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jks
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A WORD WITH THE EDITOR
I S I S I I ( Ii LS primett 
i i Ili- i '/ltls
le tiii Ii cit nu ul ts o' il-l I"'iitif (li
Ii"ft i 1)11 h g con', uc' tt'x i'''t' iix fill .
bfat' l ltu t jeef ixe x c lit' tjfKyiua t' i St~tion.
MAY WE INTIRODUC[
ill tf''tIi c t i o\liit ii
ltin ai So ittitlt
\ilttIeo 
ms~i 
le 
l 
in 
19 
'o
Ass'istfalit Itt tlt',',or
Ic It' t ', fpt iltt d i t o
:Assoc ift' Pi
t
t il 'o, in i
in 19S;.
R.E. STEVENSON
This issue Icatur(.s a story hascd on the FIX perint(.nt Stations oldest act iyc
project the "Old Notation." TlIc story on page :3 reports recent-scar findings
on hove long-terns rotations aHirt cotton \ ields. Such infin-ntation is parlicnlarh
tinter becausc of th(. growing interest in crop rotations (luring recent will-s.
Uthough this is not cowl-ed in the story on page ;3, there is much historical
interest ill the Old Notation. The project dates hack to 1596, just 1:3 gars after
the h:xperintent Station seas cstablish(,(I. it y us h(.gnn hv- Prol'. 1. F. Duggar.
vyho later sewed its Station Director from 190:3 until 1921 ) and Mhusc u.unc is
prontin(.ut ill h;speritneut Station history. Aof ()Ills is the ( )ld liotttion :Anhurn's
oldest res(..u-ch project, it is the nations oldest continuous cotton study and the
third oldest continuous I'icld crop expcriutent in the t'nitcd States.
'I'hc historical significance of the OI(I Rotation rcceiwd national recognition
in January 195 5 vyhcIl it vs-as placed on the Aalional Ncgi.stcr of Historical
Placc..:A pLuluc d(.signating this listing \\ ill he placed al the plots, located on
the soltth side of the campus near tile :Arborettnns southern border. This site.
pictur(.(I (m th(. cover, should join other :Auburn Landmarks in representing :Au-
btnn's historical background.
bike all other research projects of the :Alabama :Agricultural Fxperintent Sta-
tion, the Old Rotation Stn(Iv is being conducted oath because it continues to
y i(.Id information that can be ofvaluc to :Alabauua fu users. Acvcrtheless, its his-
torical significance makes it an important li'aturc in the history ofthc .Alitbatna
Agricnltnral 1,1y1erintent Station and in :Auburn I Ilis(,rsity 's owl-all hislorv.
Molnar carne(I R.S. and M.A. dcgrccs in
sociology Irons K(l Ilt state t'ni\crsil\. Ilc
holds lltc PII. D. Ili sociology front loyca statc
tniylrsity, yyhlre he yvorkcd as a gruloatc
research :(sskt.utl prior to coming to :AIII1111'I1.
Sincc coming to luhtn'ti. Molnar has stnd-
wd nlilin cvtcrnal Ili( tor" affCcting :Alahatna s
f.u-tn industry and riu<tl liIC. Ilis resc;urh in-
terests r.ntgc Front sociological studies ofycho
ys<utLs to get into (arming todn and lroul
whcrc till, nlyt generations of lartocrs ycill
conic to till, impacts of the 'linncsscc 'linn-
highll, A\;ttcrycty on rural lifi, iu sonthyvrst
Al thanct.
On page (i of t h i s is.sul, oflli-jililrls- \Iol-
nar wpolt" o t i Illam of the issues fal II[('r 1 ILtce
in handling ill )d (Iisposing of' Iivcstock ycitoc.
ON THE COVER. The "Old Rotation' experi-
ment is an important part of Auburn history,
but it still yields valuable information, as
noted in the story on page 3.
WtINTE PlI tiSt VOI.35, NO. .4
A 'ttrl,tt it ii it of te ca c It i\ I
by S th .\ IAt~n \ ASU'\ tra Fyeitlt
lI)IT(M S McIltion of trade
n.uncs does nol in(licatc cndorsctncnt by
the Alabama ;Agriculttn-al Fypcrintcnt
station of one hrand m cr another. Am Ilse
of' pcsticidc rates ill excess of labc1cd
atnotntls ill research reported does Ilot
conslitull, rccontntcndation of such rate.
Such use is sintpl\ part ofthc scientific in-
\c0igVttiott nlcc""ar\ to c\aluatc yan'iotts
Iltalcrial". Ao chemical should be used at
rates ahoyc those pcnttittcd by till, lahll.
Infurtuation contained herein is asailahlc
to all \y ithout regard to race. color, sc\_ or
national origin.
h;dihn-ial Committee: Loxwll T. Prohish:
PA. ])(itk, As.si.slunt Proo(Cs.sor o1'Agri-
(w1thrral Lronolnies and Rural Sociology,
IUF Iov(.IL Proficssurof1, ishrrit'sun(l.Al-
licd A(luacullnrr.s: T. . ALu k, AA wciwc
ProlCssorof Elltonurlo;-11, (;.I. hcccct; .As-
so('inle Prolissor of11orli('fit/ t(rr_ B. l".
Keith. .A.ssociatc Prolrssor of \uh'ition
alld J.oo(Ls: A.I. Latham- .Avsoriatc Pro-
lrssor ol-Plrnrl Patlrologrl: I.A. IicodcIl.
Associalc Prof ,ssol Ul. Purrllrrl Sc'ienc'e:
U. R. south, A si.st(utt Pr'olr.v.sm of For-
c. trll; I ). A. Sh-ingfello\k, A si.shint Prolcs-
sor of Microhiolol"It, and Ii. F. Stcvcnson.
I952 and to Pl olissor
C.C. Mitchell, Jr.
NEW INFORMATION FROM OLD ROTATION
EVEN THOUGH the "Old Rota-
tion" experiment at Auburn has
been operating since 1896, the
study is still yielding timely find-
ings. In fact, recent interest in rotations
and low-input sustainable agriculture
makes it an up-to-date study. The value
of rotations and legume nitrogen for cot-
ton and corn continues to be demon-
strated today, even though farming has
changed greatly since World War II.
Basic cropping systems have changed
little since the Old Rotation was begun
in the early days of the Alabama Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. However,
there have been some modifications in
crops and fertilizer treatments. The fol-
lowing rotations (with and without nitro-
gen applications) have been used
throughout the last 28 years:
1. Continuous cotton-with and
without winter legumes.
2. Two-year rotations of cotton-winter
legumes-corn.
3. Three-year rotations of cotton-win-
ter legumes-corn-small grain-soybeans.
The original test included cowpeas as
a summer legume following corn. Soy-
beans replaced cowpeas as the summer
legume crop in the 3-year rotation in
1960, and cowpeas have not been used
since that time. Vetch or crimson clover,
or both, have been used as the winter le-
gume for the 92 years.
Cultural practices have remained ba-
sically the same over the years. All plots
receive 80 lb. per acre of P
2
0
5 
and 60 lb.
per acre of K
2
0 per year applied to the
summer crop or the winter legume, or
split between the summer crop and the
winter legume.
Cotton yields have generally increased
throughout the life of the test, except
during 1900 to 1920, the period when
Alabama was invaded by the boll weevil.
Researchers of that era suspected that
cotton yield was declining because of
poor growth of winter legumes, which
they thought was due to inadequate
phosphorus fertilization. Beginning in
1923, researchers began applying 400 lb.
per acre of a 16% superphosphate to
vetch in the fall, rather than 160 lb. of a
14% acid phosphate applied to the sum-
mer crops. Reports from that time note
that the vetch immediately began to
make good growth.
