
WEED CONTROL INCREASES PINE SEEDLING 
GROWTH
U SE OF HERBICIDES to
reduce populations of her-
baceous weeds increases sur-
vival and early growth of
loblolly seedlings planted in old fields or
pastures. This is due, at least in part, to
decreased competition between weeds
and pine seedlings for moisture, which
is a growth-limiting factor for young
pines.
Though the need to reduce woody
competition when establishing pine
plantations is well documented, the
adverse effects of herbaceous weeds, in-
cluding grasses, on young pines is less
well known and generally has been ig-
nored in pine plantation establishment.
Recent Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station research indicates that
nonwoody weeds can have a significant
impact on the early growth of planted
pines. One of these studies examined
relationships among rates of herbicide
application, resulting levels of her-
baceous competition, soil moisture and
nutrient levels, and pine seedling sur-
vival and growth during the first 2 years
after planting.
An old abandoned pasture, located
north of Auburn, was selected for study.
The site had more than 90% grass and
herbaceous cover and scattered colonies
of blackberries. The soil is a Pacolet
sandy loam. In March 1987, 48 plots of
1-year-old loblolly pine seedlings were
planted at 8-ft. X 8-ft. spacings. Soil
moisture and nutrient measurements
were taken at regular intervals. Oust?
herbicide (75% sulfometuron methyl, as
dispersible granules in water) was broad-
cast in May at treatment rates of 0 (con-
trol), 1 oz., 2 oz., 4 oz., and 8 oz. of
product per acre.
The percent of ground space covered
by live herbaceous plants was measured
in August of the first year. Survival and
growth of the pine seedlings were
monitored through the first two grow-
ing seasons following planting.
The application of at least 2 oz. per
acre of Oust decreased herbaceous cover
Diameter growth, cm Fig. 1
0 1 2 4 8
Oust application, oz./acre
Diameter growth, cm Fig. 2
2 3 4 5
Cover class
FIG. 1. Two-year ground line diameter growth of loblolly pine seedlings at five OUST her-
bicide application rates. FIG. 2. Two-year ground line diameter growth of loblolly pine seed-
lings at four levels of herbaceous competition (cover class 2 = 5-25% live cover, 3 = 26-50%,
4 = 51-75%, 5 = 76-100% live cover of non-woody vegetation).
during the first year and increased pine
seedling survival, height growth, and
diameter growth through two growing
seasons. The 4-oz. rate appeared op-
timum, since there was no significant in-
crease in beneficial effects when 8 oz.
were applied, figure 1. The average re-
maining live cover at the highest rate
was 29%, indicating that another her-
bicide or a combination of herbicides
could be used to more thoroughly
reduce competition.
There was a negative relationship be-
tween the amount of live competing
plant cover and 2-year survival and both
height and diameter growth of pine
seedlings. The greater the cover of
weeds, the lower the survival and growth
of pine seedlings. The relationship was
strongest with diameter, which is clear-
ly illustrated when the plots are grouped
by competing vegetation cover classes,
figure 2.
The amount of live weed cover was
negatively related to soil moisture.
Higher soil moisture levels were found
in the plots with lower vegetative cover,
particularly during low-rainfall periods
of growing season. The differences were
typically not large, but may have been
sufficient to affect growth. Two-year
seedling survival and diameter growth
also were correlated with soil moisture
levels, but generally only during specific
growing season periods. Moisture
utilization by the pines themselves prob-
ably diluted these relationships. No clear
relationships could be detected between
soil nutrient levels and either vegetative
cover or pine growth.
Golden is Associate Professor of Forestry.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 3
I':
"--
I ~"-~~----.L. r* i__ -- --- 
1C ~.
-I ------bl. .r._,. 
-~.. .::~t: '.Yr-;;L=b?,
"'IY9U.~ -~---- \~C~__IC_ _WUICI1~ ~1-L._l.-*yU1~ Y~LI_--I*9.
...- N)__.
r. -"I^ ~1CI 
L. * I r- -~ ~--\-r.
"~;CL~89" ,I.rr Cfib~a*~ug~,~k~u~i*;Uy~
- ~~ ry
-~~ -u- -j"ckawl
..
.
- -,---- re~irs~a ~ ~.r -e
P (RODL)CTION of ornamental
plants is a major agricultural
industry in Alabama. 
In fact,
nursery crops as a group bring
in more cash receipts than 
either
peanuts, cotton, or soybeans in the
State. Furthermore, these nursery crops
form the foundation for such businesses
as landscape contracting 
and design,
garden centers and 
other retail outlets,
and installation and maintenance of
recreational facilities, thereby con-
tributing to other economic activity.
Size and scope of Alabama's nursery
industry were learned in an Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station survey
of nursery operations as part of a
national study. Of Alabama's 250
nurseries, 29 were randomly chosen 
to
be representative of the total for the
study. Information was gained from the
29 through a mail survey, concerning
such things as business 
organization,
types of plants 
produced, labor 
force,
seasonality of sales, market area, prob-
lems, and outlook for the future.
The majority (720/o) of nursery
businesses are incorporated, while 21%0
reported sole proprietorship organiza-
tion and 3% each were partnerships 
and
other forms of organization. Nearly half
reported that some of their business
operations were computerized. Account-
ing (45%0) and word processing (40%o)
were the most commonly computerized
segments of their work.
Permanent full-time employees re-
ported varied from 1 to 390. Temporary
employees ranged from 1 to 150. On the
average, the businesses had 45 year-
round employees and 4 seasonal work-
ers. The seasonal nature of sales
demanded that more employees be hired
just prior to and during the period of
peak sales.
Nursery businesses grow and sell a
wide variety of plants. Many specialize
in a limited number of plants because 
it
is difficult to offer customers the full
range of products. The largest percent-
age of sales for nursery firms was 
ac-
counted for by broad-leaved evergreen
" I-~-~: ,Rlh
~
~
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
shrubs (47%). Deciduous shade and
flowering trees and narrow-leaved
evergreen shrubs contributed an addi-
tional 2407 of sales. Vines and ground
covers accounted for an average of 19%
of firm sales.
Nearly half (48%) of the firms in-
dicated they sold plants only in plastic
or polyethylene containers. The others
used two or more types of containers.
Twenty-one percent of the products
from all businesses were sold as balled
and burlapped plants. Less than 1% of
the plants were sold as balled and 
pot-
ted or processed balled, or in field-
grown bags.
Among the surveyed nurseries, 31%
named market demand as the most
limiting factor for business expansion.
The next most limiting factors were
competition and capital for growth,
followed closely by labor concerns.
Nursery sales varied 
by month, with
the highest percentage of 
sales occurring
in the spring (March 
through May) and
a smaller peak of sales in the fall
months. This seasonal nature of sales
was cited as putting stress on the cash
flow and other operations of the
business.
