f
-
v/i
!L.I
.y,
y
DIRECTORS COMMENTS
forestryr p~rodu~cts benelf it 110111 1 Iscil cl
condctedl~ in agicultuiral cspcrimcInt
stationis suchi as thl( Atlihlih Agricul-
sldIril programu inlude(I newX andi safer produicts,
sItyli. Tii averagC ti. 
S. fdily reCC( fivs $_I() 
of
beneifits froii curIr (lt c\fpenditili(5 for agricul-
tura
1 
r (sealrch. It is signiificanit toi not, hIowevXr,
fthat reeac ha(lI is dt greCate bene(il(filial imll et on1
LOWELL T. FROBISH-
agiciultrri adl lIFX Isr r(search, Xw( iiist minitii reisch~~l 1)1ogirami that
is both1 rici( ve IX d C11 proaict iXC. W'c ilrust conltinueI to beC IractiXvC to) culrrnt
probiilemis facing produiIcers adl conisumilrs ofI our1 pr
1
odulcts, adi ready to IC-
samlI titri, XwC muist beC frciveCX iln antliipatinlg andling11 fiitii C frl Im~~s.
Sinlce thlC sCttflcmllet of the Virginlia ColonyX ini 1607, agriculture has lbeCn im-
noit XIetICI bee X d lioped. Sc ientists S001n rCalizCei that to clothe, feCd, adi care
for itnr ilpCfopuilation~s, chan~ges ill produi~ctionl XXCI Crequiired. Tils, prolactiv C
reschIIt~ ilogialils weCre deCX lopled to prepareCfix the fuiture. Todtay' chlatllnge
tii hlp pla ftdi r1 thiC fIutilrC XXC haveC estalishedl a fastk Foic tCIl rCX iCX Ala-
tbdilids agiiclltin-aat andi fiolest indulistries adli to) take t hd iloo11k at Xiihiiiiis
researchl progr ami to su~pportI tiese (nterprises. This grupf has been asked to
deve itf strategic research pln officidtXAall aamd Agriculture andt iillstiv
fIll the 21st ( (Itilry, to gulide tthe Alabaad Agiiculturald Expiment1111 Stationu if)
th yiC ards ahlldl. The Task tForcC XwIill b ilIX d wing1 on1 ai 511~ ll rcon s iAlaama
toi dICvelop this impor)0tan~t stirategic plian.
Agricuturl atresedrei faces id terrific challengC as theC 21st cenitury ap-f
fproacthes-hetling feeltd iII orl polaitioni that XXiti grow~ lIy Si) tol 90 iiioni
X (ilopitint ilf iiCXX tCCli (ilS tol iiliJ)I product~livtXitX ad! co~st efficieCy;C andll
till nlcc5ity to) compef~te iln thll XXoIrld miarkeltace. XI ihaXvC theC Cnergy tol
meet( this cthallenge, adl till plani bin~lg deCX pe w11)( Xill hl is suIccCId.
MAY WE INTR()1)'(1
Dr 
Ai\ 
\>, 
.ssist 
Priofs
of Iiitoliiologx. A 11.
ti IX of Los1 Angeh
Californiia, App,
1com to Auburni c
1955 ,ifter graduiii
ctroo . epeiousla r(eciived i) B.51it AX.l~IlIl4II
dfgrX sinilog flom iIllCIti Uniesit of Cal-1 I
ifo()nia at Lis 15511lcfs I giigis
ONec THE COVER C~rpent.er ans wee disov
rced aang kraitpant in ah epen Conty
garde hin 1988.rc (See Styng age 5.) io
Sf'RINC 1989 VO1.. 3f6 NO. 1
Stat ion, Auiui 1111 .iiX Iisits.
I I\\ Ill''' F I10BIf ...f .. iretori
II.E. SI LX IKNS(N ......... E itol
KXI II. S\1 II II........ Assistanit Iitili
Edtitoiriat Comm1 iittee: LoeI i IX I i 11Xi
Xgi -01illli (1d( Soils; N. II. Holr Asso- XXI
ciate1 Proiso of' ZooIoI iud /11/0 x 11/Vi/cli I
Prfcso I f i/'XIII .X1 (1Itic i IIIa I /.1 Ilil~l (l ilt 11/
II. F. Keith, .X.Xlociatc PImfisslI o1/ Nsuti-
tionI anld Foods; ID.BI. Sotf, .X.X.iXIIIII
PII)/lXIII if IFoi-'.XII iD.IA. StrmilgfiiIIXs,
As~sistant IS Ifi.Xor o1/ XliI Ibil/Igi/ iand
II. F. Stevsoni.
FDI)lOl S NU' .O Men1ltiIIn Iii tradi
Stationl orI Auuun tilritl XIIX c ii brandill
exce5s iif labld~ amounilits in resiarc rii -
pted~
1
fill noti 15 d sliiiti recommeXndia-ii r
D.L. HUFFMAN and W.R. EGBERT
PRODUCING LEAN BEEF CAN BE PROFITABLE
INDIVIDUALS WHO have an active
lifestyle or are health conscious now
comprise nearly 50% of the con-
sumers in the United States. Many of
these people closely watch their fat in-
take, which has had a significant effect
on the market for beef and other meats.
The meat industry has responded to
consumer demands by closely trimming
meat cuts prior to sale. However, the
ideal situation would be to produce cat-
tle that have leaner carcasses that do not
require excessive trimming. This need is
being addressed in long-range research
projects by the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station.The aim is to de-
velop genetic strains of cattle that pro-
duce leaner carcasses that retain desir-
able qualities of tenderness, juiciness,
and flavor.
One study underway looks at the eco-
nomic aspect by measuring value differ-
ences between beef carcasses selected
for leanness versus conventional market
cattle. At the same time, any differences
in sensory qualities, such as tenderness
and taste, between the two groups are
being identified.
Sixteen beef carcasses were selected
at a meat processing plant to fit narrowly
defined parameters of leanness. Eight
carcasses were selected to be "typical"
(USDA Choice, Yield Grade 3) car-
casses, while the other eight were se-
lected as "lean" (USDA Select, Yield
Grade 2 or better). Carcass weights av-
eraged 650 lb. for each group. Each car-
cass was divided into boneless, closely
trimmed (1/4 in.) retail cuts. Weights of
bone, trimmable fat, ground beef trim-
mings, and retail cuts were recorded.
Values were assigned to each component
by using current market prices. Taste
tests were performed on each of the 10
retail cuts from each carcass for sensory
evaluation.
The lean carcasses displayed a higher
percentage of bone than the typical car-
casses; however, the percent fat was
higher for the typical carcasses than for
the lean ones, see figure. The most im-
Comparisons of various components of lean and typical beef carcasses show value of pro-
ducing lean beef.
portant finding of the study was that
the percent edible portions (closely
trimmed, boneless retail cuts plus
ground beef) was 62.8% for lean cattle
and 59.6% for typical cattle.
Values assigned to ground beef, fat,
and bone shown in the figure were sim-
ilar between the typical and lean carcass
groups, though there was a marked dif-
ference in the value of the retail cuts.
Based on the values assigned to each
component, lean carcasses were worth
$70 more than typical carcasses. Since
the costs of production, slaughter, and
processing were essentially the same for
both carcass types, the leaner carcasses
were definitely more profitable than the
typical ones.