Since the 1920's, cotton yields have
continued to climb in all treatments ex-
cept where cotton was grown continu-
ously without benefit of legume nitrogen
or fertilizer application. Yields dropped
temporarily during the 1970's when
DDT, which was highly effective against
insects, became unavailable for use.
Production has shown some recovery
during the last decade as better insecti-
cides and varieties became available.
Clear insights into nitrogen availabil-
ity and value are revealed in results from
the last 10 years reported in the table.
These can be summarized as follows:
AVERAGE YIELDS FROM THE OLD ROTATION,
1978-87
CroppingYield/acre
system Cotton 
Corn
lint Corn
Lb. Bu.
Continuous cotton
No legume, no fert. N ........ 214 -
With winter legumes' ......... 605 -
No legume, 120 lb. fert. N ..... 624 -
2-year cotton-corn rotation
With legume N only.......... 674 40
Legumes and fert. N
2 . . . . . . . . . 
753 50
3-year rotation
Cotton (no N)-winter legume-
corn (no N)- rye (60 lb. N)-
soybeans...................744 62
'An average of 4,018 lb. per acre of vetch and
clover (oven-dry weight) was turned under in
early April in plots where a winter legume was
planted,
2Botheorn and cotton received 120 lb. N as
ammofium"nitrate.
1. Where no legume or fertilizer ni-
trogen is added to the soil, continuous
cotton removes about 13 lb. of N per acre
per year in the lint and seed. This is
about the amount of nitrogen expected
to be available from atmospheric and soil
microbial fixation and mineralization.
2. When winter legumes are included
in the cropping system, average lint
yields are almost tripled. Fertilizer ni-
trogen alone and legume nitrogen alone
had about equal effects on cotton yields.
3. The 2-year cotton-legume-corn ro-
tation increased cotton lint yields 11%
over continuous cotton grown with le-
gumes each year. Adding recommended
fertilizer nitrogen with the 2-year rota-
tion boosted lint yield 79 lb. per acre
over the rotation without fertilizer N.
4. The 3-year rotation without direct
N fertilization produced about the same
yield of cotton as the 2-year rotation.
However, corn grain yields were greater
with the 3-year rotation.
5. Corn grown under requirements of
this test-planted in late April and not
irrigated-is of doubtful profitability be-
cause of usual low yields. Soybeans ap-
pear more promising in the rotations,
however, producing 37 bu. per acre an-
nually when double-cropped with rye.
As demonstrated by results during the
last 10 years, the Old Rotation continues
to show the value of crop rotations and le-
gume nitrogen in cotton and corn pro-
duction systems.
Mitchell is Assistant Professor of Agronomy and
Soils.
Seed cotton yields since 1900 from selected treatments in the Old Rotation experiment.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
HOT WEATHER TOMATOES
Research Seeks Varieties That Set Fruit Despite
!-'i'<i A/Iid-siunuiser Temu/kcratures
H )TI I)AYfS and~ nligits sewXt l X\
ililt' ailallX iii titi s li t 1,itCl.''( fr is
fuI iri glX trmelli''X' hot thriods Futhl rt-
fmirX , ynlt( h rutpod cdi
poor 'Ii t iii IprXoducI(tin co si nts t asi-
c~allrft t5 XXII ct IoII il f)L thlill 1111(1Jilll(
(III' 1111 on li Illwt XrcX se oft ( t tomfato lu X11
f ieit ie AII f tm oc aluX(I X re noete t dif- ( ii
XXI'I'K and ilht se X IXti (ht'('I offer1' hifiiXof( iiXI-
slre li I I li A in )i h t itoileranc't I l mt' I111 X II 1
st'X ti ii aitis aIII brctt l' 1(1in g liA s. uis
('\5('l s tui de II l l 
l XX hie tis a 
'\f)Ilc XI'- t ., 1
stif wit 'h' s~ i ifg XX t ol ranc' l
0 
v' ls
tlrace ofbful Iutfir paritiiiXs d trig irti X 't '
IIIa hat'fll ttt(t'r'I t',ilS.I(I A AhiiX (
(mI rsn collgite I SrinIXl A Ilot-
IilitN raniging furo 0111 to 35 /(
no(st varieties. Red( ( :lRrrX' wXaX
tilill miniltaiing high pollen Xi-
brouilghou~t the. grnlXilg season.l
sl, the small fruited X Al eties
lhe least ('fh'et of templjeratulre oin
ality andt Xlselfllelit fruit set.
Ig tile XXwinter oif 1986-87, croisses
CL1 5915, AX II)(: CIN (5,
errX, alnd RcawellodIge), il111(1
(Nagcariln) andt heat-senlsitiX I
)adc ) selec.tionis. The resiultinlg
(is alid parenli e wu',Xer'e X isnilN
u rinig thet suillm11r of' f9Y7 fou
IlitX' toi set fruiit at tihe \iregllXX
ion (temnperatulre IIIaxinnilll
uNx andt to idt-Auguist). Floxwel
leeteti i-wXeekly an oll n )1 1Xi-
'ht ' I F 1)(1 b ids X sho a hiiglier h1tt
se't rating thlan the( aX (rag' of' tihe par-
hoIttes't part of tihe sunliiiiU' had lower'
ii li('r or lat('r ii tihe season.
(.)' bosse ini wich Nagc(alan wl Xas a par-
set ratinig and~ pollen iilaiilitX. ihis a i
onc i' XeII to its, frogeIIIX Xihereas lora-x
Di ade comini d pil'IfoorX XXithi othelinhe',.
SeX i'',i factors XweI I foililt to he re-
latedI to poorI fruit ',tt at high tt'lmpc'Ia-
tiiies. Almiost all al jeties shlowXed Ic
(Inc polnriesis cmiedwt
st ima bronin and undedevelop
Iii XiSi I. N.Ii II~XIXX~IIi
GlXrI)( NI r 9577 l Tr -1.1i~n
Valte .t Itm st aig
NA i.t I II I, 1 -5 .. .. 4.
FWRDC IA 65-49 ... 9-.
Nteasl -68 - . .. .. 2.0
SeX c a .................. .25
('fouala .................... 0.
Salld tt ..I. . ... 2.9
t('X t1
1
iak................... . 7
Chuai I I II . . . ..... 2.1
S m atll a r ...... ..... .. 1.
Tc 76 c . . . . . . .. 1.8
Iitlts t . . . . . . . . . 1 7
A w
W11 I', )O\ F' Ill NI TS are
over (IMid hunuters leax the
fieldl 5ithi their share of, the
50t milljoio ii wung (loves
harve sted aninuially iln tihe Iliitecl States,
biillionis of sp~ent lead pellets are left be-
hind1(. Raniited (loxve fields may acciuni
late upj to I shot per square foost oil, or
near, the soil siurface. Cuiltixvation dlis-
p~laces the mlajor ity of these shott fron11 the
sullface, 1hi1t some arc( ingestced bx blirdsl
xwho mtistake thueii for f00(10and grit. Tbis
(all resulltI in imortal itx front lead toxi-
(cosis. Simiilar leadl-indulhcid moirtality in
xvater fowl and bald1( eagles has resulltedl
ini rece(lt feder'lal r (gulatiolts requliinlg
then lianila~tol\ use( of non~toxic steel shot
io~ll vdlift tyx huin I\ 1991.
