,. ' r -. _~'a ' '1 :. :.:. gyn. 4,G . #1 Sr 4 r'Y I N'r +;1f 4 4 rr 4 9;irt, . A / i .. .. _ 'n . Cf DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS ate 4trdee , ii. ui1111 i/ I~Ii Ci it 11 1 ftI I lx GI l tl Tii N 1111 t ioi ti till Iii l lix atlllI l-oM)IIA nd s il.iA 1iA of\ t ihll \NI uN ci i tol l i ( it of11 l~ 111111 i I Ii1 ixii i l i t t iii Iri a i 1111 Iii i 111 I )1 citiN litclIN I I )r I'dcn i s it F 195( )t llliii . the Ii~ tin tall aN tiitiIit tiltoI I lIi ai ol ii lili o11 Nih- I IN itild 1 e1 - b~ull~tA(,ri~ ltul I III I (1 ta if NI lic i s Pcdiic i xiik~ earii N liii it x ~ ~II N ii h S ,i rcc l ilIi oi , I F()i .. tl nititiititi ill siechil Bl I reliitiiii unkoii In I I, tlei pe1op ili (cliitii i, i, iiit till is coidieiiat Iix lit 111 Ni Iii pctiit lc pis i Ir111 lit) uN1s i tlIosci i so ilIllit liiu l sinceii till, if lii lit Ii l ii 1111 o111 sp iixlii 1 ("f il. c in oIttl i rc of c n (1 e ii ort iiitiit ill pct lldiii ini F Iiiiit prot 1141 I can , ionlll IN I l litti illt sii t r1i1 oltl N and iililit it p iili till ii IN i i I lioii iii,il il ss eiiit l Ii I Ni i- Fs iiesulls IIo1111 tiis wII 1'w IN 4li I( tin i lil lilt iii l tha FI FIl t wi -It ili li It'iiii siiti( Niii si, ln hadi hiiN I d i(1i ii l i,,till ' (.aliliuo litl GALE A. BUCHANAN 1)111 Fl 1l poii ix i 1IiI iii ll ii ii I lcl . WINTER 1984 VOL. 31,NO. 4 reliii c idtiii t( t thelii ii phmt Iii inp l tio Stilt I h 111 s ii u lt it I Ntl "ii itto- IA I duc tiont ofi iit sitl ill SriI rei or r i f Ic . p ithu ii! . .. . . . X iIccae itii t N~ itl I ') Ws11ciu l c i t sN.I , l iiii sit 1 Itaion NlF \ni Cii i i it . lit . irl' ru h . I; i i Riift~ I s/ i ) \ .......Ni ...... l i/ i l/ X O itil iint l i 1.... I li .iiiiiiii iii/Is E /llif i it I iiift 1/i i1 Iic n ul I itoial .Ar 11 x I' II R lI I iif hu blfilt\ied lliit (I~iiitilix i i aboti b o Nt Nal ti t it 4 ) 1 it.1 it ut,c N iii irse s k Al t Ii t h mo1 iitI 1111 ~I ti I i Nl!Go l//ti c (; Xituit/1 iI . tit( I\ IF thi N I ts( f ill stlt ii/it l i NItill ni t i o ti 1Iw(11 11,11 (m 11i s ti iit thi ion it1 -1 1tldh iotc ii (" 11 b~iN 'i ll n fiii i iti diii n ci ixusit hii 111 l i 11 I 1 ) i 1,11I1' I.(. ii l ' Nl ill I iN lil fItli it i s Nit lIi, tha ll . tii ';Il a1111111talt(llslol ONriolna TH CV.Perforancera Roadside plumhinewl rA~eledri the Alaam . Statin, reorted oAUfromoro sricultu1rl Ag11 Exerfimn inthestsor oAnia page20 Junior College Degree Benefits Rural Youth J.E. DUNKELBERGER and N.C, WAKEFIELD, Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Research fying job has typically been the SSURANCE ofmany young people motivation for a well-paying, satisto seek high levels of formal education. Rural youth consider education to be a means by which they can obtain employment that offers good pay, responsibility, and a sense of personal control over work conditions. However, in the past, many youth have been at a disadvantage in competing for these kinds of jobs because the appropriate educational opportunities were not accessible to them in rural communities. One response to the need for better rural secondary education was the creation of a network of junior and community colleges. These schools, offering two-year associate degrees, increased the availability of college training for rural youth and improved their possibilities for achieving a broader variety of psychologically and economically rewarding occupations. A survey by Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station sociologists reveals a consistent payoff to young, rural adults who achieve junior college associate degrees. These benefits are realized by both males and females, blacks and whites, and nonmigrants and migrants. The sample of rural youth described in this study included 964 survey respondents representing six Southern States: Alabama, .Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas. These young adults were approximately 29 years of age in 1979, when the data were collected. Study participants were residents of rural and economically disadvantaged counties when in high school. Respondents completed questionnaires that focused on their educational and occupational experiences after high school. College graduates completing professional or graduate degree programs were excluded from this analysis. The concept of job quality includes a variety of employment characteristics that make some work situations more satisfying than others. The five job quality dimensions studied include average monthly income, supervisory responsibility, and the perceived control that workers have over speed at which they work, timing of their work breaks, and the number of hours they work. Junior or community college graduates attain better employment than do those with less education who complete either high school or vocational-technical programs. This overall relationship holds true regardless of race, sex, or migration status. How- A ever, the better employment situation of Race differences in job quality associated junior college graduates is only slightly bet- with different educational levels were not as ter than that of young adults with less edu- marked as were those for males and females. cation. Both blacks and whites experienced direct Of the five job quality indicators con- job quality benefits from their junior college sidered, only the perceptions of having some degrees that were better than those of high control over work speed and timing of work school and vocational school graduates; but breaks were better for junior college gradu- not as good as those of college graduates. ates than for high school graduates. None of Migrant status refers to whether a young the indicators was better for junior college person raised in a rural area remains in the graduates than for vocational school gradu- same rural environment or moves away as an ates. adult, often to a city. The graph shows that On the other hand, college graduates had out-migration does tend to produce some better quality employment on the five job modest benefit to monthly income at all quality indicators than did junior college levels of education. Similar benefits were graduates. However, the differences were realized for the other job quality dimensions minor except for monthly income, which was as well. When looking at junior college $217 higher for college graduates than for graduates specifically, there is a consistent junior college graduates. pattern of positive benefits that accrue to These results indicate that a junior college these young adults regardless of whether degree is an intermediate level of education they stay in their home area or migrate. Most with its own level of employment rewards. important, however, is the fact that the local In other words, completion of a 2-year junior job market does recognize and reward local college program is a transitional attainment youth who complete this type of educational level between high school and college that program. results in identifiable and real job quality Junior colleges provide a necessary and benefits to its graduates. valuable service to youth living in rural areas Further analysis indicated that males, at by providing an opportunity to upgrade the all levels of completed education, achieved quality of their adult employment beyond better monthly incomes than did females, that achieved by those who attain less edusee graph. Similar differences existed for all, cation. Junior and community colleges are indicators of job quality. Most likely, males accomplishing the important goal of improvachieve greater benefit from their education ing the quality of the rural labor force, which because of inherent societal values and in turn increases the opportunities for ruralnorms than as a result of actual differences in reared youth to obtain better quality emwork performance. ployment as adults. Monthly income of young adults from rural areas with different educational attainments, by sex and migrant status, 1979. Monthly income, dollars 1,400 1,300 1,200,100 1,000-- Females Nonmigrants Migcrants Males - -I__ I _-~_~L~_I____L_ Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station RLZALEA ~ATERPILLARS ~ZALEA DAMAGE FOLIAGE M.L. WILLIAMS, G.L. MILLER, and B.J. SHEFFER Zoology-Entomology Research ill of all floswe ring sh rub1) Their ALE b are among luscious clarkshowyx ASlossomns and the iost color.3 ecni toliage nmake them popular landcape plants in the Sounth. Azaleas are plagued wxithi ,anumher of diseases and insect pests, but n one is mor1e ohbviouis and alarmiing to tihe homieowner or nursers man than the azalea aterpillar, Datana major (Gr ote and RobI isoii). TIhiis in sect pest is such a rav einons budige feeder that as fess as 10 late-stage aterpillars may defoliate an entire plant. In addition to feeding on azalea, its prioary host, the azalea eater pillar has also b een known to damage andironieda, apple, bilieb~errys, and red oak. The azalea eaterpillar is primily a pest inl the Souitheastern 't tates and occurs throughout .Alabama. I losseser, it has bleen irecor(ed as far north ,is Maine and as faur xwest as Arkansas. Azalea eaterpillars are not dlifficuilt to eon1 tro if insecticides are applied at the right tme. Yet themre is cointiroversy abont the life yle of the inseet, a factor considered swhen e dleteirmining the hest time to spras. TheireIore, basic hiological studies are eing eon ducited at the Alahama Agricultiural Experiment Statioii iii env ironmiien tal elhambhers 111( in the field to foillosv the azalea eaterpillar's life history. Ibis xxill help dlete'rmine thle optimumn time to apply spras5. Adults of the azalea caterpillai are stoutSoldied moths belonging to the family Notodon0t idlae, conmmonIs cal led prom inen ts. They arc d'(ull gres tol browsn, medium-sized mlothls xwith ineon spiuous lilies oin the forewings, figure 1. Their wxingspan is about I'/ in. 