Only about 15% of ornamental plants
produced in Alabama were reportedly
sold in the State. Georgia accounted for
the same proportion of sales, while 12%0
were shipped to Tennessee and 2% each
to Florida and Texas. Fourteen percent
of the nurseries shipped a portion of
their products out 
of the country.
Cost of production was the most im-
portant factor considered by producers
when establishing a selling price. The
quality of the plant, market demand of
the product, and competition in the
market (the price at which the other
growers were selling the same product)
were other considerations 
as nursery
managers set prices.
Information gained in the 
study con-
firmed the importance of Alabama's
nursery industry. Nursery businesses in
Alabama were found to be sophisti-
cated, as evidenced 
by the high propor-
tion of corporations, and to produce a
diversified product mix. Nurseries are
major employers in many areas, as in-
dicated by their reported labor force.
Behe is Assistant Professor 
of Horticulture;
Adrian is Professor of Agricultural Economics and
Rural Sociology: Gilliam is Professor of
Horticulture.
D.W. REEVES and J.T. TOUCHTON
N NEEDS DIFFERENT FOR CORN IN CONSERVATION
TILLAGE SYSTEM WITH CRIMSON CLOVER
U SING WINTER annual
legumes in conservation-tillage
systems reduces soil 
erosion,
improves soil 
productivity,
conserves soil water, and contributes to
the nitrogen (N) requirement of subse-
quent summer grain crops. This practice
has gained limited acceptance by row
crop producers but may achieve greater
acceptance because of conservation
compliance guidelines of the 1985 Food
Security Act.
Before conservation-tillage systems
can be used efficiently, more informa-
tion about effective management of this
system is needed. Fertilizer N is the
single most expensive input for corn
production, but N management prac-
tices developed for conventional corn
production may be unsuitable for corn
grown in conservation-tillage systems
with winter legumes. A 3-year coopera-
tive research project by the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station and the
USDA Agricultural Research Service
was designed to determine management
practices for maximizing the efficiency
of fertilizer N applied to continuous
corn grown in a conservation-tillage
system with crimson clover.
Tibbee crimson clover was planted at
the E.V. Smith Research Center in mid-
October during each year 
(1986, 1987,
and 1988) of the study. In 
early April,
Pioneer Brand Hybrid 3320 corn was
planted in 30-in. rows using strip-tillage
(no-tillage with in-row subsoiling) 7-10
days after the clover was sprayed with
Gramoxone" . The same plots were used
during all 3 years of the study.
Ammonium nitrate at rates 
of 30, 60,
or 120 lb. N per acre was applied to corn
at planting, or 3, 6, or 9 weeks later.
Since splitting N applications, or side-
dressing, is recommended for applying
N fertilizer on corn, split applications
(1/3 at planting and the remainder 6
weeks later) of 60 and 120 lb. N per acre
were also included. Corn was also grown
in control plots of rye and clover
without the benefit of any N application
to determine the amount of N con-
tributed by clover and used by the corn.
Based on the total amount of N taken
up by corn, the clover cover crop con-
tributed 47, 60, and 99 lb. N per acre
in 1986, 1987, and 1988, respectively.
Generally, time of fertilizer application
had no effect on total N 
uptake by corn,
except in 1988 when corn exhibited a
greater N uptake when the fertilizer was
applied at planting.
Split applications did not result in
greater N uptake in any year. Although
application time did not affect the total
amount of N taken up by corn, it did
affect grain yield.
There was no yield benefit to split ap-
plications of N in 1987 and 1988. The
single exception was in 1986, the first
year in the system and a year of severe
drought, when the split application of
120 lb. per acre resulted in the highest
yield (133 bu. per acre). There were no
other effects of N application time on
grain yield in 1986; however, in 1987
and 1988, delaying N application beyond
6 weeks after planting decreased 
yield,
table 1.
Grain yield peaked with 120 lb. N per
acre in 1986 and from 30-60 lb. N per
acre in 1988, table 2. The decrease in fer-
tilizer N requirement through time cor-
relates well with the increase in total N
uptake contributed from clover with
successive years in the system.
Results from this study suggest a need
for modifying standard recommenda-
tions for N fertilizer application prac-
tices for nonirrigated corn grown in
winter legume conservation-tillage
systems on Coastal Plain soils. Nitrogen
requirements of continuous corn grown
in this type system decrease after the
system is established due to residual ef-
fects of clover N. Split applications of
N fertilizer probably will not improve N
efficiency or grain yields in a winter
legume conservation-tillage system
because late-season N requirements are
provided by the decomposing legume
cover crop.
Reeves is Research Agronomist (coop. 
USDA,
ARS-NSDL); Touchton is Head of Agronomy and
Soils.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
TABLE 1. EFFECT OF N APPLICATION TIME (AVERAGED
OVER N RATE) ON GRAIN YIELD OF CORN GROWN
IN A CONSERVATION-TILLAGE SYSTEM WITH
CRIMSON CLOVER
Grain yield/acre, by N app. time
Year (weeks after planting)
0 3 6 9
Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu.
1986....... 104 104 108 109
1987....... 107 112 106 81
1988....... 124 121 119 111
Av. ........ 112 113 111 100
TABLE 2. EFFECT OF N FERTILIZER RATE (AVERAGED
OVER APPLICATION TIME) ON GRAIN YIELD OF CORN
GROWN IN A CONSERVATION-TILLAGE SYSTEM
WITH CRIMSON CLOVER
Grain yield by N rate/acre
Year 0 
30 lb. 
60 lb. 
120 lb.
Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu.
1986..... 77 92 92 107
1987..... 68 92 103 108
1988..... 106 116 123 117
AV....... 84 100 106 111
L.K. LAMKE
MARITAL QUALITY IS THE MAJOR FACTOR IN
WELL-BEING OF RURAL COUPLES
COPING WITH financial pro-
blems and social change has
placed much stress on rural
families in recent years. Un-
fortunately, little information has been
available to guide families in their at-
tempts to deal with such stress. To help
bridge this information gap, a project
now underway at the Alabama Agri-
cultural Experiment Station is relating
coping strategies, marital quality, and
life stress to husbands' and wives' sense
of well-being.
Early results indicate that marital
quality is the major factor in how well
families cope with stress. In fact, this
was the only factor investigated that ap-
pears to serve as a predictor of well-
being among rural couples. Husbands
and wives who reported high levels of
marital quality were more likely to
describe their lives as interesting, en-
joyable, worthwhile, friendly, full,
hopeful, rewarding, and as bringing out
the best in themselves-standard
measures of well-being.
For the AAES study, completed ques-
tionnaires were obtained from both
spouses in 92 randomly selected
Alabama couples living in rural areas.
The majority (78%) lived on farms. The
remainder reported living in a rural area
(not on a farm) or in a town of less than
10,000 population.
Average age of the respondents was
56 for wives and 60 for husbands. They
had lived in Alabama an average of 53
years. About 9 out of 10 (89%) were in
their first marriage, and they had been
married an average of 34 years.
