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DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
nematodes, and pathogens has been a
major problem confronting agricultural
and forestry production for decades.
Earle control of crop pests was limited to cultural
practices such as crop rotations. With the de
velopment of the science 
of plant breeding,
many new ctltivars were developed that were
resistant to pests. These new varieties, coupled
with crop rotation practices, sustained agri
cultural production for a short time.
In the 1940's, the discovery of organic com- LOWELL T. FROBISH
pounds such as DDT, 2,4-D, and BHC (benzene
hexachloride) heralded a nes era in the management of pests. Yields of many
crops increased significantly through the 1960's as pesticide use grew rapid
ly. Concerns mounted as the potential for detrimental environmental effects
and human health risks was recognized, and safer and less persistent pesticides
were developed.
Because of agriculturists' concern about the heavy use of synthetic
chemicals, research was initiated to control pests through a variety of methods
- called a systems approach. Integrated pest management (IMP) is one such
approach. It is an ecologically based pest control strategy that relies on natural
mortality factors (natural enemies, weather, crop management, etc.). 1PM
involves all aspects of crop production, 
such as cultivation, fertilization,
postharvest management, tillage practices, selection of pesticides, and tim-
ing of applications. Use of more specific, less biologically active pesticides
is a major principle guiding 1PM development.
Genetic resistance is still the most important defense mechanism against
pests. The use of recombinant DNA techniques, gene transfer, and cell
culture, coupled with traditional plant breeding, will result in the develop-
ient of cultixars that are both resistant to pests and tolerant if synthetic
agricultural chemicals.
The application of biological agents to control pests is a ne technology
of much promise. Biocontrol may mean utilizing natural microorganisms to
control weeds, weeds to control insects, or insects to control weeds and
iicroorganisms. Microorganisms may be used to control other
microorganisms, a plant's own defense system may be enhanced by inocula-
tion with an axirulent pathogen, and iaturally occurring cheiicals or wseed
diseases may be used to control diseases. All of these offer an alternative
to the use of synthetic chemicals, but they will not eliminate the total need
for pesticide use.
SPRN(, 1990 VO1. 37. NO. I
A quarterly report of research published
by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station, Auburn Universits
IOWELL T. FROBISH. .. Director
)AVID H. TI I.. .\ssociate Director
DAILE L HUIFFMAN .Interim Associate
Director
C HARtLES W. BRJCE.. Assistant Director
R.E. STEVENSON...............Editor
ROY ROBERSON ........ Associate Editor
KA\TIE SIT H..........Assistant Editor
TERESA RODRIGUEZ...... Art Designer
Editorial (ommittee: ILowell T. Frobish;
L t. Lamn k, A."ociate Procssor of loilir
and Child Dci elopm0nt: N.WV. Rochester,
As sociate Professor o1 Agrictltural 1 ngi-
,tering; S. P. Seuiiidt, Associale Professor of
Animal and I)airi Sciences; I). I. Bransbs,
A ssociate P'rolessor of A eroniooi v and Soils;
N.R. Holler, A ssociate Irofessor of /ool-
oK' and WIilllife Science, .l. 1). et, Pro-
fesesor of Bolan ' and Microbiologj; 1'.A.
Duff x , A s.istsant Profec'sor 01 1i'AriclturaI
Eotnomis an(d Rural Sociolog ;, R.I
Iox ell, Prcs iccsc r of Fiscerices and A/lied
4qwacultrcs; I.P. Mack .A ssociate Pro
essor of Entomologj'; and R. F. Stex enson.
MAY WE INTRODUCE
Dr. Glenn Wehtje,
Associate Professor
of Agronomy and
Soils. A native of
Washington State,
Wehtje earned a B.S
degree in agricultuii
from Washingto.
State University,
an M.S. in plant pathology froni North
)akota State Unixersity, and a Ph.D1) in
agtonomx and wxeed science fron the U.niver
sity of Nebraska.
Wehtie came to Auburn in 1981 as an
Assistant Professor and was promoted to
Associate Professor in 1986. Since Comine
to Auburnii, Wehtje has worked extensixely
xx ith peanitt wxeed control. His research teamti
xas instrumental in developing timing and
rates of paraquat for use on peanuts. Para
quat has sibsequently become the leading
replacement for dinoseb-containing her-
bicides that xwere banned in 1987.
In addition to his herbicide screenine
work, Wehtije also works etensively in the
area of herbicide movemeni in the soil and
herbicide interaction xith other cropping
practices. His report on xork xxith different
peanut seed sites is featured on page -.
ON THE COVER. Live oak trees in large con-
tainers grew faster when water was kept at
a constant level in saucers. See story on page
11.
EDITOR'S NOTE. Mention of trade
names does not indicate endorsement bx
the Alabama Agricuntural Experiment
Station or Auburn Uiversits of one branid
over aniot her. Any use of pesticide rates in
excess of labeled amounts in research re-
ported does iot constitute iecommenda-
tion of such tate. Such use is simplx part
of the scientiic investigation necessary to
evaluate various materials. No chetical
should be used at rates aboe those per
mitted by tle label. Information con-
tained herein is axailable to all persons
xxithout regard to race, color. sex, or na-
tional origii.
K.S. RAO and D.A. ROLAND. SR.
UNDERSTANDING CALCIUM SOLUBILIZATION IN HENS
MAY BENEFIT EGG PRODUCERS 
-.
\I ACIN Hits 
uita for egg 
shell
C ot matiron, but it mnust be dis-
sols ed in the digestixe Csystem
(calcium solubilization) ot
liens betfore it is ax aitable tot absorp-
tion. 13x u nderst andi ng hoxw calciumiii
solubil ization occurs and hoss it is at-
fected by exter nal factors, egg pi oducers
can miake more e t teetit e decisions
regardcitri the pr oper fotrmt arid quanti-
tot calcium su pplement needed.
\tfter incestiott, calcium supplemniits
limestone o) oxyster shell) react wiith the
digtestive acids secreted in the proxen-
Ircutus (glandular stomach) of hens and
presenti in the gizzard (mnuscular
st omach), to release cateiumn in a tormn
ax ailable tot absorptiton ( bioax ailable
calcium). Inlitial expeimerits at the
Alabama Agictirral E xperimnent Sta-
tion (.AAES) showsed that 701o of the
3.*75 g (grains) ot the darts calcium con-
sumed wxas sotubilized in the dicest ix
sxxtern of helix.
A\dditional \AAES e'xperiments in-
dicated that, on a percentage 
basis,
calcium solubilization and uitilizatiron
(calcium consumed mninus calcium cx-
cireted) deer eased ax calciutm consump-
tion bx hens tincr eased, see table.
HIoxs cxer, the abxol ut e qciant ityr of
calciutm sotubi lizedt and uttilizedt by hens
netreased x ith the amount 01' calcium
cons trued.
I he particle size of the calciurn sup-
plerment also intluenced calcium
solubilization . As shown r by data in thle
table, liens sol ubilized a greater per cen-
age o I calciut t rom tatk gerisus small-
particle limnexione at eacti ot the dietaryx
lx cls tested. L arge par ticles of the
calcium supplement xxerc held in the giz-
.'ard tot a latiget period oit t ime, cans-
ing a ciraduial sot cbi lizat ion that alloxwed
continuous intestinal absorption.
I heretfore, during the night xwhen
calciutim needs f or egg shell calcification
ateci gratest , latrcc particles held in the
cizzar d courld still suipplx calcium to the
cdigextix e sx sterm. A prolonged suippix of
sotlubiized calciurm to the intest ine of
liens ted lat ge-particle limestone allosxed
hese birds to ti lize more calcium than
hens fed small-patrticle limestone, see
able.
Sma~l Ipatrticles 01' calciumn stipple-
men t, on thle other hand, are an
immer1diate soutrce of calcium to actixve-
xI fectiric laxting liens. Although smtall-
particle calciurn supplement is htighly
soluble, its r esidernce tirme in the gizzard
is shior tci arid thtiti its oxverall soluibilits'
is decteasedt.