'The blody and legs ares vers hairy, and this hair almost coiieeals the head. Adults. wxhich (10 nolt damage plants, are noeturnal and are nolt oIftenl seen. Thle larsvae or eaterpillars are the damaging stage oIf this pest, fignure 2. N ewly hiatchecd larv ae skeletonize the leaf, older lairsae desvour all exeplt the leaf stalk. Complete blranches or ev en an entire plant may I e defoliated (ciinigsi i nc nde ( eairls fall. 1 A Azalea eaterpillars are gregarious feeders, and xxhen dlistuirbed, the enltire grolup wsill arch thleir heads andl tails and( assume a Ushaped clefensiv e postuire, figure 3. First and second stage eaterpillars xxill also swsax hack and forth in unison. Earls stage eaterpillars are red to b~rowxn wxith y ellows or whIite strilpes. The last stage caterpillar has a recd head, legs, and tail, and a black hody olffset sxithi longitudinal row5s of syellowx orilte spo~ts and sparse wvhite hairs. Researchers oIf the Alahama Experiment Stationi hasve coincluded that the life histors and habits of azalea caterpillar are similar to other Daotana caterpillars. The female tooth lasys its eggs in clusters oIf up to 100. usnally o10 the unideirside of a leaf. '[he eggs are spherieal wxith a central (lark spot, figure 4. Occasionally the female xxill deposit single eggs oin the foliage or stem. Fggs hatch iii ahout .5 das. 'Tihe eaterplillars go)through .5 stages before pupation, eaeh stagce lasting .5-I0 td(ays. 'fie fils-fed, last-stage caterpillar wvill migrate froii the' host plant to the soil and foiri a pupal cell near the base (of the plant. The caterplillar changes into a pupa within this eell. The insect (1verniters as a pupa in the soil aiid enmerges as ain adult mooth the fil lowxing scimmer. In south Alahama, adults wvill begin ciepositing eggs in late June andi earls July . Biological studies in tihe laboratorv at co~ntrolledI teinpeiratiurces andl fieldl obsersvations indicate that twxo generations may occur in Alabama. Lab cultured azalea caterpillars complete a generaition in about .50 dasys. Azalea caterpillar infestations tendl to occur iii the saine locality syeai after sear. Undoubtedly, this is because the insect teinds to speiid its entire life oil or aroundl tihe hlost plaint upon wxhich it blecamle cestablishecd. Registered insecticides suchl as Diazinon, . (rtluene i , andl Sevin® xwill piroxide effeetixve econtroll oIf azalea caterpillars. Tihes max also he baud picked or, if still iin thle giregariocs stages, the infested hiraiieh may he reimovsed and dlestroy ed along wvith tihe eluister of caterpillars. Top to bottom: FIG. 1-Datana major adults, male (top) and female; FIG. 2-azalea caterpillars and damage to azaleas; FIG. 3--defensive posture; FIG. 4-eggs of D. Major. Alabama Agricultural Experimnt Station Potential of the ELISA in Detecting Carriers of Swine Dysentery K~ G.R. WILT, R.B. REED, V. PANANGALA. and TA. POWE, JR. CJ~ CrC Animal Health Research and School of Veterinary Medicine ( C (~ ~ r 7 Color reaction in clear serum portion of blood identifies positive pigs in ELISA test; rows with low color reaction are pigs negative for the causative agent. bys i1 bloody diarrhea. Cau sedl 1by a '10CO( I irpnn 7teriajot the l/0(Iljs( disease1 is most freqiiently seen ini 7- to 14-wsseek-old pigs, ilt pigs of ains age can h~e tion.l afflicted. Ill tile Aubulrn trials, ELISA's were perPigs irecos ering fi oii tiie disease ibecome flormled 11n slira collected~ fro 111bothi expeli spl1irIcheltetI asympljtomal~ticj carier (I5tiiose siiow n1o that least at 4-fold asveiagl infiectedi pigs. dl iic iC S \ III i'i8NTER is a sex cic dise1se 11DYSE which is~j chiaracteizedl pigs Ill testinig, bloodIi s clilected fronil the pig's nieck 5 ein and the I. I SA peru ii inedl usinlg I tile clear scrum11 polltioni ofi till ibl. Pres(lnce of the anltiibodl to tile dislase-causing 1 agent is de termine ll e it jsi po tis color r eac1 Ini the( latest triai iiivo15luig pigs f111o1 a nlatulrails inifectedi illrdi near Piheix City and lllInilfllt(ll cctis conitroIl pigs, tihl ELI SA cor- classified 91/ 9:3% ofI the Based onl findlinlgs tol date, the EL ISA, swithi fuirther refinemelllt, has excelillnt poten t ial fllt dietectinIg ass miptomllat ic carriers o~f sw 111 dslnterl is oIf thle ilfec t1 1i pigs andl 11 I inf(Ct eli igs. o symlptoms). Perhaps the miost contlilon way1 swinje dy5senltery is initrodticed to ia farm is tihroughi tile unknwin puirchase and stockiig in g of assymptomiatic carrier pigs. Dectectionl of asym10ptomiatic cariercis is diificl t and1( present cal no he reilaly d(11 . at lt Stiidies at tie Alabamia Agricultural Exp(lrimel t Statiion has e sihowsn that inifectedl iii alltibodIyi Sc ,t rtNl Ii Icl. 1%( its5EIS~ r~n(I A statistical plrlcedulre s as I sedi to (cterin ((iscrillillate ithte perofl clalssifiedi (1111ectis aniaiysi cenltage correctnless oIf tile classificationl pigs can sihid p)ote nt ials infectiou s illateia up to 18 w(,ceks b~eyond1( the timlIe thIait clinical signls (disappear. Hoswevser, ibacterial exam-l 1 illa.tionl of' tille pig re sill ted iii recov ers of till spir ociite oli 461/ (If the time. There alrc nol seroiogical agg ltinlation~ or pr1 cip~itationl tests swhiichi call dietect iivsiduiai carrier pigs. The fluorescent anltiboldy test asvailalie wsill wsork olyi o11 pigs actis li shedding the 1.h' o /l/yllselteriall spliocihete iii abnmially lose feces. No11w the Ire is encoluIragemlen t fromil F pi ieilt S tationl reCsul ts w5ith ia laboIlratoII test pisas in fectdtl orI nii Ifelted bIased 111 at sinigie ELIS A reslt deterinedl~l an15 tilu fromil tete A~ll pigs testedl Nollillse 111 . Ifete UInfete 2 welks tolI( s0 welks after infectioni. till Ini 22_ :314 obiser 5 ationls tol datI, ELKA gasetia pigs 79 78% coIrrect class iiicain of11 i11ected and a i Pheniix ( it herdi Ilnfect . . 9 79%correct1( classificationl o~f n111- \o0InII h d ... 6 9:3 Carriers of swine dysentery may not show symptoms of the disease. as exhibited by this thait sihosws p)romlise o~f being abile b, suiccessfllyi idenitify carriiers of till diseasI The promising test is tihe enzyme-l19in~kedi i1111111111511 llit assas (ELIS A), whiich ik cillrenly ihumlan andl b~eing usedC ill diagnolsis o~f' both anlimial dlislase. Tile E LISA ow5es its seilsiti its tol an1 eia perllxidlase) that is lin)ked to an antibh 1) csAb swh ich is higl I zymle (ill tihese stuiiis, it attaches tol. The AiAu111111 ids to in tihe antliboldy of tile spirolchete whichl pigs switih a ihistoury of sws11 is dsenterys sess.5~5 spec ific tol whal~t peCrlIxidase b~eing 1us1eI at Alabama Al-.icultn Cal Exrperiniot Statio~n veloped at the Alabama Agricultural COMPUTERStation offers needed PROCEDURE de-' Experiment help for sawmill operations. The model evaluates profitability of a sawmill under current operations and offers guides for improvement in resource allocation, efficiency of converting log input to lumber yield, economic analysis, design and materials flow, and return on investment. The computer model was developed in response to a need for enhancing the analytical procedure being used in sawmill improvement studies under the Sawmill Improvement Program (SIP). This program, a service project of the USDA Forest Service since 1973, is designed to extend the nation's timber supply by improving conversion efficiency in sawmills. Scores of SIP projects have been done in Alabama in close coordination with the Ala- bama Forestry Commission. Current SIP studies are focusing on (1) current level of mill conversion efficiency, (2) potential increase in lumber recovery by improving log bucking practices, (3) potential increase in lumber recovery by reducing the green target size on the lumber, and (4) potential increase in lumber recovery by computer control of the sawing process. Improvements in sawmill conversion efficiency from past SIP projects have led to either reduced log volume input for the same lumber production level or increased lumber output from the same amount of log input. The former results in reduced log costs per unit of output and hence more profit for the mill. Boosting lumber output without increasing log input would logically be expected to ultimately lead to more profit from the mill. But this is not always true, primarily because of limiting factors in mill design and layout which restrict production. For instance, improvements in the head-sawing process may not result in increased volume production as expected because a processing station downstream may already be operating at