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A WORD WITH THE EDITOR
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I )I .Si I i~ I11 wl I t I I Oll i I ()i t lot l I
and Soils. ist I a i lti i t lik i I old
1955I isa Ioil I IIi o.1 I I \ II'" Ilrl-
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SU ME I 1 987 Vtlhin lit)l a, 34,l(c No 2
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lit) I i I I li lsi 15 .. ..
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H illillilitc B. F.411 Kt h, :1l1111so IX I'ro11.1-
orl i Il iio ldF o s A1.Lah n.ls
SoNls THEE. Tah n .sty, tendr re~strctured-
seak..s's tlt ca Pemd role~ss desof'irle meat\
cts n(see uv.sto on pag 14)i.soo~lro
I
T HAS been known for many years
that growth regulating herbicides
such as 2,4-D, dicamba, and 2,4-DB
can severely injure cotton if contacted by
drift from adjacent fields or if spray tanks
are not properly cleaned after using
these chemicals. However, situations oc-
cur every year in which cotton is injured
by these herbicides.
Experiments were conducted recently
at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station's E. V Smith Research Center in
Shorter, Tennessee Valley Substation in
Belle Mina, and Wiregrass Substation in
Headland to determine the effects of
2,4-D, dicamba, and 2,4-DB on cotton
yields. At Shorter, 2,4-D rates of 0.0001,
0.001, 0.01, and 0.1 lb. per acre were ap-
plied to cotton in the early squaring
stage in the first year and to cotton in the
late bloom stage the following year. At
Belle Mina and Headland, 2,4-DB was
applied at rates of 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, and
0.5 lb. per acre, while dicamba and 2,4-
D were each applied at rates of 0.01 and
0.1 lb. per acre. All herbicide rates were
applied independently to cotton in the
six-leaf stage and first bloom stage dur-
ing 1986. Lower rates (0.01 lb. and lower)
simulated drift or contaminated spray
tanks. Dry conditions occurred at
Shorter and Headland when these trials
were conducted, while rainfall at Belle
Mina was close to average. Low volatile
formulations of all three herbicides were
used. Herbicides were sprayed over the
top of cotton in 15 gal. of water per acre.
TABLE 1. EFFECTS OF FOLIAR APPLICATION OF
2,4-D ON YIELD OF SEED COTTON IN A
TWO-YEAR TEST AT THE E.V. SMITH
RESEARCH CENTER, SHORTER
2,4-D rate/ Seed cotton yield/acre'
acre, lb. Year 1 
Year 2
Lb. Red. Lb. Red.
Control .......... 512 0 907 0
0.0001.......... 496 0 937 0
0.001 ........... 502 0 841 0
0.01 ............ 265 48% 843 0
0.1 ............. 70 86% 598 34%
'Average of four replications.
TABLE 2. EFFECT OF TIME OF 2,4-DB
APPLICATION ON COTrON YIELDS AT
BELLE MINA AND HEADLAND
Time of Seed cotton yield/acre'
application Belle Mina Headland
Lb. Red. Lb. Red.
6leaf ........... 1,247 49% 925 48%
1stbloom ....... 758 69% 1,320 25%
Untreated....... 2,434 - 1,770 -
Seed cotton yields at Shorter were re-
duced 48 and 86% the first year when
2,4-D rates of 0.01 and 0.1 lb. per acre
were applied to cotton in the squaring
stage, table 1. Rates of 2,4-D lower than
0.01 lb. per acre did not decrease yields
when applied to squaring cotton in the
first year. In the second year, rates of
2,4-D lower than 0.1 lb. per acre did not
decrease yields when applied to cotton
during late bloom. However, application
of 0.1 lb. per acre to cotton in late bloom
at Shorter reduced yields 34% in the sec-
ond year.
When averaged over all rates of appli-
cation, 2,4-DB treatments at the six-leaf
stage reduced yields 49 and 48%, re-
spectively, at Belle Mina and Headland,
table 2. First bloom applications re-
duced yield 69% at Belle Mina, but only
25% at Headland. The yield potential of
cotton was significantly lower at Head-
land than Belle Mina due to dry condi-
tions, which slowed translocation of
2,4-DB in the plant and possibly ex-
plains the yield difference.
The average yield reduction increased
from 9 to 83% as 2,4-DB rates increased
at Belle Mina and Headland, table 3.
Comparing yield reductions of the three
herbicides at equal rates shows 2,4-D to
be more injurious than 2,4-DB or di-
camba when all were applied at 0.01 lb.
per acre (50% vs. 33% and 27%, respec-
tively). However, at 0.1 
lb. per acre,
2,4-D and 2,4-DB were equally inju-
rious to cotton yields, while dicamba was
somewhat less harmful (64 and 61% vs.
52%, respectively). Nevertheless, each
herbicide severely reduced yields at the
0.1 lb. per acre rate. Yield reductions ob-
tained were primarily due to a decrease
in boll number per plant and percent
open bolls as herbicide rates increased.
Typical spray tank contamination or
drift could easily contain 0.01 lb. per
acre of 2,4D, 2,4-DB, or dicamba, and
even this low rate could reduce yields
enough to eliminate any profit from a cot-
ton crop.
Patterson is Assistant Professor of Agronomy and
Soils and Monks is former Research/Extension As-
sociate of the Tennessee Valley Substation.
TABLE 3. EFFECT OF TIME AND RATE OF HERBICIDE APPLICATION
ON COTroN YIELDS AT BELLE MINA AND HEADLAND
-r- -
Herbicide rate,
lb./acre
Seed cotton yield/acre'
Belle Mina 
Headland 
Average
Be6 Ma s b m reduction
6 leaf 1st bloom 6 leaf 1st bloom
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Pct.
2,4-DB
0.001 .......................... 2,132 1,821 1,624 
1,570 9
0.01 ........................... . 1,707 1,364 
853 1,679 33
0.1 ............................ . 613 417 
962 1,107 61
0.5 ............................ 261 114 
436 526 83
2,4-D
0.01 ........................... 882 580 
780 1,688 50
0.1 ............................ 874 253 
608 1,134 64
Dicamba
0.01 ........................... 1,993 939 1,298 
1,797 27
0.1 ............................ 1,511 572 
835 1,062 52
Control ........................ 2,434 
1,770 -
'Average of four replications.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
'Averaged over all rates.
.5 Y
_ l. p' .. . '' Ya QY . r -''1 W
,.,;
'~~' 4
-, ":~ ,~
,'~
'4-'
5.
Peanut Nitrogen from the
A.E[ HILTBOLD
M OST of the nitrogen (N) in a
p~eanult crop comes from the
air. Certain b~ac'teria (brady-
rh izollia) entcer peanut roots in the seed-
linug stage, thcen mlltiply xwithuin noduiles
that the plant formas arounid them. The
plant's photosn thesis prov ides the b~ac-
teria xxithi energy requlired to convert at-
mnospheric N inito forms0 the plant can
ulse. While this is going on, peanut roots
also abdsorb hnitr ate-N that may be ill thme
soil from1 residual fertilizer or decompos-
ing organic matter. But soilI-absorbed N
alone is insulfficient for cr01) needls. 'The
role of' atmospheric N fixation in peanut
prod(1uction was dleterminedl in an exper-
ment at the Alabama Agricltural Ex-
p~erimluent Station's Wiregrass Substation
ill 1986.
tO dlistinOguish atmnospheric N from
soil-absorbed N inl Flortlluner p~eanut
Iplalts, a 11n1on ltllating relatixve of' Flo-
rulnner (X14-2) wvas tisedi for comparisoni.
Since M14-2 (does not fix any N, its total
sup~ply m11(st comeic from thce soil. Florun-
necr ob~tains thk' samke amiount of' N fromn
the soil; therefore, the N content of' M4-
2 lnay be sub~tracted from the total N in
Floru~nner to calculate atmospheric N
fixed.
Both cultixvars were planted on May 6
in 6-r'ow plots 60 ft. long. No f'ertilizecr N
xvas ulsedl andl soil testinhg showed ade-
uate levels of p)hosphorus andt potas-
sillmi. Ir'ri gatnin was app~li ed as needced
dluring an unmiisuiallx dIry season. Stands
we re thin lned 2 we eks after planitinhg to
s pacce plants 4 in. apart in the rows. Ten I
:3 t. sam plin~g ilnterx als xv(ere m ar'ked in
rowxs 2 anid 5c of each plot. Lx erx 2 wxeceks,
nline p~lants iln each plot1 xxere (11g anmd di-
xvided Iito roots, stems, leaflets, and
later inito ker nels amnd hullls. Irv wxeighmts
andl total N contents xvere deterinedIc~.
At mlatulrit, rowxs 3 and 4 (of each plot
xvere cmIachinec halrvestedl.
Floru~nner and NI4-2 plants grexw simIl
ilarly dulrinug the first 8 xveeks liltil.JuLy 1
xvhen thce first pods xer ( de'(lvcloping:
M14-2 had produced 900 lb. per acre (of
plant dry' lmatterl contaliing 21 lb). pecr
acre of, scecd- and soil-derixved N, while
F l'nl nne'r h adl produ' e (1I( , 040 Ilb. per
acre (of drx xxei glht conI taiiIng 27 lb. perl
acrce of total N. The (liflel enc, 6 l1b. pei
acre (If N, represents atmo(sphe'ric N
fixed bx F'loi'uirmuplt to the stage of
ear lx p)0( delc'opmnut. Howevxxer, Flho-
rulnllcr p~lants xvere xxell nou1(~latcel and
dark green'u while M14-2 plants xwcre chlo-
rotic and N deficient.