Sensory evaluation indicated no differ-
ences in any sensory traits between the
two groups of carcasses for 9 of the 10
cuts evaluated. The top round from the
typical group was found to be juicier
than the top round from the lean group.
Production of lean carcasses that have
desired eating quality and a substantial
value added component is possible when
the constraints used in this study are fol-
lowed. The present "rewards system" for
beef cattle makes it imperative for pro-
ducers to take cattle to USDA Choice
grade. Though producers sending cattle
to market would not be rewarded for
leanness, this study suggests producers
who retain ownership of their cattle to
the retail sales level could realize in-
creased value.
Huffman is Professor and Egbert is Research As-
sociate of Animal and Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 3
Douglas TAVE, M. REZK, and R. Oneal SMITHERMAN
GOLD-COLORED TILAPIA Now POSSIBLE
foo fIIishies ini t he world. 1( hese5
fisp lw X w~eI ll, ar istanlt to
disees, toili at( poor1 wXater quailitX, and1(
ar liious. t eals oI X011 f, tileil Iatti-
lThouighi p)(o(loclt lol is inl its inIfailcy ill
inI tue State.
D~espite tile manII p)ositive( attibul~tes
of tilaplia dark L skill color maikes thlese
fish1 difficlt to maIrlket ini solve locales.
PhW(K N I (((50 o CI)u 11io~nii Ss) Biv (K OF
P iomCI) 1 i5 I] PussIli[, l 1 \IXO o~s \ (
Biu~r~t, vI) [ v Tnarl ro> aIm 
Cldt X5 '5
Blac'k '5 black .
Co(ldl ' black
IIInz II I/I X IIIIIl/
Co(ldl \ hronzc
Blck '5 bronz((/
100(H', gld
1* e/. &UIi( ku l 1(/
~.
V
'he(1 ormal skin co1or oIf ((ost species (of
tilapia is (lark, with black (niclanistic)
pigmenitaltionl being the p~redomlinant
tolor. InI sonic~ areas~, fish are sold( who1le
or as skin-on fillets. IDark skiln color call
be i ark~etin~g liablitX XXhIn tilapia
muist comp~lJete wXith b~righltlX co~loredl ma-
ri11e fish.
Ill thle 19Osk liltailt red aldll 0X ti-
lapia (thlouight to laX e been Filapia 11108
,SU(1IIIi(0) were) d~iscovei '(I ill TaiwXan.
C:ommerctial inlterest ill these fish XXas
illicdeliate because thlio bright skinl
color einabledt them to compljete at the
markLet XXithl moarine lish. \lanX tilapia
farmls obltainIed these mu-(
tat,lt brightly colloredl fish,
hoolt they Xweie IXhbiizied
wXitth (other .Species: ('1)1 5(
gneltilX there( are' feXX purli
stocks ill txist'ncel. 'Ihis has
m(ade it dtifficult to deter-
11111W thel genletits oIf body
5(& hla1) c olor andt 
to (teterillill( howX
to produce true-brcI('((ling
((ly p~rogell\ XXitt) 1briight skiin
coor see figurI.
In1986,god1 tsu -
cre ob1 served( iln thle
Chicago. A samplte
1
( of these
W t XXsh )va tranlspo(rtedl to the
Alabam~a AgriclIt iil~ Ex-
p~erimflcit Staltionl in 1987,
XX Ilere thley XXere illatetd to
(feterile If thlev were trule-
breedling. Sixteen'l failies,
s with a toltal of 1t0,331 o)ff-
4 sping,4 wXere tproduiced, 
andt
all offspring w~ere gold,. sce
Blc (normatlly p 10551~I i g- er
I bltainedI fromn thle Tennlessee
ValelAthlori ty ill Mtuscle
Shals ill 1987, and~ thley too)
1black X b)lac'k lliatiilgs pro-
True-breeding gold tilapia pro-
vide bright-skinned fish and
benefit marketing efforts.
Rec'itprocal blac1k \ gol)d crosses pro-
(duled fish that ap)peared to lbt black
when(1 thley Xwcie slilaller thain 1 ill., buit
thelo'r)1) changedi as thle fish agedl. Thlese
1fish had l~ fewer b' lactk pig4(1mIt eellIs thIanl
thle black fish, pluls some11 yelloX and or-
anlge p~igmleint tells, XXhiichl gaXve theii
book a patina. As a iresult, this phelo-
typje Xvas inamedl "bronze."
InI 1988, gold(, 1bronze, an d 1black fish1
Xwere I latedi to (deterine) tice inhertIitanlce
(of these colors. Riesults oIf these Illatiligs
res (all '1 that body c(1 olorI iin T. olos .50(-
h ic ' (islot rolledl by a sinigle at t st Ial
geine XX iti inlcIomplete (dominlanlt geln) ac-
tionll: the( G geln). G oldl fish are hlloizl/5-
4011 recessiXe O'(44, blac'k fish are 1)011-
Ire Iletel oLX 4tIs (G")4. The) tale~ shIows'
tile tX cs of ollspring thlat art produicedI
bS a1ll possible llt iil 45 amlIong gold,1
bronzelt, and~ b~lack T. OossOalbjeU.
Becau))lse gold( tilaplia are Iloilotx 4(1(1
r ecessive, it is casX to proIducI(e all) main-1
mlo.s0mical (call be produl(ced by cu(llin~g
tllIcntX tes). Onclte this is (dile, the only1
fish thlat remlainl XXill ielld(, and( sincte
the('\ arc h~omoz)/goius 
rece'ssive (gg~ 
) thley
wXill prodi)uce'lttY 160 4(gold offlspring . ('on-
scqenfIltlk, a sing l(' genera tionl of select-
pIopu~lation (If T. )nssoolbiea. Addiltion-l
alIX bec'tause the Iulllistit' pheilotXpcs
airc e'asily dist ing uished, till in~adve(rtenlt
oty pes call be ('asilh rec'tifiedl tilt pu(rity
ho)' tlleX art' spawnedl'(.
Riesearch is bleing conlduhcted to assess
tlie g4ro(wth, v iabiilitX, disease' resistailce,
cold1( toleranlce, aind tarcass qulality oIf
gold( I. m~o.5'5t1mli(U, in) ortdtr to tdeter-
mlinlI their' suitaility as a coimiericial
stockL.
ira.
A.G. APPEL and R.H. MOUNT
CARPENTER ANTS ATTACK OKRA
M\'ay Actiiallij 13c An Eiconom'ic Pas't
('4 dlx 11n glt.IN Nas c,44 th~is inl
secI was f.4n d 44 ;C(4d'ingI. o44 okrin it I4
hi Alaitii.aii ('44 tc~tt~ j44444' kin .44
14o ne4 n 44ottin 44g i4ogs and44 NtIlos I 41) n.
rocksLN,4 44d 4441-c'lI' 4444 in ho44 s ui 444N ttilitl
ants1 N04444'i4444' ('441r kitche'4x ns to f,4.(_I
on4 N4ugar 44 d oth44 r 4411444' N(''I ('N('c ant
444.4 c44 stNd.44 441 (Itl inl 19,Yi ti l 11'4''(
all4 opi4)I4 114441 to obsN('I th a'ttacks1.4iL
and4( 14,1144 abo1 t th ht, (,Ced4ing1. Ihaits
on4 okra).