[tens recluire Cappiroximnately 2 g of
calciutm daily to totm inr egg shell; based
on the AAL S stitch, calcium in the diet
needed to meet t his r eqtitremernt could
be toxwerect by feedirng only~ large- instead
ot small-patrticle limestonme. Hoss cxc, in
tie commrntciat taxer industry, using an
excluisix cly large-particle calcium stipple-
mnent miax inrttease calcium separation in
he teed, wxastage of calcium stupplemtent
bx hens, arid expcense.
The exper imnt also supports the
pcopular pr act ice of addinrg a port ion of
tie calciumi supplemet iii taxer leeds iii
flie totm iii1' pullet- or hen-sized partitelex
(timiest one or oxxt ci shlf ), arid t he test
init he f orm in f puts erizect limecstocnie.
Partial iniccorpotratio torici one-third to
tine-hatf Icf a tar ge-particle calcium
xc) crce in thc dict should inetrease
calciumn hioavailabilitv during adverse
situnat ionx, such as elex atecd en iron-
merita atmiiper atutres arid inradequcate
feceder space.
It should bc rioted thtat largc-particle
calcium i stipplemttiis cannot be u sect iii
scomie situtions. Somei t'eettirta xxysterms
dco tot operate e cfticient l it larce
partitelex ate used. Pellet feceding is
practicedt in sonie
birceder operations
L arge-particle Iimenei'
a( o u m d .1 ,AISiH~ . . .41) 2.91 4.00) 4.8t ).30
c(a wuthicJ., 1.43 2.6 t 1 3.5 2.63
C.a uuiuiuceJ pct . .... 96 8S tit 80 87
Ca iutih/ed, g .. . . . . . . . .6 t.9) 2.4)) 2.S4 2.0ii
( a utiied, pct . . ..i. . . . 7 2 64 S6 68
Small-particle hmreslmWi
Ca con uI Wile gt . . t... 145 2.90 4.3)2 Sa.4 t .52
( a xIltIhiti/ed . .. t. 1.3) 2 23 2.76 2.9' 2.33
C a sotihicire. pct. 1 81 6) 54 72
( a tii/e , .. .. ... . ... 1. 2 1.6)) 2.07 2. '2 1.75
( a uitiicd, .5 . ... 48 41t S
ii 5..e-pa(hic III.imcItc 2 to 4 nun (panicle, pa~xd thI outI
US.A. '.,xt daII et ig .5111 #le , bu we'. I)IIx ta I ined he moee 1110).
smallar)taiic lt c~,iVInx O(I to 0.8 nun1 (pas cxl through sixx #20,
but crx. IciIIIx hx mcxe n30).
to) pre~II inte ro
pagat~in of bacteri
ia, and large parti-
cles in the feed tend
to reduce pellet-
binding capabilities.
To ensure stlticient
ealcitum sciltiiliza-
tioni ini these situ~a-
ticons, higlier lexvels
of dlietars' calcium in
the formn of small-
particle limestone
cart be cised.
Rao is G(auatne
Re -'aiC1 6 \ssta andx
Roland is Prtcixl smV o
Pot l)I v' SICflcc.
"l /u/)U/h I gi-icuituiral EI x)e/'im)ent Station
G.R. WEHTJE, T.V. HICKS, and J.P. BOSTICK
PEANUT YIELDS COMPARABLE 
FROM LARGE VERSUS
SMA.l. SEED
4
..- j#
P EANUT GROWERS can save
up to $30 per acre by using
smaller, "high count" seed.
Whether these smaller seed
tolerate herbicide damage and other
production rigors, and ultimately pro-
duce comparable peanut 
yields to larger,
more expensive seed, is not clear.
To determine effect of seed size, three
sizes of seed were planted in Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station tests at
the Wiregrass Substation, Headland.
Seed sizes included: small (1,515 seed
per pound); medium (1,185 seed per
pound); and large (825 seed per pound).
The number of seed planted per acre was
constant for the three sizes. Three weeks
after emergence, plots within each of the
,O'l
! iX::u
- seed sizes were treated
with Gramoxone at
0.125 or 0.250 lb. ac-
f' tive ingredient per
acre. Some plots
received two applica-
tions of the lower rate
of Gramoxone.
Upon germination,
the smaller seed pro-
duced smaller 
plants,
and the medium and
large seed produced
progressively larger
plants. Herbicide ap-
plication always tem-
porarily 
stopped
growth, regardless of
seed size. Measure-
ment of canopy width
revealed that these in-
itial differences re-
mained throughout
much of the growing
season. The rate of
growth appeared to be -
similar, with the larger
seed maintaining larger
plants throughout
most of the growing
season. Top 
left 
shows 
ear
Though Gramoxone 
peanuts from large
had the expected effect peanuts had beer
of temporarily stop-
ping growth, it was ex-
pected that the larger
plants would recover
, . more quickly. This did
not appear to be the
case. The smaller
plants, from 
small
seed, appeared to
recover just as rapidly
from any of the her-
.:: ', bicide treatments.
The direct relation-
ship between increas-
S, ing seed size and yield
was evident, but not
great. Small 
seed,
averaged across the
various herbicide treatments, yielded
3,180 lb. per acre. Medium seed yield-
ed 3,280 lb. per acre and large seed
yielded 3,250 lb. per acre.
It must be pointed out that these data
are from 1 year (1989), and this was a
nearly perfect climatic growing season.
Total rainfall at Headland for May,
June, and July was 24 in. Timely rains
nearer harvest time provided ideal full
season growing conditions. It is expected
that stresses from drought and other
climatic factors will cause a bigger yield
ly season peanuts from small seed, bottom left shows
e seed, and above shows medium seed; none of these
n treated with postemergence herbicides.
differential among the seed sizes, but
this is not known.
Based on the 1-year test, it appears
that the extra cost of the large seed
simply represents a means to enter the
growing season with relatively larger
plants. The value of 
these larger plants,
under different growing 
conditions,
remains to be determined in future
phases of the research.
Wehtje is Associate Professor and Hicks is
Research Associate of Agronomy and Soils;
Bostick is Executive Secretary, Alabama Crop Im-
provement Association.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
- a
J.D. NORTON, G.E. BOYHAN, J.E. BROWN, and M.H. HOLLINGSWORTH
NEWLY LABELED HERBICIDE PROMISING FOR
WATERMELON AND CANTALOUPE WEED CONTROL
NCONTROLLED weeds can
seriously limit melon produc-
tion. Weeds are a problem
during two critical periods
of the growing season: (1) during seed
germination when weeds grow rapidly
and provide damaging competition to
the crop, and (2) during the last 2-3
weeks of the production cycle, the time
when the majority of sugars are pro-
duced in melons and when weeds shade
the melon plants to disrupt sugar forma-
tion. The vining nature of the crop
makes weed control difficult during
most of the growing season.
Effective and safe herbicides for use
in watermelon and cantaloupe produc-
tion have been sought for several years
in research by the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station. 
Unfortunately,
only a few herbicides are cleared for use
on watermelons and cantaloupes. Cur-
bit has recently been labeled for this
use, joining already labeled herbicides
Prefar,? Alanap,? and Poast.?
In previous years' tests at the North
Alabama Horticulture 
Substation,
Cullman, AmibenO at 2 lb. a.i. (active
ingredient) per acre and a combination
of 1 lb. Sonolan' and 2 lb. Amiben"
gave best results. However, neither is
labeled for use on watermelons and can-
Coo I If GRASS ,ND BRDADI F WEEDS [
WAllRAILLONS A\D C ANFAIOPES, NORTH
AIABI1A HOR H lR RE SLRSI AFION
1989
Grass and broadleaf control
Treatment,,In wantaloupe
In! atermeon,
lb, a.i.acre at 33 days At 33 At 82
_ 
days days
Pct. Pct. Pct.