Among the husbands, about one-
third each had less than high school,
high school, and beyond high school
educations. Fewer wives (23%0) reported
less than high school education, and
38% each had high school and beyond
high school educations.
Median income reported was in the
$20,000-$30,000 range.
Descriptive data indicated that
couples used a variety of coping
strategies to deal with difficulties in their
lives. Both husbands and wives reported
they typically sought spiritual support
and faced situations head-on with con-
fidence in their ability to handle pro-
blems. They reported somewhat less fre-
quently that they relied on relatives,
friends, neighbors, and extended fami-
ly in times of need. They were least like-
ly to seek professional counseling,
assistance from community agencies,
and information and advice from the
family doctor.
Mean levels of marital quality for
husbands and wives were comparable to
the findings of research conducted with
other populations. Using a rating scale
in which below 90 indicates severe
marital conflict, 90-100 indicates
dissatisfaction, and scores above 110 in-
dicate satisfaction, the average marital
quality score of the sample was 114.
Thus, marital quality was satisfactory
among the surveyed couples. Responses
of husbands and wives about perceived
marital quality indicated they had
similar, but not identical, perceptions of
quality within marriage. Findings in-
dicate that higher levels of marital quali-
ty were associated with higher levels of
well-being.
Information gained about the
measure of life stress indicated that
couples had faced an average of eight
family life stressors (out of a possible 71)
in the preceding year. This number is
consistent with national data. Family
life stressors are considered to be life
events and changes that require read-
justment and adaptation by the family.
The life stressors most frequently
reported in the last year by the couples
were those associated with increased
strain on the family's money supply and
strains arising from a family-owned
business or investment. Next most fre-
quent strains reported included in-
creased tension and conflict between
family members and increased dif-
ficulties associated with being a parent.
The third most likely type of stressor ex-
perienced was change associated with
work, including changing jobs, being
fired, retirement, and job promotions.
Couples were least likely to report
stressors due to changes in the marriage,
death of a family member or friend,
family members moving in or out of the
home, illness, or legal problems.
The analysis conducted to determine
whether coping strategies, marital quali-
ty, and life stress affected husbands' and
wives' well-being indicated that only
marital quality was predictive of well-
being. For both husbands and wives in
the study group, as marital quality in-
creased, levels of well-being increased.
Lamke is Associate Professor of Family and
Child Development.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station6
C.L. WARFIELD and M.E. BARRY
EMPLOYEE ISSUES IMPORTANT
TO GROWTH OF ALABAMA'S
TEXTILE AND APPAREL INDUSTRY
A LABAMA'S textile and ap-
parel industry is one of the
largest and most productive in-
dustries in the State. More
than 550 plants ranging in size from
more than 1,000 employees to fewer
than 100 employees can be found
Statewide, with at least one plant in
every county. Apparel manufacturing
alone employs more than 56,000
workers in the State, approximately
15% of Alabama's manufacturing work
force. Alabama also remains one of the
most competitive textile and apparel
producing states in the nation. From
1978 to 1988, when foreign competition
severely affected the industry nation-
wide and caused the shutdown of many
plants, the number of textile and apparel
plants in Alabama increased 127%.
Because the tax revenues and jobs
provided by this industry are so vital to
Alabama's economy, especially to the
rural areas of the State where textile jobs
provide important off-farm incomes for
families, more information about this
industry is needed to support its con-
tinued growth. An Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station study was con-
ducted to identify the industry's needs
and look for ways to preserve its com-
petitive edge.
Researchers conducted personal inter-
views with industry management per-
sonnel (plant managers to company
presidents) in 25 Alabama apparel com-
panies during 1989. These companies
ranged in size from more than 8,600
employees to less than 50 employees.
Merchandise produced by these com-
panies included men's shirts, sweats and
tee-shirts, knit and woven sportswear,
lingerie, protective clothing, textile and
apparel products for hospitals and other
institutional uses, uniforms, tailored
clothing, and jeans. The interviews in-
cluded a variety of questions designed
to determine the needs and issues affec-
ting the industry.
Alabama's Textile and Apparel Industry
"". ?164 textile plants employ 39,000
S :! 0 t414 apparel plants employ 56,000 +
The primary concern expressed by the
company managers was the lack of suf-
ficient quality and quantity of labor.
Many of the managers interviewed
noted that quick response, or the abili-
ty of a company to rapidly respond to
consumer demand, was vital to their
success. Some managers cited quick
response as the primary competitive
edge now available to American firms.
But quick response requires a flexible
work environment in terms of workers,
equipment, and manufacturing ap-
proaches. The success of a quick re-
sponse approach hinges on employees
who are well trained and adaptable.
The managers identified employee
development as the major issue facing
their industry. They expressed a need for
people with apparel-related college
degrees who could move into mid-level
management positions to help meet the
challenges of changing technology,
distribution channels, sources of raw
materials, and consumer demand. In ad-
dition, entry-level operators and
mechanics possessing a good work ethic
and willingness to learn and adapt are
needed.
Another essential ingredient for con-
tinued growth of the industry expressed
by industry managers is job skill
upgrading for current employees. This
would give employees the opportunity
to learn to work with equipment and
production changes occurring in today's
work environment.
Industry management specified
education and training needs such as (1)
initial training (either pre-employment
or on-the-job) to learn the specific job
skills required, (2) cross-training to
enable workers to perform several
operations skillfully, (3) basic education
competencies in math and reading, (4)
skills emphasizing oral, written, and in-
terpersonal communication, especially
for first-level supervisors and employees
involved in team programs such as
modular manufacturing, and (5) on-the-
job training for all levels of current
employees.
Managers said the current labor short-
age exists not only among trained
operators, but also among untrained
workers responding to employment op-
portunity advertising in some parts of
the State. They listed absenteeism as
another major problem within the work
force. According to the managers,
primary reasons for absenteeism are sick
children and family members and drug
and alcohol abuse. However, some
workers work less than 40 hours a week
to avoid losing government benefits
such as housing and health care. For
these people, the added income of work-
ing a full 40-hour week may not replace
the government services they would lose
should their income exceed a set level.
A number of plant managers in-
dicated they had enough potential
orders to expand production by as much
as 100% if they could obtain additional
workers. This suggests that it is im-
perative to more effectively meet the
employment needs of the industry. It
also indicates a need for education and
training programs targeting the textile
and apparel industry and management
and public policy changes that will pro-
vide greater incentives for workers to be
productive.
Warfield and Barry are Associate Professors of
Consumer Affairs.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
I uvJ iit.~FLL ~~~iki ~. j~~ki
Spirochete of Borrelia burgdorteri, the causative agent of Lyme disease.
HE FIRST human case of
Lyme disease in Alabama was
reported in 1986. Since then
more than 40 cases of this tick-
borne disease have been documented in
24 Alabama counties. However, the
identity of the tick species involved in
transmitting the disease organism to
humans in the Southeast remains un-
certain. Based on Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station field studies con-
ducted during the past 2 years, it is
believed that more than one species of
tick is involved.