capacity or the intervening surge deck may be too short to cope with a higher level of volume productivity. Evidently an analysis of mill design and materials flow should also be considered in trying to determine attainable conversion efficiency or potential improvement that relates to increased luhimber output from the same amount of log input. Furthermore, the economic desirability of implementing any process and facility design changes necessary for improving conversion efficiency should be considered, since this affects profitability. From a sawmill owner's standpoint, maximization of profit or return on investment is the final criterion of operating efficiency, not simply maximization of conversion efficiency or lumber recovery, which current SIP analysis emphasizes. Maximum product yield and minimum operational delays are often consistent with minimum costs and maximum net returns, of course, but this cannot be assumed without evaluation of each specific case. This is where the Auburn computer model can provide a valuable service by enabling the SIP analyst to evaluate these four factors: (1) Current mill conversion efficiency. (2) Allocation of mill resources for maxi- POTENTIAL INCREASES IN REVENUE DUE TO IMPROVEMENT IN ATrAINABLE LUMBER RECOVERY FACTOR Lumber recovery factor Log input Current milling conditions Modified milling conditions Percent improvement Net revenue/ hour 6 in. minimum diameter With overlength ............ Without overlength ....... ... With overlength ............ Without overlength ......... 9 in. minimum diameter 7.21 7.39 7.70 7.90 9.14 9.35 9.78 2.6 6.9 9.6 $1,385 1,409 1,458 1,482 1,819 1,841 1,944 1,966 With overlength ............ Without overlength ......... . With overlength ............ Without overlength .10.00 2.3 7.0 9.4 mizing net revenues. (3) Improving conversion efficiency by dropping unprofitable size classes of sawlogs, improving log bucking practices, reducing sawing variations, reducing planing allowance, reducing oversizing, improving mill design or layout, or using computer control of the sawing process. (4) Economic desirability of investment opportunities in relation to changes deemed necessary for attaining a higher level of conversion efficiency. A case study of one mill where the computer model has been used provides evidence of how the system works. This sawmill currently processes logs with small-end diameter of 6 in. and up. However, it was determined that the mill would be economically better off by not processing logs with small-end diameter of less than 9 in., as shown in the table. Moreover, it was found that the mill could attain higher lumber recovery and thus realize higher net revenues if log overlength was eliminated through better bucking practices and if the overall milling conditions were modified to conform to industry norms. Use of the computer model can make current SIP program efforts consistent with sawmill operators' primary objective of maximizing profitability. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station and reclaiming surface mines are ISPOSING OF CITY SEWAGE unrelated problems that are of importance in Alabama. But results of Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research indicate the possibility of a mutually advantageous connection between the two problems. Research findings indicate that composted municipal sewage can be a satisfactory soil amendment for use in revegetating soils following surface mining operations. The sewage compost supplied needed plant nutrients so mineral fertilizer was not needed, and its organic matter content probably improved soil physical condition. The Experiment Station project was begun because of the success that organizations, such as the City of Milwaukee, E.S. LYLE, Forestry Research Wisconsin, have had with composting sewage and selling it as an organic fertilizer and lished quickly and maintains itself for the. Additional fertilizer could be added to the because of the many surface mines near 5-year period. fertilizer plots during the second growing Birmingham that require reclamation. An As shown by data in the table, the compost season to increase soil cover and forage experimental composting system was in- treatments resulted in twice as much forage yield, but this would mean that the regustalled at one of Birmingham's sewage production as the fertilizer treatment (5.7 latory agency would add another year to the plants, and an acceptable compost was pro- tons vs. 2.8 tons per acre). And the 30-ton time required to release the reclamation duced from sewage sludge and wood chips. compost rate was equal to the 70-ton rate. bond. The interest lost on the bond money The compost was trucked to a coal surface The regulatory agencies are not especially by the mining company would more than mine that had been regraded to an accept- concerned with forage production, but with compensate for any increased cost of using able topography for revegetation. the amount of soil covered by vegetation. In compost. Chemical analysis revealed that the com- Alabama, the surface mine reclamation reguIn addition to the plant growth benefits post contained 1.81% nitrogen, 0.01% phos- lations state that 80% of the soil surface must noted, use of the composted sewage will phorus, and 0.079% potassium. The experi- be covered by vegetation. All plots receiving improve the physical and chemical properment compared different rates of the com- compost had enough soil cover to comply ties of the soil by adding organic matter and post with the amounts of mineral fertilizer with reclamation regulations. Three of the reducing soil erosion from rainfall while utilthat would ordinarily be used for re- six plots receiving mineral fertilizer did not izing a waste product in a beneficial manner vegetation. Both vegetative growth and have enough cover to comply. If all plots instead of it being a disposal problem. costs were compared for compost and ferti- receiving mineral fertilizer had been evaluThe negative aspects of using compost are lizer treatments. ated for soil cover as a single unit, the result costs associated with transporting the bulky Another factor considered in the study is would have been a 72% cover. The total cost of transporting and applying material, equipment required to handle and whether topsoil will be placed on the mixture of rock and soil (called overburden) left the compost at the rate of 30 tons per acre spread the compost, extra time to apply over from the mining operation. Both com- was approximately $270 per acre. This cost compost in comparison with commercial ferpost and mineral fertilizer were applied to assumes that the compost itself is free. The tilizer, and the possibility of toxic elements overburden and overburden plus topsoil (6 total cost of purchasing, transporting, and in the compost. Results indicate that composted sewage in. of A and/or B soil horizons placed on top applying 400 lb. of 13-13-13 was approximately $197 per acre. Thus, using the ferti- can be used instead of mineral fertilizer to of overburden). Three tons of limestone per acre were lizer would be $73 per acre cheaper than the successfully establish a forage stand on coal applied to both overburden and topsoiled use of compost. However, the plant nutrient surface mines and maintain it at least 2 years. plots to reduce soil acidity. Three treatments value of the compost was about $90 greater Present information also indicates that the were then applied to the overburden and than that of the fertilizer, and the compost use of compost is economically feasible, but plots produced an acceptable soil cover and further investigation is needed to confirm topsoiled plots: this. the fertilizer plots did not. 1. 400 lb. of 13-13-13 per acre 2. 30 tons of compost per acre 3. 70 tons of compost per acre FORAGE YIELD AND GROUND COVER OBTAINED FROM MINERAL FERTILIZER AND COMPOSTED The soil additions were disked into the SEWAGE AFTER Two GROWING SEASONS ON AN ALABAMA COAL SURFACE MINE plots and a mixture of annual ryegrass, KenResults, by treatment tucky 31 tall fescue, and crimson clover was 70 tons compost/acre 30 tons compost/acre 400 lb. 13-13-13/acre Soil seeded to all plots. Plots were then covered material Yield/ Ground Yield/ Ground Yield/ Ground with a straw mulch. acre cover acre cover acre cover No further soil amendments were apTons Pct. Tons Pct. Tons Pct. plied, in accordance with Federal and State Topsoil ........ 6.17 96 4.29 90 6.71 98 4.07 94 5.72 90 6.30 82 regulations that prohibit such additions until Topsoil ........ 1.60 62 7.82 90 8.48 100 vegetative cover is evaluated after approxi- Topsoil ........ Overburden ... .76 74 7.63 94 5.54 98 mately five growing seasons. Because of Overburden ... 3.30 80 5.53 92 5.68 100 these regulations, it is necessary to assure Overburden ... .72 28 3.19 92 1.85 94 2.77 72 5.70 91 5.76 that an adequate vegetative stand is estab- Average ....... 