Prefar & Alanap,
3.0 and 1.0... 63 75 53
Curbit, 0.5.. 63 90 73
Curbit. 1.0.. .. 73 90 83
Curbit, 1.5..... 88 90 73
Command, 0.5 . 40 58 25
Command, 1.0. 60 73 28
Command, 1.5 . 75 78 33
W5eeds present in the experimental area included:
grasses-craberass, goosegrass. carpeterass. and
panicum: broadleaf weeds -pitgeed, lambsquarter,
ragweed, purslane, and morningelors
Viate melon trial termtnated before second rating
could be completed.
taloupes. Furthermore, Amiben severely
damaged plants under certain weather
conditions. Poast, the only post
emergence herbicide 
labeled for melons,
gave fair control of grasses but did not
control broadleaf weeds.
In continuing tests in 1989 at the same
location, several different herbicide
treatments were evaluated on both
watermelons and cantaloupes. 'The
standard treatment of Prefar + Alanap
was compared with Curbit, and with
another promising, but nonlabeled
product, Commandic" Treatments were
as follows:
1. Prefar - Alanap, 
3 lb. and 1 lb.,
respectively, per acre.
2. Curbit, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 lb.
per acre.
3. Command, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 lb.
per acre.
The herbicide treatments were spiay-
applied immediately after AU-Producer
watermelons and Chilton cantaloupes
were planted. Watermelon test plots
were single rows, 7.3 ft. wide and 60 ft.
long, with hills spaced 6 ft. in the row.
Cantaloupe plots were two rows, 3.7 ft.
apart and 30 ft. long, with hills spaced
4 ft. apart.
Plots that received no herbicidal treat-
ment had a heavy infestation of both
grasses and broadleaf weeds. Control
from the herbicidal treatments was com-
pared with the untreated plots and tared
according to the number of \%,,:cd, In
relation to the untreated plots.
Curbit provided excellent cote;, '' i
both annual grasses and broadlcal
weeds. As noted in the table, control itn
cantaloupes was 90% at 33 days after
planting for all three Curbit rates tried.
At 82 days, the 0.5- and 1.5-lb. rates
provided 737o control and the 1.0-lb.
rate gave 83% control. Control in
watermelon plots was 63 and 73.o'
respectively, for the 0.5- and 1.0-lb.
Curbit rates and 88% for the 1.5-lb.
rate, when rated at 33 days. The other
materials generally gave 
poorer results,
as shown by results in the table.
Curbit offers seveial advantages over
the other materials tested. It does not
have the volatility 
problenis of Alarap,
nor the need for niechanical ircorpora-
tion and the residue problein of Prefar.
Alanap must be watered in after applica-
tion or the product evaporates. Prefar
used alone niust be incoiporated into the
soil, thus adding to the cost ot applica-
tion. Another problem is that certain
crops cannot be planted the next ciop
year where Prefar has been used.
Command gave good control of both
annual grasses aid broadleat weeds.
However, it caused phyrotoxicity to the
melon plants, especially at the higher
rates. This damage was characterized
by an interveinal chlorosis, which did
not kill but weakeiied the plants. In
coitrast, Curbit caused ro obvious
plant damage.
Ratings of treatments in this test in-
dicated that Curbit at rates of 1.0 and
1.5 lb. a.i. gave best weed control with
no phytotoxicity problems.
Norton is Protessor, Boyhan is Research
Associate, anid Brown is Assistant Professor of
Horticulturc, flollinigsworth is Superintendent of
theN \o ih : atit I ituun r Suthtai It
Alabana Agricultural Experiment Station
T.P. MACK and R.H. SMITH
CAREFUL MANAGEMENT METHODS NECESSARY TO
CONTROL RESISTANT SOYBEAN LOOPERS
THE SOYBEAN looper is the
number one insect pest of soy-
beans in Alabama. Its larvae
reduce yield by eating leaves
that are necessary to produce seed.
Control of this pest is complicated by
its habits. The soybean looper usually
does not overwinter in Alabama, so
adult moths must migrate into soybean
fields during the growing season.
Populations develop so rapidly (30-fold
or greater increase in less than a week)
that growers cannot use management
practices that build up an abundance of
natural enemies to provide control. The
explosive population increase of the pest
simply overwhelms the ability of natural
enemies to provide adequate control.
A further complication is resistance to
insecticides that was reported in 1988
in Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi,
and Alabama. No currently registered
insecticide consistently controls these
resistant pests. However, use of Dipel?
(a microbial control agent that causes a
bacterial disease of loopers) in combina-
tion with an insecticide showed promise
in 1989 Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station research.
Several registered and unregistered in-
secticides were evaluated for soybean
looper control during 1989 at Tallassee.
Braxton soybeans that were planted July
1, using conventional tillage on 36-in.
rows, were used for the comparisons.
Plants had full-sized pods with small
seeds in them when treated September
13. Treatments are listed in the table.
Treatments were applied in water
using a boom sprayer equipped with
three nozzles per row operating at 40
p.s.i. and delivering 8 gal. per acre. In-
sect populations were sampled from
each plot 2 hours before treatment and
at 2, 5, and 7 days after treatment.
Most treatments reduced the number
of soybean loopers 2 days after treat-
ment, but Larvin? and Dimilin? were
ineffective. The most effective treat-
ments were Danitol? plus Orthene,?
Danitol,? Kryocide,? Dipel plus
Larvin, and Dipel plus Ambush? (rates
listed in table). Populations of soybean
looper in all plots appeared to decline
greatly during the experiment, prob-
ably because of pupation of larger
individuals.
Five treatments reduced the number
of larvae at 5 days after application:
Dipel, Kryocide, Danitol plus Orthene,
Dipel plus Larvin, and Dipel plus Am-
bush. None of the treatments gave
results different from the untreated con-
trol plots at 7 days after application.
A large-plot demonstration trial in-
cluded eight treatments of 5-acre field
strips. The following treatments were
applied September 12, using two nozzles
per row operating at 40 p.s.i. and
delivering 5 gal. per acre: Ambush +
the synergist Ovasyn? (0.15 + 0.25 lb.
active), Ambush + Dipel (0.15 lb. +
1.5 pt. formulated), Larvin (0.8 lb.),
Lannate? + Dipel (0.45 lb. + 1.5 pt.
formulated), Scout? + Dipel + the
synergist PBO? (0.019 lb. + 1.5 pt. for-
mulated + 1.0 lb.), and Orthene +
Dibrom? + Dimilin (0.75 lb. + 1.0 lb.
+ 8.0 oz.).
The Ambush + Ovasyn treatment
resulted in 26 larvae per 3 row-ft. 3 days
after treatment, the same as the un-
treated plot. This compared with 8
larvae per 3 row-ft. for the Orthene +
Dibrom + Dimilin treatment and 2 or
fewer for the other treatments.
Rapid control of the soybean looper
may or may not be important, depend-
ing on the age of the larvae when they
are sprayed. About half of all leaf con-
sumption by this insect occurs in the last
2 days before the larvae pupate, so it is
important to prevent larvae from
reaching this age. If most loopers in a
field are 3/4 in. or larger, then most
damage may have already occurred and
a spray may not be profitable.
Combinations of an insecticide such
as Ambush, Lannate, or Larvin with
Dipel were quite effective in both the
small-plot and large-plot tests. Dipel ap-
pears to be an excellent additive for im-
proving control of looper larvae. The
addition of a synergist such as Ovasyn
or PBO did not improve control.
The choice of an insecticide is
especially critical because insecticidal
resistance will likely continue. Use of
an ineffective insecticide could make
matters worse, by killing beneficial in-
sects and accelerating development of
insecticidal resistance.
Mack is Associate Professor and Smith is Pro-
fessor of Entomology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
M.L. ESLICK and G.R. McDANIEL
SPERMATOZOA COUNTs AFFECT BROILER/BREEDER
EGG FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY
B y ADAPTING a system of
feeding male and female
broilers separately, poultry-
men have increased hatcha-
bility by 5-6%ro. Despite this improve-
meit, 15%o of all eggs set do not hatch.