Differececs bectwxceen tlhc xvaieties
Ibcaeac wmorc' 1)1 olI((Iiced as the seasoni
adxvanced, as illustratedl by the phlotoI.
\14-2 plants reached their
mraximumln growth (6,860)11).
per acre of'dry xmatte, 861lb.
per acre of N) on Auguist 26.
:Nitro( gen for m at uinig ker-
nels was drawn from N14-2
leaflets, redulci ng their N
p'~eentage to half, of their
mjilseason content. Florin-
n er, on the ot heri hand, in-
ereasedl eontinuouisly to
~~September 23, (140 dlas
after planting) wxitlh 9,160 lb.
per acre of' d
1
rx iatter and
~~ 221 l1b. p~er acre of N . The
(iifferenice in N content of
Flmon ner and MI4-2, 135
lb. per acre, is the seasonal
total of atlntspie ric fixation.
SIt made u1) 61% of the total N
in IFloruinner, most of it
gig inlto) pod xyield of 4,010
11. perf acre gradling 72%
sound mature kernels
(SM K). N)14 2, wxithout b~en-
efit of N fi xation , yijelded
1,:380 lb. pracre of peanuts
gr ading 60% SNIK. The sig-
n if'icance of N fixationt is
clear; it supp~tlies the N requniredl for high
yield of duiality p~eanults.
I I 1(5It ', is hot(''or of Agioo \ and1) 11( Soils.
Nitrogen accumulation by M4-2 peanuts (soil
N only), compared to Florunner peanuts (soil
and atmospheric N).
Total N in plants, lb.!/ acre
.w. . Kernels
IMay June July July Aug.Set
Alabamua Agricultut-al Experimnen t Station
May June July July Aug. Sept.
6 3 1 24 22 23
SMLL Al 1.\OINT of Botliumi al-umtfiiiosiliete iln feedl of lyxing
h..lens may elimnmate nmuch of the
costly egg bireakage problem that
p~lagules Alab~ama's poul try intdtustr.
Tihat's the indication firom research at
the Alabama Agricuiltural Expeimelnet
Station.
Sodliuii alilinosihecatc (SAXS), or zco-
litc A, is char acterizedi bx its ab~ility to
gain andi lose wxater rev ersibly andi to ex-
chaiige cations wxithout a major clhange in
strucltutre. Al thoui gh moitre t han 40 natu-
ralix occulrring zeolites anti oxver 1(0) sy n-
tiletie ones exist, SAS has the greatest
100 exchainge eapabili ty andl highest
selectixvity for ealciumn (Ca) amo~ng the
etnnmerciallx axvailalble zeolites. Becauise
of'its iunusu allx higlh ion exch ange capac-
iti as lix pothesized that SAS might
infleince calcium11 metalboli sm ill laying
lheins.IThe first report that SAS increased
egg shell qua
1
lity caine fromt Auhbirn re-
search in 1985.
Nuimerouis experinients xvith SAS haxve
b~eeni condiucted since that time, xxith
imiproxemnents of 1 to 4 units in egg spe-
ecii graxvits resulting from S AS atddi-
tions. Restilts also indiicate that the in-
clius ion of 0.75%4 SAS in lax er tdiets
conitaiinug 3.7.5% caleiumn, 0.71% phlos-
phorius, andt 16% protein xvill impi~rovxe
feedl eff'iciency 2 p~erceint.
After niiunerouis E xperimient Station
trials which shiowetd coinsisteiit imiprovxe-
mnents in egg specific gravity, a eoininer-
cial fieltd trial xvas contductetl using
:32,000 helns. Eggs wxere exvaliuatedl for
b~odx cheeks', tiracks, weight, anti spe-
cific graxvitx at xxeekly iinterv'als for 2
xweeks. All lhens xxere then feti 0. 75%
SA\S for 6 wxeeks anti the samie data were
recordted at 2-xveek intervals. At the endt
of the 6-xweek perioi, SAS was reinovedi
anid the same data dletermnineti for an ad-
tditioiial 2 xxeeks. All protdtctioni and pro-
cessing recortds xwere ob~taiinetd bx the
prodtucler. Four differei t cheek svsttems
xwere iutilizedl to) help exvalate SAS: (1)
egg breakage tdeterinetd at Farm, (2)
eggs lost tdte to hreakage as recortded by
fatm owinxxnr, (:3) egg breakage dleter-
millet
1 
at the processinig plant, anti (4)
egg specific gravity dieterininetd inl the
laborators.
The results gixven in the table iindicate
that feetding SAS increaseti egg specific
graxvity :3.3 tiiiits coimparetd to the pre-
experimnital xvalue anti 2.1 uniits coti-
Body cfecks arc eggs bro (keni in tihe fen' uterus
prio to1 ( lay; thiey arc poori rxepairedf and~ fiase at
ridg aroIulid~ the middle of the cgg.
Alabamia Agricultu ral Exvperiment Station
A :
-C
in teect e. ~es egg DieaKage
DA. ROLAND and PE DORR
p)aretd to the post-experi mental x aloe.
Thiis retducetd lost eggs 33% as intiicateti
lxy pr ocessinlg p)lant recoirts, retdicet
cracked eggs 29% as inic~iated Iy 1)o-
cessing plant recortds, reduiedt B-gratde
eggs 191(, retduied total II ntergi ates
28%c at processinig plant, atnd rediuced
breakage 28% antI botdx cheeks 44% at
the form . It aisto retduceti brokenl eggs
tdiscartdetd lby pirotters 1by 15r%(
Cracketd eggs tdeterm inetd at the farm
lexvel correlated tdirectly to sfpttific grax-
ityx. Breakage xxas appiroximiately :3%
p~rior to starting the tr~eatmient, bt
tlroppetd blowx 2?h xxithini 2 xweeks. 'T'he
implrovemnt inl breakage axveragedl 28%
tuinlg treatmntl. Iii exer cixnstaie,
xwhen specific gravxity itnireased, break-
age tdecreasetd auth xice xversa.
The b reakage at thle farm wxxas siiiiar
to the 1)1eakage tdetermiinetd iin the prlo-
cessinhg plant. D~uing thle pre-(\peri-
mienital p)eriod, peircent ciack s tdtter-
innetd at thle ptrocess in g latnt axveragetd
:3.1% x (rsuts 2.2% tuin ig th e treatment
p)eriotd (a 28?% retductioti). Wit hin 2
weeks after remoitvintg SAS, breakage hatd
returinetd tto :3%. While feediiig SAS, per-
cenit lost eggs wxas retdutedt from 0.6 to
0.4; it incireasetd back to 0.6 folloxx ing the
expelrimient Percent B-gradles tdecreasetd
froml 4.6 to :3.4, 1111t xxas hack to 4 .5
xxithiin 2 xveeks after reinovinig SA\S fromi
.Anoth11er pro1noutnI cedt elfect th at had
not bettn prexvitisly obstrxvetd wxas the ill-
fletiee of SAS oni botix cheeketi eggs.
Durinig thce pe~exp iimenital p~eriodl, the
incitdence of body checketi eggs xxas ap-
p~roximnately 6%. After 6 xveeks offleetliig
0.7?k SAS, the inieniie oflmtlx cheeks
fhat
1 
tdecreasetd to 1.5%. W\ithin 2 wxeeks
af ter removlxing S AS from the diet, the ill
ciencle of bodyx cecks hati iintreasedl to
8%.
Thlese tiata tdeinistirate that SAS fetd
at a lexel of 0.75% significanlty imptroxes
egg specific graxvit, retducees eggs loss
tluec to) shell problems, antd improxves fetd
effieieicxc. 1 lii, the fieltd trial resuilts
xvere simnilar to r estilts of preiiiiarx'
trials at Aouburn.
Ro)ftlan is Proufessor of Poiilti 5 Science andof rruu
is assoc1iated X with Con1gr Xin 1.1111a,10 Arkaiisas.
IN) I I (ir So)I mum Aiti iInOSII(XII u(N \v u xa s( C ax t iIi F ) ra i ixi,
Criteiai
Impiuji cdX( egg spec ii gravXity uts . . . . . . . . . . .
iefuced egg loss al pr ocessinig plfaniu pct ......I
iiediuced cr.acked eggs ait pr1ocessilng plaf,i pc .....1
Refuced R-gradeg aII i procnessinug pfant, pct .........
Red(uced( total mote gi uofes at pu ocessinug pfant, pc.....
Refuced bodf -chf cks at farm pet . . .. . . .. . .. . .
liclu(.( cracked eggs discade auIu~t tofus bii podfuler, Pc.
Comi parI d to( Com())IparIedi to
pr- .peimcit pos -c fuci e t
m e
Insufficient Dietary Fiber Intake
Is a Problem among the Elderly
R.E. KEITH and L.M. VARNER
DIETARY FIBER consump-
tion is currently a hot topic
among health conscious in-
dividuals. The press regularly reports
that dietary fiber may contribute to
the prevention and/or relief of several
common chronic diseases and disor-
ders (constipation, obesity, diabetes,
high blood cholesterol levels, diverti-
cular disease, and colon cancer). It is
now known that dietary fiber is not a
single substance, but several sub-
stances, each with a slightly different
function. Thus, dietary fiber from raw
fruits and vegetables may have differ-
ent effects on the body when com-
pared to the dietary fiber in beans,
oatmeal, or various bran products.