The4okr pIla'ts attacked ,41.(L(4 car.('d I1er
(ed. PlantIs N Nc(44 (i-f It1. 1.ali and( 1had4 all
cit4 Ix 14o late4 poolsI. Ha,44n wer (' xaminee)114'4
li'ont grouod444 Ic4'x up al d ant4( d44(istr'ibu-
tion4 and4 ac,4 tiNix ty w44e 44444414.4. Pod(
damage14( was adN .4i44 144'14444141'
Poi
4
4tix(' i(14'44411(',1141 of1 th( ant4 xxax
414)1)1(1 : 144 441(ic l,44: 1444 44icioa,4 1)ilt it
outsI. Itis Nail (Nidetie by(l4jj its lNarge44
sizeII (4(I5-.3 .4 tI444 long i(I N4i xx bot . (hi4
worker ants arc41 crshd 4'fl4NI4( igure' I. \iork-
('cNrs4444 444444 xrn yelish Nl14 to ii4)xx li
rId andI t4144 (144 d and44 .444(1 t~ arc1414'4
darke than t1444 thorax441,4. 11his ant4 canI in-~
Ilict it pinchin bite, 14 but1 it do4)(s not) stingi.
11T'h4l xnt ('44' found4( 444 aill okraX pla44n
in 1144 ro44xx \I 444(st aill thosex( fo4414( wc(4'
441 444 44444 1144 bas ofN( f4lowexx orI o)4 d)e-1
('14opin1g po44(sx as illustrae b41( thN c14(ov ('4
photo14. Ants xxr ('44' f4IN44 14414 th1 e so44il
I 4(lxx(('1 plan.41
.XI4
1
bunw( .Xgri i(ult414'uI I'X'/c iim('44 Sltati44
/y
conume o fi(' ll4
1 
x f, 4.414''1,41
4
( shifte to
theIa(' a thIN I'1NI(ti44 (etal arc4 attaxxed
and4( t14'(4411411 1 x) xhc I f tto 4 c salNtIIiig in
floxxer dr41).
Ihu)hi -'to~ I floINwe N 4 'N 114lc~ in m44 ill.4
rath14r 1th,44 Nst.aight 444 sl414htl1 144441 tI''
fi4'4 2. Such1 dama44.144 4)10.44444lN 
reduce,'(
ke't. Fe'((i4din 4 lso 4N( caused x brow Nscar tis-
sueI ait t144 baseN( o41 dc1('x n pods)114
1
44. Al-
though141 it w.N 4a,4',4l ant l er N(l' obsrvI
scar4 tissue(.
floxx (41 nutrits' 1 14) thet (14'x'1441ing pod4
IiNN4I(. causi4ng4) slower'l growth 11. W\ith unl-
af411(e tissue li x grow44 xin norm4al4l4y.4 I, 11he r'c-
sulit xxwa i)(bent pod(.
41
I I'
'4
FIG. 1 (top). Carpenter ants are large and
easy to identify. FIG. 2 (bottom). Misshapen
okra pods resulting from carpenter ant feed-
ing.
tha.t ar4 t known to con404trl') tis' p)st in-
clud(1 (i444' anl)1, (ii/i401 and4( 114.l)Ilio4.
tance'( 1from) f4'('iilg sites, best c'ontro (r1e'-
sult f '.4'om 4 loaig41NN and traig oliesIIIg
rat4Ihe h an tratn th4ICNII garden4 its' II e444j4f\.41 \
Apeli AsstntPofsorofVllm loC
R.A. TUFTS
ROTARY RAKING SHOWS ADVANTAGES FOR PINE
TREE SITE PREPARATION
AFTER TIMBER harvesting,
land that is to be regenerated
must be prepared for planting
pines to improve survival and
reduce competition. The most common
mechanical method of site preparation is
to shear all standing material at ground-
line and rake the residual material into
windrows. Alabalna Agricultural Exper-
iment Station tests indicate the Symonds
Rotary Rake is more silviculturally effec-
tive and in some cases more economical
than conventional raking.
The rotary rake is a larger version of a
hay rake consisting of four, 7.5-ft.-diam-
eter pinwheels with serrated edges con-
nected to a beam with jump arms. The
rear assembly is used to adjust the offset
angle to control the amount of material
raked. The rake is pulled behind a bull-
dozer or rubber-tired tractor, and as the
rake moves forward, material is rolled
into a windrow by the pinwheels.
Data were collected on rotary raking
operations in central Alabama and com-
pared to conventional raking. Each ob-
servation consisted of the time to make a
pass through a fixed-length plot and the
time to turn the rake around for the next
pass. For each plot, independent vari-
ables including windrow length, swath
width, weight of residual material,
stump height and diameter, and slope of
the terrain parallel and perpendicular to
travel were measured.
Linear regression analysis was used to
develop models of raking time as a func-
tion of the independent variables. Dis-
tance was the most important variable af-
fecting raking time. It accounted for
87.3% of the variability in the data.
When added to distance variable, slope
in the direction of travel, residual mate-
rial weight, swath width, and number of
stumps per acre also affected raking
time. As the values of the variables in-
creased, the raking time increased. The
combination of distance and slope pro-
duced the best two-variable model, ex-
plaining 89.9% of the variability. The
best three-variable model only increased
predictability to 90.4%.
Productivity as a function of windrow
length and residual material is given in
the table for the rubber-tired Franklin
595 and the tracked Caterpillar D7H.
Total time was raking time plus the av-
erage time to turn the rake. Average
swath width for each machine was used
to determine the area covered in one
pass. As longer windrows (600-800 ft.)
were built, the portion of the cycle time
involved in turning decreased and,
therefore, productivity increased. For
short windrows (200 ft.), rotary rake pro-
ductivity was slightly over 2.5 acres per
hour, and increased to almost 4 acres per
hour for longer windrows. Although the
same equation was used to predict the
raking times, the 595 turned faster, but
the D7H averaged a wider swath. So, for
short windrows the 595 was more pro-
ductive. Conventional raking on similar
terrain was about 1.8 acres per hour re-
gardless of windrow length.
Owning and operating costs were cal-
culated for the Cat D7H and Franklin
595 with a rotary rake and two typical
crawler tractors with conventional rakes.
The costs per hour for rotary raking with
the D7H and Franklin 595 were $83.93
and $68.23, respectively. The costs per
hour for conventional raking with a 200-
and 300-hp crawler tractor were $48.16
and $54.92, respectively. Per acre costs
ranged from $20-$40 per acre for the 200
and 300 hp conventional rakes and $17-
$29 per acre for the Cat D7H rotary rake
and $15-$26 per acre for the Franklin 595
rotary rake.
The weighted average productivity for
the conventional raking operations was
1.8 acres per hour for a cost of $26.76 to
$30.51 per acre. Rotary raking averaged
ROTARY RAKE PRODUCTIVITY AS A FUNCTION
RESIDUAL MATERIAL, AND THE
AVERAGE TURN TIME
Machine, windrow T
Machine, 
windrow 
Turn time 
Productivity
length, ft.
Min. A./hr.