Recent Alabama Agricultural Experi-
ment Station research indicates this
is due to reduced spermatozoa 
counts,
which cause decreased fertility, total
hatch, and tertile hatch and increased
total mortality and early embryonic
mortality.
As broiler breeders age, fertility
declines due to both the decline in sperm
cell output by the male and the decline
in the ability of the female to retain
viable sperm cells. With this decline in
fert ilit',, embryonic mortality increases.
However, the cause and effect relation-
ship in the decline in fertility and in-
crease in embryonic mortality has
alavs been confounded with other
variables, such as age, health, and
phssiological state of breeders.
Iherefore, a study was conducted to
determine it levels of fertility are related
to embryonic mortality.
Ninety-six broiler breeder hens, 33
weeks of age and of approximately
equal weight and production rate (71
0
/o),
were assigned to wire cages at the den-
sity of one hen per cage. A 
16% protein,
2,867 kcal/kg breeder diet was hand-
fed, and water was available at all times.
Hens in the four treatments were ar-
tificially inseminated (Al) with 
25, 50,
100, and 200 million spermatozoa cells
Ii a ixii t \iaii m n
Variable
I otal hahi
I rrile haich..
Total miortality
tark dead
Mid dead
.iic dcad
Iatrls dead
I5-21 dajs.
25 50 10
I'ct Pc. Pc
46 60 6
16 So 5
72 84 81
27 15 1
27 12 8.
0.2 2.1 4.
2 1.3 A
1-7 das; mid dead = 8-14 das;
*4
- .
t
every 5 days throughout a 4-week
period. Semen was collected and pooled
immediately prior to Al and spermato-
zoa numbers per Al were measured.
Eggs were collected once daily and set
twice weekly. On the 1 Ith day of incuba-
tion the eggs were candled and the clears
were removed and broken out to de-
termine true fertility and embryonic
mortality. At the end of 21 days of in-
cubation, eggs that failed to hatch were
examined to determine whe-
iikH ]IN ther the failure to hatch was
due to infertility or mortality.
naiozoa cells Spermatozoa count had a
0 200 significant 
effeet on fertility
t P and 
total hatch. 
Hens in-
87
6 79 setinated 
with the lowest
6 90 concentration had the lowest
6 96 fertility. A point of sper-
8 15 natozoa saturation was
y 5 reached between 100 and 200
lait dead million, after which fertility
decreased. And, of all eggs
collected, the lowest spermatozoa counts
resulted in the lowest hatch. At sper-
matozoa counts of 100 million and 200
million, this comparison also reached a
point of saturation at which the incre-
ment of increase in total hatch decreas-
ed to insignificance.
Early embryonic death was affected
by varying spermatozoa counts, with
lower spermatozoa concentrations
resulting in higher early embryonic
death. Of the fertile eggs hatched, those
with the lowest spermatozoa counts had
the lowest hatch of fertility.
Spermatozoa counts had a significant
linear response to the total mortality of
embryos. Total mortality included early,
mid, and late embryonic death. As in-
dicated by data in the table, lower
spermatozoa concentrations resulted in
higher total mortality.
1 slick is forner (raduate Student and Mcc. )aniel
is Proessor of Poulrs Science.
Alabuina Agricultural Experiment Station
D.I. BRANSBY and J.T. EASON
SHEEP OUTPERFORM CATTLE ON RYEGRASS PASTURE
WEANED lambs were more
productive than steers
when grazing annual rye-
grass pastures in spring.
This was shown in an 84-day grazing ex-
periment at the Sand Mountain Substa-
tion near Crossville.
The objective of this Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station test was
to determine relative productivity and
stocking equivalents of lambs and steers
under grazing conditions.
Marshall ryegrass was seeded at 25 lb.
of seed per acre into a prepared seedbed
in fall 1988. Potassium and phosphorus
were corrected according to soil test.
Nitrogen was applied as ammonium
nitrate at a rate of 24 lb. per acre at
planting and 64 lb. per acre in spring.
Forage was allowed to accumulate un-
til the beginning of April 1989 when
grazing commenced. Pastures were
grazed at stocking rates 
of 15, 20, 25,
and 30 lambs per acre and 1.5, 
2.0, 2.5,
and 3.0 steers per acre. Lambs averag-
ed 41 lb. at the start of the experiment
and steers averaged 501 lb. Pastures
were continuously grazed. Animals were
weighed every 28 days and pasture
height was measured periodically.
Average daily gain (ADG) is usually
higher at low stocking rates than at high
stocking rates. However, in this study
ADG showed little change with in-
creased stocking rates, see table. This
was probably due to substantial
amounts of forage that were allowed
to accumulate prior to commencement
of grazing.
Since the quantity of forage con-
sumed by ruminants is related to their
weight, meaningful comparison of ADG
for lambs and steers requires an ap-
propriate adjustment. At the beginning
of this experiment, steers were 12.2
times heavier than lambs. Steer-
equivalent ADG for lambs can therefore
be calculated by multiplying mean lamb
ADG (0.24 lb.) by 12.2. The value
obtained (2.93 lb.) is 540% higher than
the mean ADG for steers (1.90 lb.). This
n~;:~F I'~e::?ii~i4~ P
P I~ ~-%?~~
~n.
Ins:
I.
>1
*-& ,.
J
,Mf
higher efficiency of lambs is related
partly to their ability to select higher
quality leaves and reject stems because
of their small mouths and nibbling-
grazing action, compared to steers that
depend more on tongue action to gather
forage into their mouths.
Gain per acre generally increased with
stocking rate. Highest gain per acre for
the 84-day grazing period was obtained
at the highest stocking rate for both
lambs and steers, see table. At these
stocking rates, lambs provided 49%
higher gain per acre than steers, sug-
gesting that they are more efficient at
harvesting both a high quantity and
quality of forage when grazing. The
greater efficiency of lambs in maximiz-
ing the quantity of forage consumed
may be related to less contamination of
forage by excreta, and a tendency for
sheep not to reject forage located near
excreta as much as cattle do.
Pasture height was generally greater
and decreased more as stocking rate in-
creased for steers as compared to lambs.
However, at the highest stocking rates
(30 lambs per acre and 3 
steers per acre),
pasture height was similar. This suggests
that approximately 10 lambs can be car-
ried in the place of one steer at this high
level of pasture utilization.
Results from the first year of this ex-
periment showed that lambs were more
productive than steers on both a per
animal weight basis and a per acre basis.
However, the grazing behavior of sheep
and cattle tends to be complementary
rather than competitive.
Bransby is Associate Professor of Agronomy
and Soils; Eason is Superintendent of the Sand
\1nountain Sui b h tation.
GAIN oF LAMBS AND STIERS GRAZNII RI iRAnSS
Performance measure Lambs Steers
Per acre stocking rate, no................ 15 20 25 30 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Average daily gain, lb................... 0.24 0.24 0.21 0.27 1.84 1.81 2.15 1.81
Gain per acre, lb. .................... 302 403 441 680 232 304 451 456
Pasture height, in ...................... 7.6 5.7 5.8 6.2 1(0.3 8.2 7.3 6.04
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
fst
C ONIIERCIALI broiler feed is
commonly pelleted, a process
which can reduce 
wastage,
sometimes increase nutrient
availability, and usually improves live
performance. Maintaining pellet in-
tegrity is essential to realizing most of
these benefits. Many feed additives are
available to improve pellet 
stability,
each varying in price, 
composition,
and effectiveness.
Lignosulfonates, by-products of the
paper industry, have been widely used
for over 25 years as binder agents. These
compounds are available 
in sodium,
calcium, or ammonium salt forms and
contain a high percentage of various
wood sugars and hemicelluloses.
Previous studies done elsewhere have
generally shown improvements in live
performance from the use of ligno-
sulfonates. However, measurements to
corroborate effectiveness as a binder,
possible alterations to 
nutrient content,
and effects on carcass quality were
absent. An experiment to address these
inadequacies was conducted at the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station using calciumlignosulfonate
(CaLS) as a binder in feed for broilers.