S $ ~
~ ~
L ittle iiiftruiationis1 ax ailable on the
inicidelnce ori effects oIf leadl poisoinlg iii
iuplanid game blirdts. Of' these b~irds,
monii niig doixves are p~erhiaps the miolst
xvulierable to ingesting spenlt lead shot
blecaulse thiex feedl in field~s ini xxhichl thtex
are huniited. tResearclheis haxve fouind that
f'roiut IV/ tol (6% of, mourn1iiig dov~xe giz-
zair(s ex\ainled conitainied lead shot. As
rep~ortedl inii apr)evxious Highlights arti-
cle, Alabamna Agricultural Experlimenut
Station resear cheris f(ilinl that mouirning
(loxes dlosedl xxith lead shont suffered
higher mnortalitx than conltrol birds.
Also, loxxe(r hatchability occurred ini
e'ggs prodluiced lbx lead-t reatel doivxes.
Because these iresults appeared to he in-
flit- cd hs d itt and old1 tempiIeratiures,
fiii thci stuie~iis invxesti-
gated thle effects (If these
ftctilrs oIl capltixve femiale
lithlelad shot. doe
Fio Duiilecembher 12,
1985, to Jainuiary 21 19861
)6 female mInuniug Iloxves
%crc lihiused inidtoors ini
ages at txxo( temperatulre
i reat ments (78?F oIr 41?F).
D oxves assignied to thet
111( treatmieitt xxerc
placedl ini an cux i itiiimcii-
al chiambher thtat con-
rolled the ainbienit teiti
iiratulre. Half, of' the
htux es in each teiitpera-
inre group xxere fed a
tiiniercial pclleted (lit,
bile the oIthers xxere
i kept oni a mixedl seed andh
41?F cor11 diet. Half 
the dov~es
diet j (lixvided equally b~etween
tempilerature anid (lit
treatments) were 1fo1ce fed
urning doves. 1 No. 8 shot which con-
Alabamia Ag;ri(-ohtu ral Experinic S tationt
Rate of elimination of lead shot by female mou
tamledl appl oxilnatelx 70 iog of lead,
wh ile the remaliinlg -48 doiv cxs rccxieed a
hioxx ltol) miillet seed. Aftei (losing, the
temiper ature ( ii the (li oniiiieital cam-i
ber xwas redlu cedl f-in 780F to 41 1 for
thle col(d-treated (loxves.
No mor1tal itx occim-rcd during the 3-
xweek stu . D11 oxes appeal d in goioid
cond~itioni at the end of, the exp~erimoent
except for one lead- treated (lox ( coldl ex-
posed, ulii c( seed dijet) wxh ichi had
tremoors. 1linuination of lead pellets
throuigh the dligestix ( tiract appair(ntlx
reduced the (ffeets o) ligestedl lead. Par
tiallx eroded lead pellets xxeie r(covxeredl
ini the feces of 89,% of the lead-treated
(loxv(s. Of- these recoveries, 73% xwere
eliiiated wxitftin the first 2 xweeks after
closing. lDoxves ont soft pelletetI diets rc-
tain~ed the lead shot longer, sce graph,
and~ (rodled imore of the lead shot ini their
gizzardls than did the doxves on the ixedl
seedl diet The htarder nmixedl sectd diet
mtax haxve inicreasedl ellimination oIf, the
lead shot hecaiise (If, greater gizzard( ac-
tix itx.
As expected, lead-dlosed (loxves had
higher leadl lexels ini their tissues thait
conitriol hirds. T here were not dlifferences
in kidinex, lixver, or bione leadl conlcenitra-
tionis duec to teiliferatlire treatmenit. Tis-
sue lead lexels xxei h ligher ini lead-
treatedl doxes oin thle mix ed seedl diet al-
though lead-(hised (loxves oin the pclleted
dlie t h ad eroie mor'( n e of the I cad sho t.
Apparenitly, iit ritional differences be-
txw ccn the dliets affected lead mietalbo-
pcellctcdI diet (palrticuilarlx highei pro(teint
and( calciumli) apparetiy offered linore
pro (tectioni against the effects of in gested
lead.
D~iet app1earedl to lhe thle impo)(rtanit
factoi aflectinig leadi iretentiont in feiiiale
mou~iring dov~es. ile p~hysical nlatiire (If
the (diet influieiiced ieteition of lead pel-
lets and the nuitritional coImpo(sition~ of'
the dliet affected lead (iccetrattins inl
the body~l tissues. Thuis, xwild nwuiring
doiVi's may he inore, or less, susceptible
to lead polisoinilg accoirdinig tol the colm-
poIsitioni and ntitionillal coniteitt (If their
dliet Additional fieldI stud~ies arc nteedled
toI determine if lead shot iin thle eniroin-
mnt is adx erselx affecting mioiurninilg
J.J. Molnar and L.S. Wu
ANIMAL WASTE DISPOSAL BECOMING A PUBLIC ISSUE
THE PUBLIC is becoming in-
creasingly concerned about po-
tential environmental pollution
from farming. Thus, agriculture
can expect to be under close scrutiny in
the future as the environmental conse-
quences of present-day farm practices
are recognized and evaluated.
The treatment and disposal of animal
waste is likely to be among the greatest
public concerns. Just as nonagricultural
industries must exercise caution in the
way their activities affect groundwater,
rivers, streams, and aesthetic experi-
ences, animal producers also must be
careful about the practices used for dis-
posing of animal waste.
To provide information about current
practices and attitudes of farmers about
waste handling, a mail survey was con-
ducted in 1988 by the Alabama Agricul-
tural Experiment Station. The question-
naire went to 680 animal producers in
two north Alabama counties. One of the
counties is a national leader in broiler
production. Both have many small beef
cattle herds, and dairy and hog produc-
ers were also included in the survey.
Data from the 354 returned question-
naires (52% return rate) were used to as-
sess animal waste disposal practices.
How FARMERS HANDLE THEIR ANIMAL
WASTE, 354 RESPONDENTS, 1988
Percent
Item 
reporting*
Treatment facilities
Have no waste treatment facilities 77
Facilities are over capacity ....... 8
Perceive some or more pollution
potential from facilities ......... 8
Understand the next step to
improve animal 
waste facilities 
59
Land application
Apply animal manure to land ..... 79
Apply animal manure three or
more times a year ............ 10
Apply to at least partly hilly land 49
Use of animal waste
Sold for cattle feeding ............ 1
Sold for fertilizer ............... . 5
Fed to cattle................... 7
Spread on cropland ............. 8
Given away ................... . 12
Spread on pasture or hayland .... 64
*Percentages do not sum to 100 due to mul-
tiple response and selective presentation.
Manure spreading Monthly
by month, pct. rainfall, in.
60 Manure7
spreading 6
50 6
Rainfall 5
40
4
30
3
20
10 1
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Monthly distribution of rainfall as related to timing of manure spreading. (Rainfall data from
Roger Getz, Southeast Agriculture Weather Service Center.)
Data in the table reveal that more than
three-fourths of animal producers in the
surveyed counties have no waste dis-
posal facilities. Of those with facilities,
about 8% reported their facilities are
over capacity. Although not specified in
the table, dairy and hog farmers were
most likely to have waste treatment facil-
ities.
Of all the respondents, almost 60% ac-
cepted the fact that improving the waste
handling facilities on their farms is desir-
able. However, only 8% perceived any
degree of pollution potential for the
waste facilities on their farms.
Spreading manure on land as a fertil-
izer material is the major disposal
method for most farmers. In fact, almost
80% apply animal manure to land in
some fashion. The largest amount is
spread on pasture or hayland.
Although respondents indicated that
applying manure to land is a year-round
activity, most of the application takes
place in the spring. As illustrated in the
graph, this spring application takes place
during a season of high rainfall. This
might be a factor in pollution caused by
runoff into streams.