Franklin 595
200 .............. 1.2 2.6
400 .............. 1.9 3.3
600 .............. 2.6 3.6
800 .............. 3.3 3.8
Cat D7H
200 .............. 1.3 2.6
400 .............. 2.0 3.4
600 .............. 2.7 3.8
800 .............. 3.4 4.0
3.3 acres per hour or more based on the
layout of the tract, for a cost range of
$20.78 to $25.43 per acre or less.
Rotary raking also has some silvicul-
tural advantages. The rake did not move
as much soil as a conventional rake,
thereby causing less site degradation.
This also produced a cleaner windrow
which burned completely and facilitated
subsequent operations.
The rotary rake is limited to use on
slopes of less than 20% and cannot op-
erate in rugged terrain. Tract sizes
should be relatively large or the tracts
should be close together to justify the
problems related to moving the ma-
chine, since it is wider than legal high-
way width restrictions and cannot be
pulled at high speeds.
Productivity of conventional raking
was not dependent on tract size, while
productivity of the rotary rake was
highly dependent on the length of the
windrow that was produced. The study
indicates smaller tracts with broken ter-
rain or with heavy residual material are
more suited for conventional raking.
Though rotary raking costs more per
hour, a larger area could be raked in an
hour, making the cost less than conven-
tional raking in some cases. The poten-
tial cost saving and reduced site degra-
dation provide some opportunities on
selected terrain for rotary raking.
Tufts is Assistant Professor of Forestry.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
D.R. MULVANEY, J.A. CHROMIAK, M.T. GORE, and D.R. STRENGTH
GENETIC SELECTION FOR GROWTH ALTERS
RESPONSE TO GROWTH PROMOTANTS
GROWTH PROMOTANTS are
currently being used experi-
mentally to improve growth
rate and body composition of
food animals by redirecting nutrients
from fat deposition to muscle deposition.
Researchers have reported dramatic
growth rates and fat loss, but little is
known about the effects of these com-
pounds on specific animal genotypes that
are bred for fast or slow growth-or the
effect on growth and body composition
of extremely young animals.
Although not approved for commercial
use, beta adrenergic agonists (BAA) are
one group of compounds that could be
used in the future to alter animal fat con-
tent. Published reports indicate a 10-
20% increase in muscle and a 40% de-
crease in fat in some animals injected
with a BAA. In Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station tests, the BAA clen-
buterol in the diet of young lambs signif-
icantly increased muscle weights and de-
creased fat deposited around internal
organs.
To determine the effects of another
BAA, cimaterol, on fast- and slow-grow-
ing genotypes and on young animals,
various doses of the compound were in-
jected into 7- to 21-day-old male Charles
River CD rat pups from litters repre-
senting two populations genetically se-
lected for large (fast growth) and small
(slow growth) size. Body weight typi-
cally differs by 32% at 21 days and 50-
60% by 9 weeks of age. The number of
rats per litter was standardized to 10
pups to reduce variations in litter size. A
total of five litters was used from each
strain and four pups per litter were strat-
ified across four treatment groups re-
ceiving injections of 0, 2, 4, and 8 parts
per million (p. p.m.) of cimaterol per kg
(kilogram) of body weight.
Large rats weighed approximately 2.2
oz. while small rats weighed only 1.5 oz.
at 21 days of age. The effects of cimaterol
injection on growth and body composi-
tion of neonatal rats of different growth
potential are shown in figures 1 and 2.
Data reported by others indicate BAA
stimulates growth when given to rats
after weaning, but in the AAES study
cimaterol reduced body weight gain in
the large rats and did not affect small
rats. Body composition was not changed
by treatment, although the body protein-
to-fat ratio tended to be elevated with
cimaterol treatment. Administration of
cimaterol also inhibited skeletal muscle
growth, but caused enlargement of the
heart. These results demonstrate the im-
portance of considering age of the animal
when using growth-promoting agents.
The greater reduction of growth when
doses of cimaterol were increased in
large rats compared to small ones may
Body weight, oz.
1.85
S0 2 p.p.m.
6 4 p.p.m.
1.55 o 8 p.p.m.
FIG. 2. Effect of cim-
aterol on small strain
rats.
have been due to a higher maintenance
energy requirement of this population of
rats.
These results also suggest that geno-
type influences the effectiveness of
growth-promoting agents and should be
considered when these materials are
used experimentally. These tests also in-
dicate that genetic interactions need fur-
ther investigation, particularly in de-
signing diets and employing new growth
promotants in future meat animal pro-
duction.
Mulvaney is Assistant Professor, Chromiak and
Gore are Graduate Research Assistants, and
Strength is Professor of Animal and Dairy Sci-
ences.
FIG. 1. Effect of cim-
aterol on large strain
rats.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
1.25
.90
Day
Body weight, oz.
1.50
1.30 
I 0 p.p.m.
0 2 pppmm.
1.0 A 4 ppm.
1.20 a- o 8 p.p.m.
1.05
.95
.85
.60
7 9 11 
13 15 17 
19 21
Day
J. WONG-VALLE, G.R. McDANIEL, J.E. BARTELS, and E.T. MORAN
NEW X-RAY IMAGING TECHNIQUE DIAGNOSES
TD IN BROILER BREEDERS
T 1111AI, dyschoudroplasia 
CH)) is
ouc of the More couunon .skeletal
,tbnornnalities that ocean in rap-
idly growing broilers and ticr-
keys. Though "1'I) is not fatal, it causes
laiucncss .utd prcycnts birds front get-
ting fimd and water. "I'hc eud result is rc
diced elficiency or even death due to
slnryaliotn .utd/or dehydration. TD costs
pottln "ueo millions of, dollars annotll\
in rcplaccuucnt birds itnd [mwh [Wore in
pool. perfitrnnancc of suryiying birds.
TI) is chill-actcrir.ccl by it failtur of
hone formation 
in the legs of, yuun'=
chickens, resulting in the persistence of
an nncalcificd mass ofcartilagc. Invasion
of, the enl.u-ed cartilage cells of the
growth plate by nuetaplnyscal blood ycs-
scls is it prercyttisite low resorbing carti-
lage prior to its replaceincnt by bone, fig-
ures I and 2. Previously, sacrificing the
bird was the only way to detect TI).
Now, it can be detected by [[sing low in-
tensity x-ray imaging (Lixiscopc). it
method deyclopcd at the Alabannt Agr-i-
cullural h:xperinuvt Station. This tech-
nique will detect at an early agc the ex-
istence of abnormal masses ofuncalcified
c.u-tilagc, .utd thus which birds hay(, Tl ).