The primary focus of these studies has
been in Lee County where several
human cases of Lyme disease have been
documented, indicating local transmis-
sion. During 1988 and 1989, an exten-
sive live trapping program for small
mammals was conducted in an effort to
recover ticks and to determine their
respective hosts in the study area. The
small mammals captured and studied
include: cotton mice, golden mice,
house mice, cotton rats, and southern
short-tailed shrews. Ear biopsy
samples were taken from rodents to
determine if the animals were
infected.
Ticks also were collected from
white-tailed deer, dogs, cats, horses,
and humans in the study area. Ticks
were subsequently tested by direct
and indirect fluorescent antibody
assays for the 
presence of 
Borrelia E
burgdorferi, the bacterial organism f
that causes Lyme disease.
The black-legged tick and the
american dog tick were found parasitiz-
ing small animals at the test sites. All of
the ticks were immature, either larvae or
nymphs. Both species were recovered
from cotton mice and golden mice,
whereas only the black-legged tick was
recovered from cotton rats. Larval ticks
were more common than nymphs on
these hosts. No ticks were found on the
house mice or short-tailed shrews.
Adults of the black-legged tick usually
parasitize large mammals, the white-
tailed deer being the preferred host.
Adults of the american dog tick occur
most commonly on dogs, but feed on a
variety of medium-sized mammals.
Borrelia-like organisms were observ-
ed in 11 of the ticks assayed. Both
nymphs and adults of the lone star tick
collected from deer were found to be in-
fected. Larvae of the black-legged tick
Both black-legged tick and american dog tick were
ecovered from cotton mice, such as this specimet
rom Lee County.
recovered from cotton mice and adult
ticks recovered from deer were also
positive. Ticks from other hosts were
negative. No Lyme disease organisms
were found in the cultured ear tissue
from field-collected rodents.
Given the close relationship of the
black-legged tick to the principal vector
of Lyme disease in the Northern United
States, it has been assumed that the
black-legged tick is the major vector of
Lyme disease in the Southeast. How-
ever, the detection of what appears to
be Lyme disease-causing bacterial
organisms in the lone star tick and
black-legged tick indicates the potential
role of both species as vectors of the
Lyme disease agent in Alabama.
Unlike the black-legged tick, the lone
star tick is commonly found attached to
humans. It has been consistently
recovered at sites of known cases of
Lyme disease in Alabama and is the only
tick that has been identified in
association with confirmed cases of
this disease in the State. Based on this
information, there is reason to believe
that, whereas the black-legged tick is
important in transmitting the Lyme
disease organism among wild
animals, the lone star tick may be
more important as a source of the in-
fection for man.
e
n Mullen is Professor and Luckhart is
Graduate Student of Entomology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
G.R. MULLEN, S. LUCKHART, and L.A. DURDEN
FOUR TICK SPECIES FOUND ON ALABAMA DEER
IKE MOST wild animals, white-
tailed deer have their share of
ectoparasites, including ticks. In
recent years, deer-infesting ticks
have drawn particular attention because
of their role in transmission of the
bacterial agent which causes Lyme
disease in humans. To better understand
the potential role of deer ticks in the
spread of this disease in Alabama, a
survey of ticks on white-tailed deer in
the State was conducted as part of an
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion project.
Ticks were collected primarily from
hunter-killed deer during the 1988-89
and 1989-90 hunting seasons in Bar-
bour, Bullock, Butler, Chambers, Clay,
Cleburne, Coosa, Hale, Lee, 
Macon,
Tallapoosa, and Wilcox counties. Most
of the ticks were recovered from deer at
State-operated check stations with the
cooperation of personnel from the
Alabama Department of Conservation
and Natural Resources.
A total of 3,650 ticks was removed
and identified from 539 deer, repre-
sented by nearly equal numbers of does
and bucks. Lone star tick, gulf coast
tick, winter tick, and black-legged tick
Examining deer for ticks at the
Choccolocco Wildlife Manage-
ment Area, Cleburne County.
were the species found on
deer in the survey.
The black-legged tick was
the most common and
widespread species para-
sitizing deer. It was
recovered from 54% of the
deer examined and ac-
counted for 57% of all the
ticks collected. With the ex-
ception of two nymphal
ticks, all black-legged ticks
found on the deer were
adults. The prevalence of
this tick varied considerably
from one location to
another. Over 80%o of the
deer examined at the Bar-
bour County Wildlife Management
Area were infested with 
this species,
whereas none of the deer examined at
the Choccolocco Wildlife Management
Area in Cleburne County were infested.
This difference may be due to habitat
types and management practices which
influence the availability of rodents and
other small mammals serving as hosts
for the immature stages of the tick.
The second most common species was
the lone star tick. It parasitized 24% of
the deer examined, but infestation rates
as high as 80-90% were found at some
locations. Over 70% of the ticks were
adult males, with the remainder divided
about evenly between nymphs and adult
females. Collections of fewer females
than males reflect the fact that females
generally drop off the host after com-
pleting engorgement.
The winter tick was common on deer
throughout the hunting season. Unlike
the other three species, this is a one-host
tick which undergoes all its develop-
mental stages on a single host animal.
It was found infesting 16% of the deer
examined and represented 35% of the
total ticks recovered. With the exception
of two larvae, all of the specimens were
nymphs or adults.
The gulf coast tick was found on only
five deer, representing fewer than 1% of
the total deer examined. Each deer had
just a single specimen, indicating that
deer serve only as incidental hosts for
this tick.
White-tailed deer serve as important
hosts for three of the four ticks
recovered in this study. However, the
distribution and abundance of these
ticks on deer during the hunting season
are greatly influenced by the availabil-
ity of smaller animals which serve as
hosts for the immature stages of the
ticks during the warmer months of the
year.
Ticks usually cause little harm to deer;
however, heavy infestations can cause
anemia, weight loss, skin irritation and
abscesses, thickening of the skin, hair
loss, and even blindness when ticks are
numerous about the eyes. Ticks are
seldom directly involved in the transmis-
sion of disease agents that are harmful
to deer. Even in the case of Lyme
disease, deer do not suffer ill effects
after being fed upon by infected ticks.
Instead, deer appear to serve primarily
as hosts for the adults of certain ticks
which, particularly as 
immatures,
transmit the Lyme disease organism
among other wild animals and to man.
Mullen is Professor, Luckhart is Graduate Stu-
dent, and Durden is Research Associate of
Entomology.
This female black-legged tick was found on
white-tailed deer in Butler county.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
D.D. KEE, D.I. BRANSBY, D.E. SNYDER, and B.E. GAMBLE
IMPROVED NUTRITION MAY 
NOT SUBSTITUTE
FOR REGULAR DEWORMING 
OF STEERS
F ORAGE CONSUMPTION and
weight gain of steers grazing
bermudagrass can be increased
by regular deworming, regard-
less of nutritional level. This was shown
in a 140-day Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station grazing experiment at
the Wiregrass Substation, Headland.