95 D Composted Municipal Sewage Useful in Surface Mine Reclamation Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station Planting Dates and Plant Populations Affect Grain Sorghum Production 1952 I xiii r I I'uiii Plantsi pcii ii i (i iii \i\ Si iiiii I i li i i iis \x 198.3 da~tt 1952 xy i f1ieldpcr.ucrc by planiiitii :Apil I \lax I Junii 93 91 9)i 11)3 Apil 1:3 Nlti 2 S5 SI 5) I I 11 I Jles 2 :311.)0()) ti)) (100) 911i00 45 .56 IS 19 I 'U,0 19,53 -i 1000 31 ti0,lt 9(I 1(1 liii 6 1)3 113 7)1 2)) 2.S 12I?.00) tiiti.ct I grtina9iI an x Iov s 6ein sutri ivtcti Poclx a fi lit pi l lxn tit"' itid hal reatdtaxtilInc.Dast (I liiitiiplnin s 6)) W.C. JOHNSON, t D WIVLLIAMS, and J.T. TOUCHTON planingp1 ani a ti 2)) tliixiic t)) m ('mxigirlit ltxe . dc Itdiltheies, eai Agronomy and Soils Research J.T. EASON and ME RUF, Sand Mountain Substation pro diity BA IN SI )13(l 1 h xas hit tiopotcjitial is ain iltriiite Brin cirtp lii ii irofiig ini Alatliliii. fits well iiito dix ifi edft farii g ophi9 atio si iniihaiii of it(Iqut ilxainstnd xiaxioi. *ix ii thlltxx thlt xill dlita ini talc It ill thfi Sanit \liu t i aii ia D lix I). in"i, pliant- latio sispccd in th compaiso_ lants aiing :30,i 60 9t0,p and0 tad cai lx planinigs ini 1952 cial 1 9h3, i ixpi- pluti dii atesip ata liia it tha it ppu tii s littee irl .3- Iitl i o htn thtcaldso ta tx llix itt rcx utting c unicif tmltr6i tlIanc hcto prudctti thrgri hiaxctlauti- piitixxiuin slopicitiiiidox ntc ixtil ucli xx xiix ithi latiii hasx xsiox that iiaiii itxx x cr iiiit itt ua ilx tla ilatagittli rtuxx iii )lii itrl iugxs plniis - \fe g tttlt (flt f c ip)lic ttrihti ))Ii pcati of Thus it. iatrpai it plti iNu ( 1 iti lif li l anh opti.i I)) altplrati \\cn Sitt cli pp i~iatn itattec g ec xtk iu cal T xiii I I1v ill I it v (i I N Stin t ot Stin I l'ai I'Oii 1)1 I) iiiI rxi Ccittlltil pitio The fcl ciiati plant ilciti tle laintiii"l xxiii \ttit paiumxxi tesit Ii i ii popuilatins 12 in. I S in. 24 ini. 30) in. 36 in. lancI l pc Sa~itit 5.ditiiil6 acc itr oniit sop~il .. .. ... .. . .. .. . apicationsx wir) I ... . . . 35 5.2 1.4 12 in. ,o 1.1 3.5 2.9 Sctt/lot IS in. \A Au 31 2.8 . 1 4.1 33 2.6 2.2 26 214 1T :30) in. .\io. 223 1. S1. .36 in. o fil pi ti ii th Siit ixxfi 120)) .... . . ... . . . ... .. . .. .. . . . 1. I S 2 :3 5. bi) ititi MtA 24 in. 'o. 2.7 :3. 46 5.5 3A4. 1.6 5. 6.9 . 7. 8.3 /tbuni tt, riinlturalT.xperimii Staitin I I 'II fiI\ O i 1)111 1 (1 v ((l('I t i ir I)I o i clcri l ilt uI I it tI II t Hl' II t! ( I I Ix tl' li Llc II , I l)i[ 11) I I \,run (It tlii ititi I r tcI Iis ( t I I IN \\t I III(clu('tl) n. it ! iII 1 fut i t ("v I I I i( I II I II (li 11 'itl('(I("f ( 'n ll I( IIii I I)I I i Iw ii I I II ,tI 111111s Isit I I ti l~ ly ,a t i t1 t.,1 l III jI tc ~ In~ d r~I~ II is v(I X 11 ,I I'tI ( II I Ir II ~ ' I j)Ila I) \\C(I o1 I) , I tt(1. I kliiI FI )(I Illnic I ,l aI II i, cuI I I Protein Level Offers Savings in Broiler Breeder Development \A ROBEY and G R.McDANIEL, Poultry Science ?esearc'n C D. SUTTON, Cooperative Extension Service I it I I II ul' n n t to f I I a (s(rntI OnI n I ' tol (ct I.it l ( II II , I 1% I 1 II ( 1 I dcv( l( Io) a I)I Is 1(i-' I I t I (IIcI t t n t i n ) lIII I 1 , \'I k, II 2 I t lIIr r Iv (r Ii lI v I I t I i I t o Ic, IIiI I~i II (d(111 &is1 IiiJll tX I ll(ti1l ( II(1'V li 1 1 a II 1) II it h I 1)1111'( 11 1(1\ ,11 , III ~( 1111I'l 'i f it i il 11 1:,1 1111I I I('('I 11 1(tI t \ l I )iu t III \ c,I it it I \ 'I\ I)I t l ' .k I .I \\ II I, t 't . \111l~ i I 11).'it I (ii)OrI i I Iccr I v IItv I( Ii I I'~ (ytI 1((IJ I t ( , yvt I I Ii,i il(I ) I hI 1il(1 I'l I :llI (11 II I II I a ii ' I to 1i 5l 11 I ii lo t I n it 12' t 111(1 I~I l Iii t Iill It I( \X 1 i t l i r II ( t\ (" \ I\I I I II I Itn, ii Il it I li~ I\\\ l 1I I (tif I ) )() I II Il I s(' )I1) II in1 1t ) is il' i i iI lI k I . 111l I 11 \ I Iln 1( 1 )r I fI III1 5 .1 IIIII ).I ) II I i I lI till l12 1'1 Il ( \ I t 11) i\ ;I IaI k('1I \ I' ' I vIiI I -) I'I;o ll -Iv vV ) I:ctr( .) (:OvI vn.o it m I' :IlI (nl, li )v1 I In ?I \\I:I Is,OI I 1 A(.I I l, I w iiI \\t L I(lit I AMI 1111l 11 111111 dIl\ I)i/ IS / k( al '_I IlII i Brn, I / SI tiI(( , :v( II k i' d ,' lu ) r r.t - WILDFIRE IN FORESTS MAY HAVE SMALL ECONOMIC IMPACT R.S. MELDAHL, S.D. SHNITZLER, and W.L. MILLS, Forestry Research had been burned. This difference in value fires in this study increased sawtimber prowas then converted to present dollars (pres- duction and decreased pulpwood proent net worth). The long-run for this study duction, resulting in a positive economic was assumed to be a final harvest at age 35. impact in 11 of the 17 fires, see table. Three The prediction of future volumes for fires resulted in no impact and three fires burned and unburned plantations required yielded negative long-run economic imthe use of a loblolly pine plantation simu- pacts. lation model. The model selected allowed A close examination of the short- and longthe direct input of a stand table as well as run economic impacts of the 17 wildfire sites total basal area and number of trees: Thus, a indicates an interesting trend. Only 3 of the wildfire's selective impact on a stand's struc- stands have negative long-run impacts, ture could be specifically incorporated in the while 12 stands have significant negative yield projection. All costs, such as taxes and short-run impacts. In 8 of the 12 cases, the management fees, were assumed to be con- negative short-run impact is associated with stant between burned and unburned stands a positive long-run impact. Therefore, manand were not included in the present value agement decisions concerning the future management of burned stands should not calculations. Short-run economic impacts due to mor- necessarily be based on short-run impacts. tality and growth loss for pulpwood, saw- Wildfires which are not totally destructive timber, and total stand are given in the table. appear to act as prescribed burns and thinIn the short run, the majority of the impacts nings from below, and their true impact may were negative (14 of the 17 sampled stands). be positive. Pulpwood class mortality, as expected, The results of this study should be intercaused the largest negative dollar impact. In preted carefully. The wildfires included in all but one stand, pulpwood growth impact the analysis were not selected randomly was negligible. No sawtimber mortality was from all possible fires in loblolly pine planobserved in any of the 17 stands surveyed. tations. Thus, the results should not be apSawtimber growth impact was positive in plied to all acres of loblolly pine plantations some cases and negative in others, but gen- in all conditions. Also, wildfires on the erally had little effect on the total short-run sampled area occurred under current fire economic impact. prevention and suppression levels. The imLong-run economic impacts were cal- pact of wildfire without this fire prevention culated using yield information from the and suppression activity might be much simulation model and assuming stumpage different. In similar stands, however, the prices of $14 per cord and $143 per thousand analysis suggests that the present level of fire board feet (Scribner), with a 2% real annual control may be sufficient to reduce most rate of price increase. In general, most wild- losses to acceptable levels. SHORT- AND LONG-RUN ECONOMIC IMPACT OF WILDFIRES IN SEVENTEEN LOBLOLLY PINE PLANTATIONS cause less economic loss than is in forest stands may generally believed. While shortterm effects of such fires may be negative, the long-term effect may actually be beneficial. That was the finding in a recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study of 17 highland loblolly pine plantations (16 in Alabama and 1 in Georgia). The study evaluated changes in both present and future volume production. No attempt was made to assess the impact of fire on nontimber resources, such as recreation, watershed, or wildlife. The stands sampled ranged from 3 to 26 years of age on land that had site index values' of40 to 50 and ranged in size from 3 to 88 acres. The areas had experienced one wildfire in the last 3 years and had not been replanted after the fire. There was no evidence of prescribed fires within the last 5 years. The stands in the study covered a fairly wide range of conditions: DBH (diameter breast height), 1.67 to 9.48 in.; total stems per acre, 124 to 468; and basal area per acre, 4.2 to 141.6 sq. ft. Randomly selected 1/20-acre plots were sampled at each location to determine (1) number of surviving trees, (2) number of trees killed by the fire, (3) DBH, (4) radial growth estimates, (5) total age of two dominant/codominant trees for site index calculation, (6) assessment of fire intensity, (7) estimate of initial tree spacing, and (8) number of competing stems. The appraisal of fire damage was estimated for immediate (short-run) and longterm impact. The short-run was included to determine how much of the inventory was destroyed by the fire, while the long-run impact is important in making management decisions and assigning accurate dollar impacts. Short-run economic impact is defined as any immediate loss that could be attributed to the fire. This represents the value of trees killed by the fire plus the value of any growth that was lost minus the value of any timber that could be salvaged. The long-run economic impact was computed by taking the difference between the future value of an unburned plantation and the future value of the same plantation if it 'Site index values are the estimated average heights of dominant or dominant and codominant trees in a stand at age 25. WILDFIRE of fr Location of fire, Cherokee ...... Cherokee ...... Cleburne ...... Cleburne ...... Haralson' ......Cleburne...... Cleburne ...... Shelby ........ Fayette........ Fayette....... Tuscaloosa ..... Pid Short-run effect/acre Total 5th tad Pulpwood Sawtimber Dol. -20.80 - 3.52 - 4.96 - 8.87 9.84 - .12 - .06 -12.97 - .005 1.30 0 Dol. 0.32 0 0 - .22 - .25 0 0 - .33 -. 13 0 0 Dol. -20.48 - 3.52 - 4.96 - 9.09 -10.09 - .12 - .06 -12.97 - .14 1.30 - .02 Long-run effect/acre Total Ttad Sawtimber Pulpwood Dol. - 8.51 -22.63 -14.78 - 9.99 - 4.43 - 7.42 - 1.02 - 9.80 0 - 4.49 0 Dol. 13.40 94.69 - 6.05 49.28 17.02 32.21 2.73 22.92 0 17.30 0 Dol. 4.89 72.06 - 20.83 39.29 12.59 24.79 1.69 13.22 0 12.81 0 Tuscaloosa ... Shelby ........Cleburne ...... -68.92 - .03 .09 .22 -68.89 - 2.10 .14 -52.80 - 9.30 - 1.88 178.92 - 19.10 3.75 126.12 - 28.41 1.87 2.19 .08 Cleburne ...... Calhoun ....... Cleburne ...... 2.56 0 - .006 8.94 - .70 0 11.50 .70 .01_. - 3.03 0 20.69 - 49.98 0 17.66 - 41.78 0 8.20 'Georgia; all others Alabama. 10 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station continue to be widely shared objecOBS for most Alabamadevelopment tives and economic leaders and residents. The high levels of poverty found in certain parts of the State and our standing relative to the nation are evidence of the significant need for employment growth. The U.S. poverty rate was 11.3% in 1979, compared to 18.9% for Alabama. Nationwide, 30.6% of the black population and 8.7% of the white population are below the poverty level. Data from the U.S. Bureau of Census show that in Alabama, 38.5% of the black population and 12.1% of the white population are below poverty level. Researchers with the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station found that people in north Alabama are better off than others in the State, partially because of the long-term TVA assistance that area has received and the large number of industries. In contrast, the Black Belt counties Greene, Perry, Lowndes, and Wilcox have TABLE 1. NUMBER AND PERCENT OF ALABAMA RESIDENTS BELOW OFFICIALLY DEFINED POVERTY LEVEL, BY RESIDENCE, POVERTY in Alabama more than 42 percent LIZ L 30- 42 percent 20 - 39 percent less than 20 percent Percent of 1980 population below poverty line J,J, MOLNAR, Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Research the highest poverty rates. Much of the rural black population is concentrated in this region, which offers little economic opportunity outside of agriculture and forestry, particularly for minorities. Although black residents comprise only GENDER, AGE, AND RACE, 19791 Number in category State total, 3,813,014 .... Black, 971,436 ........ White, 2,818,578...... Urban Black, 674,207 ........ White, 1,570,803 ...... Rural Black, 297,670 ........ White, 1,238,616 ...... Rural farm Black, 4,893 .......... White, 82,060........ Male Black, 448,500 ........ White, 1,370,299 ...... Female Black, 522,936 ........ White, 1,448,279 ...... Number below poverty 2 Percent below poverty 38.5 12.1 36.2 10.2 14.6 32.0 10.7 35.4 erty level in the State is among youth under 16 years of age. Datafrom the U.S. Bureau of 719,905 374,145 341,060 244,063 160,222 130,082 180,838 1,566 8,871 158,913 145,736 215,232 195,324 24% of the State's population, there are more poor blacks than poor whites. The black poor outnumber the white poor in urban areas by nearly 84,000. In rural areas, however, the white poor outnumber the black poor by more than 50,000. In particular, the white farm population living below the poverty level is five times greater than the black rural farm poor. The Alabama Experiment Station study shows that women are highly overrepre10.6 sented among the poor in the State, outnumbering males by 106,000. Poor black females outnumber poor black males by 56,000, whereas poor white females outnumber poor white males by almost 50,000. Women with dependent children tend to 41.2 13.5 46.9 Under 16 Black, 318,758 .......... 149,397 White, 679,582 ........ 90,644 16-64 Black, 631,229 ........ White, 2,163,408 ...... 65 and over Black, 103,010 ........ White, 317,607 ..... 201,741 203,489 46,740 72,592 13.3 32.0 9.4 have greater difficulty being employed. Women also outnumber men among the elderly, an age group where poverty rates tend to be higher. 45.4 22.9 'Source: United States Bureau of Cer nsus, Census of the Population: 1980. General Social and Economic Characteristics,Alabama. 2 Poverty level, an economic thrE eshold, is defined by a complex cost-of-living c calculation ($7,412 for a family of four in 1979). The number of persons below the poverty level is the sum of the number of persons in families with incormes below the poverty level and the number of unrelated individuals with incomes below the pov erty level, In the working age population (16-64 years), whites below the poverty line slightly outnumber blacks. Among the elderly, poor whites outnumber poor blacks by nearly 26,000. Some of these differences can be attributed to the large number of now middle-aged and older blacks who left the State during the last several decades, as well as a longer life expectancy for whites. The largest numerical difference between the black and white population below pov- Census show that 46.9% of black youth are below poverty level, but only 13.3% of white youth fall into this category. This suggests that the over-representation of blacks below the poverty level may continue unless opportunities improve in the central city and rural locales where most of these individuals live. Black poverty rates are generally three times those of the white population. When comparing black versus white poverty levels by place of residence, the smallest difference was among rural farm residents, followed by urban dwellers, then rural residents. Also worthy of attention are the high rates among black elderly and black youth, only a small portion of which participate in the labor force. Alabama's poor are somewhat protected by a safety net of food stamps, minimal welfare payments, and social security benefits. Although these programs ensure some security for the poor, their level of living is far from that of the average working Alabamian. The poor include children, elderly, and handicapped, as well as a minority of ablebodied people. The latter may lack motivation, work habits, or skills, but a fundamental shortage of job opportunities that build experience and an achievement orientation is an obstacle to overcome in the long-term for the benefit of all Alabamians. Some of the future pain, misery, and lowered self-worth associated with poverty can be avoided by today's prudent efforts to improve education and increase employment opportunities for all. Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station 11 EFFECT OF FERMENTATION ON SURVIVAL OF MYCOBACTERIA IN SILAGES Proper Processing Days ensiled Corn silage (71% moisture) pH Mycobacteria Mycobacteria recovered' No. Lactic acid (dry matter) Pct. 0 .............................. .......... 5.0 9 1.87 7 .60 7.68 10.6 1 10 .77 .79 2.2 6 2.42 2.98 3.33 0 1.39 1.62 1.76 2.04 2.53 3.11 2.5 1 2.89 ground corn hay, and 5% of Animal Waste For Use in Livestock Feed TA McCASKEY and C.M. HOWARD Animal and Dairy Sciences Research 1 ............... ...... ..... ... ..... ... ... 4 .2 9 4 .0 9 2 ........................ ................ 3.9 6 4 ........................................ 0 3.8 5 ........................................ 2 60% cow manure (41% moisture) 9 0 . . ... ... . .. . .. .. .. . ... ... .. .... .... ... .. 6.3 1 . . . .. ... . .. . . ... .. . ... .. ... .... .... ... .. 4.7 9 2 . ....................................... 4.5 9 4 ........................................ 4.1 4 0 4 .1 5 . ....................................... 3 55% poultry litter (41% moisture) 8 .2 9 0 .................. ......... ... .... ... .. 6 .3 9 .. ........ .. .... ... . .. .. .. .. 1 ....... .... 9 5 .8 2 ....................................... 9 5 .7 4 ....................................... 5.5 9 5 ....................................... 5.7 9 8 ....................................... 5.5 9 9 ........ ............................... 5.5 9 10 ....................................... 9 ............. . 5.7 15 ................... ...... 'Nine cultures inoculated into the feed mixtures. 2 Silage contained in addition to cow manure 29% ground Coastal bermudagrass hay, 19% grain, and 1% limestone. 