About half of those returning ques-
tionnaires spread manure on at least par-
tially hilly land, another factor to con-
sider in evaluating potential pollution
from manure application.
Uses of animal manure were also in-
vestigated. Little was reported sold for
cattle feeding, although about 5% said
they fed animal waste to cattle on their
own farms. About 5% reported selling
animal waste as fertilizer, but 12% gave
some of it away.
Although many animal producers are
using reasonable care in handling animal
waste, results of the Auburn survey in-
dicate that many farmers may not rec-
ognize the potential for environmental
pollution that may result from animal
production. Furthermore, many do not
appear to be sensitive to public concern
about the issue, which could lead to con-
flicts in the future.
Molnar is Professor and Wu is Graduate Student
of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station6
J.L. Stallings
IMPORTED FEED GRAINS DOMINATE STATE'S
GRAIN MARKETING SYSTEM
LABAMA'S GRAIN marketing
system has undergone signifi-
cant changes since 1960, but
one thing remains the same:
more than half of the feed grains handled
are produced out of state. Of the 190 mil-
lion bu. handled each year, only about 67
million bu. come from Alabama farms.
The big change in the system has been
the shift from family-owned country el-
evators and feed mills to collection sta-
tions and feed manufacturers. These
larger units serve the vertically inte-
grated poultry industry and other live-
stock operations.
Two developments have been largely
responsible for increased grain imports
in recent years: (1) location of two large
soybean processing plants in northern
Alabama to provide protein for poultry
feeds, and (2) establishment of a corn
processing plant in Decatur.
Even without these new plants, how-
ever, Alabama has been a deficit state for
feed grains for many years. Alabama Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station research
findings indicate that Alabama has pro-
duced less than 30% of the grains
needed over the past 20-30 years.
Corn continues to lead in size of defi-
cit, with 1985 data showing that State
production accounted for only 24 million
bu., while imports were nearly 73 mil-
lion bu. Alabama soybeans and oats al-
most equaled imports that year, while
most grain sorghum and over half of
wheat came from within the State.
The Public Grain Elevator in Mobile,
owned by the State, plays a part in the
Alabama grain marketing system. How-
ever, it has mostly exported grain coming
in from outside Alabama. Alabama grain
exported through Mobile mostly comes
from the southern half of the State. The
northern half of Alabama typically ex-
ports little grain through Mobile and re-
quires even more import of grains for its
poultry industry and the soybean and
corn processing plants located there. So
far, the newly completed Tennessee-
Tombigbee Waterway has had little im-
pact on the grain marketing system of
Alabama or in the volume of grain busi-
ness through the port of Mobile.
Most of the out-of-state grain coming
into Alabama over the last 20-30 years
has come from Illinois and Indiana in the
Corn Belt and from Tennessee and Ken-
tucky in the South. In 1985, 67.1 million
bu. (54.5% of the total of five out-of-state
grains coming to Alabama) came from Il-
linois and Indiana. Corn comprised 54.7
million bu., or 81.5%, of this total. Soy-
beans were the primary import from the
surrounding states of Mississippi, Ten-
nessee, Kentucky, and Georgia, account-
ing for 19.7 million bu. (62.3%) of the
31.6 million bu. of soybeans imported.
Firm-to-firm transfers of grain within
Alabama and receipts from Alabama
farmers by firms were virtually all by
truck. Grain coming from out-of-state
was generally equally distributed be-
tween rail and water, with trucks ac-
counting for 92.7% of the receipts from
the surrounding states of Georgia, Flor-
ida, Mississippi, and Tennessee.
Rail and water receipts mostly came to
northern Alabama; water shipments
came by way of the Tennessee River to
firms in either Decatur or Guntersville.
About 93.6% of the rail and water re-
ceipts from the Corn Belt States of
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, Mis-
souri, Wisconsin, and Ohio were to
these northern Alabama firms.
Most shipments of grain within Ala-
bama were of two types: (1) transfer to
the parent institution by satellite coun-
try elevators after collection from farm-
ers, primarily to feed manufacturing
firms, poultry operations, and the soy-
bean and corn processing plants; and
(2) the importation of out-of-state grains
by terminal elevators and the subsequent
transfer to various users within Ala-
bama. Firm-to-firm transfers within Ala-
bama represented 45.5 million bu. in
1985, mostly by truck.
Shipments of grains by Alabama firms
to ports for export overseas totaled only
17.2 million bu. in 1985 (10.2 million of
soybeans, 3.4 million of wheat, 3.1 mil-
lion of corn, and less than 0.5 million bu.
of grain sorghum). This compares with
domestic use of 162.8 million bu.
As with shipments to ports, the out-of-
state shipments of 10.9 million bu. also
represented a relatively small amount
compared with domestic use. These
shipments were almost exclusively to
surrounding states, unlike out-of-state
receipts which were frequently from
several states away.
Alabama was a deficit state in corn,
soybeans, wheat, and oats in 1985, and it
is expected to continue to be a deficit
state in the near future. A 72.9% deficit
in corn is largely the result of the poultry
industry's feed grains needs and the re-
quirements of one large corn products
processing plant. A 33.8% deficit in soy-
beans is largely due to the needs of two
soybean processing plants in northern
Alabama.
Stallings is Associate Professor of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
GRAIN RECEIPTS BY ALABAMA FIRMS, BY KIND OF GRAIN AND ORIGIN, 1985
Receipts, thousands of bushels
Origin Corn Soybeans Wheat Grain Oats Total
sorghum
Firm to firm transfers
South Alabama ............... 2,399 12,561 697 864 16,521
North Alabama ............... 5,762 583 647 319 182 7,493
Total ........................ 8,161 13,144 1,344 1,183 182 24,014
Receipts from farmers
South Alabama ................ 8,352 16,474 5,981 1,675 12 32,494
North Alabama ............... 12,110 11,692 3,981 6,849 - 34,632
Total........................ 20,462 28,166 9,962 8,524 12 67,126
From out of state ............... 72,947 31,560 8,180 8,582 1,873 123,142
TOTAL ....................... 93,409 59,726 18,142 17,106 1,885 190,268
7
THRIPS NOT ATTRACTED BY REFLECTIVE MULCHES
lt iy ifsect (ill o sid ered ift prle .1
cure~ (litlic irus, i hN('l )Id~ llrlictiIN
lin the( linsec XX ecito' X II (1 11 o t
i lXXI'I ial AgiulturlIrii tSa
hals iiitliht sccal~ di'~rn co'i lor11d1
pl1as.1( ikfiitic nlst Ieerine thl(' alt il
ahrps At ) tic (0.5 e II. tiX(c iii.fl'iil'ilt of"
ttiiiti ii nsiti des has(~t'il beer hIcaiii It
licms thrti ar nontNaod.ih
atltN prfi ciertain o rs 0 lasiitic mli I
migh t tillt populain buNailu o( .ithi
Tomatoes grown on white plastic mulch attracted thrips.
:3 ad lilded( Jimie 14. XX((i loomlaiin-l
pills NwXXri takeni Iy randiom11l ic )kiing f'ivl
(achl flowXeri rleasiing thip ifrfoiii dep in-
polpulations 0n toates~ out i N oinfuil tyit
plif w'ifcrd sigifin(t y X iger than thosefi
th onrol.t No~i)ilne of thifnciides ig-l
Thiat XIatl'ill duXXe' toli XthN till' illilli
Easdtern i flowXer thlrips XXcrc till ] lost com-1
nmli oni tilasIt dlatI. 1I'iin thoiiit~i thips u
fpopuilations XXerie igi (OXer 201 per lillooml
inI somil pilotN), onhl fur planits NhoXXed X iN-
iblc1 TS\\Y\ NX iltptoliN. his was Inisitlnt
XXyNitiX low iflili lnlt ini thipsf) popifulatioins
fplastic niliti Xwas poisitivI, appaliutix due11
panhtedi fplastic.
hcrci aire approxlimatly 3,0(X acresN of
Xvantages' oIf plas~tic iimutlch hav llileXXwII
(cat' that bo1th oII the cliiliiohli uNsed co1lors
I(lack and h~it ) ofi plast)ic mulch (INn at-1 'l~X .