The incidence of, TD vvas stndicd in
broiler breeders reared tinder t\vo nutri
tional nuurtgcnncrnt regimens at the
AAFS. In rrginum 1, which is sinnilar to
the uuc used by basic breeders, 100
tuales stud 100 females were fed f'rce
choice it broiler ration Gunn 0 to S weeks
(23'/( protein-3,200 Mh:/kg). At h
weeks of age, these birds were changed
to it developer ration of 18?k, protein and
2,900 111,:/kg and placed on it restricted
f'Ccding progrann fur the duration of the
experiment. This regimen is sintilu- to
the one used by cotntncrcial broiler
breeders. The antottnt of ficd 1,Cd tutu 5
to 20 weeks was determined by the
weight the birds needed to achieve
breeder reconunclided body weight by
20 weeks of age. In rcgintcn ?, the sonic
nunnbers of birds as inn regimen 1 were
f'Cd the same developer diet fine choice
323
-1J
3234
FIG. i (lop). Proximal end ot the ltiotarsus trom chicks with normal bone develop-
ment at 42 days of age. FIG. 2 (bottom). Tibtal dyschondroplasia of the proximal tibi-
otarsus of a chick at 42 days of age.
iii ftttI ftotit 3 tti 20 we,(ek',
bruoilti ibretdeet at 4, 7 t1I atut 15~ w'k
',fct'ttt ti' ( til 2% of the fettutlt'' ait
',etek', oi age dc(leoitped TD. Niott tif tite
itncidlenie tif TD) tccui edtIt' at 7 wteeks of
ag' at 15 \vteeks of igc e oi( f thtt birdsI'
gth lite t''tite) tog alit',eein i
itrte t t t h di as ca be et td
Xlow asic bgreerto c i ju ul lcd irds
0
j
J.W. ODOM, H.W. LANE, D.A. SMITH, and K.S. RYMAL
SELENIUM UPTAKE BY SOYBEANS STUDIED
S IiAi:'M (iS() iN iA trace il(*
by ho thi ~ hiliN]] anid~ ailil Se
l'.c, I (liscasc,' a fital liiart dlisiase A-
f)i\ iii (~iilIs aN lit piregnal( (inQANi. An
(011(1itio mos1lilt iikil\ to occur ini a1l(dNs li
hiigii lecd , ci oil such as~l A la-
l naaiiu I imn inii aciN oE hilt t'og
Scis Inot iljiiii iii fIN fpiailit its aN ,iiki
i ulitthogplnts to ita landiu~ ani-
tic I)Iiii Sit Risarc NuNnter, iN
lr a tn iitii 
r u ni 
t o h 
A l b m 
d liiinr a V lidiN 
] S t ion 
N llo c at1 
i
f]]iii hti to d iiiijnti thatmouit
du( li S i ii Ili n ofl IN itric tblt) Nl illa
Nofl soi ai tip of Coas(i ta P tlin sNoIilS
cuid piedn~I~uN Sc IN soiliib anst.t
uont liiii e N iiia iN(i iii fl thatI thi
ih st cilofent Natiin Nfiiii Sietrct
ahl ini th N oil isil uh in ti to N oih oru
filitr i. iiile~i tiii co t itn of fu
fim ii nhi s N orfiiiN oil ar c.\p osid fru
5
ovy the iifiiiaiNh ion o Se NN in itidi
huiAliN SohN n i (ilN il iN ANliii(ii Null
Extractable Se, pag/g
0.0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008
0
inte plo lyrhonhasAhorizon .
10ii i 'ii 11iiNN iii NA
iiii if fictied b flie applicationi iif Si.
b crae ulste coninhledtrasoens.ih
uconwer e ce ntration, ar gig
sno
7
r tob oi-opansadatla
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Applied selenium/acre, lb.
Sc thaN tradi~itionailly heenl ai(iiii( il
iets aN l]inlirl salts iatherl thian tii crops)
throughiiliN IN11( S -o t iinig f'ii z~Si IN Aitl-
thoug ]]lst eolinNl th 'iNc States i
uty Sd(t IN their (tilit usN oN Ii
in iiosp i l di t i( il N fialu i-lillral
suplm nt ist icreasing Sci ishfteNnN-
I'CcN pla1t gth tis stuN slug-lil l
gstsi tat 11(liir Niifpici umtio
I nsurei I Sc~ i~t rc Ii ]TNNTIar i t c
fin htttIns andiu ai]]as ' TI dcT t u -i
ni]]c fuifthsS ihTn ]ti]]ora I sIITINTaltue
abnl Ne effectivN as the orgnicti
H.W. KINNUCAN and D.A. WINEHOLT
ARE CONDITIONS RIGHT FOR
CATFISH MARKETING
ORGANIZATION?
MOST CATFISH produced in
Alabama is sold to local pro-
cessing plants. Because these
plants tend to be large and are
sometimes owned by large corporations
or outside interests, catfish farmers often
wonder if they are getting a fair price for
their fish. This perceived lack of bar-
gaining power has led Alabama's catfish
farmers to consider the merits of selling
fish collectively through some type of
marketing association.
There is no clear-cut answer to ques-
tions about effectiveness of such a mar-
keting arrangement for catfish. Results of
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion research indicate that the economic
potential of such a venture in west Ala-
bama hinges on two factors: (1) the abil-
ity to control supply, and (2) the compet-
itiveness of the market for live catfish.
In considering supply control, it is well
to remember that a marketing coopera-
tive is similar to a cartel. The power of a
cartel is governed by the availability of
substitutes and the ability to control sup-
ply. For example, the OPEC cartel was
able to raise prices and extract large
sums of money from oil-importing na-
tions because homeowners and industry
had few substitutes for oil (in the short
run). Thus, OPEC was able to control a
large portion of the world's supply of
crude. In the long run, however, the
market had alternative actions. High
prices encouraged consumers to insulate
houses, businesses to switch to alternate
fuels, and industry to develop alternative
sources of supply (from Alaska and else-
where). Moreover, the high prices set by
OPEC made it difficult to retain mem-
bership in the cartel because, by leav-
ing, a member could avoid production
quotas that limited revenues. In short,
the high prices encouraged added pro-
duction by OPEC and non-OPEC na-
tions alike, making it increasingly diffi-
cult to maintain high prices.
Findings of the Experiment Station
study confirm that a marketing coopera-
tive for catfish in west Alabama would
face the same type difficulties as de-
scribed for OPEC. To raise prices, the
cooperative would need to restrict the
supply of live fish available to local pro-
cessors. Effective supply control would
require (1) getting unanimous agree-
ment among local producers to sell all
fish through the cooperative, and (2)
somehow insulating the market from
supplies from other regions, especially
Mississippi. Either condition would be
hard to meet. Therefore, west Alabama
producers would find a marketing coop-
erative an ineffective way to raise prices
above competitive levels for a sustained
period.
The competitiveness of markets in an
area has a strong bearing on feasibility of
a cooperative. If a catfish farmer has al-
ternate markets available in case of poor
prices at one, marketing options are
available. Where the number of markets
is limited, as in west Alabama, a market-
ing cooperative may offer greater poten-
tial. In this case, the advantage of the co-
operative is directly proportional to the
extent to which the single buyer would
exercise monopoly power by lowering
prices.
It is not possible to determine empir-
ically the exact magnitude of price de-
cline that farmers may experience when
a monopsonistic market replaces a com-
petitive one. However, economic theory
provides some limiting values. In partic-
ular, the theory of monopsonistic (single
buyer) markets indicates that the supply
elasticity for catfish at the farm level is
the key to how much a processor would
cut price in the absence of competition.
(Supply elasticity is defined as percent-
age change in supply associated with a
1% change in price.)
Three alternative estimates of the
supply elasticity parameter for catfish,
developed in the Experiment Station's
ongoing catfish marketing study, are
given in the table. The potential price re-
ductions developed in a model based on
these parameters are also given in the ta-
ble. These estimates suggest a potential
reduction in farm price of 11.7-35.0%
due to the monopsonistic power that a
single processor would hold. This would
result in an annual loss of $0.6-$2.4 mil-
lion in producer profits.