Despite all the reports about fi-
ber's importance, the nation's elderly
seem to be largely unaware of the
facts and may not consume enough fi-
ber to fill their needs. This is espe-
cially meaningful because elderly per-
sons frequently suffer from diseases
or disorders associated with poor eat-
ing habits, including a possible lack of
dietary fiber.
The magnitude of the problem is em-
phasized by population data showing
that persons over 65 years of age cur-
rently make up approximately 11-12% of
the total U.S. population. And this per-
centage is expected to increase signifi-
cantly over the next 20-40 years.
Due to the increasing numbers of el-
derly persons and the lack of substantial
data concerning dietary fiber intake in
elderly persons, a study was conducted
by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station. The purpose was to determine
the dietary fiber intake and knowledge of
food sources of dietary fiber in a group of
apparently healthy elderly men and
women.
Subjects in the study included six men
and six women ranging in age from 60 to
88 years. Participants all lived in a re-
tirement mobile home community, had
completed at least a high school educa-
tion, were married, and had full kitchen
facilities available to them. All had re-
tirement incomes above established pov-
erty levels. Data related to health status;
fiber intake, knowledge of dietary fiber
sources, and lifelong dietary habits were
obtained by personal interview in con-
junction with written questionnaires and
a 24-hour diet recall. Height, weight,
and 24-hour dietary fiber intake data for
the 12 subjects are reported in table 1.
Daily dietary fiber intake in the group
ranged from 4 to 23 grams', with an av-
erage intake of 11.7 grams per day. Rec-
ommended dietary fiber intakes range
from 15 to 35 grams per day. Thus, the
dietary fiber intake in the study group of
elderly could be characterized as low.
The low fiber diets of those surveyed
are apparent in data-in table 2. Raw and
cooked fruits and vegetables were the
high fiber foods most often eaten by the
elderly respondents. The fiber intakes
were characterized by the consumption
of several foods containing some fiber
'One ounce = approximately 28 grams.
rather than concentration of one high
fiber food such as bran.
Two-thirds of the subjects could not
recall ever receiving any professional
or public information on dietary fiber.
This finding was supported by the re-
sults of the dietary fiber knowledge
questionnaire. A number of the sub-
jects were familiar with several good
sources of dietary fiber (raw fruits and
vegetables, bran). However, none of
the subjects knew that whole grains,
beans, nuts, or seeds were good
sources of fiber. In addition, several
participants thought that low fiber
foods, such as meat, white bread,
milk, and yogurt, were good sources
of fiber. Results indicated that there
was an inability to consistently and
correctly identify high and low fiber
foods.
In addition to the dietary fiber
data, health status results indicated
that a high percentage of the subjects
had at least one of the following
disorders related to low fiber diet:
constipation, obesity, diabetes, and
diverticular disease. While the con-
sumption of a low fiber diet cannot be di-
rectly implicated in the diseases noted,
conditions associated with low fiber diets
were found in the present group of el-
derly.
Data on subjects in the present study
indicate that most had dietary fiber in-
take below or at the low end of the rec-
ommended fiber intake range. The fiber
consumed by the elderly subjects was
mainly from a variety of fiber sources
rather than one major source such as
bran. Subjects could identify certain
high fiber foods; however, they could not
consistently and correctly identify high
and low fiber foods. Obesity, constipa-
tion, diabetes, and diverticular disease
were low fiber intake-related disorders
which afflicted some of the participants.
These findings emphasize the need to in-
crease dietary fiber consumption and
knowledge in the elderly.
Keith is Associate Professor of Nutrition and
Foods and Varner is a Graduate Student.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
AS MARK TWAIN said about the
erroneous reports of his death
being greatly exaggerated, so it
can be reported that neighborhoods are
alive and functioning in Alabama. This
finding by the Alabama Agricultural Ex-
periment Station and Tuskegee Univer-
sity disputes the many gloomy reports
about unhealthy conditions of rural and
urban neighborhoods today.
A basic social unit, the neighborhood
is often overlooked in social science re-
search because it is not a political entity
that has members or elects officers. In-
stead, the neighborhood is a locality
group that exists as a result of people
(families or households) building houses
and making their homes near one an-
other. Although relatives sometimes live
in the same neighborhood, the most
common pattern is for the residents to be
strangers prior to moving into an area.
Much has been written recently about
the deterioration or disappearance of
neighborhoods as meaningful social
units in American society. Concern has
focused on farm neighborhoods as well
as city neighborhoods. In cities, families
living in close proximity are believed to
have little social interaction-to interact
less frequently and with fewer neighbor
families than was true in the past. Simi-
lar changes are believed to be occurring
in rural areas. Farms have grown larger
and fewer. Rural residents no longer
share a common occupation and attach-
ment to agriculture. Many local people
commute to jobs in town and their chil-
dren leave the neighborhood to attend
school. The result is a greatly restricted
set of interactions characterizing social
life at the neighborhood level.
What types of social interactions are
most reflective of neighborhoods? Most
would probably agree that "neighbor-
ing" best describes these interactions
because they involve face-to-face con-
tacts on a continuing basis over a long pe-
riod with people and families who live
nearby. Not every family in a neighbor-
hood needs to "neighbor" with every
other family. Some families may live near
others and not interact, or interact only
selectively, with neighbors; yet through
this network of interactions among fami-
lies, a sense of neighborhood exists.
The study reported here measured
the strength of neighboring in different
types of locational settings: open coun-
try, small town (2,500-10,000), city
(10,000-50,000), and metropolitan city
(50,000 or larger). Neighboring was de-
fined as the frequency with which the
members of a household or family have
contact with other households living
nearby. Data were gathered in a 1985
statewide survey of more than 1,600 Ala-
bama households.
Neighboring interactions studied in-
cluded: (1) going places together, (2) en-
tertaining one another in each others'
homes, (3) asking each other advice, (4)
talking about problems, (5) borrowing
things from each other, (6) visiting in
each other's homes, and (7) watching out
for each other. Average household neigh-
boring scores are shown in the table for
each type neighborhood interaction.
The results reveal that some behaviors
identified as common within the neigh-
borhood setting are practiced more often
and by more Alabama households than
are others. "Going places" with neigh-
bors and reciprocated "entertaining in
each other's homes" are least often prac-
MEAN SCORES FOR SEVEN NEIGHBORING BEHAVIORS PRACTICED BY ALABAMIANS IN
FOUR RESIDENTIAL SETTINGS
Neighboring Neighboring 
scores, by residential settings
behaviors Open Town 
City Metro State-
country 2,500-10,000 10,000-50,000 50,000+ wide
Going places together.............. 1.35 1.20 1.10 1.11 1.23
Entertaining one another in each
other's homes .................. 1.37 1.17 1.18 1.23 1.28
Asking eachother advice........... 1.61 1.49 1.51 1.55 1.56
Talking about problems . ........... 1.62 1.56 1.52 1.58 1.58
Borrowing things from each other .... 1.81 1.71 1.60 1.60 1.71
Visiting in each other's homes ....... .1.95 1.85 1.76 1.73 1.86
Watching out for each other ........ 2.49 2.46 2.47 2.51 2.49
'Item scores are based on scores and responses of 0= never, 1= rarely, 2 = sometimes, and 3= often.
ticed statewide. Conversely, the most
common neighboring behavior is to
"watch out for each other." More than 60
percent of households indicated that they
often watched out for their neighbors.
Visiting in neighbors' homes also was a
fairly common behavior with 25 percent
visiting often.
Rural or open-country families were
more likely to experience a wider variety
of social contacts with others living in
their neighborhoods and to neighbor
more often than were families living in
other residential settings. Much neigh-
boring occurs in metro neighborhoods,
but people living in open-country neigh-
borhoods consistently had the highest
average neighboring score.
Comparison of average scores for the
seven neighboring behaviors reveals that
open-country neighboring patterns are
different from city and metro residents
on going places together, borrowing
things from each other, and visiting in
each other's homes. For each behavior,
open-country people were more likely to
neighbor this way than were city or
metro residents. The only other signifi-
cant difference was observed between
open-country and town or city residents
regarding entertaining one another in
each other's homes. In this instance, res-
idents of metro neighborhoods were
more likely than either town or city res-
idents to neighbor in this way.
What can be concluded from these
findings? Reassuringly, they reveal that
much neighboring is going on today in
neighborhoods across Alabama. At the
same time, the strength or intensity of
neighboring today does vary depending
on the type of residential setting. These
findings suggest that open-country
neighborhoods are probably best able to
respond to crisis in times of emergency
or need and to organize effectively for lo-
cal voluntary projects because of their
traditional patterns of neighboring inter-
action.
Dunkelberger is Professor and Graham is a
Graduate Research Assistant of Agricultural Eco-
nomics and Rural Sociology and Lyles is Associate
Professor at Tuskegee University.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Social strength is present
in open-country neighborhoods
J.E. DUNKELBERGER, C.R. GRAHAM, and G. LYLES
Early Planting and Reduced
Tillage Help Control Lesser
Cornstalk Borer in Peanuts
TP MACK, H.W. IVEY, and L.W. WELLS
L \ 8 ' V Y E A R ' S I I H cL( Y E ( r X r o X X i n g i
seasoni XXas idiel fiol the lessei
cornsItalk borer1 ( 13. iNofpia-
tioii oiitiireks of tlis iiisect pest of
p)(ianutsXI~~li i soghm smla! l .rins and
XoX Ilelli alt assoi~eatedi wXithi hot anid diry
mentlt Stationi researchi sligi4st that cartI
pliantinlg andt r ediuied tillage cani help
reuce tim probliem.