Alabamna A~griultuiral 1,.Xrif imet Statimon
HERBICIDE-STUNTED SICKLEPOD COMPETES
S 
KI~h 1 
P 
U 
b eaI 
i
weeds~ ini xilx lidli in flit Soiithtast. to!)]
Iic hrbicti des flx\'(ti it i (01111 ililltoit
xx ji( l~uii( ofi Soil i'rt iiitx n ptii l c oil
thl( South, exp('till ini Alabamia.
higth ut
2 
illioni I itcre i 95l to S$00,(t00
Ili 19 ;7 xlix an aidx dre still dii imporlltat
cr op ini \lahiiut \iitch of flthit iias
kit pic iis t hat ociurri i wiil produtc-iitii
Te iitosxt outee conktol bit not dxxt-
iiitihiixee Al sinjtlx piatio I f tixxxi
hierbix icitx Citias ii orxcpci ' itstilixi
Ilixi t stl t xxiiilxo d x t r xli ih dls
itlhi idetit, ( IaSxic andi Srtcpttr, anit lixe
ickltjpiit tiiiiititx (0, 2_ , 6anit S
ilants ttitt :3 lixof' iiiv) Wee tiui itijsii
Iaii tl iii d \v6ihiiix I xpiin. (th dlli
it 0.006 ailt Sicttt at 0.125 ib. actixe
ini rttiitit 1t~ pt dtjr( \xlt ijpplittd 16
proiiiittly I-I ini. tall.
Sicklepiid dlry xxtigt xxu ax ltitld lix
(avaie ogttr dititlliticx) rttliiitt sick-
ltcpiod (lix xx ti(41t l\x 81'/( ini 19)6 anid
54%4 iii 1951, wxhilt Septti prouce ll ii~t
19t.
Soxylcan siii x ield1 dhcriasid as ik-
lihriti tutatiiietit soix lan xyitelds
xxti t ilncreasedI 1.3(4 xxithi thit usi of
( iixxits ;aod 2'?(xx ithi thet ixi iif Scctcrt
Soybean yield/acre, bu.
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4-
2
0 --
iin 1986. iiie niist xytar, hoiix vxet, (;iassii
increa~sttd x itetd oinlx 15(r xhilt Sctptti
ictrtixiiitxx ofi (lassic ini 1957 xxas piou-
at tilt tiii' it i ijlicatiiiii
Whe liittitie Classic r iSccpttr xxax
ximlplx xtoiit flit xitklcpii, in liii iof
thiani xxttds ini no-ihtriidetl Moitx. Fexxer
plaiitsx tilui itxxtur xtttdx xxiii ittiiiti
toi tin xol. Ini 1987 Clixsicr itt ctit tiht
P~lanutinug xsioltbeansii i i r i e rtixx
Sicklepod dry wt./acre,lb.
4,200
3,675
3,150
2,625
2,100
1,575
___ - 1,050
525
__ 0
Classic Scepter No Classic Scepter No
herbicide herbicide
Herbicide treatment
Sicklepod dry weight and soybean yields as affected by Scepter and Classic herbicides.
Alabamia A-1ictil-0 of "xiuriuuit S'tatioin
H.W. Kinnucan, S. Sindelar, D. Wineholt, and L.U. Hatch
RESEARCH ON CATFISH OFF-FLAVOR
Valuable to Both Producers and Consumers of Farm-raised Catfish
OFF-FLAVOR, a term used to
describe catfish that are un-
marketable because of unde-
sirable flavor, is the most seri-
ous problem facing the fledgling catfish
industry. Off-flavor is serious because it
affects, depending on the season, up to
45% of the foodsize fish held in farm
ponds, delays harvesting up to 8 months,
undermines consumer confidence in the
retail product, and currently cannot be
controlled cost-effectively. The problem
never entirely disappears, but as shown
by data in the table, is present in varying
degrees throughout the year.
Though solving off-flavor in catfish has
obvious benefits, it could have a negative
impact on farm revenue. Thus, the ques-
tion becomes, "Is the cure worth the
cost of the remedy?" Economic research
recently completed at the Alabama Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station indicates
that, while the catfish industry benefits
from elimination of off-flavor, most of the
benefits will accrue to individuals be-
yond the farm gate, mainly processors
and consumers.
From an economic standpoint, off-
flavor acts in a comparable way to an ag-
ricultural price support program involv-
ing supply control. In peanuts, for ex-
ample, the government boosts prices
that farmers receive by limiting, via a
production quota, the supply of peanuts
that reaches the market. This supply re-
striction program works because the de-
mand for peanuts at the farm level is
price inelastic, meaning that as prices go
up, producer receipts go up as well.
Off-flavor, by restricting the quantity
of fish that reaches the market in any
given period, acts as a type of (involun-
tary) supply control program. Whether
the reduced supply of fish enhances the
total value of the catfish crop depends on
the demand for catfish at the farm level.
If demand is price inelastic, meaning
that processor purchases of live fish are
relatively insensitive to price, then the
off-flavor induced reduction in market-
ings actually increases the value of the
crop. If, on the other hand, demand is
price elastic, meaning that processor
purchases of live fish are sensitive to
price, then reduced marketings caused
by off-flavor cause the total value of the
catfish crop to fall.
Two factors largely determine the so-
cietal cost of off-flavor: (1) the magnitude
of the off-flavor induced supply
restriction, and (2) the elasticity of de-
mand. Information about the supply re-
striction factor is readily available from
government statistics on off-flavor re-
ported in the table. Based on these data,
it can be assumed that off-flavor restricts
marketings an average of 15% during any
given time period.
Information about demand elasticities
was obtained by econometric analysis.
Demand equations were estimated for
five processing plants representing 93%
of the industry volume. Results based on
1980-83 monthly data indicated a farm
level demand elasticity for catfish of-.37.
Because this coefficient is less than 1.00
in absolute value, indicating an inelastic
demand, elimination of off-flavor will re-
duce aggregate farm revenues. Thus,
most of the benefits from solving off-
flavor will go to nonfarmers.
The estimated demand elasticity of
-.37 and the supply restriction estimate
of 15% were inserted into an economic
model to compute the cost of off-flavor to
society (consumers and producers alike).
Results indicated that, in any given year,
off-flavor incurs a social cost equal to
12% of farm revenues. For example, in
1983 catfish producers received reve-
nues of $83.7 million, implying a cost to
society of $10.0 million due to the higher
prices and production costs caused by
off-flavor. If research could develop new
technology to eliminate off-flavor, socie-
tal benefits would be equivalent to 12%
of the annual revenue received by catfish
producers.
Research indicates that off-flavor en-
tails significant costs not only to catfish
producers but to consumers. These find-
ings suggest, moreover, that off-flavor re-
search is justifiable on economic grounds
and funds expended for such research
could yield a positive net benefit to so-
ciety. Although elimination of off-flavor
will reduce aggregate farm revenue,
production costs will decline as well. The
net benefit to producers from elimina-
tion of off-flavor depends on the relative
size of this cost decline.