3 The litter silage also contained 20% ground corn grain, 5% ground Coastal bermudagrass cane molasses. Water was added to obtain 40% moisture in the mixture. ANIMAL WASTE is a major re- newable resource in Alabama. Traditionally it has been applied to land as a fertilizer, or sometimes merely to dis- pose of the waste. Another way to utilize this resource is to use the nutrients of waste as a feed ingredient for ruminant animals. Waste has nutritive value for ruminants because these animals are capable of utilizing nonprotein nitrogen and fiber. Broiler litter has been successfully used as a feed ingredient for cattle in Alabama for about 30 years. This practice has been widely adopted on beef cattle farms that are close to broiler farms. The broiler litter is generally deep-stacked for several weeks after its removal from the broiler house. This temporary storage permits the litter to generate temperatures of 160°F or higher, which render the litter free from potentially pathogenic microorganisms that might be present. Therefore, there have been no documented health problems associated with feeding broiler litter. Another method of processing animal waste to ensure its safety from pathogenic microorganisms is fermentation. This can be accomplished by blending the waste with other feed ingredients to increase the level of fermentable carbohydrates and by adjust- The acidity of the mixtures, as determined by pH measurements, increased with ensiling time and reached maximum acidity at 4 to 5 days. The cow manure and corn forage silages achieved acceptable pH values and lactic acid levels over 3.03% (dry basis), but the broiler litter silage failed to produce adequate acid characteristic of good quality composition, the system has been tested in silages. The apparent reason why broiler Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station litter silage failed to produce adequate acid is research. The tests were done to determine its higher initial pH and its higher buffer fermentation effectiveness in rendering capacity which resists pH change. The broilbroiler litter safe from such pathogens as er litter ration prior to fermentation had a tubercule bacteria. Although there have pH of 8.2 and required 7.5 times more lactic been no problems from these mycobacteria acid to lower the pH to 4 than the corn in broiler litter and the disease has been forage. Although mycobacteria inoculated into reported less in recent years, this pathogen was used in the research because some the broiler litter silage were not killed, this species can cause tuberculosis in susceptible does not mean that ensiled broiler litter is animal and human hosts. Therefore, there unsafe from mycobacteria. Broiler litter has was interest in knowing if fermentation a high pH and the ammonia evolved from litter under this condition is toxic to most could effectively destroy such pathogens. Earlier research at the Alabama Experi- microorganisms. However, the results do ment Station had demonstrated that indicate that the practice of deep-stacking Salmonella and fecal coliform bacteria added poultry litter for a period after it is removed to waste-blended rations at high levels are from the poultry house is desirable even if killed during the fermentation process. To the waste ration is to be ensiled. Deep-stacked litter undergoes a sponfurther evaluate the effect of fermentation, the current studies used waste-blended taneous heating process reaching temperarations that had been inoculated with my- tures over 160°F. Pathogenic mycobacteria cobacteria. Nine cultures of mycobacteria do not grow at temperatures over 80°F and were inoculated at varying levels into three they are killed at 145°F in a matter of rations formulated with either cow manure, minutes. Therefore, broiler litter that has poultry litter, or corn forage. All nine cul- been deep-stacked prior to ensiling should tures were eliminated from the cow manure be safe from mycobacteria. Further proand corn forage silages after 5 days of en- cessing of the deep-stacked litter by fersiling, but all were still alive in the poultry mentation increases the acidity of the litter and aids its preservation. litter silage after 15 days, see table. ing the moisture content to about 40%. The blended mixture can then be ensiled, fermenting the carbohydrates to primarily lactic and acetic acids. The process both preserves the mixture and destroys any pathogenic organisms that might be present. Since fermentation offers advantages, such as improved palatability and nutrient 12 Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station Iliinte~t weedscl fromii crop~s liaxc lieen h: ltiiral p)ractitce more at pairt of agrici HIfRBICIDESfor xlich thiai :30 xycars. Atrazine, a triazinc herlbicide is onie of, the most xxidelx used of then, selective heirlbicides for co~ntiNolling )t(alca rIu w~eedls ini coil, sorilghumit anid other' cirops Thei first report of' weedl re'sistance( to at rain c w ini 1970, xxhen coini xas grou ntls wxas not killed iix atrazine exven wh len it xxt appliedcc at ab ou t 10 timex the normally lethai conicciitiration)1. S in ce that firist r eport, atrazine resistance lheslbecn fiound in standsw at wxide xvarity of other econiimcally dari i agiing x eis_ iincluidiiig species of fpigxx ct and fox tail, comnmon lambsiqtu arters, horsewxeet and~ (loxxy biroiiie, iii imainx (lilel('lt parts ofi the wxorldI. In North America, A.L. BROW~N and B. TRUELOVE atrazine-resistant xxeeds are most commnm Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology Research iin the iioirthieirn patrts of' the Un iitedl States and C'anada. Thlese resistant xxeeds haxve appeared only biiidinig pirotein is slightly differeiit. 'This tiits txof thet' x bIacti a c'an ibit proiduiced in areas xxhich hase eien repieatclyx tireated sl ighit change in chemiiical coimposi tioii alters wxhich shosw a high lev el iif' atrazine' restsxwith atrazinie or one ofi the other triazine the proteiii structure such that the atrazine tanict. lie rbicides ove ei long periodl of time. 1To molce n o lioingei liinds to the pr oteini. Tht'e i uum rt'se'arch also shoxxs that iiiiderstand Iioxx plant population s haxve acHowxevxr, the quiinoini is still able to 1)1n1( to phioto ss nitheitic Ibacter ia isolated ftromi areas (1uiredl atrain ricesi stan ce, aind xxhy scien- this than ged pirote(ini and, heince, the'lcwhith hasvt rece'ivecc long-term anid repeated ti st s aire i ciietls exci ted about thie i nlortrin tiranispotrt chlain cointiiiues to operai ,ittn appl icaition s of atrazi ne shiiwxia highei lev el of' mation being gained from studxying these these plants esven in the presence iii atraine.i resistant p~lants, wxe must first see wxhy atThere is at hiological piricce to paix for this satmi t photosx iitheitic Ibatteria isolated fromi raine kills plants. iiodification. In these resistant plants, atreas that haxvu inoit beeniexpoised to atr azini. photosyntthe sis (lilts inot 111i cccal qiite as This discosvcr5 inictates that prt'tist'lx thte Plai ts gross bx convx cting the iradiaint cii raptidly ais it dhoes in atriainlt'setnsitivet plants satin selt'ctiiin mlechianismls that Il'd to the ergx of light into the chemical energy of giriixth irate is ireduced. Plants xxithi es tailishm niit of' stand of' tri azini- rt'sis tant li ts catbhdriates through the priicess tof photo- andt theti tht miodifiedl priottein occur at i lowx fiewieed s atre ioperatis t at tht' icttobiial lev el. ss ntlicsis. This pirocetss takes place in small, (jti' TIhis xwork is inmportat t 1it'aus ot'i thet girccii oxval-sh aped bo0(1es called chilotro- ic} iin naturiial popuolationiis of the speiest as plasts, xxhich are found in large numbers in biit, becaiusec thiey thonot giroxx rapid lxas the plants xwith the suisce'ptilet piroteii, thex cox tries. cells of the leaf. Duinilg photosyntthesis, light tendit to bet iiiutgiow i b5 thiir netighbI ors and i Fjir st, biecaiise' iif thir rapid girowsth r ates energy is absorbed lbx chlorophxll, the green antI thit cast' xxith xxhich tht'x can lit pigmen t of cloioplasts . This sets iin imotion ia there'foire lost doe toi compe'titioin. If ati azitic i haiidlll atrazinei-riesi stan t hacter ia atre ani series iif ev ents ins (lv ing the [movemenit oif is reupe ate dlx applie d to xxeel stands, hoscxeti thit se'isitivec plants art' killed. This idetal miotltl xx ste'm for stiutdxing thit biasic electrons along at chain of' electron carriei allowxs the retsistanit plaiits iagireatt'r opporthem istrx of phiotiisyntthes is atnid henice plant inoleculiIcs xxhiich aire 1bouiid to special piroto xis ive, antI muiltiply until teins hbiilt into the membranes of' the tiiiitx girowx cx 'itiiallxr a stanid of atirazinic-rt'sistaiit St'coitl iaclearer' untdersxtaniig of the cloriiop last. (oi iotf the electironi-accept inig plaints is prodituct''(. molecules xxhich takes part in this chain Phitiisynthesis is noit limiite'd tui gircii tiir pirite'in an d the e'tlectr on-carrxyinig qiin ceacti on is a comoun called a quiinoiie O~~it onico d tiiltlIad to infor'matin svalualet iii thit out wxhich recogiz~es and hinds to its ossni speci- pilants, but is also Catied't lix Certaiii hacter ia. 