Broilers used for the study were
reared with the sexes separated and
mixed, then slaughtered at ages which
would equalize their aver:c !i c cightl
(males at 41 
days,
LivE PEIOKR,
females at 47 days, 
IN s
and combined sexes
at 44 days). Feed- Treatment
ing was performed 
Market
during the summer 
Sex age, 
(
when the advantage
of intact pellets and Males 41
the reduced "work" 
Females 47
Mixed 44
of eating would be
Binding agents help maintain high pellet
uality of poultry feed but may not improve
usually remains in the body cavity after
evisceration. Females have more fat
remaining than males and the propor-
tion increases with age. In all cases, fat
increased when CaLS had been used.
Enhanced pellet quality has been
credited with improved live performance
because birds do not have to work as
hard or spend as much time at the feed
trough to get sufficient amounts of
feed. This energy savings can be used
for growth.
In this study, the increased productive
energy arising from pellet stability led
to additional body fat and adversely
affected feed conversion. Feed protein
must be sufficient if meat rather than fat
is to be synthesized. Unfortunately, the
finisher was balanced for a moderate
environment, and the high temperatures
led to protein being low relative to
energy. This poor balance is believed to
have been further exaggerated by
improved pellet quality.
Pellet stability is ordinarily valuable
to broiler performance, particularly in
hot weather. CaLS substantially im-
proves pellet quality; however, this
advantage did not result in better
performance, most probably because
feed protein had not been adjusted
to effectively use
the associated in-
crease in productive
energy.
greatest.
All feeds were based on corn, soybean
meal, corn gluten meal, 
and poultry fat,
which are ingredients of high nutritional
value but often lead to poor pellet
integrity. A crumbed starting feed was
offered to all birds during the first 3
weeks. The subsequent finisher feed was
pelleted, half with 25 lb. CaLS per ton
added and half without the CaLS. Feed
was sampled from the pen trough so
that all aspects of handling would
be encountered.
Adding CaLS to the feed led to a 55%
improvement of intact pellets, but did
not alter nutrient content based on
analyses. Amino acids associated with
the crude protein (20.6%0) were similar
with and without CaLS.
Live performance of broilers receiving
the CaLS-treated finishing feed did not
parallel previous reports. Final body
weights were not meaningfully improved
by the better pellets for any of the birds
in the test, see table. Furthermore, an
increase in feed conversion 
occurred,
which was also contrary to expectation.
Yields of the carcass after processing
and chilling were typically greater with
females than with males, largely be-
cause of their age difference at
slaughter. The presence of CaLS and
improved pellet quality with the final
feed had no elffeet. \hdominal Ifat
\NL ANII AfIxyrm I'r F I 1kO1 III Cll. nEl CARCAS oI- BROil. GIEN GA
lHING )TI FomI 3 WiI .KS UN III MARI-I NIG WI 1H 5511 WIIH111 I
Final weight Feed/lb. gain Carcass yield Abdominal fat
Control +CaLS Control +-CaS Control +CaLS Control +CaLS
Lb. Lb. Lb.
4.15 4.15 1.75
4.21 4.22 1.94
4.19 4.24 1.85
Lh. Pet. Pct. Pet. Pet. Acar and Revington
1.80 64.5 63.9 2.45 
2.60 Ire Graduate Research
1.98 66.9 66.8 3.19 
3.40 \sistants and Moran
1.86 65.1 65.6 
2.54 2.57 ind Bilgili 
are Professors
of Poultry Science.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
J.E. DUNKELBERGER, G.W. GRIFFIN, R.S. MYRICK, and G.J. LYLES
VANDALISM AND PROPERTY CRIME PLAGUE URBAN
AND RURAL RESIDENTS..........
REPORTED crime is again in-
creasing in the United States
after a brief period of decline.
Some 93 million homes, or
one-fourth of all U.S. households, were
touched by crime in 1988. Information
published by the Alabama Criminal
Justice Information Center revealed that
this turn-around in crime rates occurred
at mid-decade for Alabama. By 1986, all
property crimes, including robbery,
burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle
theft, reflected higher rates than in the
early 1980's.
In 1984 and 1985, the Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station and
Tuskegee University jointly conducted
a statewide survey of Alabama
households to determine their ex-
periences with crime. Approximately
1,600 households provided information.
For this report, each of Alabama's 67
counties was classified either rural (48
counties with populations less than the
State average of 76.7 people per sq. mi.
and containing no cities larger than
50,000), urban (14 counties with pop-
ulations above the State average but
containing no cities larger than 50,000),
or metropolitan (5 counties in the State
containing cities with populations larger
than 50,000).
Five distinct kinds of nonviolent
household victimization were reported
by respondents: (1) vandalism around
the home, (2) theft of property from
around but not in the home, (3) burglary
or attempted burglary of home or
building, (4) theft of property from
household members while they were
away from home, and (5) theft of a
motor vehicle. As noted in the table,
almost 30%7 of the sample Alabama
households experienced some form of
victimization at the hands of
nonhousehold members in 1985.
Vandalism of the house itself or any
property around the house includes all
attempted incidents whether or not
property was actually damaged or
destroyed. Acts of vandalism are more
common in metropoli- Te of
tan counties than in
rural counties, even
though more police Theft from arou
and more frequent u home
police patrolling exist
in cities. Rural resi-
dents are more likely 
ebers whi
to experience vandal- from home
ism the closer they 
live of 
a
to a city. or committed
Households that re- h :d .mbers
ported incidents of
vandalism rarely had
their property losses Violent 
crime
covered by insurance.
Much of the cost asso-
ciated with vandalism
is in the frustration and psychological
trauma experienced by individuals who
have had their household property
damaged or destroyed.
About 12% of the sample households
were victims of theft from around the
home. Households in rural counties
were less likely to experience such a
crime than residents of either urban or
metropolitan counties. Stolen items were
not covered by insurance in 75% of the
victimized households.
Burglary or attempted burglary of the
home or other buildings on the im-
mediate property site was experienced
by about 6% of the sample households.
Rural residents were more likely to be
burglarized than metropolitan residents,
while urban households were most
likely to be victimized.
The most common theft experience
involved the theft of personal property
while a household member was travel-
ing or living away from home.
Metropolitan county residents were
most likely to be victims of such crimes,
but rural county residents also ex-
perienced a high incidence. Property
stolen from a person while away from
home was covered by insurance only
10% of the time.
Theft involving a motor vehicle or
self-propelled farm machine receives
much media attention but is a low-
incident type of crime. The property in-
volved in the majority of such incidents
was either a car or truck. Urban
residents were less likely to be victimized
than either rural or metropolitan
residents. In half of the incidents, the
vehicle was covered by insurance.
Data from the survey suggest that
many crimes, especially those involv-
ing the theft or damage of personal
property, are not reported to law en-
forcement agencies that collect and
report official crime statistics. On the
other hand, much of this unreported
crime involves relatively minor incidents
and modest dollar losses. Nevertheless,
frustration and trauma may be serious.
In any one year, a sizeable proportion
of Alabama households feel the "sting"
of vandalism and crime; 17% of
Alabama households experienced an at-
tempted theft of some type in 1988.
Although there is less likelihood of be-
ing victimized in rural areas, crime does
exist and is increasing in the countryside.