Kinnucan is Assistant Professor, Sindelar and
Wineholt are former Graduate Research Assis
tants, and Hatch is Assistant Professor of Agricul-
tural Economics and Rural Sociology.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
INCIDENCE OF OFF-FLAVOR IN FARM-RAISED CATFISH, MISSISSIPPI, 1985-86 SEASONAL AVERAGE
ItemExtent 
of off-flavor, by 
month
January April July October
Mil. Lb. Mil. Lb. Mil. Lb. Mil. Lb.
Inventory of foodsize fish .................. 85 48 68 134
Quantity off-flavor ........................ 11 5 10 60
On-flavor inventory ....................... 74 43 58 74
Incidence of off-flavor % .................. 13 10 15 45
Source: Mississippi Crop and Livestock Reporting Service.
"Is the cure worth
the cost of the remedy?"
10
G.J. Keever, G.S. Cobb, and J.C. Stephenson
LANDSCAPE PLANTS O.K. FOR INDOORS
T EMPERATE ZONE woody land-
scape plants have the potential of
offering a new and varied source
of plant materials for interior
landscapes. In addition to their desirable
aesthetic qualities, temperate zone spe-
cies are generally more tolerant than
tropical or semitropical species of cooler
interior conditions. Thus, they may be
suited for homes or other buildings with
low temperatures due to energy-con-
serving measures or for placement near
building entrances where drafts of cold
air frequently enter.
Successful indoor performance of tem-
perate landscape plants will vary among
different species depending on their
ability to adjust to low light conditions.
Suitable species must be able to remain
vigorous without experiencing a natural
dormancy environmentally induced by
shorter days and cooler temperatures.
Research conducted by the Alabama Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station evaluated
selected temperate woody and herba-
ceous species typically used in exterior
landscaping. Most of the species tested
responded well when placed in the inte-
rior environment.
One phase of the study involved uni-
form liners of spreading lilyturf, South-
ern magnolia, mondo grass, and cleyera
which were potted in March 1985 in
6-in. containers. A 100% milled pine
bark growth medium was amended with
dolomitic limestone, gypsum, and Mi-
cromax? micronutrient fertilizer. Plants
were topdressed monthly during pro-
duction with 1 tsp. 12-6-6 fertilizer.
Plants of each species were divided into
three groups of 10 plants and grown un-
der three light conditions: (1) full sun;
(2) 47% shade; and (3) 64% shade.
Growth measurements were taken prior
to transferring plants to an interior envi-
ronment with fluorescent lamps (50 foot-
candles), 12-hour photoperiod (6 a.m. to
6 p.m.), 70?F, and 80% relative humid-
ity. After 15 weeks, growth measure-
ments, leaf color, leaf drop, and plant
quality were determined.
In a second experiment, uniform lin-
ers of dwarf gold-dust plant, variegated
waxleaf privet, and Wood's Dwarf nan-
dina were potted in 6-in. containers and
wintercreeper euonymus were potted in
41/2-in. containers in April 1986. Cultural
methods were the same as in the first ex-
periment, except plants were transferred
to an interior environment in September
1986.
Overall plant quality was generally
poorer with plants grown in full sun. Al-
most all of the plants grown in full sun
were more compact and denser than the
shade-grown plants. They had smaller,
lighter green leaves and marginal leaf
necrosis was found on a number of
plants. Only magnolia and cleyera were
of similar quality under all light regimes.
Once moved to the interior environ-
ment, all species continued to produce
new growth. While production size for
some plants grown in full sun was
smaller when first placed indoors, plant
size was similar among light treatments
after 15 weeks indoors. Foliar color rat-
ings were higher for shade-grown plants
of lilyturf, magnolia, and euonymus com-
pared to ratings of sun- grown plants.
Ratings were similar for other species,
regardless of light treatments. These rat-
ings indicate an improvement in leaf
color of full-sun grown plants during the
interior period.
Shade treatments appeared to influ-
ence leaf drop on some plants, while oth-
ers performed well regardless of produc-
tion light levels.
At the end of the interior period, the
quality of lilyturf, magnolia, mondo
grass, cleyera, and
NYIROEN 
privet was 
good to excel-
lent regardless of light
Quality treatment, though some
,m ai performed better under
specific treatments. Eu-
onymus grown in full
.8 sun displayed a high
i7 4.i8 mortality 
rate.
Results show that
4. temperate zone 
land-
5 48 scape plants can be suc-
cessfully used in the in-
terior environment.
.8 5 Varying light levels dur-
ing production influ-
.2 5 enced the performance
of some 
plants. 
Quality
was generally higher for
.3 3 shade-grown plants,
though some did well in
other light 
levels too.
. Keever is Asociate Profes-
4 4. 8ticulture; Cobb is
aJ centimeters). oSteh Superintendent and
.able8 2 ephenson is Associate Su-
perintendent 
of the Ornamen-
tal Horticulture Substation.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
11
D.1. Bransby, S.P Schmidt, W. Griffey, and J.T. Eason
HEAVY GRAZING IS BEST FOR INFECTED FESCUE
H IGI STOC)KIN; rats Ia
fungus1 inlfectiont of ISAltlekx :31
taill'5escueI pstllr('5. C lose graz-
ing1 ofl fi5(10' that 5was ilii infec'(tedl
\ it'h' t he r 4unga l jpllc "cll' tilaoi 115
stocking radtes. ig( II\''~h fug 'elscuc lso
84 lid h(i'ihei i n i e r acre14( itt ll'-
flxx igis es ll at bot oderilate ' hg
1.2, .baind . tw i epia ra )C te' Steel'-
The ligilt ~ waf685il.ls( sodtedov, atnc
8114-daty prod in~ toh2. sping of'' 88athe
at t'elanlxdx(l( Mounain Suat ion is
0tosskill I Attl CamIl i ll,1 tiils tll
1111ragetd 80 Ib.~'S'' at1 tebni' of1411 illthe
Wl'fnlllsl'all at alstckingI rates o
1.2,5 1:81 and 2.28 anmls per dacre fSlelegh
inthe i ldx.nai xeiu tw r
12u-lrfldcose iha nta
G:VK M'S I OCKEH ~ ~ S )1'11 G l ZIN I ll)ai~ II) F S Ml's) FE(95591T~ 10 I)
Gain pc aci re 1
tlI11 a tl-I i ll' -1icdS t)' I att).. . . ' . 1.35g
Atll thei'15 Sand axoenaeile Subst( atn
(1t56 11 ). per day o hliigh(ll1)-fn~gs s
was hiththan forl(' the(1 il w s1~ toctil' rate
lll'kll rat atlo had ro dligr1 1)11s till'
ithoigit the heagi y f setocigaesg
geitlstigkthat lt.' sffere 1 m)re flogit es-
in! tll. itaible showk~ I1 at.',eblo s (I'tcking
ragi'te AW; wasr iIgher on illf(-tiullxts Icg-
ccttle on high-fungus fscu(2 To-tcd
a2.4tpe acrlerenc in goDGa codtion bot-
totocked rat 1.2 per acre o tca
signse o fescfnue tics. o-soce
(5S 2.4 (.2/ IN 2.4
Lb Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
-4 1)4l (5 21S 209l
.31 1.25 (36 19S 25S
b . '361.6 1.36 22(0 311
FurIther'morll , I' liill giin jpll acre
andll :314 11). per acre re''' ' siple't ively, at till
A possible elaationt11 fill poorl gainils
atrhlmv(5.1 stocing atlo)hghfugu
fsucis thatthslih util'z tionll) tledsl to
moestdI~ll xi ~P iand till'ca prodctit baiy
fcscucl'll pllts.lSte ill andlitl~l it ill)d
ofI fl'llgusII than the levswsslc
Sil &tivc iioaze is X.ijthe caittle whn okingill
ffi 
1' "y
erage daihgaiu
- A.G. Appel, G.R. Strother, R.C. Sponsler, and D.A. Estridge
NEW SPRAYS PROVIDE LIMITED
CONTROL OF COCKROACHES
G I'MAN (OKOXII S
It I the( m((lst impIt~ji tl inlsett
pests ini hlm' s, restaturantts,
CermltiP(( cockrofath foati n/'s oyrap
idhl~titt ine s fd I'(tome diffiasl to ont-t~l
Vittii. tl t hlt u( statepting the'it own(1(
'Vltor. 'T il' p(' ftin ilai e icnstfted
i(('X('l iladi txo tf teacmlilollauc
inetiiesa( fenaple b)pryr
eipe wi11(5x t 5flatil'In i~ll or blf(St
trap~s. Ont tiap wa pla)x 1511ced( betieathl
the' kitchen 51ink and( tihe oth11(r was1
left ttt place fol I wee'(k. Popu)tlat ion
tit'atl(lts (listedl ill tile taile wxere
a sit ed~ to apns. Thx oe fat ax
lctpii' Ocuo R', Kn1( ox Outllx a nd b
sprlays A bout I (t. ttf finlished sail wxxas
appjliedi ttt each tn'
1
atedl ap~artntcnt.