'Thiest' plotos nitheiti c 1bacte'ri a art' tdt'signi antI prodlu ctiiin ot imore efficienit her-' fic protein ini the ch loropilas t membiiruiainie iii usiially not oioiiis tii tht' ioiserie mai inil much the same xxay that a key fits the shape dlii( to thir simall size, but thies art' prt'st Finialkx thte possiilits exists that the geand con figo ration of' a lock. At tine, hosiii lorgt' numb eirs in boi~th xxatt'r andl soil. nuctic iinfoirmtiu oii iii the liatter tumii xxic'h esver, is also able tii hind to this same protein Wioirk at thie Alabiamia Agricuiltutral Fxprodu cedl tht' pro tt'ein chaiigt' imay lie trasandl xx ien it (does, it fills the space xxhich 't al b gt't i c enigineii i iig tt'chniiiqut's swou Id noirmally lie occupied by the qinone periiit'iirt Staitioin has rtct'ntlx slioxxn that imoleciule, the electroni carier chaiti is theni phoitiosyniithit'is ini thesxe orgaiiiismiis alsoi is tii tht' get'i iniforma ttiioi lhank ofia croip plant. If' this shuildl titin out toi lit piossihile' hroket, photosy nthesis is halted, and the inhlib itedt lix at razne. I"uirtht'rmoiriii, in thlest' ipiiulatiiins thit're ate t'alwxass a ft'w iiidiplant iiltimnatel (lies. In cnip plants or othict vicoals xxhich appar t'itlx have t' proitt'iin crip species such as soybleans xxhichi contain specit's that are not normally injured by this gt'ne, atd wh x iich cuiI ld bcotmeit atrazitnie atrai,e ithiei the atrazine is not taken up change fouinid ini green planit cloirolplasts, tesistanit t'xpret'ssiioi gt'ne. Bet' uponi of the by thet plan t oi, if it is absorbhed, it is hiroket rciniesistaint to aitratine. Whent' duiswn xxithin the plant to at non-toxic com- imakinig tle gt'ntit iniformiiationii t ransft'i xxill ficits of' lit piounid befor'e it has tine to ireach the clilorocointin uittrtesearchi lix the' Alaulama Agplas ts and lind to the protein. tdix idt xxlile the iithieirs ate killed, and culricuIt utal E xpe'rimtenit S tationi Ini atrazine-resistant plants, hoswever, the e'xplaiiatioii (if resistance is different aiind muiichi more interesting. Ini these plants, the chemical comlposition of' thec quinone- SFCI In the photo at top of page, atrazine resistant weeds overgrew the corn at right where atrazine was the herbicide used; contrast with plot at left where a combination of herbicides controlled weeds. Alalbama AgricturatiClExpeimenili'it S tationi Tall, Slow Maturing Cattle Show Advantages in Comparison TB. PATTERSON and S.P. SCHMIDT, Animal and Dairy Sciences Research RA MOORE, Upper Coastal Plain Substation basis of rate of maturing. Data collected from these cows and their crossbred calves were birth weight and reproductive rate, growth rate and feed efficiency, carcass characteristics, and gross returns. The Substation cow herd was managed as a single unit to minimize environmental differences. During the winter, the brood herd was fed corn silage and Coastal bermudagrass hay, along with having limited gone some rather drastic changes IZE OF BEEF CATTLE has underover the past 60 years. Initially, the change was from large, slow growing, slow maturing cattle to smaller, slower growing, and faster maturing cattle. Next came a period when emphasis was on selection for rate and efficiency of gain, which resulted in cattle becoming larger, faster growing, and slower maturing. More recently, cattle breeders have selected for taller cattle, using frame score as the principal selection factor. Cattle from such selection programs are generally later maturing than previously selected types. Based on initial Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research, the fast growing, later maturing types currently desired are what the commercial producer needs. These cattle grew faster to weaning and through finishing, without any disadvantage associated with rate of maturity. The Experiment Station study was 'done to determine how selection for maturity patterns affects size, performance, and economic returns. Slow maturing and fast maturing cattle were selected from purebred herds of Angus and Charolais at Auburn to provide two test herds. In the first stage of the study, eight Angus bulls representing differences between the two test herds were mated to Hereford cows at the Upper Coastal Plain Substation, Winfield, which had also been divided on the S grazing on winter annuals with a protein supplement when needed. Spring and summer pastures consisted of dallisgrass-white clover and Coastal bermuda. Calves were not creep fed. After weaning, all calves went directly into the feedlot. They were placed in pens on the basis of rate of maturing, sex of calf, and sire. They were full-fed a diet of 51% corn silage, 42% ground shelled corn, 5% soybean meal, and 2% supplement (containing minerals, vitamins, and Rumensin). Calves were marketed when average backfat was 0.4 to 0.5 in. Carcass data were obtained at a packing house by a USDA grader. Carcass value was obtained and adjusted to year and seasonal variation. There was no difference in percent calf crop born or weaned attributable to rate of maturing. The overall calf crop was low (about 83% born and 80% weaned) from the straight-bred Hereford cows that were managed with only a 90-day breeding season. There was a difference in birth weight (64 lb. for the fast maturing group, 72 lb. for the slow maturing ones), but no calving problems were attributed to this weight difference. Slow maturing calves, both steers and heifers, were heavier at weaning, see table. These calves continued to grow faster in the feedlot than faster maturing calves, resulting in slaughter weights 76 and 67 lb. greater, respectively, for steers and heifers of the slow maturing group. Despite the difference in rate of gain, the two maturity groups showed no difference in number of days to reach the same degree of finish (187 days for both). Neither was there a difference in feed required per unit of gain (11 lb. per pound of gain). The lack of difference in feed efficiency was probably due to the extra feed required for maintaining the heavier, slow maturing calves. This extra maintenance offset the expected increase in feed efficiency associated with faster gains. There were no differences in quality or yield grade between the two rate-ofmaturing groups since all calves were marketed at about the same degree of finish as determined by backfat probe. Surprisingly, dressing percent tended to favor the slow maturing calves. Higher dressing percentages are normally reported for fatter cattle, but since fatness of the two groups was equal, the higher dressing percent would reflect the higher nonfat carcass weight of the slow maturing cattle. Slow maturing calves had higher frame scores, 0.8 and 0.5 larger for steers and heifers, respectively. This average difference of 0.65 is reasonable since there was a PRE-WEANING AND POST-WEANING TRAITS OF SLOW MATURING AND FAST MATURING STEERS AND HEIFERS Item No. of calves ..................... Weaned wt. (205 day adj.), lb....... Feedlot av. daily gain, lb. .......... Final slaughter wt., lb.............. Hot carcass wt., lb. ................ Dressing pct. .................... Quality grade 1. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Yield grade 2 Final frame score3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gross return per calf, $4 ........... 11 = high Good; 12 = low Choice. 2 5 = fat; 1 = lean. Slow maturing 49 422.2 2.62 1,030.1 612.8 60.2 11.7 2.7 3.9 652.87 Steers Fast maturing 51 387.5 2.40 954.1 561.6 59.5 11.6 2.5 3.1 587.16 Slow maturing 52 421.5 2.40 950.9 572.5 59.4 11.3 2.9 3.9 585.37 Heifers Fast maturing 39 395.6 2.28 883.6 524.4 58.8 11.4 2.8 3.4 534.78 A difference of 2 in. in height at hip is equal to one frame score difference in both sexes. 4The average price received for different weights and grades which were adjusted for year and season of year. difference of approximately 1 in frame score between both bulls and cows that produced these calves and heritability for this trait is estimated at about 0.6. Frame score is correlated with rate of maturing and mature size, which resulted in heavier carcasses that produced a greater gross return. The difference was $66 and $50 for steer and heifer carcasses, respectively, in favor of slow maturing calves. Most of the difference was related to carcass weight, but some of the difference resulted from a higher price per hundredweight for the heavier carcasses. Had these calves been marketed at a plant that markets boxed beef exclusively, the discount for small carcasses (smaller than 600 lb. for steer carcasses and below 550 lb. for heifer carcasses) would have been much greater. This type pricing structure could have doubled the difference in return between slow and fast maturing cattle. Since this experiment is in its early stages, the difference in maturity rates for the crossbred offspring was small. Even so, 75% of the fast maturing calves did not reach minimum weight for boxed beef when finish grade was reached, as compared to only 35% of the slow maturing calves. 