Dunkelberger is Professor and Griffin and
Myrick are Graduate Research Assistants of
Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology;
Lyles is Professor of Sociology, Tuskegee
University.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
10
K.M. TILT, R.L. SHUMACK, and W.J. FOSTER
SAVING NURSERY
IRRIGATION RUNOFF
OFFERS CONSERVATION
AND PRODUCTION
ADVANTAGES
O VERHEAD IRRIGATION
of a container nursery re-
qurres about 20,000 to
50,000 gal. of water per acre detriment;
per das ot irrigation. Unfortunately, sirulates
7)-8001'1 ot this water falls between or tainers are
passes through the containers and can- area ot a
not be used by the plants. Further, this ofte occe
lost sater moves into underground nurseries.
reserves or rurs oft. Not only is that sith live
ssater lost, bt it prosides a vehicle for ing in cot
carryirng chemical pollutants into surtace level in sat
or ground sater. Thus, there are tswo out besseec
compelling reasons to look for better ir- drip irrig,
rigation riethods. needed, fir
Some nurseries hase already im- Jaruary
plemeruted consersatior measures to measuren
address the concerns about overhead 1989.
irrigation. One retiod adopted has L ive oa
been to channel runoff into ioldine to catchi
ponds where the sater is filtered and saucers os
recy cled. Another technique is to use run-off, f
drip irrigation sshere each container has averaged
its osn water source. Drip irrigation was tairt,
pr es cuts swatei loss betseet pots, but saucer. I
excess ssater still passes through the con- 1.9 in. svhr
tairers into the ground sater systen to ard 5.1 ft
proside tle potential for pollution. drip irriga
Research ot the A\labara Agricultural increase f
Eiperimienr t Satron is esaluating an
additional conservation measure 
for use Height, fi
swith drip irrigation. In this project at the 10
Ornamertal H orticultore Substation, v
Miobile, water roi drip irrigation pass- 
8 r v
lug thr ougi inairers is being caught
in saucers rather than being allosw ed to 6
run off.
I-he potential benefits of catching the 4
leachate or swater passing through the
container are being esaluated in the 2
protect, along swith some ot her aspects
of such a s5stem. 0
One goal was to deteriine shether a S
constant swater lesel maintained 
in a FIG. 2. EffE
saucer beneath a container sould be growth of I
Alubunin Agricultural L sperilment Station
II to grosth. This treatment
the situation in which con-
in a water-filled depression
nursery. IThis type situation
irs wit h detrimental effects in
Three treatments were used
)ak and Shumard oak grow-
ntainers: (1) constant w5ater
icer, (2) saucer allowed to dry
n irrigations, and (3) standard
ation in each container as
gure 1. The trees were planted
18, 1988, and grosth
ents were made October 10,
k showed growth adsantages
tg and holding water in the
er standard drip irrigation and
igure 2. Height and caliper
7.2 ft. arid 1.9 in. wshen wsater
aired at a constant lesel in the
its corpares with 6.1 ft. and
en saucers wserc allossed to drv
. and 1.4 in. Irorm standaird
tion and run-off. The growth
0111 use of saucers to catch
Wet = maintain constant water level in saucer
Dry = allow saucer to dry berween irrigations
Control= water as needed through drip Ingatl
- U:i.
humard oak Live oak
ects of irrigation treatments on height
ive oak and Shumard oak.
water would boost wholesale salue
about $8 per tree.
Another phase of the study compared
15-gal. and 30-gal. containers for grow
ing the trees. Ten trees in each size con-
tainer were produced under each of the
three irrigation treatnents already
described.
There was a clear advantage to grow-
ing the trees in 30-gal. containers
conpared to 15-gal. containers. Height
growth differences favored the larger
container by 0.8 ft. for live oak and 1.6
ft. for Shumard oak, figure 3. Caliper
size of live oak increased from 1.5 in.
in the 15-gal. container to 1.9 in. it the
30-gal. container. Shumard oak show-
ed no difference in caliper between the
two container sizes. The size dif'erences
resulting from the larger containers
translate into $5 to $10 per plant
value differences.
Iill \ Iloia t'ric',oor and 5Strimiwkk is tteard
ofthe Ontmeta Horl~~i r tiiiicutr Suibsitaiion.
Height, ft.
8
? 30-gal container
S15-gal container
41
2I
Shumard oak Live oak
FIG. 3. Effects of container size on
growth of live oak and Shumard Oak.
) 5...
.7 A.~~T
FIG. 1. Drip irrigation treatments: (1) irrigated as deemed
necessary, no saucer; (2) saucer allowed to dry out between ir-
rigations; (3) saucer maintained at constant water level.
ab~F ~i~
ZI_
-- .I*"1, iai
J.T. FOLEY and G.J. KEEVER
BRANCHING OF LESSER PERIWINKLE 
INCREASED BY
GROWTH REGULATORS
L ESSER periwinkle is one of the
most common vining ground-
covers in this region because it
adapts well to many different
settings, including shaded areas, and is
fast-growing. Its growth is characterized
by long runners and little lateral
shoot development.
Lesser periwinkle plants are typically
sold by the number of runners on the
plant. Many such crops are potted
several plants per pot or pruned
repeatedly during production to produce
well-branched, high quality plants. The
first approach requires more plant
material than using one plant per pot,
while the latter is labor intensive. An
Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station study was instituted to determine
the effectiveness of several plant growth
regulators in inducing lateral budbreak
and elongation of lesser periwinkle.
Cuttings of lesser periwinkle were in-
serted in 36-cell flats with a Pro-Mix
BX
? 
medium and placed in a double-
layer polyethylene greenhouse under
intermittent mist for 11 weeks.
Rooted cuttings were pruned to three
nodes each; all side and basal shoots
were removed. The following foliar
Comparison of branching of
untreated (left) and Promalin-
treated periwinkle.
spray treatments were
then applied to the plants:
Promalin? [a mixture
of the synthetic cytokinin
BA (6-benzyladenine) and
gibberellins A,A,] at 125,
250, and 500 parts per
million (p.p.m.).
Atrinal? (dikegulac so-
dium) at 1,000, 2,000,
and 3,000 p.p.m.
BA at 62.5, 125, and
250 p.p.m.
Accel? (another syn-
thetic cytokinin) at 
62.5,
125, and 250 p.p.m.
Sprays were applied
just prior to runoff in a
volume of about 2.0 ml (milliliters) 
per
plant. Buffer X? was added as a surfac-
tant at 0.2%o to BA, Promalin, 
and
Accel. Plants were fertilized weekly with
200 p.p.m. nitrogen from 20-10-20. A
control group of plants was treated iden-
tically to these except no growth
regulators were applied.
Promalin treatments increased runner
number and increased runner length 
up
to 250 p.p.m. Atrinal delayed runner
production through week 4, but
numbers increased thereafter and run-
ner length decreased as Atrinal rate
increased. BA did not increase runner
number and increased rates of BA
tended to increase runner length. Accel
did not increase runner number, and
increased rates of Accel decreased run-
ner length.
Based on results of the first experi-
ment, a second test was initiated to
determine appropriate rates of the most
effective branching compounds from
the initial test. Since Atrinal and Pro-
malin both increased 
runner number,
they were selected for comparison
in the second test. Foliar spray
treatments consisted of Promalin and
Atrinal at 250, 500, and 1,000 p.p.m.
PRIMARY RuINNER NUMBER AN) LENGTHS OF
LSSER P RIWINKL
inal Final
Treatment runners runner
length
No. In.
Promalin
250 p.p.m............. 4.2 14
500 p.p.m.......... .... 5.1 12
1,000 p.p.m........... 7.1 12
Atrinal
250 p.p.m............. 3.3 14
500 p.p.m............. 2.3 14
1,000 o.p.m ........... 3.0 14
U ntreated ............... 2.5 15
'Runners produced from initial 3-node
cutting.
Treatments, excluding pruning, 
were
applied a second time without pruning
6 weeks after the initial application.
Data were taken at 2-week intervals and
included primary runner number and
length, secondary runner number (from
primary runners), and basal runner
number (from the growth 
medium).
Final data also consisted of a node count
of primary runners as well as a measure
of the three longest secondary runners.
The results of each chemical treat-
ment in the second study showed that
Promalin increased primary runner
number from the 
three-node cutting,
increased secondary and total runner
number, and decreased primary runner
length while secondary runner length
increased as rate of Promalin increased.
Atrinal did not promote runner produc-
tion or runner elongation, as shown in
the table.
Treatment with Promalin resulted in
light to severe chlorosis, especially at
higher rates. Plants eventually
developed normal foliar color and the
majority of secondary runners survived.