A marketing cooperative under west
Alabama conditions appears feasible if
monopsony conditions hold. The prob-
lem of supply control is reduced because
Mississippi producers would not divert
fish to the Alabama market when the
processor pays less than the competitive
price. Local producers, moreover, would
have a greater incentive to join the co-
operative. Without the bargaining
power obtained from joining the coop-
erative, they would be subject to price
exploitation by the processor. Finally,
the estimated losses in the table suggest
a strong economic incentive to form a
bargaining association.
The pivotal factor in determining the
economic feasibility of a marketing co-
operative for west Alabama catfish pro-
ducers is the competitiveness of the local
market.If the farmer has several plants
from which to choose a buyer for his fish,
a cooperative would not be a viable mar-
keting tool. If, on the other hand, the
market for live fish is not competitive, as
would be the case if there was only one
plant in which to sell, a cooperative is a
potentially viable method of increasing
producer returns.
Kinnucan is Assistant Professor of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology; Wineholt is an Ag-
ricultural Economist with the USDA Agricultural
Cooperative Service (formerly Graduate Research
Assistant in Agricultural Economics at Auburn).
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
POTENTIAL REDUCTION IN THE FARM PRICE FOR CATFISH UNDER MONOPSONISTIC PRICING,
WEST ALABAMA, 1983 PRICES
Supply 
Competitive 
Monopsony 
Percent 
producers
elasticity 
price/lb. 
price/lb. difference 
surplus (profit)
Dol. Dol. Pct. Mil. dol.
1.86 .......................... 0.60 0.30 - 35.0 
2.4
3.00 .......................... .60 .45 - 25.0 1.6
8.10...... ....... ........... .. 60 .53 -11.7 .6
10
C.E. BOYD
NIGHTTIME POND AERATION BOOSTS CATFISH
PRODUCTION
ERATION IS an essential man-
agement tool for the culture of
channel catfish in ponds. Most
farmers in Alabama use aera-
tion when dissolved oxygen concentra-
tions are less than 2 or 3 parts per million
(p.p.m.) as an emergency measure to
prevent fish mortality and reduce fish
stress. Although emergency aeration is
effective, fish are still subjected to low
concentrations of dissolved oxygen and
stress. An alternative aeration program
is to operate electric aerators nightly
during the period when dissolved oxygen
concentrations normally are below 4 or 5
p.p.m. In late spring, summer, and early
fall, dissolved oxygen concentrations
often drop this low from midnight until
soon after dawn.
An experiment at the Alabama Agri-
cultural Experiment Station compared
the influence of emergency aeration and
of nighttime aeration on water quality
and fish production. In 1986, six ponds
were stocked at 4,000 channel catfish per
acre (moderate stocking rate) and fed a
commercial feed. A maximum feeding
rate of 47 lb. per acre per day was at-
tained on July 21 and continued until fish
were harvested on October 24. Emer-
gency aeration was used a few times in
three ponds when dissolved oxygen con-
centrations were low. In the other three
ponds, aeration was applied from mid-
night until 6 a.m. every night between
May 30 and October 12. The aeration
rate was equivalent to 1.5 horsepower
per acre of aeration with a highly effi-
cient, floating, electric paddlewheel aer-
ator. Aerators were turned on and off by
timers.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations at 6
a.m. were much higher in the ponds
with nightly aeration than in the ponds
with emergency aeration only, as shown
in figure. The average dissolved oxygen
concentration at 6 a.m. for all dates was
2.8 p.p.m. in emergency-aerated ponds
and 4.5 p.p.m. in nightly aerated ponds.
Harvest weight of fish in ponds with
nighttime aeration averaged about 1,000
Nightly pond aeration resulted in higher levels of oxygen than use of emergency aeration.
lb. per acre more than in ponds with
emergency aeration, see table. The
stocking and feeding rates were identical
for the two treatments. Greater produc-
tion in ponds with nighttime aeration re-
sulted from a better feed conversion ratio
(pounds of feed per pound of gain) in
these ponds (1.32 as opposed to 1.75).
FISH PRODUCTION UNDER NIGHTTIME AND
EMERGENCY AERATION MANAGEMENT
Aeration
Variable Nighttime Emer-
gency
Fish stocked, no./acre.. 4,000 4,000
Fish harvested, no/acre 3,939 3,808
Harvest weight, lb./acre 4,288 3,258
Average weight/fish, lb. 1.09 0.86
Feed applied, lb./acre.. 5,550 5,550
Feed conversion rate' .. 1.32 1.75
'Pounds of feed applied per pound net fish
production.
Better feed conversion efficiency in
ponds with nighttime aeration resulted
from higher dissolved oxygen concentra-
tions between midnight and dawn.
An economic analysis of the data gave
net returns to land, management, and
equity capital of $696 per acre for ponds
with nighttime aeration and $363 per
acre for ponds with emergency aeration
only.
The experiment was repeated in 1987
and 1988 with similar results. Both
years, feed conversion improved and fish
production increased about 1,000 lb. per
acre using nighttime aeration. There-
fore, it appears that the use of modest
stocking and feeding rates with night-
time aeration is an excellent alternative
means of producing channel catfish.
Boyd is Professor of Fisheries and Allied Aqua-
cultures.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 11
K.C. SANDERSON, W.C. MARTIN, JR., and J.W. DRANE
BEST RED POINSETTIAS FOR ALABAMA
IDENTIFIED IN RESEARCH
ladling .floricuiltuiral crop, but
tiIll, States NhIigh~ tl'iinitprii (N
Nui ar IN out beNNi ht tolran aiiIl ihalit
strong1 litera tI uchs si l~ii hot Iiiite
nodc1 nd (it goo flal fbisp(Ilavi. A sh ort
flmolcrc sI((o tiellii iiintlI (if IflNNr diN
plIiNs, thle tull Ielv an (Id IO iil lclip-
NIIajpl( strulctuies Nil!lolilicIm col(-
lored IN es or brits is iN 101)0taut.
Color, whJichr locsg f10o(1 Nrri NIlit to
dfark r1dI Iis lso importaiit andi tii fade
tioins For (olNlililli satisfaction, tilti-
Nal' trust retini tutui (olor1 IcaNI, and
brhacts wn placedjI1'iI iiterior cmN i1on-
(lit i for Alabamiia, till InNwst Naui
\1 ukkel) wir Ill N ,llitle for e1ig1ht 141ivv-
111 iANII seaon froii 19TH to 1986. IPIants
Nw(i(r41IN grow in greenihousIis, with thle
Cnin t roo4I (t((d li (tIN ini the finial poit.