14 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station AMERICAN greatly in recent years as people have becomeDIETS have about the concerned changed relationship between diet and health. One of these changes has been in the composition of fat in the diet. The proportion of vegetable fat has increased considerably with the widespread use of salad and cooking oils, margarines, and shortenings. Much of the research aimed at learning how different fats affect health has been done with animals. Therefore, information about fat consumption by specific groups of people is needed to identify any potential risks for people in different dietary groups. Adolescent females are considered to be a problem group with respect to diet, so nutrition research by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station has focused on this segment of the population. One of these studies is designed to provide information about fat consumption by adolescent females. The majority of vegetable fat consumed today is chemically modified by partial hydrogenation, which converts the original oils to products with a desirable spreading consistency and reduced tendency to become rancid. These hydrogenation procedures result in the conversion of some of the natural unsaturated fatty acids (called cis) into a form called trans. Some investigators have proposed that increased amounts of trans-fatty acids may adversely affect the health of Americans. This concern is based mainly on results of dietary studies with animals fed diets containing trans-fatty acids in amounts higher than is thought to be present in the American diet. Properties of trans-fatty acids tend to resemble saturated fatty acids rather than unsaturated fatty acids. Some of the studies suggest that trans-fatty acids might be related to elevated serum lipid levels. Approximately 8% of the total fat consumed by the American public is believed to be trans-fatty acids. This estimate is based on the amount of hydrogenated fat being sold in the national market. Little is known, however, about the amount of trans-fatty acids in diets eaten by various groups. Thus, the present Experiment Station study investigated the fat consumption pattern of a group of adolescent females. The study group consisted of eight adolescent girls, 12 to 15 years of age, from Lee County, Alabama. The subjects ate selfselected diets, kept daily diet records, and weighed all food items consumed for a week. Subjects were instructed to prepare or purchase an extra portion of all food eaten during the 1-week period. These "duplicate portions" were collected daily for laboratory analysis. Caloric consumption, total fat intake, linoleic acid content, and the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids were Changing Fat Content of Diets Could Help Adolescent Females M. VAN DEN REEK and M.C. CRAIG-SCHMIDT, Home Economics Research J.D. WEETE, Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology Research calculated from the dietary records using nutrient composition tables. The diet collections were chemically analyzed in duplicate for trans-fatty acid content. Average caloric intake of the eight adolescents varied from 1,086 to 1,735 calories per day, and the average total fat intake ranged from 32.7% to 40.4% of total calories, see table. This fat intake level is typical of American diets in general, but is slightly higher than recommendations such as the United States Dietary Goals. Linoleic acid (an essential fatty acid and the primary polyunsaturated fatty acid in the diet) made up 3.64 to 8.25% of dietary energy in the diets of the adolescent girls. Three percent of energy in the form of linoleic acid is considered satisfactory to meet the essential fatty acid requirement for groups with relatively low fat intakes (below 25% of calories). According to the Committee on Dietary Allowances, a diet with a fat intake at the level currently found in the United States should contain 8 to 10% of the total calories as essential fatty acids. However, it is also important to consider the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids in the diet. The ratio recommended by the Committee on Dietary Allowances and the U.S. Dietary Goals should approach, but not exceed, a value of one. The ratio found in the diets of the girls ranged from 0.32 to 0.65. Thus, a moderate increase in polyunSubject number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. 8 ............. saturated fat in the diet might be advisable. Laboratory analysis of the 7-day diet collections of each girl indicated that the average amount of total trans-fatty acids in the diet varied from 4.34 to 9.61% of total fatty acids, with an overall mean of 6.53%. The mean value for the amount of dietary trans-fatty acids found in this study was lower than the estimated value of 8% of total fat. The Experiment Station study of Alabama adolescent females can be summarized by stating that their fat consumption was typical of American diets, but higher than recommended by the U.S. Dietary Goals. The linoleic acid content was sufficient to prevent essential fatty acid deficiency, but it and the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids were lower than recommended values. The amount of trans-fatty acids was lower than previous estimates. The data on the amount of trans-fatty acids actually being consumed by a specific group of people provide a valuable framework for evaluating the animal studies on the physiological effects of trans-fatty acids. Although diets of these girls were typical of American diets, some adjustments to conform with the recommendations made by the Committee on Dietary Allowances and the U.S. Dietary Goals might be beneficial, especially with respect to long-range health status. Linoleic acid Pct. cal. 5.01 4.70 5.06 4.29 3.64 8.25 5.92 6.06 CALORIC AND FAT INTAKE OF EIGHT ADOLESCENT FEMALES OVER A 7-DAY PERIOD' j eTotal Energy Cal. . 1,571 1,327 1,568 1,587 1,086 1,462 1,735 1,602 fat Pct. cal. 36.8 32.7 37.1 36.8 32.7 40.4 34.0 35.9 P/S ratio 0.37 .40 .39 .32 .37 .65 .55 .50 Transfatty acids Pct. f. a. 4.34 6.83 5.78 9.61 6.63 4.74 6.13 8.10 . Overall mean 1,489 35.8 5.37 .45 6.53 ' Abbreviations: Cal. = calories; P/S = ratio ofpolyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids (glinoleic acid/g saturated fat); pct f. a. = percentage of total fatty acids. Each number represents the average of 7 days, except for the overall mean which is the average of 56 daily diets. Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station 15 Beef Gains Higher on AU Triumph Tall Fescue than on Kentucky 31 JF PEDERSEN and CC. KING, Agronomy and Soils Research, SP. SCHMIDT, Animal and Dairy Sciences Research, E.M. CLARK, Botuany, Plnt Pathology, and Microbiology Research, LA. SMITH, Biack Beit Substation S Ior 1pctif) ormietP O R()ITo f th e s u p IcI I 'd) S R E of catte grzin Ilg Ifi3ll fr tI tall ftccuc caflnpaI ( to thoseX (-!razing fextlit heaiX in ifectcl wXithl tile fungu~s liaX bee maed hA\t tihe Alabamai Agiricultural Expeimirent Station. HoXX IXer, N 1111 Ita-r II AII Ell XI. O SII tlIt ( II( X/ ( XL' 'Ill I Xltii \\O Kt VII( cKX 31 1 XiIt Frl c r: Xl1111)~:1,; s or AI('O lIO t 11)0 Xi III (o(o'IIc. i Ixrroll lIO CI'ca AU. 'I' itnl6l~j . d. . . . . 0I 1.54 ii I) gi 1.32 1-40 I 72.09 2.16 1._76 1.41 erar II 515~ little is knowX abilout cattle p)erformlane whX grlaz41inig tall fcscue wit Ii tenldiilte Icscels of fiutglis infection. AcXCIt sam te lbeingl ime I the relationshi )?) \ cel)0)XXl . . KcUim :31 . okX Kcnluk :31 . . . . ... ...... Kcnhickx :31 . . . . . . .. 195:3. CroXXIIIc 0I 2S 90 161 397 369 recsearched, sex eral newX v arieties of tall fescue, inlud~~ing AU Tiumh iiioyI Xt 4 ling tleyelojpecl.Althoiigi th t' Tr..iulpih used). io girazing studies is funlgus fiee, pie- Xw ighin~g 0016.i inlfectet Kentuc.kX :31, 25'.4 inlfecltccl Ketu~lckX .31, nonloteeted s(teers Xee assig3Ied to 90( I lighix call Ning( capaIcitX in~fectedl iXentlckX :31 hait ighier than1 Ketu~cky .31 XXith) viX 1 r151eports comIparc(d it w ith KeintIckv 31 wich.I XXyas flIngusI infectetl. IUnd~er theset superior var XietX . IIowcr all uniasedl comisioin inhe sX souries (If, 'Tis sulggests thalt inltake on1 i pei anim~al p)1tI(locks onI aiIIp l\ilIatcIX O ctobei I (cii~ basisX XXas lowXXI oil hligl inlftctell fescue. fall. N itrogen fttilizer XwiX'applicti at 1oo 11). per A c ef)h Sep~tembler andt (tIInulI Fellrarx. All its ig~h aX tilt 9014k infcted KentuickX .31. TisI XXas probablX dlelto1) tile letter earls ) B~othl AU Tiump allllll fungus-filt a Kell ninlfeceted IX.ntuIcky :31 arI nowX aXvailalet Xil testI liatioIIX. Stocking late tuctks:31 g[XcI1) oIXer of XIU Triumiph ald forage a~ ailailitX tilt and~ Febrary Xhell w~ lillI A1111111 paddoicks sufflicient fllrg 1131XAX re fedti adtiet (If Keiltock' .31 is necessary. To1 determne I) tile relat ie etfects (If in termitet leXel oI infectioninI Kenltucky :31 f andt to com~pari AL\ Trilimph to funguXfrce KeltuckX 31. it 3-Xear gaing trill con-ll waX izcleot aX lage dalX gin~s of not1 Aalalal, htXXXI) pu conto the steers XwX se dtedttt 11111gin at the B~lack Belt Subsl~tatioin 1begintile fall of 19801 antI eninIll inl 11,11, loca11 suppitlemknti tl tdaX. '~T large tdecr. sin) I da114(ils gainI f(11 tilt 90% inlftctetd Kenl tuckX 31 andt till in~termlltiate AXtrage dly inI1 5IIIIXX for tile 28%k ilfecteti KXt~cky .31 aXeag 2 lb. pei till total (eel gail) per1 acI o f pasture. AU SullIIIisinly till 28%o ilftetd KXttAtk 31 exib it).d. toltal b eef produiction lpt) lclt as loXXits tile 90t'( infetti Ktuc~iky :31. "Ii is IIuI tol thll Irelations~ip of aXtrage dil gailn inl .1111 stIckinlg rates XXhich XX ere both11 IIXX agin~g Illllllli lI-stult rio I 1111 tlutkX .11 (~. Production lossesX in tis test Xwtre to thosIe on thll 90f9c inflted~ tall Secondi AL.. Ti 11 ph tIiX l ji tIX supe-j vXXXalitN f) tis alr(a. X WXithoul~t the :31. A1' lriumphtill prove IXti iII OltjptfIII iIed IIthiited alli (ltXAl ~I. 1' .0!' .1J 51 v M