These results indicate that Promalin
at 500 to 1,000 p.p.m., 
using two
applications about 6 weeks apart, is
effective in inducing lateral 
branching of
runners of lesser periwinkle.
Foley is Graduate Student and Keever is
Associate Professor of Horticulture.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
J.W. ODOM
BORON FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS MAY NOT BE
NECESSARY FOR IRRIGATED CORN
C OASTAL Plain soils of
Alabama are low in extrac-
table boron and it is often
assumed that irrigated corn
needs boron applications for maximum
yield. To evaluate this assumption, an
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion field test was conducted on a
Goldsboro soil at the E.V. Smith
Research Center near Shorter.
Three boron treatments (0, 2, and 4
lb. boron per acre) were applied as four
split applications each year to avoid
leaching the boron out of the corn's
rooting zone. Nitrogen and sulfur fer-
tilizers were applied at the same times
as the boron fertilizer. All phosphorus,
potassium, and zinc fertilizers and lime
were incorporated before the test was
planted each year.
The treatments included: no irrigation
(rainfall only); drip irrigation with
control tensiometers at a depth of 6 in.
(topsoil or AP horizon); and drip
irrigation with control ten-
siometers at a depth of 13 in. (sub-
soil or BA horizon), as shown in
the figure. The least water was ap-
plied during 1985 when the
amount and distribution of rain-
fall during the growing season
were both favorable. Because irri-
gation water was applied under the
crop canopy, the actual amounts
of water required were low.
There was little difference in
corn yield between irrigation con-
trolled by 6-in. and 13-in. place-
ment of tensiometers. However,
drip irrigation increased shelled
corn yield in all years, see table.
Shelled corn yields from the ir-
rigated plots decreased the second
and third years of the test. These
decreases with time may be due to
a build-up of disease organisms
and parasites in the test area. Crop
yields are often increased by crop
rotation in Alabama.
Boron application did not in- irri
crease shelled corn yield either with tior
or without drip irrigation. E-L(isc
However, boron fertilizer did
increase the ear-leaf boron
concentration at silking from
14 to 26 p.p.m. This increas-
ed boron 
concentration 
in No 
irriga
0 .....
the plants shows that the 2.......
boron fertilizer was available 
4. .... .
to the corn. 
The extractable 
Drip irri
boron in the topsoil of the 2.......
Goldsboro 
soil (0.22 p.p.m.) 
4...... .
Drip irril
is in the range where some 
0.......
soil testing laboratories 2.......
recommend 
boron appli- 
4.......
cation. Since excessive
amounts of boron can be
toxic to crops and since boron ac-
cumulates in this soil, large annual ap-
plications of boron could be a problem.
The grain yield of corn growing on
this Goldsboro soil in central Alabama
was increased by drip irrigation, but
boron application did not increase yield.
Total, in.
70
60 
Rainfall
50 
_. Irrigation
40
30
20
)F IRRIGATION AND BORON FERTILIZER ON SHELLED CORN
YII D IN CENIRAL ALABAMA
Yield per acre
Boron per acre, lb. 1985 
1986 1987 Av.
1985 1986 1987 Av.
Bt BH Bi Bu_
ition
.............. 1. 65 20 114 100
1.80 16 125 107
.. 184 26 107 106
gation, 6 in. tensiometers
......................... 156 229 156 214
261 202 158 207
. 245 223 168 212
gation, 13 in. tensiometers
.............. . 227 231 157 205
............ .. ...... 236 210 173 206
.. ... ... ........ 170 212 179 187
Application of excessive amounts of fer-
tilizers such as boron can be avoided to
both reduce cost of crop production and
avoid possible contamination of human
and livestock drinking water.
Odom is Associate Professor of Agronomy
and Soils.
198s 1986 181/ 1985 1986 1987 1985 1986 1987
No irrigation Drip irrigation Drip irrigation
13 in. tensiometers 6 in. tensiometers
gation treatments during three consecutive crop years varied depending on 
amount and distribu-
of rainfall received during those years.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
D.A. COLEMAN, F.F. BARTOL, J.G. FLOYD, R.W. PEACOCK, and J.B. MAYFIELD
ESTROUS SYNCHRONIZATION
AND AI OFFER EFFECTIVE
BREEDING PROGRAM
C OMBINING estrous syn-
chronization with artificial
insemination (AI) offers a
progressive breeding program
that is suited to both full-time and part-
time beef producers. AI provides
producers easy and affordable access to
the best bulls in the country, while
estrous synchronization increases effi-
ciency of heat detection (with no
reduction in first-service conception
rate) and allows cows to conceive earlier
in the breeding season.
Some producers need to concentrate
labor associated with estrous syn-
chronization and heat detection from
Monday through Friday when hired help
is available. Other producers who work
off-farm during the week might wish to
confine most of these activities to the
weekend when they are at home. Beef
producers often fail to utilize estrous
synchronization with AI because it can
be awkward to fit into their work
schedules; however, several "package"
estrous synchronization and AI breeding
programs have been developed that
allow maximum pregnancy rates from
a minimum input of time and labor.
An Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station study tested one of these estrous
synchronization-AI programs using 76
crossbred beef cattle (Angus-Hereford
1 , .1 ,,- , t . 1 .. I-
Hill. This brood cow herd had been
utilized previously in a controlled
breeding program and, as a result, the
herd had a well defined 45- to 60-day
October-November fall calving season
in 1988. All cows were therefore at least
45 days postpartum by the beginning of
the January 1989 breeding season. As
part of a routine herd health program,
cows had been examined by a
veterinarian and were reported to be
reproductively normal and cyclic. Half
of the herd was assigned to an estrous
synchronization program and the other
half to a control treatment.
The synchronization program was
called a "Monday morning" program
because it permitted treatments and
observations to take place during
the normal Monday-Friday work
week. This breeding program included
three steps:
1. Each cow in the treatment group
was injected with a standard dose of 25
mg (milligrams) Lutalyse? on Monday,
January 9, and observed for heat 30 to
45 minutes twice daily (dawn and dusk)
Tuesday morning through Friday even-
ing (8 heat checks over 4 days).
2. The following Monday morning
(January 16) any cow in the treated
group that had not been observed in
heat and bred the previous week re-
ceived a second injection of Lutalyse
and cows were checked for
heat 
Wednesday 
morning
through Friday evening (6
heat checks over 3 days).
chronized 3. Unbred cows received a
38 third injection on Monday
(January 23) and any cow in
8 the treatment group that had
not been 
observed 
in heat
and bred between Wednesday
21 morning and Thursday even-
ing was 
bred at 
an 80-hour
livided b 
timed breeding 
Thursday
palpation evening (January 26; 4 heat
X checks over 2 days).
Cattle in the synchronized
group were observed for estrus a total
of 18 times over 9 days and had three
opportunities to be inseminated during
the 15-day treatment period from
January 9 through 26.
Control cows were observed for heat
twice daily (dawn and dusk) for 3 weeks
from the evening of January 9 through
January 30 (43 observation periods over
22 days). All cows in the study were ar-
tificially inseminated once by one of two
AI technicians 12 hours after onset of
estrus. Cows in both groups were later
turned in with a bull. Cows were
palpated for pregnancy 35-60 days after
their single AI service.
Analysis of these results showed that
the synchronized cows required fewer
than half the number of days and obser-
vation periods required for detecting
estrus in the control group, see table. No
heat detection or breeding was required
during weekends for the synchronized
group. Although a slightly greater
percentage of control cows was observed
in heat during the trial period compared
to synchronized cows, cows in both
treatment groups had efficient first-
service conception rates of approxi-
mately 78%. This compares to an
estimated average of only 60 to 70%
conception rate to a single natural
service by a bull.
Control cows were detected in estrus
throughout the 22-day trial period. By
comparison, the majority of synchro-
nized cows were observed in estrus,
bred, and conceived after the first syn-
chronization treatment. On the average,
synchronized cows conceived nearly 1
week earlier than control cows. This
means synchronized cows will calve a
week earlier than control cows and,
ultimately, their calves might be ex-
pected to weigh more at a set marketing
date. Synchronized cows also will be
further along in their postpartum period
and should be in better condition to con-
ceive during the next established
breeding period. This could also result
in a tighter calving schedule since these
cows would be ready to breed earlier
during the next year's breeding season.