The grazing study was conducted in
1989 to compare the effect of parasite
control management on animals fed
diets high or low in nutritional value.
The study used 400-lb. steers grazing
Coastal bermudagrass at various stock-
ing rates (2, 4, or 6 steers per acre with
no supplemental feed 
and 4, 8, 12, 16,
or 20 steers per acre with supplemental
feed of 50/50 broiler litter/grain).
Parasite control was achieved by in-
jecting Ivermectin' every 56 days. This
is a more frequent treatment than usual-
ly recommended because the study
focused on minimizing parasitism rather
than achieving the most economic
parasite control method. Supplemented
animals received the litter/grain ration
daily. Animals were weighed every 28
days. Feed consumption was determined
weekly and pastures were continuously
grazed. Pasture height and the amount
of time animals spent grazing were
estimated monthly.
Average daily gain (ADG) was af-
fected by stocking rate, feed supplemen-
tation, and parasite control. As stock-
ing rate increased, ADG decreased
regardless of parasite control or sup-
plementation. Supplementation im-
proved ADG, maintaining gain at
greater than 1.1 lb. per day even at the
highest stocking rate, compared to a
maximum of 1.16 lb. per day in the
nonsupplemented group at the lowest
stocking rate, see table. Parasite control
increased ADG regardless of nutritional
level or stocking rate. This result con-
tradicts the common perception that
parasitism causes greater losses when
animals are on a low plane of nutrition
and at high stocking rates.
When averaged for 
all stocking rates,
parasite control resulted in a 0.45-lb. in-
crease in ADG. This translated to a gain
advantage of 63 lb. for animals treated
for parasites over the 140-day period.
However, this advantage was not easy
to detect visually.
Infection level of parasites, measured
by number of eggs per gram of feces, in-
creased as stocking rate increased, and
EfFETI ()t DEWORNMING,. STOc KING RATE, ANI) SCLPPI'I M:NTATION )ON
AVERAGE DAILY GAIN AND PASiURE HEl(iIt
Result, by supplementation treatment and stocking rate
Item No supplementation Litter/grain supplementation
2 4 6 4 8 12 16 20
Average daily gain
Dewormed steers, lb. 1.16 0.68 0.20 2.37 2.17 1.97 1.77 1.58
No dewormine, lb. .71 .23 .25 1.92 1.72 1.53 1.33 1.13
Pasture height
Dewormed steers, in. 4.75 4.11 3.48 4.71 4.09 3.44 2.79 2.14
No deworming, in... 4.84 4.30 3.76 4.93 4.47 4.01 3.55 3.09
was affected by deworming but not by
nutritional level. Dewormed steers had
average egg counts ranging from none
at 2 steers per acre to 139 per gram at
20 steers per acre. Corresponding egg
counts for nontreated animals ranged
from 386 to 550 per gram.
Supplement intake increased from
8.34 to 9.14 lb. per day as stocking rate
increased from 4 to 
20 steers per acre,
but did not differ between dewormed
and nondewormed animals. As stocking
rate increased, pasture height (and thus
available forage) decreased, causing
animals at high stocking rates to rely
more on the supplement to meet their
nutritional requirements, as shown in
the table.
In contrast to supplement intake,
which was not affected 
by parasitism,
dewormed animals spent more time
grazing than those which were not
dewormed. This resulted in shorter
pasture (increased forage consumption)
for the dewormed animals when com-
pared to parasitized animals, especially
at the higher stocking rates.
The difference in ADG between ani-
mals that were or were not dewormed
is due, at least in part, to the reduced
grazing time and an associated reduction
in forage intake. This suppression of
forage intake or appetite for forages is
associated with the increased level of
parasitism. The reason supplement in-
take was not suppressed by increased
parasitism remains obscure.
Results indicate that regular deworm-
ing increases ADG and forage consump-
tion when compared to no parasite con-
trol, regardless of nutritional level and
stocking rate. Litter/grain supplemen-
tation increased average daily gain and
the carrying capacity of bermudagrass.
Most importantly, this study suggests
that an elevated plane of nutrition does
not eliminate the need for deworming.
Kee is Research Associate and Bransby is
Associate Professor of Agronomy and Soils;
Snyder is Scientist of USDA Animal Parasite
Research Laboratory; Gamble is Assistant
Superintendent of the Wiregrass Substation.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
K.A. CUMMINS
REDUCING DIETARY FIBER HELPS MAINTAIN MILK
PRODUCTION DURING HOT WEATHER
H OT WEATHER during June,
July, and August represents a
major problem for Alabama
dairymen. Cows respond to
hot weather by eating less, which
reduces the heat generated in
metabolism and milk synthesis and helps
them keep cool. However, the amount
of nutrients required for milk synthesis
is the same in hot weather as in cooler
weather. Therefore, the final result of
reduced feed intake is lower milk
production.
A typical method used by dairymen
to overcome milk losses from reduced
feed intake is to 'beef up' the nutrient
content of the summer diet to boost dry
matter intake. They do this by increas-
ing the energy and protein density and
reducing the fiber content. As a result,
cows get more nutrients from a given
amount of feed consumed.
Knowing just how far to go in fiber
reduction to increase nutrient intake has
been the problem since few guidelines
are available. Thus, an Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station study
on this subject was done at the E. V.
Smith Research Center, Shorter.
Twenty-seven Holstein cows averag-
ing 121 days in milk were used in the
test. Test diets contained 20, 17, and
14% acid-detergent fiber. Feeding of the
three test diets began 2 weeks before the
onset of hot weather' during a cool
period (Period 1). The onset of hot
weather was the start of Period 2. The
17 and 14% fiber diets provided excess
energy to compensate for the expected
reduction in total feed intake during the
hot weather of Period 2. All cows were
fed the 20% fiber diet up to the start of
Period 1.
Milk production declined in all cows
with the onset of hot weather, as in-
dicated by differences between Period 1
and Period 2 recorded in the table.
However, the decline was less in cows
'The onset of hot weather is considered to be
the first day that the maximum temperature ex-
ceeds 87 ?F or the minimum temperature is above
66 oF.
Dry matter intake/day, lb.
60
56
52
48 A
44
42 -
Milk production/day, lb.
77.0 -
f " 
" f -,
69.5 =- " . .
62.0
54.5
47.0
---- 20% ADF
.... 1 7%o ADF
80
Fig. 1
-- 14%ADF
S1. .....