IA ICB lata fci dlirectly onl platt
stems I IX tinlg exterii c dam(t iage to XoX-
tissues. iii peatst tiit larlaX it lil also
f~i-cd l on( deieoping. pegs4 and( pods(. ea-
lilt X i(ld losses exceed in g 70% hlaX
Siiice popuihltioni ouitbreaks usually
(deXeo (hini hot, drX Xwea~ther, the p)otential
exists for the reducttioni of IC .(13tamage
toi peanuts be aiterinig planlting (late so)
plan ts arce less etl xpose to tis ty~pe of
iiiei dirough.~ts octli eariX plaintttd pea-
nults Xwoldt likelX 1)1lodlie Id larer plaints,
iiakiig themli less aittractive to LCI3 than
afl'Cct LCH:1 popuiIlationi diesitX byv alter-
ingi soil iiioistiiit and ilX lilaxililiu SOil
tiiepeaturii s.
\ fi(ld studyl was AXilgliu at tihe \\iie-
i.rldXX Subsitation iln 19Sf) tio dieterinle if
planitling tiate anti tillag~e practices af-
fcrtedl ICA :abunidtancie. Hlorininer pea-
nilt seed wetre tplanitet iii .36-in. rows ini a
accordinhg ti)o perat iX
I;\tclIsioi Scric coi it I(111
tret llelt 
1
i~l XXAX ii.hltFIG. 2. Abur
rowsX XXidc bIX 50 ft. 
long. planted peai
"IwX pljanitinig dtesX we
uised, MaiX 2:3 and Juini 11, aiiiig X itli
thre tll uiIe i tiiiems (cntI ion l rle -
duce t illigie, ai t b u te stubbl)u
I ihit icoinventia tiiagi ii tatment XXas
dinedi~i as turntliinad diskin ~efottra
11114. iii' tl(AtOcdtlXXaS iiioteplant
ig siiiiits into wht stubbXXle vit tat
Ht il uiland p :3l t Xomina-
IXtin.Th biurned~i Xtubb( XX aXiiiti tla
XXitila itoai te)X reduedlilag I.Ixci tha t
iiiiliti Xtbuniinie fI B larvaie, . hichX
wX~iitpitXlX tapst fiur 1.il'kvo( traisiert
lotjii wer raidmlcd fix2XXin a3. selic7.0
cetrias l witin ac ploe~t. "Trap XX re
FIG. 1. Pitfall traps (anti-freeze in cup sunk into soil) were used to mon-
itor abundance of lesser cornstalk borer larvae.
sgt
ndance of lesser cornstalk borer larvae in early-
nuts.
lotsitha in( I theirdtce iiltiillge pltsc
stuleih appjarenltly becauset tiie stul~e
shiadie tht sl. Siliee c LCH halrvae alr.
subiterriltaea alnd coht llooidedh, their
growXth late Xwolt lbe XloXedi by such
'Iii' llii I nube io larIX ct auiiht pti- ti ap
show iX no li di fleienee amon 111iate p ~ lnted
tiliage( XX Xtelii. This sulggtst that all
pianits XwX re suseptilie to LC. 1 attack at
thuis tiiie. ILarlli popltionsi wer'e larger
inlat ith iain iln early jpiltce taniuts,
XXithi a petak of 6.7 larvae per tap on1 Julyx
25 ini convltionally tilledi p~lotX.
Ilt( taly p) lnt ing dte~ yXiteIti lded iore
p~eanults tiiaii the late pilntinig datt, re-
g4ardltss iol tiiilla XX sXtI.ml 2,19:3 and
1694 Ib per' acr e, reslpeetiX ('IX
It is Xweil knlown that the LCI3 is a hot
and l ry (IXwe at her tpest . Ill 1986, lmi IXt of
thit hiot w~eather occurredi ini JlX 26 diays
9501 at I eatland. The late plnted pca-
lnut pilnts Xwere smialler thian thet 'aly
planitedt pe(anuits iieeaiise late planitinig
XXs AX one din lg the droullght. ThusI, it
Xlhouldt nott bt' sulrprisinlg that thet late
thani thoise tiiat Xwere pilntedi earl.
'Tih' nw1)1th of' M~ay il l iaama typji-
jiliX haX ft'Xwel hot dIaXX than Jie Ill JulyX
Xio planitingi peanuts ealier' toi hilp aidA l
XX(athi(r condivileXe to LCH1 populi~ationi
ioiutbreaks isX prob~ably A XXIsXe Xtlatcg.
helpj reducle tihe abulndance (of tis pesXt
ion ptan uitsX as indicated by~ thle 1986
data.
Mac isAssciate Prof ,hssor If .iiltoilg and
kr ad (11s a I c SuiiuIh~~lend IrK an Stm
T lE WOODJ IUCK is an impor-
tant gaml( species iln Alabama andc
usuaIly ranks second or th irci
oX ('rall amnl(ig wXaterfowl harv estedl ini
thel Atlantic and Mississippi filyways. It is
(esti mated that 25,000 to 28,000 wood
(hicks lbreed ini Alalbamia and annuially
p)rodnlie s01me1 60,000 dcckliings. From
this population, Alabamia hiunteirs kill
20,000 to 2.5,000 an nu allx
Wood diucks are the onlyx species 
of
mnigratory wXaterfoXX that b~reedl exten 
-
siXvelX thriouighouit the South and the only
one to regularly prodluce twXo lbroodis 
ini
one ireproduictivec season. E stiiiates of
second br1ood production hiaveC raniged(
from 0.214 to 8.9%, hut all rep~orts hav e
comle fi-011 abiove 36ON latitode (the 
Ala-
haina-Tcitiiessee state line is approxi-
matcly 35?N latitude). It has heen sug-
ge stced that the f'reqnencx of second
1broods by, XXo 001lucks imx he greater at
more'( sou therii lati tudes becausce of
loniger nesti ng seasons. This led to an
Ala1bama A gricuilturiial E xperimeint S ta-
tionl stldX to deterinie the freqieincx 
of'
sec'ond~ broods in east-central Alahaima
(32?N), tol assess this conitribultion to total
produ1 ctioni aind to co rrelate the effect 
of'
latitude Xwith f'reqiecc of doiihle b~roodls
by oo XX)0lucks.
The studv Xwas coindiicted at tlue
11,000-acre Eufaula National Wi ldlife
liefi ge loicatecdc in B3a rb our and c Ru ssell
coiint ics in Alabaina and S tewXart and
Quiitiiain counlties ini Georgia. Thce ref-
lige XXas selected because it is located 
at
:32?N latitude, 40 south of' prev ious re-
p)orts oif seconld broods . Fu rther, lce
cause mo1(st tiimber on the refuge is less
thiain 25 years old( and~ provides few nat-
uiral caXvities, nesting XXo 001 lucks had to
uise the 221 available nest bioxes located
oni the i efitge. This facilitated accurate
de tern iciat ioni of second brood prod 
ut-
tion biecauise nearly all nesting hens
couild hc monitored.
Nest boxes were checked biwveekly in
198.5 and Xweekly in 1986. Female XX 00(
cluc(ks ssere captured on the nest anid
bantdedl 2 XXeeks into incublatioin to mini-
mizc abandonmenit c'ausedl bX obserXver
distirbance. When poissib~le, duocklinigs
XXere XX bl-taggedl w~ith serial ly num-
beired 11ioncl fish tags to allowX age deter-
imiationi iii subsequent years and poiten-
t ial det erm in atin f br11ood suri'val.
There XXere 101 successful nests in
19855 of wliich a miimucilm of' 6.9%
(sesven nests) were produced by dloublle-
hrooded hens. D~uring 1986, 11.5% (16
Alabama Agricultitral Experimecnt Station
.E. MOORMAN and G.A. I3ALDASSARRE
lies ts) of' 1:39 sumccessfuii nests resiilIted
from females hiatchiiig double 
bi'oods,
the highest piercenttage r'epor ted to (late.
TXo key factors affecting this firequlencyX
miay 1be foodi~ s upplX aind leni gthI of 1)1eed-
ing scasotn; bothi aire aflectei bis latitude.
ai'ni sprilng teimpetrat iues occur 
ear'lier
in mioir' siouithei'i latitudes, stimuiilatiing
gr'owXXth iif allatic iinsects, XXhIih ate crit-
ical food s(ourtces for lie stinig feital(s 1be-
cauise they provXidle protein u~sed ini egg
pi'oductioii. D~ata fi-oti prevdXious invXesti-
gationis anid this stuidy indcicate at 1.2% in-
crease in the in c iden ce (if seconl d 1b'ioodls
XXith each dlegie d(ecrease ini lat itu de.
The imal interXval bew~een hiatch of
the first br'ood and~ iinitiationi of the sec-
onid clutch wXas :31.6 and( 41.6 dlays iii 198.5
and 1986, resp~ectiX el. Hiowever, he-
cause wX(ood cluck females r'emiajin withi
brtoods5 fiom 30 t(o 60 clas 5and dulcklinigs
require .5(0-70 dasys to r'eac'h 
flight stage,
some douible-brooded hens 111ust: (1)
abiandonul the fii'st brood to initiate a sec-
ond nest; (2) initiate at second c clutch coni
curr'ient wvithi broo rI~i earn g (this s( e'ils
lunlikely), or (3) iitialte a sccond~ inest 1(11
lowxin g hoss of' thle firis t brmood lThe se cx-
plaiiations inicicate that studies iif
Xwliood iouk brioodl( survIiXval are a
necessar X area for 1' to re research.