Coleman is Assistant Professor, Bartol is
Associate Professor, and Floyd is Associate Pro-
fessor of Animal and Dairy Sciences; Peacock is
Herd Supervisor and Mayfield is Research Techni-
cian of the Piedmont Substation.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station14
M.G. PATTERSON, W.B. WEBSTER, D.P. MOORE, and L.W. WELLS
PREPLANT 2,4-D CONTROLS HORSEWEED
IN MINIMUM TILLAGE
ORSEWEED (mares tail) is a
common annual weed in
fields that have not been till-
ed and causes problems when
these fields are planted to cotton using
minimum tillage. Seed are widely
distributed by the wind from late fall to
early spring. After germination, they
form a small rosette of basal leaves at
the soil surface, then a leafy stem up to
6 ft. tall grows from the rosette and ter-
minates in a flowering panicle.
Currently used preplant foliar-applied
herbicides can be effective, but the cost
is relatively high, and these materials
must be applied before weeds reach 12
in. tall to achieve maximum efficacy.
Therefore, research was initiated by the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion in 1987 to evaluate preplant ap-
plications of 2,4-D amine as an alter-
native, reduced-cost herbicide in
minimum tillage cotton.
Four field tests were conducted to
evaluate 2,4-D preplant at 0.5 and 1.0
lb. active ingredient per acre, applied
February 1, March 1, or April 1, prior
to planting cotton during the last 2
w eeks of April. One trial was conducted
at the Tennessee Valley Substation, Belle
Mina, in 1987, and one trial each was
conducted in 1988 at the Tennessee
Valley Substation; Prattville Experiment
Field, Prattville; and Wiregrass Sub-
station, Headland. After minimum
tillage cotton planting, each trial was
sprayed with a mixture of Cotoran,?
Prowl," and Gramoxone? for general
weed control. Plots were not cultivated.
Horseweed control and potential crop
injury caused by 2,4-D carryover were
cvaluated at Belle Mina in both years.
Crop inj ury was evaluated only at Pratt-
ville and Headland since no horseweed
was present in these tests.
Application of either 0.5 or 1.0 lb. per
acre 2,4-D at Belle Mina provided ex-
cellent horseweed control and no visible
crop injury at the February 1 or March
I dates in 1987, table 1. Delaying 2,4-D
applications until April 1 in 1987
resulted in phytotoxicity to
the cotton crop and reduced
horseweed control. Applica-
tion of 1.0 lb. per acre in
1988 provided excellent con-
trol of horseweed at all dates
and no crop injury was
observed. April applications
at the low rate resulted in
less control, primarily
because weeds were too large
at this date. Crop injury at
Prattville and Headland was
not observed, regardless of
rate or time of application.
Seed cotton yields from
2,4-D-treated plots were
equal to the control plots at
both Prattville and Head-
land in 1988, table 2. Seed
cotton yields at Belle Mina
were higher from 2,4-D-
treated plots than the control
in 1987 and 1988. This was
probably due to the
horseweed competition from
uncontrolled plants infesting
the control plots.
These results indicate that
horseweed can be controlled
effectively without injuring cotti
1.0 lb. per acre 2,4-D amine
either February 1 or March 1, w
ton is planted in late April.
ii', Pion iia.i 2,4-D Vi Hi i H Mitt
Crop injury, by Weed contro. b
Rate acre application date application date
I h Mir Anr [erh \lnr .Xr,
0.5 lb.
0 lb...
Control .
0.5 lb. .
1.0 lb.
Control
P. Pct. Pc. Pc. P. Pc
1987
0 0 5 99 99 84
0 0 23 99 99 95
0) 65
1988
0 0 0 7 83 6
0 0 0 99 98 98
0 -)
I \ii 2. Li FL( i ri 2,4-D Piiiii Hi Aridi i, viiNN iN Siiii
Cm 1UN Yi IU
Seed cotton sield/acre, by
Rate/acre 
application date
Feb. Mar. 
Apr. A \
Lb. Lb. Lb. l.h.
1987
Belle Mina
(15 lb. .......... .. 1,656 1,744 1,613 1,671
1.0 lb. ... .... 1.591 1.70 1,337 1.543
(ontrol .. . .... 1
1988
Belle Mina
0.5 Ih. 836 799 966 867
L1 lb. ..lb 611 1,090 1,177 959
Coittrol . .......... 414
Prattville
SIh. .......... 2,398 1,976 2,057 2,144
1.0 lb. ........... 1,853 2.369 2,463 2,228
Control ... ......... - - 2,507
Headland
0.5 lb. . .......... 1,444 1,992 1,888 1,775
1.0 lb. . ........... 1,863 1,904 2,05 1,941
Control .......... . .. 1,742
Patterson is Assistant Professor of Agronomyx
on using and Soils; Webster is Superintendent of the Ten-
applied nessee Valley Substation; Moore is Superintedent
of the Prattville Experiment Field; Wells is
Associate Superintendent of the Wiregrass
Substation.
~il.
1-: B. d
Minimum tillage plantings of cotton may require special preplant treatments to control
horseweed.
AIahumu Agriculturul Experinent Station
~- "
'~'" "~
J.L. DUSI
ALABAMA
BLACK BEARS
LIVE IN HARMON
WITH MAN
T HE BLACK BEAR, the largest
carnivore in the Eastern United
States, is a notable part of
Alabama's wildlife heritage.
Bears were once common in the 
State,
but as forests were cut and agriculture
developed, bears became isolated in the
swamps and forested river bottoms
mainly along the Mobile, Tensaw, Tom-
bigbee, and Alabama rivers in
southwestern Alabama. Though the
recent return of agricultural land to
forests has enlargened the statewide
range of black bears, most Alabamians
will never see one, because these animals
are so shy.
Because of increased highway mor-
tality of bears in the State and
newspaper reports of sightings, the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, in cooperation with the Alabama
Department of Natural Resources, con-
ducted a black bear ecology study. Most
of the field work was done in a 25-sq.-
mi. area located northwest of Saraland
in Mobile County.
Five bears were trapped during the
study and were sedated, measured, and
fitted with radio collars, as shown in the
photograph. A small tooth was ex-
tracted from each to help determine the
bears' ages. The radio-tagged bears were
tracked and their winter and summer
home ranges determined. The habitat
where bears were most frequently found
was analyzed and their food habits
studied by examining their fecal pellets.
The largest summer home range (8 sq.
mi.) was that of a 2-year-old male. The
summer range for four females varied
from 0.9 to 7.2 sq. mi. Winter ranges
for all bears varied from 0.1 to 0.4
sq. mi.
The bears did not hibernate in winter,
but stayed in the swamps, moving 
little,
unless disturbed. They were not typical
carnivores because they fed 
on acorns,
"T'I
-;' -
Young black bear that was trapped, sedated, and fitted with a radio transmitter.
berries, or fruit during most of the 
year,
and ate many insects, especially beetles.
The key to bear abundance in
southwestern Alabama appears to be the
extensive area of swamps, with thick
shrubby undergrowth of "titi" that
is impenetrable without using a
machete. Titi makes a safe retreat for
bears, but unfortunately, 
in Alabama,
it occurs only in swampy areas in
southwestern counties.
Despite increasing numbers and
distribution, black bears in Alabama are
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T. Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
still mainly confined to the southwestern
counties. Bears statewide are protected
by State game laws and violators have
been prosecuted. Results of the AAES
study indicate that human contact with
bears is limited to cases in which bears
seek food from open garbage, honey
from bee hives, or stored corn. In such
cases, electric fences have proven effec-
tive in keeping bears out.
Dusi is Professor of Zoology and Wildlife
Science.
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT NO. 9
AUBURN, ALA.
M v4