Fig.2
A
I I I
55 60 65 70 75
Daily low temperature, degree F
Effect of daily low temperature on dry matter intake per day and milk production per day
of Holstein cows.
fed the 14% fiber diet. Unexpectedly,
dry matter intake increased in cows fed
the 20% fiber diet, and declined in those
fed the 17 and 14% fiber diets. As il-
lustrated by figure 1, cows fed lower
fiber diets were more sensitive to en-
vironmental temperature than those fed
higher fiber diets. This was probably
due to the greater energy eaten by cows
fed the low fiber diets, which increased
internal heat load more for a given level
of feed intake.
The production graph, figure 2,
shows that dietary
fiber had to be de-
creased to 14% before
daily milk production
was made less sensitive
to environmental tem-
perature. Daily low
temperature (average
71 ?F) had more of an
effect on milk produc-
tion than daily high
temperature (average 94.5 ?F) in this
study. Milk fat depression, a common
problem indicating deficient dietary
fiber, was not evident with the low fiber
diets.
The results of this study indicate that
reducing fiber helps maintain milk pro-
duction during periods of hot weather,
but it also makes feed dry matter intake
more sensitive to changes in environ-
mental temperature.
Cummins is Associate Professor of Animal and
Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
CHANGES IN MILK PRODUCTION AND DRY MATTER INTAKE FROM A
COOL WEATHER PERIOD (MAY) TO A HOT WEATHER PERIOD
(JUNE/JULY), BY FIBER CONTENT OF DIET
Result, by dietary fiber content
Measure 20% 
17% 14%
Change in milk/day, lb........ -8.6 -9.9 -5.7
Change in dry matter
intake/day, lb............ .. + 1.3 -1.5 -3.7
Milk fat (Period 2), pct........ 3.4 3.1 3.3
\I III 1\1 i I II II C II I ' 'C
11
J.D. HOUGH, D.R. MULVANEY,
J.L. HOLLIMAN, and J.A. LITTLE
RESPONSE TO GROWTH
IMPLANT DEPENDS ON
TYPE OF CATTIE
BEEF CATTLE producers can
typically increase profits by in-
creasing their animals' growth
rates. Growth implants, which
contain naturally occurring 
hormones,
can boost growth rates, but the degree
of response often is affected by the
animal's biological type. Research has
found that slower growing, smaller cat-
tle tend to respond more favorably to
implants than faster growing cattle.
To learn more about this tendency, a
2-year Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station study was begun in 1989
at the Black Belt Substation, Marion
Junction, to determine the response of
various breeds and biological types of
cattle to growth implants. An earlier
study at the Lower Coastal Plain
Substation in Camden had identified
early and late maturing Angus and
Charolais cattle. Steers and heifers from
this herd were brought to the Black Belt
Substation and treated with a commer-
cial growth implant (Synovex? ) during
the preweaning and postweaning growth
periods. Calves were weaned at 229 days
of age and immediately placed in a con-
finement feedlot. Performance informa-
tion was collected through a year of age.
Implanting nursing calves resulted in
increased gains of 0.11 lb. per day and
25 lb. at weaning. If producers receive
85C per pound for weaned calves, the
preweaning implant would, on the
average, have increased returns by about
$19 per head. Postweaning implants in-
creased feedlot gain 0.28 lb. per day and
increased yearling weight, height, and
ribeye area by 36 lb., 0.5 in., 
and 0.4 in.,
respectively. Calves implanted both pre-
and postweaning gained 0.33 lb. per day
more during the postweaning period and
weighed 61 lb. more at a year of age
than those never implanted. If pro-
ducers receive 75? per pound for their
yearling cattle, pre- and postweaning
implanting would increase returns by
$42 per head.
Fast maturing F V
Charolais cattle 
s,
used in test at
Black Belt
Substation
Charolais cattle were heavier and
taller at weaning than the Angus and
had larger ribeye areas, as indicated by
ultrasound imaging. The Charolais also
gained faster in the feedlot, were heavier
and taller, and had larger ribeye areas
than Angus at a year of age. Cattle in
the late maturing line gained faster pre-
weaning and were heavier and taller at
weaning than cattle in the early matur-
ing line. However, at a year of age, the
late maturing cattle gained slower and
were taller than early maturing cattle.
The different breeds and lines of cat-
tle responded differently in some traits
to the growth implant. During the pre-
weaning period, the faster gaining, late
maturing calves gained only 0.03 lb. per
day more due to the implant, but the
slower growing, early maturing calves
gained an additional 0.17 lb. per day due
to implant. These differences in gain
correspond to 9 and 41 lb. increases in
weaning weight due to preweaning im-
plant for late and early 
maturing calves,
respectively. The preweaning implant
was more effective on slower growing
C'
Y '",, 5,,-
aj
K 1~ :~ -1
than faster growing calves.
A similar effect was found between
breeds and postweaning implant in
yearling weight. The faster growing
Charolais cattle weighed 12 lb. more at
a year of age due to the postweaning im-
plant, but the slower growing Angus cat-
tle weighed 59 lb. more. Also, response
to postweaning implanting in post-
weaning gain was altered by prewean-
ing implanting. Calves not implanted
prior to weaning gained an additional
0.15 lb. per day due to postweaning im-
plant, but calves implanted prior to
weaning gained an additional 0.41 lb.
per day due to postweaning implant.
This study indicates implanting cattle
both pre- and postweaning with Synovex
increases rate of gain, weight, and ribeye
area. Response is even more evident
when cattle are genetically slower
growing.
Hough and Mulvaney are Assistant Professors
of Animal and Dairy Sciences; Holliman is
Superintendent of the Black Belt Substation; Lit-
tle is Superintendent of the Lower Coastal Plain
Substation.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
AVERAGES OF TRAITS, ACCORDING TO LINE, BREED, AND IMPLANTING
Result, by implant
Result, by line Result, by breed Preweaning Postweaning
Late Early Charolais Angus Implanted 
Not Implanted Not
Implan implanted implanted
Weaning
ADG., lb ...... 1.69 1.56 1.65 1.60 1.68 1.57
Weight, lb. .... 473 432 465 440 465 440
Height, in .... 43.9 41.4 43.7 41.6 42.6 42.7
Ribeye area, in. 5.5 5.8 5.9 5.4 6.0 5.4
Yearling
ADG., lb ...... 2.73 2.95 3.13 2.55 2.86 2.82 2.98 2.70
Weight, lb..... 855 837 903 789 858 833 864 828
Height, in ..... 48.1 45.8 48.6 45.2 46.8 47.1 47.2 46.7
Ribeye area, in. 10.3 10.7 11.1 9.9 10.5 10.5 10.7 10.3
J.I. BLAKE and D.B. SOUTH
EXTR N TROGFEN N INE
NURSERY OOSTS FOREST
oonI98~ TH0
MPROVING the growth potential
of pine plantations in Alabama is a
major goal of research in the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station. Thus far, a large amount of ef-
fort has been devoted to practices which
can improve seedling survival. However,
significant improvements in tree growth
can also be made by subtle manipula-
tions that affect seedling diameter in the
nursery. A small increase in the initial
diameter of the plants can have a sur-
prisingly large effect on subsequent
growth. Not only do the seedlings that
start out ahead remain ahead, but the
absolute difference in tree volume in-
creases as the trees grow. By increasing
the mean root collar diameter of seed-
lings only 1 mm (millimeter), yields can
be increased from 1.5 to 4.5 cords per
acre.