T1he total nube iifc ' udlucklinigs
leaXvitig niest boixes XXas I1071 iin
198.5 aiid 1,671 ini 1986, iif which
second br~toods( accoun111ted f)' .5. 20
and 9.3% oif total prod)(ltctioni ini the
r'espec'tive years. liepot te siri
vi val oif XVoo 1((1uIctk b r(ood(s raiiges
li'im 27% to 66'7 XXithi imost esti-
mates near 50%. 1HoweX er, litne
Wood duck hen incubating eggs in a nest box
at Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge (above)
and baby wood duck (below).
studyI irepIortedl t hat late season b~roods
(XXhiichi pr'obaly Xould( inclu de secondc
broucs) hlad much loswei' suriXal (22%)
than u'arlx season broods (66% ) because
of cdeteioratilig habitat coinditins in mid
to late sunmer. Thuis, assunming at 
sin-
Xvisval rate of' 22% -50%, seconid biriood
produ11 c tio n in creas ed the fll po pulatloll
by 1. 1-2.6% in 1985 and 2.0-4.7% iii
1986.
T1hese estimiates5 of add~itional produc-
t ion ar'( crui de wsi thount a mre acciurate
assessmient of dlucklinig sur1XiXval from
firist aiid sccondl broodls of' doiuble-
brooded feimalc's. None thleless, these
dlata shoiX that Xwood(lcks ini Stoitherni
States south of :36?N latituide ate pioteni
tiallx_ more prtodcllctiXve than their' north-
ernl cioiitnterpar'ts and that secolnd iclrood x
pr'oductiion, whell corr'ected foi 
latitude,
shoui d lbe uisecd to adlju st total pro(du1 ctioni
estimiates for nesting XXood dhicks.
is Assistanti I'iCso of(5U ztoolofigy andf W\ifdifii Si-
A^
N ~ l. r
/ _
y~t '. lit,
1.~
'I 4'N~,,j'
1-nsecticide Lor ban Suqppresses
White Mold in e l nuts.
\.K If(\\ I/VAN J. K. S h itfmid .3. kill-)
l I t.it *N )hits ',p m i till ic iii i ii t t ,ii
St It, t/tint, itt/f xi
Southeast.t li' II . l res ac itt the Ala-' x 1 1i
t lNit I iul I lli iili t i I eit i t i h l l'( ti
ii a -' I 'fi i tlt IN x ilt ,iitil t xiit
l iiic i 11" Il ilt tltNi ii' itit ittha ai i
qviplhif -N ittit ttx i itttt [as u-ii t
I~ ii N rlt i t o iii iii III'iii'i
1  
i (liii iit i ( tii it
a1' l ith itt n" i ht ca I ll - \\tii i ilt ' i tO
Ii l t dilt x t ii! t ttiii.'t xi' li i'i i
xin (,i fth 11"i li tl l ti onp- c I
\\ii' Iti ((I\ im lIi ' I
St~~~~ ii N tt \ ilx
II,
I(rr 1,Itt in(:
\ ni lit( I iut n~
Ii Nitthi In(
i
t
-r ,u , Ini(:
i(,-it it, I itt.l
I ill Ni1 15(: t
itl~~u IM
I in t it, (it itru
i
1 
it
(i.
5:i
11.
iN.
it 1
1 '.,,
i,2 itt
Ot: i
III IJS)' xwhiiit( ito( dii ilit ,' til i)i '-
il(t lIN it'l t + 'I lix I ,1\ tiN tit li \tit
dat ini xlct it t,t~i 'Io~r(I tl.i't i x 'l xi'lo
i txt t I i Itt i i'i t he 1 ii i 1 s i t x itc 'i(i
xl i'i i u tiitii xltl i'i i.I 'I t ii Nas-
ii itIdi - h o I td- II ya
I11xlii(itilix thu iti.l'It'u t l)rjli tx 'ix
vit xxIt ti('ctit I1 i I)-Ni e iii ii a ii tt.ii t t
iii' xthu' iii I tiN i Itr \ i t 'i t ilt ii I tI ic
IIttxse~ i , ti i I tix s ill I i h i ' Xiiic icldi
incrcasciicx I hi ii ' ii i-iitilt d cii' iiitrol
xi v lt tii i, ti ithl rr w 'iis3T 1) INac e cmn-tltI i
Itidi l iii .itld i iii -('il xliii c ni(I ( t -
hi Iiu .1111)11 to III xII ; t ix 'tI th n i~n
lIit'tc I cR I trl pkk ini NS 3.f Bthi Lo ,-
~i l i i i lt'I r it' tut iii Ic iii N i t I Ij 'If
("it. i i .ttim i(' iii ii .t tilt ii iatt j tii x t I
x itIIIN xxii- i ti i iii xxi t by alli thu thulis
OW-TANNIN SERICEA lespe-
deza, such as the AU Lotan vari-
ety, has shown good potential as a
warm season perennial forage species.
However, establishment has been a prob-
lem due in part to poor seedling 
vigor
which limits competitiveness with
weeds, particularly during the first year.
If weed competition could be reduced
during the year of planting, then stand
survival should be increased to provide
acceptable stands for forage or seed 
pro-
duction.
Research to solve the weed problem
was begun at the Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station. The first step was to
evaluate lespedeza's tolerance to com-
monly used herbicides. These experi-
ments led to the conclusions that (1) ser-
icea lespedeza is more tolerant to
postemergence than preemergence ap-
plied herbicides, and (2) herbicides
showing best weed control and least in-
jury to sericea were 2,4-DB, 2,4-D, and
Fusilade
?.
The next step was evaluation of several
postemergence weed control systems on
AU Lotan and 73-162-19, a soon-to-be-
released, low-tannin sericea lespedeza.
Experiments were conducted at the E.V.
Smith Research Center in 1985 (planted
May 27) and 1986 (planted May 21) on a
Norfolk loamy sand soil. Another exper-
iment was conducted at the Prattville
Experiment Field during 1986 (planted
May 28) on a Lucedale fine sandy loam.
Treatments included 2,4-DB amine at
1/2 lb. acid equivalent (a. e.) per acre and
2,4-D amine at 1/4 lb. a.e. per acre 
ap-
plied one, two, or three times. The first
application was applied 14 days after
planting (DAP) to lespedeza that aver-
aged 1/2 in. in height. The second and
third applications, where appropriate,
were applied to lespedeza that averaged
12 in. (28 DAP) and 51/2 in. (42 DAP) in
height, respectively. All these systems
were designed for control of broadleaf
weeds. Grass weeds were eliminated by
treating all experiments with two appli-
cations of Fusilade at 3/8 lb. active
ingredient (a.i.) per acre per application
plus crop oil (2 pt. per acre per applica-
tion). The first and second applications
were applied 14 and 28 DAP, respec-
tively. A hoed check and a weedy check
were included for comparison.
Treatments were evaluated by esti-
mating control of broadleaf weeds and by
recording lespedeza stem height, stems
per plant, seed yield, and germination.
Weed control in seedling sericea
lespedeza increases stand 
and boosts
seed yield J.D. 
JONES and R.H. WALKER
WEED CONTROL AND LESPEDEZA GROWTH AND YIELD AS 
AFFECTED BY HERBICIDES, NUMBER OF
APPLICATIONS, AND CULTIVARS, 1986
Broadleaf Stem height, Stem number/ 
Marketable seed
Herbicide/ control', 56 DAP 70 DAP plant, 
70 DAP yield/acre', E.V.
number of E.V. Smith Pratt- E.V. Smith Pratt- E.V. Smith Pratt- Smith Res. Cen.
applications " Research ville 
Research ville Research ville 
First Second
Center Field Center Field Center 
Field year year
Pct. Pct. In. In. No. 
No. Lb. Lb.
AU Lotan
2,4-DB/1 ...... 64 49 14 
7 16 16 25 437
2,4-DB/2 ...... 97 76 13 
6 14 15 46 577
2,4-DB/3 ...... 100 90 14 
7 19 18 50 614
2,4-D/1 ........ 48 56 11 
6 15 15 40 583
2,4-D/2......... 88 85 12 
8 14 19 53 542
2,4-D/3........ 92 96 10 8 
15 20 51 573
Hoed check .... 100 100 15 
6 18 16 58 523
Weedy check ... 0 0 8 6 
13 15 9 259
73-162-19
2,4-DB/1 ...... 53 75 16 5 
18 12 25 480
2,4-DB/2 ...... 95 82 16 
6 18 17 21 521
2,4-DB/3 ...... 95 96 12 
7 17 7 32 532
2, 4-D/1 ....... 45 65 11 
5 15 14 20 381
2,4-D/2........ 87 82 16 
6 20 15 29 534
2,4-D/3 ........ 92 93 10 
7 14 20 15 512
Hoed check .... 100 100 14 
8 20 15 21 362
Weedy check ... 0 0 7 
5 11 13 17 252
'All treatments, including the hoed and weedy checks, 
received two postemergence applications of Fu-
silade ( lb. per acre) plus crop oil (2 pt. per acre) 
for annual grass control. Applications were made ap-
proximately 14 and 28 days after planting (DAP).