spraye('( as' xwere aread5 alrou(1( the' stove
All unIits wxere sattpledI at 1. 2, 4l andl
S xxceks fttiloxx ii(1 hi(atlne((t. Tralps xwcl
placed in thn' sail(' locationls xwhere1 the
c ckros atihe s is at 5(1Ic or greatr 'reduc-11(
ulationi byN 62.,3 ( at I wee'(k ad 5:3.8( at
2 xxt'tks after tre(atmen'it. P'Ffin-iancl( (If,
thl(ir fpr(t Flatini 10(11 ilmilers alfte'r 12
These cockroacnl wt.: .,.win beinud a wall
clock in an infested apartment.
:30.5(/ at I wx('(k, 39J.6 % at 2 xwt'tks, andl
').S?/( at ft wx('ks. At S wee(ks, p~opulationi
tre
t
m afts sigxx'lk ilst' refuce Gcr-'lt
g enoally 
1 
incleasin cocko't t popula-tx'
ftisPoations chad lpitnfttased no'tr'r
weti ad withslanl linsae 1tocic
than1 Knoax Out tod I' lo'tn aff,'('tl'i-
Alabamia Agri('ulturcal 12.xpIrilntitt Station
A(.AIN' (;lIi\I\N (OtKR ((((X II IN \rxhsoI xIs
Pr((c(ca)fm((( I wXI'(k 2 wo'Iks 4 weeks S wee(ks
Contol . . . . . . . . . . . 118 :3 161.(6 136.6 209.( -
Dentn XXI'0.2'(c) ... .... .. . 9 .- 6 677 58.8 4.1 65.1
Dm) n MEF i0.5%) . ........ 97 I 12:3.1 94.3 102.4 7-49
Knox (ht 21\M 11.0%) .. . . . . . . . 95.7 101. 4 9:3.9 11:3. 1 1 1
i&'mpoWXXI' 0.I',) i . . . . . . . . . 116.6 44.0) 5:3.9 81.1 1201)
J.H. Yeager
FARM INVESTMENT DOWN,
EQUITY POSITION IMPROVED
FARM INVESTMENT repre-
sents the resources that a farmer
has to produce income. In terms
of a balance sheet, it is a picture
of his/her financial position at a given
time. Because of the problems in agri-
culture in the 1980s, farmers, agribusi-
nesses, farm creditors, and others have
kept a close eye on farm investment
trends. Research conducted through the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion over the past 3 years has helped pro-
vide this much needed information. Re-
sults now suggest improvement in the
farm economy.
As shown in the table, a farmer's in-
vestment includes real estate, machin-
ery and equipment, livestock and poul-
try, and stored or growing crops. To
provide a more complete overall farm in-
vestment picture, information on these
factors and others was obtained through
the USDA Economic Research Service.
Also included in the study were such fac-
tors as investment in household items,
deposits, bonds, and investments in co-
operatives. Debts, or claims against the
farm, are reported as real estate and
nonreal estate debt. Equity is the differ-
ence in assets and debt, or what the
farmer would retain after all debts were
paid.
Average investment in Alabama farm
real estate per farm declined about 11%
from 1982 to 1986, considerably less than
the 56% decline in Corn Belt States such
as Iowa. Alabama farmers' investment in
machinery and crops showed some de-
cline from 1982 to 1986, while livestock
and poultry investments per farm re-
mained the same.
Farm real estate is a significant part of
total investment. If household items, de-
posits, currency, and bonds are omitted
as part of the total farm investment, real
estate accounts for more than three-
fourths of the total. A major part of the
financing of agriculture is tied to real es-
tate. Thus, the concern among farmers,
lenders, and others is apparent when
farm real estate values decline.
The data available from USDA indi-
cate that Alabama farmers had an in-
crease in value of household items, de-
posits, and currency, as well as U.S.
savings bonds, on hand from 1982 to
1986. This was associated with the in-
crease in net farm income of Alabama
farmers from 1982 to 1986 as well as some
increase in off-farm income. The off-
farm income of Alabama farmers in 1982
and 1986 was greater than their net farm
income.
Both real estate and nonreal estate
debt per farm declined from 1982 to
1986. The decline in debt was greater
than the decline in total asset values, in-
dicating strengthening of the farmers' fi-
nancial position. The proportion of real
estate debt changed very little between
1982 and 1986.
Financial ratios provide useful in-
sights to the farm financial picture. The
ratios given in the table generally show
that some improvement occurred in Ala-
bama's farm financial picture from 1982
to 1986. Farmers' equity relative to as-
sets increased from 80.6% to 83.0%.
The debt-to-equity and debt-to-asset ra-
tios declined somewhat. Net farm in-
come-to-debt ratio was more favorable in
1986 than in 1982. Also, these ratios
were generally more favorable for Ala-
bama farmers than for those in Corn Belt
States.
In summary, the total investment in
Alabama farms declined from 1982 to
1986. A major part of the decline was in
farm real estate and farm machinery in-
cluding motor vehicles. Real estate and
nonreal estate debt were reduced more
than the decline in total assets. There-
fore, the farmer's equity position im-
proved although the dollar value of his
equity was reduced. Similar financial
data for more recent years are not avail-
able at this time to determine if improve-
ments in the financial structure of Ala-
bama's farms continued.
Yeager is Head of Agricultural Economics and
Rural Sociology
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
BALANCE SHEET OF ALABAMA FARMS (INCLUDING OPERATOR HOUSEHOLDS) 1982 AND 1986
Item 
Average value/farm
1982 1986
Assets
Real estate ........................................... $177,200 $157,700
M achinery ............................................. 25,900 21,800
Livestock and poultry .................................... 12,100 12,100
C rops ................................................. 3,600 2,200
Household item s ........................................ 9,300 15,000
Deposits and currency ................................... 4,900 7,500
U.S. savings bonds....................................... 600 800
Inv. in cooperatives ..................................... 4,800 6,500
Total .......... ..................................... $238,400 $223,600
Debt
Real estate ............................................ $ 25,400 $ 21,600
Nonreal estate .......................................... 20,800 16,300
Total ............................................... $ 46,200 $ 37,900
Equity ........... ....................................... $192,200 185,700
Ratios
Equity/assets ........................................... 80.6% 83.0%
Debt/equity ............................................ 24.0% 20.4%
D ebt/assets ............................................ 19.4% 16.9%
Net farm income/debt.................................... 19.3% 33.4%
Number of farms .......................................... 55,000 51,000
Source: ERS, USDA, Economic Indicators of the Farm Sector, ECIFS 6-14, February 1988.