The Auburn University Southern
Forest Nursery Management Coopera-
tive installed studies throughout the
South to determine the combined
growth response due to seedling nutri-
tion and seedling morphology. Seedling
morphology was altered by growing
seedlings in the nursery at various spac-
ings. Seedling nutrition was varied by
applying different levels of nitrogen fer-
tilizer (a rate to minimize production of
culls and a substantially higher rate).
Samples of seedlings were measured for
seedling size, nutrient status, and levels
of photosynthesis. Other seedlings were
outplanted in the field to measure
growth rate.
Regardless of treatment, as seedling
root collar diameter increased, the total
quantity of foliage increased, figure 1.
This increased foliage mass allows
greater light interception and greater
photosynthesis and carbohydrate pro-
duction to occur. As a result, foliage
weight was directly related to height
growth during the first season after
planting.
Applying extra nitrogen fertilizer in
the nursery also resulted in increased
growth in the field, even when compar-
ing seedlings with the same needle mass,
figure 2. Thus, seedling nutrition ap-
pears to benefit growth in ways other
FIG. 3. First-year height of a seedling
from the high nitrogen fertilization
regime, approximately 6.5 mm in root
collar diameter, and planted on a site
receiving herbaceous weed control.
The measurement standard is 3.2 ft.
than simply increasing seedling size.
This results from an increase in the rates
of photosynthesis of plants with the
same amount of needles.
When provided with herbaceous weed
control, large diameter seedlings can
show a dramatic increase in first-year
growth in the field, figure 3. Subsequent
observations indicate that the early ef-
fects of improved nitrogen nutrition on
growth will continue to affect yields as
the plantation develops.
Blake is Assistant Professor and South is
Associate Professor of Forestry.
Needle mass, g/seedling
5.0-
4.5
4.0 
0- Optimal 
N
3.5 0 High N
Fig. 1
First year height growth, in.
24 - Fig. 2
20 -
12
I I I I I I
2 3 4 5
Seedling diameter, mm
6 7
I 1 1I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5
Initial needle mass, g/seedling
FIG. 1. Average relationships between needle mass of weight and seedling diameter at outplanting 
for two nursery nitrogen regimes: a nitrogen
fertilization rate adequate for seedling development (Optimal N) and a rate 50% greater than 
needed for best nursery growth (High N).
FIG. 2. Average relationship among first-year growth after planting in the field, needle mass 
or weight, and previous nursery N regime.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
T.J. FROST and D.A. ROLAND, SR.
SUPPLEMENTAL VITAMIN D 
METABOLITES IMPROVE
BONE STRENGTH IN AGED 
POULTRY
tions was supplemented with c
n" .. ,, 
sthree different concentrations
',25(OH), D, metabolite.
t= t 7 
Results showed that these mete
i~ii ' , ifB supplements improved bone weig
_j f bone breaking 
strength, table i.
wu P? " 
: l 8. I dition, egg shell quality (measut
egg specific gravity, 
shell weight,
one of
ot the
ibolite
ht and
In ad-
red by
percent
A S HENS AGE, they typically
exhibit a decline in egg shell
quality and bone strength
which limits the productive
life of the bird. This may be caused by
a reduction in the bird's ability to release
calcium and phosphorous for use in
bone and egg production. Dietary vita-
min D, is known to be converted, or
metabolized, by the bird's liver and
kidney into an active hormonal form
which then stimulates the release of
calcium and phosphorus. It has been
theorized that this tendency toward
weakened bones and egg shells may be
caused by a reduction in the bird's abili-
ty to convert vitamin D, into the active
metabolite.
Based on this theory, experiments
were conducted at the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station to
determine if dietary supplements of syn-
thetic vitamin D, metabolites in the
form of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D,
[l,25(OH)
2
Dj or I alpha-hydroxy-
vitamin D, would improve bone break-
ing strength, bone weight, and egg shell
quality.
An initial experiment showed that
supplements of either metabolite caused
an increase in bone weight, but no im-
provement was evident in bone break-
ing strength or egg shell quality. In a sec
ond experiment, four rations containing
different concentrations of dietary
vitamin D, were fed. Each of these ra
Iean eggU reafhl Ing LlregLi ) was
also improved by adding the metabolite.
These results illustrate the activity of the
metabolite when fed in minute amounts
with no supplemental vitamin D,.
The metabolite was also sup-
plemented in rations containing typical
concentrations of dietary vitamin D,.
When birds were fed a ration contain-
ing normal concentrations of vitamin
D, (1,500 ICU D, per kg), adding
I,25(OH), D, did not improve egg shell
quality, table 2. Egg specific gravity was
improved by feeding the metabolite;
however, the observed decrease in egg
weight would account in part for this
improvement. Shell weight, percent
shell, and egg breaking strength were
not improved by feeding the metabolite.
However, bone breaking strength and
bone weight were increased by adding
the metabolite even when sufficient
vitamin D, was fed.
These results indicate that, in the
aged hen, vitamin D, is sufficiently
metabolized to maintain egg shell quali-
ty. However, increases in bone strength
due to supplemental I,25(OH)
2 
D, sug-
gest that vitamin D, is not sufficiently
metabolized to its active form in the
blood to maintain bone strength.
Frost is Graduate Research Associate and
Roland is Professor of Poultry Science.
ITBL 2. TIII EFFECIiIS a DIFIARI' Sr i'I'I IN I( (IN OF 1,25(OH)2 D,
tIO A DIET CON-ITINNINC 1,500 ICU D k(, IN BONt
AND) ECG SHELL SIR NDEON
,25(OH). D),, Bone Bone Egg Shell Egg
ug/kg weight breaking specific
strength eravit e
Grams
6.2
6.3
6.6
Grams
1.0788 5.67
1.0796 5.71
1.0799 5.60
Grams
65.3
65.1
64.3
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
TAlE 1. Tt EFrFEISOt- DIFTA\RV SL iLtLMLF NTATI(,\ 
OF 1 ,25(OH)2 D,
il A VITAMIN D, DEICIENT DIET ON BONI AND
Ec SilL SIR[NGIT
1,25(OH)2 D,, Bone Bone Egg Shell Egg
breaking specific
ug/kg weight breng graviy weight weight
strength gravity
Grams KgF Grams Grains
S .......... .1 5.8 1.0732 5.0 63.9
0.5 ..... .. . 6.0 7.6 1.0773 5.51 65.4
1............ 59 7.4 1.0782 5.52 64.8
0...........