2
2,4-DB amine at and 2,4-D amine at 1/4 b11). per acre 
per application, the first applied 28 DAP with
sequential applications following in 14 days.
'Broadleaf species at E.V. Smith Research Center 
were sicklepod, coffee senna, and annual morning-
glories. Species at Prattville Field were sicklepod, annual 
morningglories, common purslane, and pros-
trate and spotted spurge.
4
First-year yield is from an experiment at E.V. Smith 
Research Center that was established and treated
in 1985. The second year is the same experiment but treated 
againin 1986.
First-year seed yields were obtained on
a 1985 experiment at the E.V. Smith Re-
search Center and on a 1986 experiment
at the Prattville Experiment Field. Sec-
ond-year seed yields were obtained at
the E.V. Smith Research Center (exper-
iment received identical treatments in
1985 and 1986). A portion of these data is
presented in the table.
AU Lotan and 73-162-19 were tolerant
to both 2,4-DB and 2,4-D applied as
many as three times per season. Neither
stem height nor stem number was re-
duced by herbicides. Lespedeza plants
receiving either 2,4-DB or 2,4-D were
actually taller with more stems per plant
when compared to the weedy check. The
plants at the Prattville Field were much
shorter than at the E.V. Smith Research
Center, due primarily to water stress.
However, stem number per plant was al-
most identical for both locations.
Good to excellent broadleaf weed con-
trol was obtained with either two or
three applications of 2,4-DB or 2,4-D at
both locations. The two applications of
Fusilade + crop oil eliminated annual
grasses and produced no adverse effects
on either cultivar.
In general, first-year seed yields were
slightly higher for AU Lotan than 73-162-
19. This was due in part to an overall bet-
ter stand of AU Lotan. Lespedeza
treated with either two or three 
appli-
cations of 2,4-DB or 2,4-D produced
seed yields equivalent to the hoed
checks.
Second-year seed yields of both culti-
vars were highest when either 2,4-DB or
2,4-D was applied two or three times.
Controlling broadleaf weeds essentially
doubled seed yields the second 
year.
Neither herbicide affected seed germi-
nation.
Jones is Graduate Student and Walker is
Associate Professor of Agronomy and Soils.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station 11
e'I
11
1.1
Control of yellow nutsedge was more effective with 12 weekly applications of Goal' her-
bicide (bed on right) than with three monthly treatments (bed on the left. The same 
total
amount of herbicide was used in both beds.
O I R l THE LAST 15 ye ars,
advxancesvct uwedControl in
Sothliri forest nilrscric's haxvc
resultced largely from fcderal labecling of
ncew herbicides testt'd by~ the Autburni
Uive rsity Southern Forcst Nuirscry
MIanagcnmcnt C2ooperativet. Thec most ci-
fcctix c chcemicals testced (the diphcny-
lether groupf) all havec siil ar chem ical
properties. Cunrrentl, the moist com-
mionix u sed is ox'.flitorfiii, sold by the
tirade namnc Coal? 1.6 E C. Rececnt
rescarch c'ondulctctd at the Alabama Ag-
riciultural Extperimnt Station has dem-
onstirated that diramiatic imuprovecnts in
weed Con trol can bec ob)tai ncd from ( oal
by changing thc frequncyt' of applica-
tion.
Prcciiicrgcnce trcatmecnts wxith herb i-
cides prosvidc a largc fr-action of thc total
season Wcced control. 1Howvsrc, regular
postctcrgecc ap~plications at cnleddc~
downs undttelr condlitions of hcavys itrriga-
tiotn andt rainfall. In addition, sonic svccd
spccics arc highly toler ant to fprt''lnr-
gecic aplication]s. Although~f miost of the
comnpounds in thec diplico lcthcr fily
(do not ti'aiisfotatc wecff wxithini the plant,
goodi contact activ ity on1 othecrwxise diffi-
cult to conitrol wecds canl be obtinetid
wth~ fostctncrgecc applications.
Ctmrt'tt somc of thc most dlifficult
55(.,)(f to ('()iti'Il in Sothftii otrest tint
ser1ies are' yellow andt plirple niitscdgc
andt spurges. In gcineral, pinec secdfiiigs
arc inoIt tolertanit to mnost herbI icidlcs 55h ich
are uiscd to ctol.) th1ecse we tctds ini agro-
noic itrops1). Bccau se of' thi icgh v alueit
of pinic secdlinlg crops ini tfc South
($18,000 to ;25,000) per aicre), niearly
wee'd ft cc conditions ar c rcllliri d to oIf-
tain tnaxiliii ecotnotmic y icfd. There-
forec t herc fhas b cctn a iniccd to ctiniteit
e\1pensive ('lanid weed(inig opctrationis.
Inl 198.5 anld 1986, iii retsponiseto ob-ill
serv atins and~ expericsc ireported( fIX
sever'taf illt 51sc- mianager's ini the Soutf,
nniltr r(eset5(al'cf at Aitlii i b'gan 'oil-
parinlg wecekfy vs. iioitfdx fcrbicide ap-
plficationis. In all cases, C oal wxas appficd
po1sf 1c crgec , e i ther t hircte time's ont a
mntly basis at a rate of t).5 lb . active1
it gred21 icint per' acrc (a. i.) per' appflicat ion
or 12 tinels ill a wvcckfx basis tisitng ontly
0.125 lb. a. i. per actrt pert applficatiotn.
At fixve of sev5 n locations, wectkfs' ap-
p~licatiotis significanlf improved0 we1xx12d(
conltrol whx lcompiniare wfxxith intly
onits . D~ata frotoi these efpcritciltaf
coimiparis5onis showx thant thie impilact (If
xxee'kly appfl icatin depenle hef(itc~~av ifs
upon the pre ~ttsenice of' speccific weed('( spe-
51)1i g('s. andl goo~se'grass xxeci the tmolst
stionlty affi'cttf by swt'tkly treatmiicnts.
XiiirA iiION Bt, I 1 WFI NS (,ii0i IN.
:3(1 lr'hu i Nt ii lxxi s i inu . Sot it
Fi' v11 xxl wplotl
XXkh ''kf \ouilhf
Alahaloa . 0.9 .5
XArkaisas .. 16 2.2
G(n-a ..t ~.i
XX < dsfxlot.hf
We'et freNsh xxe(ights and~ xxe c''Itiubrs
ofs velfos ntsctfgc and spulrge at xsvcral
tnurtscry locat ionhs 3t0 day s atr t hi fial
appl~icationl ini August arc shiown ini th~e
tabl c.
Opctrationual compl~ai sonls orilet lby
ilrer mi5tt' lan ager's iii 1986 also1 i id itated
that wee'(kly aplf~~icationts suibstan tialls ie-
handl xx ediitg. C haiiging the appflicatioln
I l'( 'If I c(ii' aim itduc wee con x ''(21litrl Icosts
antI tflecforc lolx (r pint' sct'tlig costs
in thec South. Sonc oIf the tiolst retspon-i
slltit edst'l remlaiing ini nursrties. lIn
the( p~ast, adlt(fiat(' to (f I'these spe(-
cit's cold 1(nio t Ie o(b(1taine il'l xi th out hatnd(
ws'te'dintg, bitt inagers hiax e initedo
that ctol wI ithl wee'tkfs apic~~ationts is
sltflicittlt in iiano cast's tio cliniiiiiatc thec
need for e"xpt'nsiv c hand xxeet'tinig.
I1a ki is a Postl~i(Ii ifto-a Fl'lfu and Soutif is
Alabamoa AXgri('lfi-tlt Ex1 l~perimecnt S tationt
App1
Pr. 
om
~v. -
Os i\'F L Lkh:ill \ 
irn (B13i.
iinfects appr~oxiiiitiiXy 40(k ofl
B (dai X cattlemdi( 20% of le! cattle
so)ciatdti XX itli X icis repl)icationi iilci coil
tiinit(' tio tiit dc's (lopiii't of cancer in
iihnil X viruses. D espite' its (('Xciii!lidicc
to human r111 (tioX i 11(5tXiisett dicaids of
r(sechi iliX f ildi(i to pr oduce cX idi'fcc
that BLVA alf'its humanils. None(thi(less55
131,A scr(1 c(' as i vaiiuabie r('s('ai h modic'
for X iriis-induce'i di acer.
\\ lin BLV' iinfects ani aijiail it i'nt('rs
whit loo c)1 lls ((11 IX iiil-ieX ) an5di in-
iiiisriii(' of, tiell's1. It lisnllX ri ns(11
probllemls or dcrlease ini pr1oduiit Xit. In
ia few anntials, iiiXcX ycr, e'"pression) of at
segmiient of the viral D)NA r('sults in un-
cottioiled duN isioni of tihe infectedi celii
produc111ig I iil)ipolsaicoiiii (.a form of
1
LX iipilolsa iilla does iiot occur f-ie
ciii ini [)ost herdis ini tihe Unitedi Sttes'.