14
M.R. Bradbard
MANY FACTORS AFFECT FARM WOMEN'S
LIFE SATISFACTION
THE MAJORITY of women today
face the challenge of combining
the roles of homemaker, spouse,
and parent with a job outside the
home. For farm women the challenge
may be even greater since an increasing
number of them have two jobs, being
employed off the farm as well as having
on-farm work responsibilities.
Each of the roles women assume re-
quires a commitment of time and energy
and carries with it a set of specific role
expectations. Further, each of these
roles and responsibilities must be prior-
itized and balanced against one another.
Given the multiplicity of roles in which
farm women typically engage, a reason-
able question researchers might ask is
"How satisfied are farm women with
their lives?"
To answer this question, Alabama Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station surveys
were mailed to a random sample of Ala-
bama farm women. A total of 130 ques-
tionnaires was returned, representing a
response rate of 33%. More than half
(53%) of the women were between the
ages of 46 and 65, while 22% were
younger than 46 and the remainder were
older than 65. All were married or wid-
owed, had been married for an average
of 32 years, and almost all had one or
more grown children.
Most of the respondents were well ed-
ucated. Slightly more than half had at-
tended or completed college, a fourth
had high school diplomas, and the re-
mainder had completed fewer than 12
years of school. While all the respon-
dents were involved in farming opera-
tions, only 74% stated that farming was
the family's major occupation. The aver-
age family income was $20,000 to
$25,000 in 1987, with the wife contrib-
uting approximately half of the income.
The majority of these women indicated
that their family income had remained
about the same over the last 5 years.
The respondents were juggling a vari-
ety of roles and responsibilities and lead
full, active, and well-balanced lives. On
the average, the women worked nearly
31 hours per week in their on- and off-
farm jobs combined, as shown in the ta-
ble. They spent 39 hours per week on
meal preparation, home maintenance,
and housework and nearly 21 hours each
week sustaining marital and other social
relationships with family and friends.
To determine the level of satisfaction
felt by these working farm women, the
questionnaire included reliable mea-
sures of life satisfaction, as well as of
marital adjustment, family adaptability
(the family members ability to adjust to
change and stress), and family cohesion
(the emotional bonding among family
members). Questions also were asked
about job-related supports, including
benefits received at the workplace, flex-
ibility to change the daily work sched-
ule, and family income.
The results indicated that these
women were moderately satisfied with
their lives. On a
scale in which 1 
Averag
represents very dis- 
AFarm
satisfied and 7 sig-
nifies very satisfied,
these women re-
ceived a score of
4.3. Seven 
varia- 
Farm work
bles, listed here 
in arm 
work
order of impor-
tance, contributed Meais..
significantly to the
level of satisfaction
expressed by the 
re- Home 
mainte
spondents. More
satisfaction was ex-
pressed by women
who: (1) had better Ma
marriages; (2) were arital 
relatio
younger (less than
age 56); (3) received O ia
more job-related
benefits (insurance,
retirement and pen- Leisure/self-ir
sion plans, and paid
leave time), usually theShop
from off-farm jobs; volunteering. c
(4) had higher levels
of education; (5) had higher family in-
come; (6) had greater flexibility to alter
their daily work schedules; and (7) per-
ceived their family members to be more
flexible and adaptable to change and
stress.
These results illustrate the need to ex-
amine a complex array of factors repre-
senting the marital, family, and work
roles of farm women to understand why
some women are more satisfied with
their lives than others. When a woman
holds an off-farm job and also works on
the farm with her husband, and some-
times with her children, portions of work
relationships are interwoven with close
interpersonal relationships. This min-
gling of business and personal relation-
ships can result in both positive and neg-
ative consequences that are unique to
farm women.
Bradbard is Associate Professor of Family and
Child Development.
e Number of Hours per Week
i Women Spend on Tasks
mploym em t . . ... 2 8
. . .pr e . . . . . . . .10.1
p i,
nance/housework . . . . 18.5
mprovement . . . . . . . .
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 15
H. 1-', D UIC 1 Di ens. af~c j ta ,'d
VIRGINIA BUTTONWEED IS A TOUGH PEST
' ? r~y~y
vII (.I\I \ I)iilluii\ ( ( (I IILti 
l) (
utnc IItt' must talked aboiit
weed in till-fduring the past fc\v
vicars, because of, its tc11acit\
Mid rate ofspread. (:ontrol ofthis pest ill
commercial operations, using either cul-
tural tcch11i(l11cs or herbicides, has not
1wen acccpt.tblc. Alabama Agricultitral
Fxperi11u'nt Station research indicates
tnulergrnu11d seed and flower fin-11nttutn
by this wcud 11r.ty be kcv factors in inak-
i11(,, it difficult to control by ntcthods that
sncccssfulk control other weeds.
Studies were rccc11tly c"ontpleted on
the .uiato11ly ,u1d rcproductivc habits of'
Virginia bttttonovccd vvhic"h have added
greatk to the undcrstnndint of hose the
plant grows and reproduc"cs. Anatomical
inA'estigationS iltv()ked direct inspcc"tion
of fresh plant ioatcrial a11d obscr\ ing and
photographing of specially pf-ciml-ed
plant Iltatcrial with both light and scan-
11ingclcchun niicroscupcs.
Virginia bnttuttwccd is it plant with
nlassivc rcproduc"ti -c potential. 'I'hc acr-
ittl portions of the plant consist ofcrccp-
ing stems s11pporting opposite Ieavcs
which often bear small white fbmcrs in
their aSials. f'i,,;iirc 1. Lateral buds at the
poinl of Icul attachment can form new
roots ,tnd shouts when it stet11 segment is
separated I'ront the parent plant, fig11re
2. Nimici-mis extra (a(vcntitimis) buds
100111 pl:uils ,long the hypocotyl (lower
steal); these grow into new Icafv shoots
when the upper swin is c"11t olTor killed.
Virginia bnthrmvccd has an cxtcnsi\,
11ctwork of flcshV roots that also play ait
important pill t in its survival and rcltru-
ductioo. N11111erous advcntitions bud,
oec"ur single or in c"Iusters along the
Ic11!-ths of older roots, figure ;3. "I'hcsc
bads, which can also produce aerial
shoots, have been observed o11 roots
growi11g:3 It. below the soil surfac"c. F,11-
crgv 11cccssarv fur terlnination and
growth of these buds is supplied Brunt
starch stored in the Ilcshv roots.
Not onFv does this weed reproduce
vcgctalivcl\ but it is also it prolific seed
2 _
3
Virginia buttonweed; 
FIG. 2-new 
roots and
shoots from lateral buds; FIG. 3-adventi-
tious buds on older roots; FIG. 4-subterra-
nean flowers of Virginia buttonweed.
griouuuid fBuntIt'r ikize o(1) ('Ncll a w i't thii
a(111 1 11 flowilt beo groun(' 1)1\ 11)11i1Niltit ~
ill''' tfiur it' arc ill i c of thes subi N i' t cr1 iai
ALABAMA AGRtCULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849-5403
Lowell T Frobish, Director
POSTMASTER-Address Correction Requested
tilli,,
fticI iis ) u 'F c l irc c 1) sid 1 atio ot t tlheji
w'eil as, its, gr1eat 1 ('1)1 ltilttNe pten'ltiai
NON-PROFIT ORG.
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
PERMIT No. S
AUBURN, ALA.
r-,,, 
n,, t,