0.5
1.0
r
R.A. TUFTS and R.W. BRINKER
FINNISH TREE HARVEST SYSTEM EFFICIENT IN
ALABAMA FORESTS
T HE HIGH COST of cut-to-
length Scandinavian timber
harvesting equipment com-
bined with the lack of spare
parts and repair facilities has slowed the
acceptance of these machines in
Alabama. However, recent Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station tests in-
dicate the advantages of a Finnish
harvester and forwarder outweigh the
disadvantages, if qualified operators are
available.
Scandinavian companies currently
market their equipment in the United
States and provide support for their
machines by forming partnerships with
or buying U.S. equipment manufac-
turers and their parts-supply networks.
Additional factors creating interest in
these machine systems include an in-
creasing lack of woods workers and a
poor safety record of timber harvesting
operations that utilize manual labor.
Although initial price is a barrier to
some potential users, these machines
should be compared with alternative
harvesting systems on a cost per unit
output. A study is being conducted by
the AAES in conjunction with Ab Nor-
car Oy, a Finnish equipment manufac-
turer, and Rocky Creek Logging Com-
pany in Chapman, Alabama, to docu-
ment the productivity and cost of a cut-
to-length harvesting system.
Rocky Creek Logging Company has
been operating a Norcar 600H harvester
and 490 forwarder since October 1989.
The 600H has a harvester head mounted
on a 34-ft. outreach, telescoping boom.
Thus, the operator can often harvest 8
to 10 trees from a single set-up location.
The 490 forwarder has a grapple loader
mounted on a 24-ft. outreach knuckled
boom, and can transport a 16,500-lb.
payload in its wood-carrying rack. The
two operators ride in ergonomically
designed cabs equipped with a heater,
an air conditioner, a stereo radio, and
a shock absorbing, swiveling "captain's"
chair. Not only are the operators com-
fortable, but they are probably in the
safest timber harvesting environment
available.
Data have been collected while the
machines performed total (clear cut) and
partial (second thinning) cuts in pine
plantations. The figure shows the in-
dividual observations and predicted pro-
ductivity for the 600H harvester on two
study sites: (1) a clear cut of a 30-year-
old plantation, and (2) a second thinning
in a 21-year-old plantation. The volume
per tree and the number of trees cut per
acre had the most impact on machine
productivity. The predicted productivi-
ty was based on a linear regression of
cords per productive machine hour
(PMH) versus tree diameter breast
height (dbh).
The 490 forwarder produced an
average of 7.5 cords per PMH. It was
slightly more productive in the clear cut
versus thinning and when loading
sawlogs versus pulpwood. Factors that
affected its productivity included the
forwarding distance, the number of
grapple loads required to load the wood
storage rack, the number of times the
machine moved to pick up a load, and
the distance moved between piles of
wood.
A cost analysis indicated that the
600H harvester costs about $110 per
PMH and the 490 forwarder costs about
$50 per PMH. By dividing the machine
costs by the productivity estimates
shown in the figure, a cost per cord can
be calculated for different types of
stands and sizes of trees. For example,
clear cutting 8-in. dbh trees would re-
quire one harvester and two forwarders
at a cost of $210 per PMH. A resultant
productivity of 15 cords per PMH and
a cost per cord of $14 would be realized
for this system configuration. This cost
is competitive with conventional
harvesting systems. It represents an
ideally balanced system and does not in-
clude trucking, overhead, or profit.
Research results indicate that the Nor-
car system is economical, comfortable,
and safe. However, the system has a
high initial investment and operation of
these machines requires a higher level of
mechanical knowledge than needed by
operators of most conventional harvest-
ing systems. Thus, additional training
will be required for U.S. operators who
will use this machinery. It appears that
advantages outweigh the disadvantages
for these machines, and the number of
these systems operating in the South will
increase in the near future.
Tufts is Associate Professor and Brinker is
Assistant Professor of Forestry.
Cords per PMH
25 0
30 - --a- -Thin oe o Oo
20o
80 o
15- no n - s 
o o
10 -?aoa'
15 - a
a- ai
04 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
DBH, in.
Productivity of 600H harvester in total or partial cuts in pine plantations.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
15
W.D. DAVIES
SIMPLE EFFECTIVE SYSTEM MEASURES FISH 
POPULATION
Harvestable size
pct. total standing crop
90-
Largemouth bass,
pct. total standing crop
20-
Prey/predator ratio
by weight
12-
10-
ROPER BALANCE in a farm
pond is a condition where both
bass and bluegill are able to
grow and reproduce, thereby
producing a sustained crop of
harvestable size fish. How efficiently
fish feed on each other is a key ingre-
dient in maintaining populations in
balance. While feeding efficiency is af-
fected by a number of factors, the size
distribution within bass-bluegill popula-
tions at any given time reflects how ef-
ficiently fish are feeding and summarizes
the ongoing dynamics of growth, re-
cruitment, and mortality.
Estimating the size distribution re-
quires that the populations be sampled.
Ongoing research at the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station has
developed some simple, yet effective
methods of sampling bass-bluegill
populations in farm ponds. Seining to
determine the size structure of fish
populations can give an accurate picture
of fish population balance, and allow
biologists and pond owners to make
reliable management decisions.
Historically in the Southeast, farm
pond fish populations have been sam-
pled during the period May-September
by seining. Using both a 50-ft. seine and
15-ft. seine, researchers can determine
the relative number of intermediate-size
bluegill (50-ft. seine) and the presence
of bass and bluegill reproduction (15-ft.
seine). Both seines are deployed in a
manner that allows the results to be
roughly quantified, i.e., bracing one
brail on the bank while the other per-
son seines in an arc, returning to shore
and pursing the net to ensure that the
lead line stays on the bottom.
No attempt is made to expand the
catch on an area basis to the entire
pond. Instead, the relative abundance of
the intermediate-size bluegill and pre-
sence or absence of young of year are
used as an index to determine how the
adult populations are structured. In
fact, few adult fish are usually caught.
The graphs illustrate the relationship
between seine samples and various
population values determined by drain-
ing research ponds that have been
repeatedly seined the previous summer.
Note that while the seining results are
variable, the relationship to the popula-
tion values is evident.
As the average number of inter-
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T. Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER--Address Correction Requested
mediate-size bluegill increases in the
seine sample, the percentage of the
population's total standing crop (by
weight) consisting of harvestable size
fish declines, as does the percentage by
weight of largemouth bass. Also, the
weight ratio of prey to predator species
in these populations increases as the
number of intermediate-size bluegill in-
creases in the seine sample. Based on
these relationships, it appears that an
average of 20 intermediate bluegills per
standard seine sample would indicate
populations in balance: harvestable-size
fish would make up 60% of the popula-
tion, largemouth bass would make up
approximately 12% of total standing
crop, and the prey-predator ratio by
weight would be approximately 5:1.
Davies is Professor of Fisheries and Allied
Aquacutures.
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. 9
AUBURN, ALA.