I Iicer isolatedi repor~its f om) Alaibama
leiarians idiatXi('e that some cl osed
tioii loisl as imani) as i0k of their aduilt
Whe ltheri these (iifh'i ('llcs rcji (seint ge-
nietic suscep'
1
tiility (of thecattle, diflcr-
(lit strinis (If tie X irus, oi othlli factoi 5 is
t he sit
1 
lect (If'iilX('t igatioii at tihe Alat-
iThl illijor ('coniic it hiadXaitag( of
I' inifectioin is (iuII to imiiporit irestric-
couniti(s. Bk's iiihection ini Europe is
saicilia thain it is ini tile 1 iiitci State's.
irus, iiiai Eiiiopeian counit rics ir(quiirc
iiiipoiitedi aiiiils
1 
to be Bi,'-iicgativ'.
hieir(s ini tile Uniited States is dlesir abec if
an~imials ai c to he sold( for expor t.
Forituniately, BLV" is rathici (difficult to
tranismiit. It is fotind w~itil imiiihiocx tes,
ad caii rael dib'X isolatdt( fr oin bodX
fluidis arc cointaiiiated wXithi iinfectedi
cells. Ii dlisilissili cain lisuli lbe pre-
Leukemia
Virus Infection
May Lead to Cancer in Cattle
C.J. BRUNNER, PD. JOHNSON, and D.G. McCLARY
BI Vs ad the o~thei free of tihe Xiiris. Pc-
iodlic test ingi allows sdietectioni oii lieX iln
fcctnils ini thit Ii(IgitX " hieid. Icslhit(
oIf thl( aimaiiis, onh or twol nll'w infectionis
res''lt (of tranismlission (If, BI3' in tile imilk
to) hiifer calves used( as rej)Iaceiileits.
Separaition (If caX (s at b irt tiil r11 c-1
vcnt this, buit usuially this is niot practical
iii o iiatl i)30cf lif BIA'inXc
1)'rsistcut IN iiithiiltisis (P) in w l Xhichi
ircc tii iTh lic e i hdu cli-l
tirctlyl tof B3 liiphocX tes. cese ted)a
reLsothbe fiXr produtioni' of iiiiiicts
in eo s t oi'I infiid" Xctisl aient hho-
tor ~e n 10iits 11 theli XXma contler n-
if'etoi alX enab stiientiicion of~ fii
fl of usen atewt P, l h
Mitotic figures typical of lymphosarcoma.
Wh~ien exainled lilicioscolicalIX B3
lil; X ci ltliii'i iln (vitro, tiiy c -s i
1 iiexpecteciiX howIXeXv, the otlier miijor
class (If X l~tlinleXtcs, TI i iitpocX t('5 did
nolt ir'act iirullllii. T IX lilthll te's froii
reglate tiheii groilih and otiis dila '1ti
ofhe 'lymphoc atties Expesiiii'u ntiri
IXhihl~e [tibs (lo Ivn iiiijcte fei es ca-
1)1 iltli Iis i to onifate ad (atial th]ye
Soailii tlc X I tiiian proeits wef ex-s o
lvl lile IX eij elop tsXXiqu co tr litctn
1ssocttion wlirthi~ii B i icionXX ililiXX i
F'X'uthe s'itudi ot thei eflcctsl of IiiX ont
\I('il y ah c tsw llc nrb t oi
RESTRUCTURED MEAT prod-
ucts have received a lot of atten-
tion since 1970 when a restruc-
turing process was developed at the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. This system produces chops and
steaks that look and taste more like stan-
dard muscle meat than products formed
from ground or flaked meat. The value of
this development is that it offers a chance
for better utilization of low grading beef
and pork carcasses and opens the door
for cashing in on the "fast food" market.
There have been problems, of course,
with restructured products. For exam-
ple, the prevalence of connective tissue
in less desirable cuts used in restruc-
tured products results in toughness of
the final product. This connective tissue
could be trimmed away, but this ap-
proach is too costly. Mechanical and en-
zyme tenderization treatments have
been tried with varying degrees of suc-
cess.
The latest study at the Alabama Agri-
cultural Experiment Station found that
either mechanical tenderization or addi-
tion of food-grade enzymes improves
tenderness of restructured beef cuts.
However, the greatest improvement to
tenderness resulted when both mechan-
ical tenderization and enzyme additions
were used. Increased cook loss when
EFFECT OF MECHANICAL TENDERIZATION AND
ENZYME ADDITION ON COOK Loss, TENSILE
STRENGTH, KRAMER SHEAR FORCE, AND
SOLUBLE COLLAGEN CONTENT
Result, by treatments'
Measure Control 
MT MT+ 
E E
Cook loss, pct. 15.9 17.0 18.8 15.8
Tensile strength,
p.s.i. ......... 9.8 6.7 2.1 2.1
Kramer shear,
p.s. i.......... 
62.0 41.1 
25.5 30.9
Soluble collagen
content' ..... 129.2 129.0 768.2 752.6
'Control = no mechanical tenderization, no en-
zymes addition; MT = mechanical tenderization;
MT + E = mechanical tenderization and enzymes
addition; and E = enzymes addition, no mechan-
ical tenderization.
2
Expressed as ug soluble collagen per gram of
cooked meat.
both treatments were used represented
a disadvantage.
Rounds from Utility grade cow car-
casses-with briskets providing the fat-
were used for the study. Muscles for the
mechanically tenderized treatments
were passed through a blade tenderizer
four times and then ground through a
three-hole, kidney-shaped plate (1-in. X
2.5-in.). Control muscles (non-tender-
ized, no enzyme) were ground through
the same size kidney-shaped plate. The
fat component for the restructured
steaks was obtained by grinding boneless
briskets and mixing for 3 minutes to ran-
domly distribute fat. The fat portion was
divided into two equal portions for in-
corporation into steaks for the tenderized
and non-tenderized treatments.
Four treatments were prepared from
the lean and fat components described:
(1) control, no mechanical tenderization,
no enzymes added, (2) mechanically ten-
derized, no enzymes added, (3) mechan-
ically tenderized, enzymes added, (4)
enzymes added, no mechanical tenderi-
zation.
Nine-pound chunks of lean meat from
the rounds were mixed with 0.75% salt,
0.25% sodium tripolyphosphate, and 2%
water in a bowl mixer for 2 minutes. The
fat portion (41/2 lb.) from briskets was
added to the mixer and mixed for another
4 minutes. For enzyme-treated samples,
100 p.p.m. papain and 50 p.p.m. ficin
were dissolved in the 2% water, and
added to the meat during the initial stage
of mixing.
The meat mixture was stuffed into 4-
in.-diameter casings and frozen (-10?F)
for 24 hours. The frozen logs were tem-
pered for 24 hours at 26?F, then pressed
into a uniform shape and sliced into 3/4-
in.-thick steakettes. These steaks were
interleaved with waxed paper, sealed in
plastic bags, placed in wax-lined card-
board cartons to simulate commercial
storage conditions, and stored at -10?F
for subsequent analyses.
Restructured beef steaks were cooked
on a grill to an internal temperature of
Auburn Restructuring 
Process
Transforms Utility Beef into
Tender Steaks
Y.H. CHU, D.L. HUFFMAN, and W.R. EGBERT
sor, and Egbert is Research Associate of Animal
and Dairy Sciences.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
158?E Cooked steaks were randomly se-
uble collagen (protein component of con-
nective tissue) content analyses.
Restructured steaks treated with the
combination of mechanical tenderization
and enzyme addition had the greatest
cook loss. Samples which had been me-
chanically tenderized also had a high
percentage of cook loss, however, there
were only small differences between the
control and mechanically tenderized
treatments. Samples with enzymes
added (no mechanical tenderization)
were not different in cook losses com-
pared with the control. Both mechani-
cally tenderized treatments showed
higher cook losses than the control or en-
zyme treatment. This may be due to
rupturing of the muscle cells by the
needles during the tenderization pro-
cess.
Results of tensile strength tests (In-
stron readings) indicate that the control
treatment resulted in the best bind
(force holding meat together). The me-
chanically tenderized treatment (no en-
zymes added) had better binding char-
acteristics than the enzyme treated
samples. Enzyme treated samples re-
quired the least amount of force to pull
the meat apart.
Tenderness of meat mass was in-
creased by either mechanical tenderiza-
tion or enzyme addition. The greatest in-
crease in tenderness, however, resulted
from a combination of mechanical ten-
derization and enzyme addition.
Mechanical tenderization decreased
both tensile strength and shear force.
The addition of enzymes resulted in de-
creased force values, along with losses of
physical texture. Values for tensile
strength (Instron readings) and shear
(Kramer readings) showed enzyme deg-
radation of the muscle protein.
Another test done was the assay of sol-
uble collagen. This showed that the en-
zyme addition increased the solubility of
collagen, which is another measure of
tenderness.
From this study it can be concluded
that a processor can use less desirable
cuts of meat to produce a restructured
product that will have desired tender-
ness. This can be accomplished by use of
mechanical tenderization and the addi-
tion of food-grad e enzymes.