11( lti. A NNikN f'Crtiliv~iu pr)1 a %h. v'asiNNi
light iqulal to 6,001-t100 foiot canlheN
and1 liii e o flo werii4 Ii (1111 l\inii
:30%4 of tl( flowe'rs we(re sheding pl-
Auugus~t 2(0 (4 p)er 7-iii. pot), anid August
Flowing 11 tim ilhied~ atuini1 (culti-
Na its shw bN daINNI u htai in the( tal(. (ut-
bier1 V'-10 AiNn floNwered the (arilest
iiakiiig it usNetil ini (arN NaiesN Nwhil(
I". k, p 1n t Ic iNN\\ w I i i t, 1
fadhingi. Aninittc c 1 adN hiad dairk
\ilos ll 11(1 fi h ad ti iritdied) briihthrei
brct cIi p DaIIN I(rk~i Bcidlt I Igg obr
gundV r( ing to brg red), Cuh\iuti cr41
V-(lott-(oerd et I Icggiliut ~aiiu~ it-(
tpN(I.ell (ltiNg-e) Anntt Nlg NDiii ~ i ahi
oranglit bick rci)N 1Nd( :Ainntte NN(igC
To t ar (Id ) fi red).~ \ l i~Nht le
(" N a~l\ t i I h- Clii u IN wldcd11
Bc1 Cuitbicr V-It, and AXiiitte I Iegg
Brilliant D~iamuondl produiedl thi feNwest
floNwer bra~ct dhisplays Ne plan)1~t: hi(INcN Cr,
thir~i coilir hieight, iiid keepiiig iflilitN
NNCIC Nsuperior tio (uticr~ V- 10 Amii.
Selection o1 ,i (IltiNa wINill (lj)cIII oni
theC growINNr'N nieds anid the needsi oii the
iiio ket. Whiilc thiN Nthill\ cani billj gro'xN-
N IIieticN iflfrilig increadN(( groIN'thi li-
cicicN, p~lant atppearIan~ce, (uialitN and(
isNas. and( pest r (NistanicC NNill con-i
tinuel.
Sanderson ii IN i-N si and( Nill tll is IN 1)1rie Be-
Ft~ovt~ttst:'lyu:,Corot, Ilatar ' a iiN~vtl t P1 r N it~~ DItt~v or I~tnrovrt~ IN N
I uN iia
Annciitti I lig( B ilian DiKo~ ...
NlIkk I t c r Bo hligi. .. . ..
Anncittc I Icgg Dar )c d ......
Nlikkli Imio.( I o Id r - . .. ..
Nuiiiic S li a ......... ......i.l
Anncttcl I ItIgg. Sutprem ......r.
Flow1rin
Hai u gnd
Bighti
Biti fi
) iuig ltikut
Brtight
Nii N light
15.5 3.5
14.8 5..
116 5.1
14.5 1.9
14.0) 5.0i
13.6 5 ).5
136 .1
1:3.2 3
13.0 1.9
12.4 5.2
12.2 1.1
12.1 1.(3
12.1 5.1
11.S 4.6
11.1 1.2
10.01 6.3
Altaoa A4ricult cral ltxperimeu'lt Station
G.J. KEEVER and W.J. FOSTER
NEW GROWTH RETARDANT EFFECTIVE ON
FLORIST AZALEAS
Al
.~i
Effects of growth re-
tardant treatments on
t Alaska (top) and Prize
(bottom) azaleas.
P'lats rae NN (ith
dtinzd ON a c litlll
tiia 
I t( 
I 
'l (li 
EtA1011) 
iN 
S N(('il
I I NN i dci c ittitar fi htI I iin li floris
It N l loNN r o duct' i on 'l ' I'tj u''ti'(ei
fion to promote(N Ilv u n
t
iai/tioin \ ~ a n dl(t
((NI' ill (cllid~ 104as t4 hooNts).('o(~ltN
f)I ticft nti t. eflovn rv l e
2. \igl aloliliilI( sprlay of 0, 0f
100 15411( 211( Nf 0 an d :300 NN pN ((ih tii .
fill ut pcr~ fillion)' i((1n tlN N it li f2 l IN
2.~t~ Al \p i n 'ti iiii NNINIia III' :t 000
piii.p m. rp atd 
1 \c lit].
maei al.~' ii ppt i c14kato : as mad aol 6 '(-N
grl 11ltNhousc 5 . ill8? and (12%( r i c tt-((11 i
\ Ni i iN iu [tIili((t(( i yN
I'l(i itlatc ( ll li)Iai' I I i i n'~'' i I
tI 11 sM 1 tlHM
iii 'lmivo,:00iplt
littll tic t3.l0) p. p. m
Pa( loht) til I /i .:30)) p. p. t .
I )utuio itu' :3,0 01. .Ik
II J \ M ' I)l S'tI','i' n ittt'l in.
il i Prie
50) 1:3
55' Iti
tip' -5'
t 11 to - - 2.6 2-ti
lhi u t ittttu 3tI 0l ) ) .ill. 2 6 2-I
).t iluti/i zotll) rap op itt 22 d 25
I)1).tlit. aplil 5't('N iii blite coo1lif
and( 2f00 p.pf.mli. Nsprais Ner NN'' oslit ('fllu
NI Itlilit I ('li'ii fliNNl Ni/i'. I )aniiiii -
IihdcN.c esctitc ncotligb
I it'l sh o n~Sit'tumber.ii itt I Ics hii nciu'i ast Iin
ect
r! I
llnluuttn Al"i-icvtlthu-nl Expc 1-itilt, tit Station
A,
C.H. GILLIAM, C.L. BROWNE, J.O. DONALD, and R.L. SHUMACK
BROILER LITTER A PROMISING AMENDMENT FOR
BEDDING PLANT MEDIA
T HE ALABAMA Poultry and Egg
Association has identified broiler
litter disposal as one of the major
problems facing the poultry in-
dustry in the coming decade. Alabama's
broiler industry alone produces about
1.5 million tons of litter annually. With
the anticipated expansion of the poultry
industry in the Southeast, it is essential
to evaluate all possible uses of broiler lit-
ter so waste disposal problems do not
hinder further growth in the broiler in-
dustry.
One promising area for using large
quantities of broiler litter is the orna-
mental industry, which also thrives in
the Southeast. Nursery and greenhouse
production now ranks first among agro-
nomic crops in Alabama. The value of
potting soil used in the Southeastern
United States' ornamental horticultural
industry has more than doubled in the
past 5 years, increasing from about $100
million annually in 1982 to $250 million
in 1987. Continued expansion of the pot-
ting soil industry depends on the quan-
tity and quality of ingredients used to
manufacture the potting mix.
Pine bark serves as the base for the
traditional potting medium sold today. It
is relatively inexpensive and free of dis-
eases and other harmful organisms.
More than half of the potting medium
sold is composted pine bark with the re-
mainder being noncomposted or fresh
bark. Composted pine bark offers more
nutritive value to the plants.
Producers have expressed an interest
in adding broiler litter to pine bark me-
dium to enhance the composting process
and the quality of the product. Fertilizer
value of litter is indicated by analysis of
broiler litter samples from Alabama that
contained an average of 3% nitrogen (N),
2.8% phosphorus (P
2
0
5
), and 1.7% potas-
sium (K
2
0).
Preliminary research conducted at the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion has demonstrated that appropriate
levels of broiler litter could increase the
quality of pine bark medium. Fireball
salvia and Bonnie Hybrid tomatoes were
bedding plants used in the research.
Seedlings of the two species were
transplanted into flats with 36 cellpacks
each on February 12, 1988. Three media
were evaluated: 1 part broiler litter and
1 part pine bark; 2 parts broiler litter and
1 part pine bark; and Fafard Mix No. 3-
B, a commercially available pine bark-
base potting medium. The litter/pine
bark combinations were allowed to com-
post before they were applied to the
plants. Fertilization consisted of weekly
applications of 20-10-20 liquid fertilizer
mixed to provide a concentration of 200
parts per million (p.p.m.) N. Plants
were grown in a double-layer polyethyl-
ene greenhouse with temperatures rang-
ing from 65 to 80
0
?F.