Chu is Graduate Assistant, Huffman is Profes-
14
P I 'Ni [ A \II\ i ( 'I l eed r i N
I I I , (li i 
i ti fa 
n l i t i i t t t i t i 
t i n 
t h e11(
il I , f I'' \i tl NiA iillt i(I I i iel dI i1t ' ,i
di it it i t (liii til l it'rL ill \\ (
Iii i i tt ,i\iii (1]( 1 I ) i (t I i Ia al1 Alt , -
I 'ic ra F tt l rI t ('( I i t S i'f ti i Li I t i 'd(l
I1) I)It(.INiiti if t1.av(11Ir\ilt( a1 'ti I(I )t i
I t I lit i c I I liI N ( If l1I) ' I ti t II I
I i~ Ii it Ii 1(11 NItIe XI i I( ii;n :Ii,i
;i t i I 11 n r tit i NI I f It 1 I~I 'tli it-, 1 Nt )Ii IN
iiI i 4f ll i]Ii I NI It \ ii tf uI \itI Nit Ica Ik
ft an Ii Nd tI i it t I I , i a t it to i it st
it ,i I t *NN f it ti II I Iv it,( Ii it ii i l (Ii Xii i
in 1'N i il t it ve If ~ NX II ti s NI t it " f it
lilt iu Ni cti t Ii iitI Im Ih I f I-;
I t tc t I)Idti Nu rNi i N li ]1t 1]it i iiii / i i
Iii tI t tI fhcc iti /t tha lii, I tIXIII I N I -iii
liii ;o i l l ii itt 'I' is v(i NLiiiii ti I tiN
1 i i/'IX it n ( ~ tI t it 'NI tilt c tir ii th
fIt I I i lI t XXuIII i t I I I N I i kf ti I I I t I flit I
Scanning electron micrograph of urea-
treated and untreated milo show smooth sur-
face of untreated grain (top) and cracking on
treated grain (below).
R. RK iY H ,F I . 1 IN, 1 .1.1 i i 0 '), I (. 10 A \ andf G\ l IM R 4 LL
iiiliiiX Itt ii (I Xi cildi thatt lrl a-h illatedi
ill 11 il ti Xi I itt 1( hil ___ d il t tia lilt
it.f tt 2( ( I tii dt rI 11 ll I it ("I i e\ ,ii i
StitlNit t i fitti th l ii i tt it i it (( lit ii it
it'it tvI il X N t t'2, 2) t r: Ii, mot t i t mct
ii t lii i- itt it m 4 W( fl .,tu Ii N (h' \\t hii
haii iti ltl t Itach I t itr i(tt i ii t X\ ft i
ii itilt 11ittNtIttit \\ r isto d i n t i al i h I -i
hi l l i tittlt t (IIi titXit i ti iii iii iN X iN
nlIlw it'iI' ft ~t r '\ li i i iiii i (,i lli ili-
di i tilt1 tat theii _itt i ii n~ll \l
d
ufiii il t tnilt'' th iii t vc Xii *Li ti it
II iii li tli lii ti i I ( I If ll l t I t ilt
hI it iN ;tl I ti ii I ii tr )_ u
ttII I Ni X1i ittIc( I )tI I XI til t ii ii
int; Ii I t II )It I ii I i XX iNNt ii-ii
I I ft(I ( i rX I f (I II i t mi li I I Ii I td
li ; ' II i i t tln lt iii ii tit, 'i f li
ill i ilt lii' i 'iii 'N itt-tfii tilt i
n li ini ;it Ii(i fI-,'l l Iii' i li X i
Ni It I I vit, it~t iii iiiN t I it Yit( it-
IIi i itt I I I Nt;1 '' tOilt 'vv i- Xi 'I viIX
if ii ?Ijill m iii i N, lhlt f~ntai d .) til l l
viiill( 1)11(11 t (il tit pc] ti il it It) it it l i -i
Ii'tI ill (r NtI (ii 'ii hlii t iiicfit n\itf i
liItnt itttii i i X IN ;lp O in t it I XI t00 0 l0li I i
In cii iii t i iN I It d in1 X t th iiiw ~liii i
XXcr iti u n( ittttoit ii I()~ liihltftttiN i ll I a
NtI l d fi l l( t ole t t in ti ii ii it i i I iflil
til l i (iii tilX N tI it it t \a it~c~ tt tii-
]fit a, l i tii iXit\ tcli I Nti i i X iN e 2t 
1  
i6 )
\\ it i it i l t 'itr Tliil i iii"r~ i i h t ii N tt i
f ii it iii' in tlt e lithtil ttr tfi d till(
,tl Nin~t th1 t(wildIX lici~ lorait
I ]iX l ' tt tl tI t ',ii th I 1- ti N
1 
,lo t((I ill
til tic hii af t i 1 i' tili ii iii t i IXoI d
t Xi 1 Nt iii' til Ii intr sitwrail i Nl ti i i
f ~atifit t i X t c l ith 1i r(ra h (t i'itl I itit
XIl I~t f 1 li' ii tiet d a((] (h \ Ni'itii lili
iii Li' (i i ii th ' I lra I (fi 4tt li it u i it
th i I ftI II ( fli t I 'iii 116 1() \\a n uI-It it
criwkc Ii hiiiiI Uifh tnii ' 1111 NT \Icri I
ATER QUALITY is 
aiu impor-W tanit aiid often oxverloo(ked fao-
t(or iln greenhoulse plant pro-
dIutctionil. Sal ini ty, as mncas ured hy
electrical coniductixvity (EC) (If water, is
on setowtrqaiywihrnyafet plant 
groxwth 
anti qfualit. 
Ilugh EC
ma' result troml excess fertilize, use of,
water ctamlt~iinatetd 1by indu1strial or~
agrilc- itu ral r111o1 II sal inie wellIs, or pro x-
imlitx oII water source~ toI seaxxater. Dain-
age tol plants rcsults from tox~ic effects (If
salt ions, restrictedi xxater upjtake by
roolts dlue to hIigh slrhlle salts in the
Re-search by the Alabama Agricultural
Expferimi nlt S tati(n fllound0( that miiago ld,
gerainium), alnt anniual xviiiea irrigatedl
w ithI saline wxatei aire iiijtn d byN high sal-
liity lexvtls, butt showx somel( tollerance (If
loxx andl modIerate lexels (If saliiiitx.
Seeds of First Ladx marigoIld, Jackpot
geranium, and Pink Carpet annual viinca
xxere sowxn 10ein riciili te. Seedlings
were transp~lantedl to amnedt peat-
perlite (1:1) in -5-in, plastic poIts. Plants
w'ere fertilized at exverx watering with
200( pp.mi. (If N and K fi-om ammniutm
nitrate and poItassium n iitrate. Inceas-
ng rates (If 'a sodium chloIride and cal-
cium chloride mixture were atdded toI the
fertilizer solu tioIns and irrigationi water toI
increase EC. Salinity treatments were
1.3 (control), :3.0, 4.5, 79, and 1:3.9
mmlfho/cmf EC (a uniit oIf soIlution l ectrt-
c-al conduc-tivity ).
Increasing salinity level redlucedl plan~t
height and dry xweight (If all three sp-
cies. Foliar symifptomns (If salt injury, leaf
yellowing and marginal necrosi s, oc-
cuirretd onl marigold andt ger-anliumi at the
txxo highest saliinity lexels. No iijuiry oIc-
curr ed
1 
onl annua v1111xinica at anyi salt lexvel
tested.l I leiglit and drx xveighit reduc-
tioIns (If all species wecre generally less
than 
10
%/ oIf tiht conitro(l at :3.0 an~d 4.5
inllol/cm, indicating somie( tolleranlce (If
modIter ate saliinitx lexvels, seec tale. At
the highest salt Il-xe1 (1:3.9 mm1h1o0cmIl)
growxxth xwas reducedt(-( at least 2.5%- for all
sp~ecies; redulctionls we(re greate-st for ge-
Marigold with flower (left) shows no injury
with non-saline water while the flowerless
marigold (right) shows salt injury with saline
water.
i-all ill and~ mlarigold1~ and~ least f11r annuial
vinca. Leati analy sis lot1- sodium and clo-i
ridle shoifwed( tha~t each planit accluim(latedl
abnmormaIlly high lexels of sod iumi and(
chloride( iln the shoots. Nilarigold coi-
taiined sigificanitly mIore clid~ie b~ut
less sodium thani gerainiuim alnd v inc(a.
No w iltinig or other visile sx llift(Iils of
redulced xvater Uptake occuirretd in any
treatintt indticatinig that iniur (laf
yello(w\xing and necroNs is) and growxt h re-
tdutctioniis were prob abl he i resulIt of tox it
effects oIf exctss sodliumi and chloride ac-
cumul11iiat ion rat her t han wxater stress.
Results of this stildvl showx that grow th
and appetaraince (of sexveral bleddting
pllants are advxersely affected 1)y increas-
ing i rrigation 10xxater sal ini ty in th e range
of :3.0 to 1:3.9 llliill(/cim. B~eddiing p)Iant
growecrs canI check their xwater for poIten-
tial salinlity pr-olem~s using a simple con-1
dulctivity mleter. IHolwever, saliniity lexvels
simnilar toI those ill this stuitl may callse
dliffercint effects Ilecaulse sodimuii alnd
chloride salts xwere usedl to create salii-
ity ini this expecrimient and pl aints mUax re-
sponIld dlifferently tol other salts.
I luaug is a Grauate StIl(l.It adl Co is4 Asis
tant Priof(,sson of I lon iciiltuc.
In( ams~ In. Ghams In. Grams
1 .3 (co tro) .. . . . . . . . ... 19.5 27.3 18.) 9.2 9.) :3.9
3. 0 . ... . . . . . .. . . . ... 18.0 26.3 19.) 10.0 8.3 .1
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 29.5 17.0 9.3 8.3 :3.1
7.9 ... . . . . . .. . . . ... 15.0) 23.0 15.0 7.9 6.5 2.
1:3.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14.)) 14.7 11.5 4.7 6.5 2.5
ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT
STATION, AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY ALABAMA 36849
Lowe/I T Frobish, Director
Penalty for private use, $300
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USDA
Hatch Act Centennial
1887-1987