When the study ended April 3, 1988,
plants were rated on color, height, stem
diameter (caliper), and dry weight. Both
varieties responded well to broiler litter
in the potting medium. Salvia dry
weight increased by 5 and 14% with 1:1
and 2:1 broiler litter/pine bark media,
respectively, compared to the commer-
cial potting mix, as shown in the figure.
Tomato dry weights increased by 13 and
16% with the respective broiler litter
media compared to the commercial stan-
dard. Fresh weight and height of both
plants responded in a similar fashion to
the dry weights. Caliper was not affected
by any treatment.
In addition to increased plant size,
color of both species was improved when
broiler litter was used as a medium
amendment. This may result from the N
in the broiler litter becoming slowly
available during the test. While this test
is preliminary in nature, it does indicate
that use of broiler litter in ornamental
potting medium may enhance the pot-
ting medium and provide a means of lit-
ter disposal.
Gilliam is Associate Professor and Browne is Lab
Tech II of Horticulture; Donald is Professor of Ag-
ricultural Engineering; Shumack is Head of Hor-
ticulture.
Effects of broiler litter combinations on height, dry weight, and color of salvia and tomato va-
rieties.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station14
J.L. STALLINGS and R. HOPKINSON
ALABAMA AGRICULTURE-2000 STYLE
Trend Toward Fewer Farms, Less
Land in Farms Expected to Continue
ALABAMA AGRICULTURE
seems headed for a future with
fewer farms and less land in
farms. Beef and poultry should
hold their own or maybe even expand.
Cotton and peanut acreages should at
least maintain current levels, while
wheat and grain sorghum may expand.
Corn, hog, and dairy production will de-
cline.
That's the picture painted for the year
2000 by projections resulting from Ala-
bama Agricultural Experiment Station
research. These projections indicate a
continuation of trends that led the State
from its large numbers of farms and de-
pendence on row crops in the 1800s to to-
day's situation with fewer farms, more
acreage devoted to pasture and forage for
ruminant livestock, and a large, verti-
cally integrated poultry industry.
Information on specific farm enter-
prises reported in the table came from a
regional study in which the Experiment
Station cooperated. The study ad-
dressed such things as consumption of
grains by livestock and poultry opera-
tions to project grain deficits in Alabama
and the need for transportation, storage,
and processing facilities.
Making projections for more than a
short time in the future is inexact be-
cause conditions affecting supply and de-
mand, new technology, and other un-
foreseen events can make the projections
inaccurate. For example, one set of pro-
jections made in 1978, just before soy-
bean acreage peaked in Alabama and
began its dramatic downturn, greatly
over-estimated acreage during the last
few years. Therefore, such projections
typically carry the wording "assuming
present trends will continue."
Projections in the table were made us-
ing a combination of several methods.
Five types of frequently used projection
equations were fitted to data from 1960
to the present for acres harvested, yield,
production, and percent of U. S. produc-
tion for crops and to
production or num-
bers and percent of
U.S. production for
livestock and poul-
try. The best-fitting
equation was cho-
sen in each case and
projections were
made to the year
2000. Horticultural
crops are not in-
cluded in these pro-
jections.
Based on these
projections, there is
little doubt that
number of farms
and land in farms in
Alabama will con-
tinue to decline. Of
the cropland har-
vested, hay land is
expected to remain
steady or increase
slightly. The beef
industry, the main
user of this hay
land, is expected to
increase to about a
million cows by the
year 2000.
SELECTED ASPECTS OF ALABAMA AGRICULTURE, 1960, 1975, 1987, AND
PROJECTED TO 2000
Item and unit 
Quantity, by 
year
1960 1975 
1987 2000
Number of farms and land in farms
Farms, number ................ - 63,000 49,000 44,000
Land in farms, thou. acres ....... 13,400 11,000 10,000
Crops harvested and cropland
Hay, thou. acres ............... 521 630 700 750
Soybeans, thou. acres ........... 135 1,260 480 560
Cotton, thou. acress..............860 370 333 400
Peanuts, thou. acres............. 187 202 220 230
Wheat, thou. acres ............. 48 110 170 270
Grain sorghum, thou. acres ...... 20 33 40 52
Corn, thou. acres ............... 1,705 660 250 140
Other crops, thou. acres......... 161 76 68
Total cropland, thou. acres ...... - 3,426 2,269 2,470
Yields per harvested acre
Hay, tons/acre ................. 1.13 1.80 2.10 1.88
Soybeans, bu./acre..............24.0 24.5 16.5 23.0
Cotton, lb./acre ................ 421 405 572 600
Peanuts, lb./acre ............... .1,130 2,600 2,115 2,800
Wheat, bu./acre ................ 25.0 24.0 31.0 37.0
Grain sorghum, bu./acre ......... 24.0 37.0 48.0 50.0
Corn, bu./acre ................. . 26.0 50.0 72.0 71.4
Crop production
Hay, thou. tons ................ 588 1,134 1,470 1,410
Soybeans, thou. bu.............. 3,240 30,870 7,900 12,880
Cotton, thou. bales .............. 756 312 397 500
Peanuts, thou. lb ............... 211,310 525,200 465,300 644,000
Wheat, thou. bu ................ 1,200 2,640 5,270 10,000
Grain sorghum, thou. 
bu........ 480 
1,221 1,900 2,600
Corn, thou. bu ................. 44,330 33,000 18,000 10,000
Livestock and poultry
Broilers raised, thou. ........... 176,654 395,769 666,538 780,000
Hens and pullets Jan. 1, thou..... 6,614 12,538 11,400 10,920
Beef cows Jan. 1, thou ........... - 1,238 862 1,000
Pig crop, thou. head ............ 1,596 1,207 615 400
Horses, mules, ponies, thou ... . 100 154 193 200
Milk cows Jan. 1, thou. ......... - 92 43 20
Soybeans will continue to be an im-
portant crop, but probably will not soon
reach the peak acreage of 2.15 million
acres recorded in 1979. Instead, acreage
is projected at about 560,000. This will
produce about 12.9 million bu., far short
of the almost 41 million bu. crushed in
Alabama plants in 1985. Thus, continued
imports will be required if this level of
crushing is to continue.
Cotton and peanut crops are difficult
to project without knowledge of future
government programs. The best esti-
mate for cotton is that the declining
acreage will level off and possibly in-
crease slightly. Peanut acreage has been
somewhat erratic since 1979, and the
projection of 230,000 acres is highly un-
certain. Wheat and grain sorghum
acreage should show increases by 2000.
Alabama's broiler industry is expected
to continue its expansion, thereby using
large quantities of imported corn and
soybeans. Hens and pullets should also
continue at a high level. Horses, mules,
and ponies are hobby enterprises, but
significant users of grain and pasture.
Numbers are expected to show contin-
ued expansion. There is little doubt that
the swine and dairy industries will con-
tinue to decline.
Stallings is Associate Professor and Hopkinson is
Graduate Research Assistant in Agricultural Eco-
nomics and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 15
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ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowe/f T Frobtsh. Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
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NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. 9
AUBURN, ALA.